Dialogues on the Tao* of Lachesis * Tao: “The Way” in Literal Translation

Home , Lachesis acrochorda, Lachesis muta, Lachesis muta rhombeata, Lachesis stenophrys

Bull. Chicago Herp. Soc. 43(10):157-164, 2008

Dialogues on the Tao* of Lachesis * Tao: “the way” in literal translation. Taoism is an ancient Chinese school of thought that advocates open mind to all possibilities, in the same way that “the uncarved block” presents itself to the sculptor. Earl Turner 1, Rob Carmichael 2 and Rodrigo Souza 3

Introduction species. For Lachesis, so far the clearly demarcated taxa, which we call species, are L. acrochorda, L. melanocephala, L. muta Deep in the Atlantic rainforest in Brazil, at the Serra Grande and L. stenophrys. Subdividing L. muta into L. m. muta and L. Center (SG), a series of chicken wire, outdoor enclosures with m. rhombeata is in taxonomic limbo and under major contro- various natural vegetation, artificial burrows/retreats and expo- versy (Ripa, 2000–2006; Fernandes et al., 2004). The present sure to the natural elements has provided Dr. Rodrigo Souza edition of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature with the opportunity to successfully raise and breed Lachesis (Fourth Edition, ISBN 053301-006-4), however, does maintain muta rhombeata. Although seemingly “primitive” (from now trinominal nomenclature (subspecies). on PH, for Primitive Herpetoculture) by today’s highly techno- logical standards of captive care, it behooves us to consider The feeding challenge looking outside the box in terms of proper captive care of sensi- tive species like Lachesis. Whoever wishes to be successful in maintaining these pit- vipers in captivity must begin by understanding the unique The three authors come from very different backgrounds with feeding habits and the natural eco-biology involved. Well fed, respect to geography, husbandry philosophy, and facilities. healthy, stress-free animals are step one towards longevity and Looking at the ways of Taoism, however, despite our very any reproductive attempts. different backgrounds, we have been able to achieve success in working with Lachesis. It is our intention to not only show One of the inhabitants of the remaining 7% of the original some of our methods in working with bushmasters, but to also Atlantic rainforest, a little brown rice rat (Oryzomys sp.), known provide a template for working with other species and incorpo- locally as the “paca” mouse, is a bushmaster’s favorite in the rating field studies and observations with captive care. wild. The average weight of these wild rodents and of four other rodent species that Rod has captured in prime Lachesis Rob Carmichael serves as Curator of the Wildlife Discovery territory is around 90 g (-3 oz) or less. That makes us think that Center (WDC) in Lake Forest, Illinois, where the bushmaster is in nature Lachesis is very active (at night) and is constantly displayed in a semi-naturalistic exhibit utilizing both modern- moving around searching for “light” meals (90 g), and most day herpetoculture methods and the integration of observations likely feeds more than once a week. The fit and strong individu- made from the more “primitive” way. als we’ve all met in the wild are the living proof of it. Heavier Dr. Earl Turner comes from a zoo background in the Texas prey items are offered to them in shady Serra Grande --- every area where he has kept and bred various Lachesis by utilizing eight days if it’s “cold” (20–24EC / 68–75.2EF), or every fifteen modern day advances in technology under controlled, indoor days if its sunny (24–28EC / 75.2–82.4EF). Bushmasters are conditions (Turner, 1997, 1998). extremely selective when it comes to feeding, and unlike in the sympatric Bothrops genus, even animals in the 2.4 m (-8 ft) So what method is best? The (apparently) “primitive,” au total length (TL) range will not usually try to strike-hold any naturale (but not naive) way, or utilizing today’s technology to prey weighing over 220 g (-8 oz). As a comparison so that we re-create natural conditions in a controlled, indoor setting? may comprehend how specialized these animals are, a large BOTH! We will be sharing our experiences, our failures, our Brazilian Bothrops like B. jararacussu (1.8 m or -6 ft TL) can passion and our sincere desire to share everything we consider easily ingest a 400 g (-14 oz) rat or guinea pig. relevant to help others avoid the many problems we’ve faced while dealing with the Lachesis clan, with special emphasis on One of the wonderful benefits of today’s internet is the Lachesis muta rhombeata, L. m. muta and L. stenophrys. ability to network and converse with other professionals. After a brief discussion via email with the other two authors, the The maintaining of the subspecific status in this paper is not keepers at WDC realized that they were offering prey too large a personal stand for or against anyone. It means in Rod’s case for a Lachesis muta that had just arrived at their facility. After that he is specifically referring to Lachesis from the Atlantic many unsuccessful offerings, they decided to offer an adult rainforest, from the Brazilian east (Atlantic) coast. It’s neces- mouse to the 5-ft male L. muta. Needless to say, they had a sary however to remember that many authorities are not very happy ending. enthusiastic about subspecies in herpetology, because often it seems that they were established based on superficial attention Bushmasters will strike-hold in the shoulder area any living to one or a very few characteristics --- and at least sometimes, if prey (mostly mammals, occasionally birds) weighing up to 120 g we look at another character we would establish different sub- (-4 oz), basically what the snake will find in nature, and will

1. 21 N. Sunset Drive, Kerrville TX 78028. [email protected] 2. Wildlife Discovery Center at Elawa Farm, 1401 Middlefork Drive, Lake Forest IL 60045. [email protected] 3. Serra Grande Center for Lachesis muta Breeding, Caixa Postal 05, Itacaré, Bahia 45.530.000, BRAZIL. [email protected]

157 usually strike-release and conduct chemosensory search and The length that these snakes may reach is a very controver- trail-following (a hard and frequently unsuccessful task in the sial issue. They are the largest venomous snakes of the Ameri- flooded rainforest) if the prey weighs over 120 g. Large prey cas (second in the world only to king cobras). Bushmasters reaction to strike-hold could be dangerous to the snake: 220 g beyond 300 cm TL are rare, and Ditmars’ (1910) L. stenophrys (-8 oz) is the heaviest prey item we suggest one should offer to at 350–360 cm TL remains as the longest specimen. adult individuals. Ideal prey size in Serra Grande was learned In 1957 a DC-3/C-47 delivered a large box flown from the hard way, through mistakes that have resulted in regurgita- Colombia to the U.S. by the Tarpon Zoo of Tarpon Springs, tion and esophagus injury, that sometimes led to death. Once Florida. When it was opened, all that could be heard were again, we can take some of these in situ and field observations words of astonishment by Fred Penman, Trudie Jerkins and Dr. and translate them into our own captive management programs Earl Turner, as out crawled the biggest bushmaster they all have in dealing with Lachesis. By taking note of the mistakes made seen to this day. Immediately a string was laid as closely as in the past, we can make improvements in order to prevent possible next to this snake. After the operation was completed a future problems, that usually start with the offering of oversized few times, the string measurement was 12 ft, 1 in. Allowing for rats, in a hot enclosure (more than 28EC or 82.4EF). Knowledge several factors, they all agreed that the snake was (at least) 11 ft, is power, and this knowledge about bushmasters’ feeding prefer- 3 in, give or take an inch. At approximately 342.9 cm TL, this ences in the Atlantic rainforest was achieved by interviewing snake is probably among the three longest bushmasters ever native people (mostly hunters and woodsmen), and by placing (reliably) measured. mousetraps in different crops. This was the starting point of Nucleo Serra Grande 7 years ago, when we started efforts to So, with such a huge digestive tube and the low temperatures control the slaughter perpetrated against these snakes (by safely (and low metabolism rates) of the natural habitat, small prey removing individuals found in roads, crops or residential areas), preference may be taken as an evolutionary adaptation (Ripa, labeled as “Vulnerable” by the International Union for the 2000–2006) to cold environment (slow digestion). Oversized Conservation of Nature. food items could turn into putrid gas bombs inside the animal, halfway into the intestine (incomplete digestion), often killing The picture below shows the true bushmaster strike-hold the snake if it’s too late for vomiting it. The proteolytic action approach, always in the shoulder area, with venom injected of the Lachesis venom is not remarkably strong and it does not directly in heart and lungs, causing “instant” death. These help digestion as much as Bothrops venom does, for instance. observations, strike-hold or trail following (chemosensory For this reason, bushmasters are never seen basking in the sun search) according to size of the prey, confirm those of Chiszar et after eating, thus accelerating general metabolism, something al. (1989) and Boyer et al. (1995). that Bothrops always does. If the average temperature in the enclosure is above 28EC (82.4EF), keepers will probably experi- A very special need ence a high rate of regurgitation and its hazards to the health of A cool temperature by tropical standards of 16.6EC (61.8EF) the animals. Captive observations indicate the same behavior as has been recorded in Serra Grande, which is in prime natural our Lachesis muta and L. stenophrys exhibit tendencies towards Lachesis territory, within the Atlantic rainforest, 150 m above the cooler end of their exhibits even after feeding, although they sea level, with humidity levels always around 85–99%. In the will bask under a low level heat source on occasion. fake armadillo burrows offered to the snakes, the temperature has reached 14EC (57.2EF); it is reasonable to affirm that the Notes on husbandry averages within the well preserved rainforest are around The (PH) offering of live prey in Serra Grande means to Rod 21–25EC (69.8–77EF) all year long. Thus, temperature is a that snakes will have to exercise through the obstacles of the critical component of proper Lachesis care and we recommend a outdoor enclosures, and preserve hunting skills and tactics, and thermal gradient to allow these snakes to cool down as needed. that will apparently contribute to better overall health. Obesity is a well known problem for the captive. Sometimes specimens of some collections are so lethargic even at nighttime that they seem “depressed.” The prey offered consists of 2-month-old Wistar rats, born and raised in Serra Grande with the best rodent food available, deparasitized with ivermectin every 6 months, drinking from the pure water collected from the daily thunder- storms, and supplemented with extra doses of vitamins. It’s well known however, that after 90 days frozen, thawed frozen prey items will not be a vehicle for any parasites, and that’s a price- less peace of mind for keepers. We have never seen a serious injury inflicted by live rodents offered to the snakes in Serra Grande. One snake was stabbed in the eye when the two of them strike-held a single mouse at the same time: keeper error. At Serra Grande we are talking about 40 m2 enclosures, for 4–5 individuals maximum loaded with True strike-hold: fangs in the heart and lungs + lifting prey above the places for the rodents to hide. For public exhibits at the WDC, ground.

158 Results of bushmaster necropsies. The image on the left shows healthy looking pulmonary tissue, and a normal looking heart. The righthand image shows a heavily parasitized lung, with an abnormal amount of fluid. These are pentastomid parasites (Porocephalus sp.) (see Gárate et al., 2007); some are almost 2 in long when adults. They are found in wild caught animals. The pulmonary cycle of these worms will make the snake stay uncoiled, eventually with an abnormally open mouth. Routine deparasitization is essential to keep things under control: the parasite load must not be too high when you treat the snake. If hundreds of large individuals like these Porocephalus die inside the lung during treatment, their decaying will induce a fatal pneumonitis, which is a “foreign body” type of inflammatory reaction to the fluids created in the decomposing process, and that will lead to poor oxygenation and pneumonia due to bacterial attack in an already weakened snake. It must be said however, that it is not clear at this point if any anthelmintic drug is effective against hematophagous pentastomids once they get installed in the lung. Ivermectin may be helpful, and so is endoscopic removal of individuals, dead or alive. we typically keep one bushmaster per enclosure. In a con uals to each other, libido is not affected. Such vivaria where trolled, indoor setting, the practice of feeding frozen thawed animals actually exercise, hunt, bathe in the rain and bask in the prey works well but it is critically important to use long tongs to early morning sun, would be inappropriate without the possibil- introduce prey. An errant feeding strike can be catastrophic if ity of parasite control (MH). The communally kept animals will you are in the line of attack. Always offer food at an angle to go to an intensive care unit at least once a year, during the rainy help prevent an accident. Sometimes snakes will just eat dead season (April–May) for a routine prophylactic isolation. Prob- mice offered to them without injecting venom (and helping ing, deworming, nutritional supplementation and overall evalua- digestion substantially), and that’s also to be avoided for com- tion takes place in the ICU, where the snakes remain isolated in plete absorption of the nutrients. If you go MH, be sure to set individual 2 × 1 m nylon camping tents. Meanwhile the floor of the microwave for the correct strike-inducing temperature: prey the original vivarium where the colony is kept is being replaced offered should have a body temperature of around 95EF (35EC). and actually carbonized with “blue flame” torches in an attempt to control eventual larvae and organic waste that would cause Practitioners of MH often condemn PH for (1) keeping transdermal infection (Strongyloides spp., Rhabdias spp., etc). colonies in (2) open serpentariums, mostly because of the diffi- Native ants are taken as the greatest helpers (scavengers) in the culties with parasite control, administering medication, and daily, constant and never-ending clean-up task. Since there are keeping track of feeding frequency on an individual basis. only screens between snakes and forest, those little and welcome Another concern is an eventual loss of sex drive in communally friends are always in and out of the vivaria at night. It took a kept animals. And all these are genuine worries for keepers long time to understand their importance and turn walls into worldwide. screens especially to permit this “cooperation.” Ticks, mostly of MH considers individual enclosures where snakes lie on the genus Amblyoma, around Serra Grande are also under con- newspapers as the ideal way to achieve longevity records. The trol (at this moment) partly because of the ants. But yes, the rationale behind it is a sense of total control. Dr. Turner and highly effective fipronil spray is used every once in a while: Rob Carmichael keep off-display bushmasters on newspaper and one-minute operation, spray and let go. Fecal samples have Dr. Turner has achieved breeding success taking this simple revealed that so far Serra Grande is on the right track as far as approach towards their care. Rod is not a critic of the method at parasite control is concerned. PH can be a true headache and all: fungus free, easy to clean, keeping excessive moisture away virtually an impossible task, specially in outdoor enclosures if from the animals. In Serra Grande babies lie on newspapers for parasite control is neglected. their entire first year, although space is an issue for the well If individual enclosures (MH) are the choice because “it’s being of large animals like Lachesis. more in line with the natural behavior of Lachesis,” it has to be Serra Grande seems to have learned from both MH and PH questioned if anyone one has enough field observation time to over the years, and in the daily routine the best of each is put affirm that. The animal is getting to be so rare in a vast and into practice. Vivaria of up to 40 m2 for a colony of 2 males and sometimes inaccessible rainforest territory, that its more accurate 3 females amidst the Atlantic rainforest mean ethical confine- to admit not enough data to evaluate the matter. In the case of ment to Rod. In such spacious areas, not overexposing individ- Serra Grande we are talking about an 8 × 5 m enclosure (exten-

159 sive method) loaded with Atlantic rainforest vegetation and substrate fairly dry in WDC, but maintain moderate to high places to hide, a 2.2 colony will still pile up in one single spot, ambient humidity levels. Captive Lachesis oftentimes succumb regardless of ten other “hot spots” available in the same area, to an illness commonly referred to as “red belly disease,” a under the same conditions of temperature and humidity. And deadly fungal and bacterial dermatitis. Upon microscopic that happens during all seasons. In these vast artificial set-ups, examination on pieces of infected scales, the snakes actually however, the potential for harm to the snake or the keeper is develop a type of septicemia (blood poisoning). It can be cred- greater, but these were where for the first time in Brazil, sexual ited as mismanagement of the snake. It occurs when a bushmas- activity for the genus has been consistently recorded. ter is kept too moist. Any cypress mulch or other substrate should be totally dry if utilized for Lachesis. Many medications Alternation (routinely and on demand) of three husbandry have been used --- to no avail. Dr. Turner has utilized the drug methods (extensive/outdoor, semi-extensive/indoor room, and Naxcel which should be given either subcutaneously or in the intensive/nylon tent) according to time of the year and individ- lateral muscle. A total of 10 injections should be given: 1 per ual conditions follows from the same reasoning that is behind day alternating in the lateral muscle. This treatment is credited WDC’s off-display efforts: these creatures are too precious to with saving two Lachesis stenophrys that were received by Dr. afford a single loss. Turner in extremely poor condition. Both snakes regained their Obviously, if you take this information and apply it to a health after receiving the treatment using Naxcel. The dosage zoological institution like the Wildlife Discovery Center, it for Naxcel is .25 cc per 10 lbs of body weight. would be impractical to dedicate an entire building for a public Naxcel comes in 1 g bottles and the shelf life after being display of bushmasters (although that would be very cool and opened is very short. So after the treatment is concluded freeze having a large Atlantic rainforest habitat featuring a group of L. the remainder and it will retain its potency. This will save m. rhombeata would be visionary!). The WDC has space limita- bushmasters from a fatal disease caused by stress and a cage tions but always puts the needs of the animals first and foremost. substrate which is too moist. So how could “Primitive Herpeto- In 2006 the WDC contracted Habitat Systems, Ltd. to construct culture” deal with the “red belly” issue, in outdoor enclosures? an exhibit measuring 10 ft wide × 3 ft deep × 4 ft high. This Here again the three authors are in an agreement, for in the exhibit holds one large female Lachesis m. muta, and features outdoor vivaria in Serra Grande there is a rocky bottom that real tree limbs and hollows to provide secure hiding areas. The prevents snakes from direct contact with the muddy forest substrate consists of a deep layer of peat, soil, leaf mulch, cy- ground, and these enclosures are placed on slopes so as to press mulch, sand (very little) and forest humus. A layer of dead achieve natural drainage of water. Also there can be no better leaves is sprinkled over the surface to allow the snake to nestle ventilation than in those chicken wire enclosures. The animals in, provide security and allow for natural ambush behavior are truly stress free, and the proof of it is the absence of scraped (particularly when resting against a large dead tree limb). A snouts: they don’t seem to realize that they are confined and are large water pan is always kept filled with fresh water. not looking for escape routes, and besides, none is being force Upon advice from Dr. Turner, it was decided to keep the fed. A snake continually sitting on a moist surface in a captive setting can develop all kinds of problems. So, we will heavily mist the cage every 2–3 days and allow it to dry slowly. We use hand held misters rather than expensive and elaborate misting systems, so that the snakes get used to daily interaction with keepers. Stress management is the most critical component of successful public exhibition of Lachesis (assuming that the environment is appropriate). A happy bushmaster lies in a coiled position except when foraging for prey. At night, they begin to forage and become very alert --- do NOT attempt to muck with bushmasters at night! Any signs of stress related myopathy results in the animal being taken off exhibit right away --- our bushmasters are much too precious to take any chances. The WDC exhibit utilizes Pro Product Radiant Heat Panels attached to thermostat to provide both a basking area as well as proper ambient temperatures including a slight night drop. The three authors agree with the offering of a drier substrate to the snakes. Even in outdoor enclosures in Serra Grande a layer of rocks is above the natural jungle soil, to aid in fungus and parasite control.

Notes on Reproduction Serra Grande listened to folk knowledge and common sense, The first known image of an actual mating of Atlantic bushmasters, as well as paying attention to science and previous experiences taken in the semi-extensive indoor system at Serra Grande in 2007.

160 while testing what is today the only successful breeding center be various fertile periods (and not one breeding season) in the for Lachesis in Brasil. The process led to questions as why bushmaster’s biological clock. “Off season” mating has been should money be spent in egg incubators if the Atlantic rain- photographed. Cold fronts generated in the Antarctic may hit forest has been doing it (incubating eggs) for maybe 300–800 Brazil all year long, and maybe these “barometric opportunities” thousand years (disjunction Amazon-Atlantic rainforests, ac- are not being taken for granted anymore. cording to Zamudio and Greene, 1997). This is a true MH vs The perfect formula to not achieve bushmaster reproduction PH argument that has happened in the past. In Serra Grande the in captivity is: unfit (too young, too old, suffering from malnu- eggs were kept in the forest under major protection, but exposed trition or stressed) animals + very little space + too much distur- to natural the temperatures and humidity. In the end, at an bance. The vigorous male combat observed may trigger some average temperature of 25EC / 77EF (very cool by tropical hormonal responses needed for sexual activity, and this alone standards), the success ratio in 2007 in Serra Grande would have calls for a spacious area for the group. Real “wart skin” (teens been 100% if a small fly attack didn’t induce the loss of 2 out of are smoother) individuals, in the 6 ft (1.80 m) TL range and 16 eggs, from two different pairings (Souza, 2007). around 8 lbs (4 kg) of weight (minimum) are the natural candi- In Atlantic rainforest of the Brazilian east coast, among wild dates, those we can call “adults.” One of our greatest refer- caught animals, females are much more common than males. A ences, Boyer from Dallas Zoo, went from water to wine after 1 (male): 5 (female) ratio is not a very wild guess. If the contin- moving his animals from 0.75 × 2.25 × 0.5 m high boxes to a ual destruction of habitat (93%) for the last 500 years (and 3.6 × 2.3 × 2.4 m high room. In Serra Grande the semi-exten- global warming) has brought historical series of higher tempera- sive method consists of large rooms, 6 × 4 m, not exposed to tures to the remaining forest surroundings it is hard to affirm, weather (cement walls and roof) but within the Atlantic rain- but one thing seems to occur under controlled conditions: the forest and the natural parameters of temperature and humidity of higher the temperature, the majority of neonates are female, Lachesis territory. This is nothing new and was inspired by the correspondingly, the lower the incubation temperature, the big adapted fridge of the Dallas Zoo, and their most successful majority of hatchlings are male, and that seems to point towards and pioneer breeding program --- Lachesis needs space. the possibility that temperature actually influences gender in this genus. Avoiding neck injury Somma (2003) confirms what all those who breed bushmas- Boyer et al. (1989) begin their groundbreaking paper with ters know by experience: there is parental care among reptiles the following sentence: “The longevity record of the Bushmaster towards eggs for sure, and eventually towards neonates. We Lachesis muta in captivity has been unimpressive; its large size cannot at this point confirm even any short term care for neo- and apparently calm disposition belie its delicate constitution.” nates in bushmasters, in Serra Grande the one attempt to leave The cornerstone of the handling of these animals is to avoid any the eggs with the female ended up with the total loss of fourteen contact with the fragile neck region. It’s just too much muscle eggs (insect attack). A special enclosure is being designed the for a not so strong osteo-tendinous frame, and if not properly get safely back to the experiment, and maybe find out something immobilized, the animal will twist in its own axis, provoking beyond the well known brooding behavior such as effective self-inflicted irreversible medullary damage and death. neonate care. The functions of brooding in thermo- and hydro- It is unrealistic however to assume that Lachesis will never regulation are often overshadowed by the defensive function. If have to be restrained in the traditional way. After a 40-day fast there is one occasion to be extra careful while around bushmas- it’s time to consider force feeding before its too late. A medium ters, it is egg removal. All native people in the Atlantic rain- size rat (100 g or 3.52 oz) should be soaked in egg yolk and very forest have stories to tell about “attacks” from male and female that were protecting the nest. Three times in Serra Grande, male and female bushmasters were found (and photographed) guard- ing the eggs, a behavior yet to be confirmed by further observation, and not observed other than in rhombeata. The natural arrival of a series of cold fronts in the Atlantic rainforest takes place early in the second half of the year, and the combination of sudden temperature drops and rise in humidity levels is what triggers the sexual behavior: males with un- usually high tongue-flick rates indicate the beginning of new mating opportunities. And this will project egg laying during the dry season, when flooding is less likely to occur. So this is another key issue for the breeding of bushmasters under controlled situations: the possibility of simulating a cold front in the enclosure, with a sudden temperature drop and rise in humidity. Notice that the words “breeding season” have been intentionally avoided. Animals of very different ages can be The reproduction of the Atlantic bushmaster for the first time in found in a 12-month span in the Atlantic rainforest, and maybe captivity: we credit the good success ratio to the cool (75EF average) as Mother Nature’s response to population decline, there might temperatures of the incubator, the Atlantic rainforest (see Souza, 2007a).

161 cautiously placed in the mouth of the snake for venom injection minimum on the snake. The WDC is going to experiment with and then slightly forced down the throat. Be sure to keep the the Duchamp method. forceps out of the way of the fangs so as not to break them. Be The images speak for themselves: remove the wheel from the sure also to have two or three helpers for the procedure, ready to Duchamp (1913) and add a heavy (80 pounds) concrete bottom avoid the “neck twist” that will be attempted for sure. The to it and you’ll have the “Bushamp” (2007). procedure (force feeding) will give you time to try to figure out what the problem (refusing to eat) is: Oversized prey items? The width between the steel bars is calculated according to Heavy parasitism: Strongyloides, coccidia, Ascaris, Tricho- the animals you deal with; 5 inches will be just fine in most monas, cestodes, pentastomids? Maladaptation syndrome cases. The height of the steel bars is also important (from 3 to 4 (stress + parasites)? Exposure to wrong temperatures? A sec- ft) so as to avoid a sudden release. Control the forward motion ond reason for force feeding is to utilize the feed animal as a of the animal by gently holding/letting go the grip on the tail, vehicle for routine deparasitization every six months. The and also move yourself around the device so as to keep the medications are placed inside the food animal and provided to medium third of the animal tangled, avoiding a strike and back- the snake utilizing the method mentioned above. The infested wards motion. In this specific case (photo) Rod is probing alone snakes in the highly successful Lachesis program of the Dallas a 7-ft male, a 30-second procedure. Zoo were treated with mebendazole 20-25 mg/kg, metronidazole Still out of necessity, again to avoid neck injury and the 200 mg/kg, ivermectin 200 ìg/kg and niclosamide 150 mg/kg terrible “shock state,” where just by being treated roughly, but (Boyer et al., 1989). Their results settle the gossip that blames with no anatomic damage, the snake simply dies in front of your reproductive failures on ivermectin. eyes, some bushmaster keepers have over the years attempted to Necessity frequently leads to creativity, and Serra Grande has improve the condemned practice of free handling. If one feels crafted low tech and very cheap tools (Souza, 2006), for their the need to use the method and is experienced enough to deal own specific needs and beliefs concerning bushmasters, and a with it, just keep in mind that if you happen see the two loreal good example of such tools is the “Duchamp” or “Bushamp,” to pits at once while free handling the animal, you’re already a safely probe or medicate large bushmasters (or any other “high- target. And one should also be aware that suddenly dropping striker”) without assistance and without restraining the neck the animal, even from a height as low as two feet, may be fatal region. Tubes are also part of the arsenal in Serra Grande, but to it, because of rupture of internal tissues and internal bleeding. again not to take any chances, the neck region has radically been avoided over there, with the exception of those two situations: force feeding for nutrition, and force feeding for routine deparasitization. The surrealist masterpiece Bicycle Wheel of Marcel Du- champ (check below) was the inspiration to develop this simple device. Over the years Rod reports to have ended up doing a lot of solo (a huge mistake) procedures such as probing, tick removal, minor wound medication, etc., in 7-ft-plus individuals facing the eventual hazards of a free neck region, but the “Duchamp” (or “Bushamp”) proved itself efficient and safe for the very experienced handler, and virtually harmless for the snake. Remember, this is necessary in Serra Grande. Back in the U.S. we typically use various tubes for proper restraint but the methods utilized by Rod might provide some new techniques for mild restraints during examination that keeps stress at a

Free handling golden rule (obvious): if you see both loreal pits, you're The Duchamp (1913) and the “Bushamp” (2007). already a target.

162 Staying alive “little ant” deforestation: a small scale clear-cutting procedure, multi-focal and extremely hard to detect and prevent. Little by All those dealing with dangerous wildlife must remember little all Lachesis territory turns into cattle territory, roads, that in nature there are individual differences and circumstances. villages, mega-resorts etc. And also, just by seeing a magnifi- One must never believe that “the genus” behaves in such and cent and apparently well preserved forest, you can’t call it such a way: one individual may all of a sudden act differently. Lachesis territory: Huge expanses of the remaining rainforest Overconfidence is what may really kill us, and we all better (Maraú/Bahia area for instance), that provide the shade needed watch out full time for our own egos, as much as we do for by the cocoa (“cacau”) trees, have been heavily sprayed (mostly concentration, distance and anticipation. One should be mostly in the ’80s) with the deadly and worldwide banned pesticide concerned with space in the working area, for a fair chase or BHC (to “protect” cocoa and the chocolate industry) thus break- even a sequence of very high strikes are true possibilities: don’t ing the food chain in the forest, and so, the magnificent trees are corner or allow yourself to be cornered by adult bushmasters. all there, but not the rats, nor the snakes or lizards --- nothing. One of the greatest pieces of advice we could get came from Without the forest, and so 1) without the humidity that will Pearn et al. (1994): “The 28 herpetologists interviewed had that will prevent eggs from dehydrating, and without the shade sustained 119 bites by potentially dangerous species, and hun- that will lower temperatures, and 2) facing a cultural association dreds of clinically insignificant bites. The experienced herpetol- with the devil, fueling the ongoing slaughter, and 3) after major, ogists sustained a life-threatening bite every 10 years (median). criminal interferences in the food chain, what else can we expect Herpetologists working with highly venomous snakes are at high for the future of the Atlantic bushmaster in the wild? Here also risk. Prevention involves recognizing the risk; possessing a lies the importance for our captive breeding programs, maybe to first-aid certificate; applying standard first-aid if a bite is sus- “start it all over again” in the future, providing individuals for tained; carrying a mobile telephone; and not working alone.” reintroduction in selected areas, and for other successful breed- © 1994. The Medical Journal of Australia --- reproduced with ing programs. permission. As the three of us began our conversations on writing this Shortly stated, if you are dealing with Lachesis your main article for CHS we struggled because there is so much we want concern should be your own safety since they come well to share, so much we still have to learn, and so much that we equipped to kill you in one hour or less after a bite, and may want the readers to know in terms of the plight of Brazil’s Atlan- completely knock you out in 10–20 minutes, even with very low tic rainforest region and the need for aggressive conservation volume of poison injected in your body. We do not advise any management plans to be in place not only to save the bushmaster delay on your way to a nearby hospital, previously selected and but to save many species of wildlife. The habitat situation for whose staff (previously contacted preferably) is ready for such the Central American species is not all that different. The Ama- an emergency. Take as a rule: if the bite site is really painful zon forest still shelters and protects Lachesis acrochorda and L. and bleeding, chances are you’ve got “a bad one” and will muta muta (or L. muta). But how safe is the forest herself nowa- quickly need antivenin. days, and for how long? To save a species you must save its For a full account of what to expect after a Lachesis bite, see habitat and in order to save the habitat you must have a buy-in Souza et al. (2007). In this article one may also realize the from those folks who live in that region. Pragmatic and idealis- importance of the biochemical properties of Lachesis poison to tic issues are at the heart of saving this land and there must be a the pharmacological world. middle ground reached so that people can live and the bushmaster can continue to be an integral part of the natural heritage and For an account in which quick antivenin was not available, biodiversity of this region. Working with Lachesis utilizing one may refer to Mellor and Arvin (1996), who describe a both primitive and modern day herpetocultural methods is an previously healthy adult male, bitten right above the knee, endeavor of love and probably the only method by which the striving for survival throughout three months of agony and pain, true “Lords of the Rainforest” will be saved from a uncertain facing surgeries, infection and the amputation of one entire leg future in nature. at pelvic level. An airlift and a five-day hospitalization may cost you over $150,000 in the U.S. Health insurance plans are a Again here the Tao of Lachesis, or the multiple ways to must for herpetologists. achieve a goal , without the limitations of “an expert’s mind” where few possibilities exist, and where prejudice may reduce Conclusion opportunities for learning. We have mentioned already that 93% of the original Atlantic As the sculptors of the “uncarved block,” we must tell the rainforest is gone. In the southern part of Bahia state, satellite story and bring awareness to the Lachesis plight. It would be a photographs of a federal agency for cocoa research (CEPLAC) shame to think about a world without the largest pitviper known reveal that the remaining 7% of the forest is being devastated at to humans. It’s written on the tombstone of extinction: “Too a constant pace of 1% a year. That happens due to the so-called few cared.”

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