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Inklings Forever Volume 8 A Collection of Essays Presented at the Joint Meeting of The Eighth Frances White Ewbank Article 24 Colloquium on C.S. Lewis & Friends and The C.S. Lewis & Society Conference

5-31-2012 Through the Lens of The ourF : The deI a of in Paulette Sauders Grace College

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Recommended Citation Sauders, Paulette (2012) "Through the Lens of The ourF Loves: The deI a of Love in Till We Have Faces," Inklings Forever: Vol. 8 , Article 24. Available at: https://pillars.taylor.edu/inklings_forever/vol8/iss1/24

This Essay is brought to you for free and open access by the Center for the Study of C.S. Lewis & Friends at Pillars at Taylor University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Inklings Forever by an authorized editor of Pillars at Taylor University. For more information, please contact [email protected].

INKLINGS FOREVER, Volume VIII A Collection of Essays Presented at the Joint Meeting of

The Eighth FRANCES WHITE EWBANK COLLOQUIUM ON C.S. LEWIS & FRIENDS and

THE C.S. LEWIS AND THE INKLINGS SOCIETY CONFERENCE Taylor University 2012 Upland, Indiana

Through the Lens of : The Idea of Love in Till We Have Faces

Paulette Sauders Grace College

Sauders, Paulette. “Through the Lens of The Four Loves: The Idea of Love in Till We Have Faces.” Inklings Forever 8 (2012) www.taylor.edu/cslewis

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Through the Lens of The Four Loves: The Idea of Love in Till We Have Faces

Paulette Sauders Grace College

Till We Have Faces was published perversions of love. While the emphasis in 1956, four years before the 1960 of the novel is on Orual because she tells publication of The Four Loves. But this the story, much can be gleaned from novel contains many of the same ideas examining all of the main characters to about love and their perversions found in see how they reflect and personify The The Four Loves. Clearly, several of the Four Loves. characters in the novel personify the Redival, the second oldest various types of love and their daughter of Trom, King of Glome, is perversions presented in The Four Loves, beautiful, but “sensuous, superficial, and Lewis must have had these hedonistic” (Van Der Weele 189). From representations in mind when he finally the time she was a young girl, she did not collected all his ideas about love together want to be with her two sisters, but in a systematic way in The Four Loves. An constantly looked for male examination of Till We Have Faces companionship. To her maids, all she through the lens of The Four Loves is a talked about was love and men. By her way to better understand one of the teen years, she would sneak off with any themes of the novel while giving us more young man who came into the castle. examples to help clarify Lewis’s concepts When her father finally caught her with in The Four Loves. Tarin, a common soldier in the kingdom, In the novel, Till We Have Faces, he had Tarin castrated and ordered her published in 1956, C.S. Lewis presents the sisters and tutor to watch her constantly story of three sisters—Redival, Orual, and (Till We 25). Redival is an embodiment of —princesses in the pre-Christian or sex without love. Redival also kingdom of Glome. Chad Walsh feels that serves as an example of the person who the central theme in Till We Have Faces is perverts (romantic love) into a Queen Orual’s attempt “to make the gods religion of sorts. She worships “being in speak up and vindicate themselves” love,” and attaining it becomes her all- (Literary Legacy 161). He also says that consuming passion. the “central psychological theme” is “the Because Redival is so full of lust quest for self-knowledge” (163). Another and selfishness and desire for pleasure, critic, Evan Gibson, says the theme is she has no room in her life for affection Lewis’s attempt to show that “God is ever for her sisters or others around her in the seeking in all nations those who will turn castle. There is also no room for the to Him” (222). While these themes are gods—she does not rebel against them; definitely in the novel, I believe the she just ignores them (Kilby, “Till We: An central theme has to do with love— Interpretation” 180). She does use reactions to love, examples of love, and organized religion once when she

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jealously runs to the Priest of Ungit to tell about her through her narration of the him that the people of Glome are story. She is so physically ugly that she beginning to worship Psyche instead of wears a veil over her face once she Ungit. She feigns an interest in seeing that becomes queen of Glome. The reader the gods continue to be worshipped, but it cannot help but feel sympathy for Orual— is merely a façade to cover her jealousy of she is ugly, motherless, and mistreated by Psyche. her father (Hannay, “Orual” 5). But from However, later in the story, when the time that her youngest sister Psyche is Orual meets Tarin, now a chief eunuch in born, Orual loses herself in her loving and another kingdom, Orual and the reader caring for Psyche. Orual gives the learn more about what caused Redival’s impression that she really loves Psyche, “Venus” and perverted Eros. Tarin tells with Gift-love, when she says that Psyche Orual that Redival’s constant attempts to is “the beginning of all my joys” (Till We get to know men reflected the fact that 20). She feels almost like a mother to she was lonely. Tarin says, “She was Psyche when her real mother dies in lonely… Oh yes, yes, very lonely… She childbirth. Orual loves Psyche so much used to say, ‘First of all Orual loved me that she takes her away from the nurses much; then the Fox came and he loved me and domestics as soon as possible little, then the baby [Psyche] came and (Howard 169). “I soon had the child out of she loved me not at all’” (255) So part of their hands,” she says—and into her own Redival’s problem could be blamed on (Till We 21). Orual’s lack of response to her need for Just before Psyche was born, King love. Trom acquired a Greek slave, nicknamed Lewis says in The Four Loves, “As “the Fox,” to be a tutor for his children. soon as we are fully conscious, we Once Psyche begins to grow up, she and discover loneliness. We need others Orual and the Fox spend all of their time physically, emotionally, intellectually” together. (Redival will not join them.) All (10). Redival readily illustrates this Need- of Orual’s memories of this time are love. When Orual leaves her pleasant ones of idyllic, happy days spent companionship for the Fox, their new in learning Greek ideas and frolicking tutor, Redival really feels left out since together out-of-doors. Orual’s love for she was “born without intellectual Psyche grows and appears to be full of capacities” (Gibson 240), and does not Affection and even Gift-love. participate in their mental pursuits. When However, when Psyche is chosen Psyche is born, Redival feels totally by the priest to become the offering to the robbed of Orual’s love. She expresses that gods so that the plague, famine, and need for love in her teenage years by drought will disappear, the reader attaching herself to every young man who becomes aware of a subtle change in the comes into the palace. Thus her Venus relationship between Psyche and Orual. develops from her unfulfilled Need-love. When Orual goes to Psyche’s chamber to Redival’s Need-love is finally try to comfort her the night she is to be fulfilled when she is married and has offered, Psyche does not express any fear children. Now she has several people who of death. Instead she speaks of her love her and need her. She dotes on them sacrifice euphemistically (as the natives (and they on her) and talks of nothing but of Glome did) as a marriage to the her children when Orual visits her in her goddess Ungit’s son, a god called the new home (238). Shadowbrute. Instead of comforting Orual, oldest daughter of King Psyche, Orual says, “Oh cruel, cruel! Is it Trom, is the most complex character in nothing to you that you leave me here the novel because the most is revealed alone? Psyche, did you ever love me at

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all?” (Till We 73). Orual even admits that From this scene up to the very last when Psyche speaks bravely of the scene in the novel, Orual demonstrates an coming sacrifice on the Grey Mountain, enveloping, selfish love for Psyche. But Orual feels, amid all of her love, a Orual herself views it only as Gift-love. bitterness, a grudging against whatever Her motives toward Psyche seem good on gives Psyche courage and comfort (75). the surface (Van Der Weele 189). She When Orual sees that Psyche vows that no Shadowbrute or wild loves the gods more than her and is mountain man is going to destroy Psyche, anxious to go to them, Orual responds, “I her beloved sister; she wants to save her only see that you never loved me. It may from any harm. When Orual stabs herself well be you are going to the gods. You are and threatens to kill herself to make becoming cruel like them” (76), trying to Psyche light a lamp in order to see her make Psyche feel guilty. In the scene in husband (who comes only after dark), she the chamber, the reader gets the first uses the words and gestures of love and glimpse of Orual’s distorted Affection for says that she is trying to save Psyche Psyche—a selfish Need-love. (Howard 184). But Psyche sees through After the offering, sure that her kind of love and replies: Psyche is dead, Orual proposes to the Fox “You are indeed teaching me about and later to Bardia, the chief of the palace kinds of love I did not know. It is soldiers, that she should go to the Grey like looking into a deep pit. I am not Mountain and give whatever is left of sure whether I like your kind better Psyche’s body a decent burial. All agree than hatred. Oh, Orual—to take my that this would be a good way for Orual to love for you, because you know it show her love for Psyche in the last way goes down to my very roots and she can. She seems to be demonstrating cannot be diminished by any other Gift-love at this point in the novel. newer love, and then to make of it a However, when Orual discovers tool, a weapon, a thing of policy and Psyche still alive, healthy, and very happy mastery, an instrument of torture— in the lush green valley on Grey Mountain, I begin to think I never knew you.” her love seems to change shape again. As (Till We 165) Psyche tells Orual about her glorious life there with the god in his palace—the The Fox had seen through Orual’s plan wonderful feasts and the invisible maids too, and told her before she left on her who wait upon her—Orual cannot see the mission, “There’s one part love in your palace upon whose porch Psyche says heart, and five parts anger, and seven they are sitting and this disbelieves parts pride” (148). everything she says. Psyche will not go On this theme, in The Four Loves, back to Glome with Orual; “How can I go Lewis writes: back?” Psyche says. “This is my home. I “Every love, at its height, am a wife” (125). Orual’s response is first, has a tendency to claim for itself a to herself, “the Gods… they had stolen divine authority. Its voice tends to her” (120-21), and then aloud to Psyche, sound as if it were the will of God “Is it nothing to you at all that you are himself. It tells us not to count the leaving me… turning your back on all our cost, it demands of us a total love?” (Till We 125). Orual’s love for commitment, it attempts to Psyche becomes jealousy and override all other claims and possessiveness at this point—instead of insinuates that any action which is happiness for Psyche’s new happiness. sincerely done ‘for love’s sake,’ is

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thereby lawful and even We’d rather you drank their blood meritorious.” (18) than stole their hearts. We’d rather they were ours and dead than yours Orual turns her human love and made immortal… The girl was ( and Affection) for Psyche into mine… I was my own and Psyche this kind of authoritarian demand. This was mine and no one else had any possessive love is an example of right to her… What should I care for presumption (Starr 14), of perverted some horrible, new happiness Affection, and perverted Need-love. That which I hadn’t given her and which Mrs. Fidget, the woman used in The Four separated her from me? … She was Loves as an example of perverted mine. Mine! ( 290-92) Affection because she “loved for her Till We family” and would not loosen control over Orual clearly personifies them, Orual “needs to be needed” and will perverted Affection, enveloping, not let Psyche away from her protection possessive Need-love. This identification (Kilby, The Christian World 58). In a letter is most easily seen in her relationship to Clyde Kilby, C.S. Lewis writes that with Psyche, but it can also be seen in her relationship with the Fox. Orual is (not a symbol) but an As with Psyche, Orual spent much instance, a “case” of human time with the Fox and often called him affection in its natural condition, “Grandfather” in her affection for him (17, true, tender, suffering, but in the 23). She loved him and tried to protect long run tyrannically possessive him from the harshness of her father, the and ready to turn to hatred when king (17). Throughout most of the novel, the beloved ceases to be its there is a camaraderie, an openness, a possession. What such love sharing of thoughts between them that is particularly cannot stand is to see a model of perfect Friendship () and the beloved passing into a sphere Affection () according to Lewis’s where it cannot follow. (W.H. Lewis, descriptions in The Four Loves. However, Letters 42) at one point, Orual’s possessiveness That night, at the moment when toward him takes over and demonstrates Psyche lights the lamp to see her itself clearly. husband, from across the river Orual sees When Orual becomes queen of the god’s palace, “witnesses it sudden Glome, one of her first acts is to free the destruction, sees the god himself,” and Fox from slavery, never thinking that he hears him talk to her (Urang 43). So she might want to leave her and return to does have direct exposure to the gods and . When she discovers his desire, knows they exist. But her will is set she thinks, “It embittered me that the Fox against believing in the gods, for if she should ever desire to leave me… How believes, it would be acknowledging her could he leave us, after so much love?” loss of Psyche to a god as a good thing. (209). She makes him feel guilty for even Since her love for Psyche is a “devouring thinking of leaving. In The Four Loves, in passion,” she cannot bear to think of discussing the kind of pity Orual evoked giving her up, even to a god (Urang 44). from the Fox, Lewis mentions those In the vision at the end of the people whose novel, Orual is asked to read her Continual demand on their part (as “complaint against the gods” aloud. In it, of right) to be loved—their she accuses the gods of stealing Psyche’s manifest sense of injury, their love from her. As the gods allow her reproaches, whether loud and speak only the truth, she says, clamorous or merely implicit in

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every look and gesture of resentful “A love like that can grow to be nine- self-pity—produce in us a sense of tenths hatred and still call itself love” guilt (they are intended to do so)… (266). Orual had perverted Eros into (65) possessiveness and selfishness. Clyde Kilby believes that Orual’s Consequently, the Fox stays in ambivalent, possessive love for Psyche, Glome out of love for Orual and out of a the Fox, and Bardia were part of her concern for her in her new duties as lifetime of antagonism against the gods queen. Thus, in this instance, Orual ( 52). Chad Walsh demonstrates her possessive Need-love The Christian World agrees and writes, “…as Psyche slips away again, but the Fox demonstrates true Gift- from her control, she rages against the love, an unselfish concern for those he gods, from whom she might have learned loves. wisdom and true love if she had listened Orual even shows a perverted, to them (163). “Not until she gets squared possessive love in her relationship with away with them [the gods] does she Bardia. He had taught her how to use a divest herself of her wish to control and sword and how to ride a horse, and had possess; … not until she encounters the become her friend when the king was still gods honestly does she achieve her own alive. After King Trom’s death, Bardia also maturity” (Van Der Weele 191). Lewis becomes her trusted counselor, alongside believes that “love of the gods [leads] to the Fox. Through all of this, Orual comes love of fellow human beings” (Van Der to feel Eros (romantic love) for Bardia, Weele 191), and so in the last scene of the though she never tells him so—he is novel, when the gods force Orual to see already married. But she dreams of him the truth about her life and relationships, as her husband and loves to talk with him she finally truly loves Psyche, the Fox, and long hours at a time (224). even the gods, with a non-possessive It is not until Bardia dies and attitude. Orual visits his wife Ansit that she Though he says he does not discovers the true nature of her feelings believe in the gods, the Fox is a good for him. Ansit blames Orual for Bardia’s model of Affection (storge), Friendship, death, saying she “drank up his blood year (philia), and Gift-love (). The Fox by year and ate out his life” by keeping truly enjoys his tutoring experiences with him at the palace and by her side in Psyche and Orual because he cares for battles many more hours and days than both of them. Affection develops among should have been necessary. She adds, them through their long hours of being “Oh, Queen Orual, I begin to think you together and learning together. Especially know nothing of love… Yours is Queen’s since the sisters’ real father, King Trom, is love, not commoners’. Perhaps you who distant and cruel, the Fox becomes a spring from the gods love like the gods. father to them and they call him Like the Shadowbrute. They say the “Grandfather” ( 17, 23). loving and the devouring are all one, don’t Till We While the Fox is supposed to be a they?” (Till We 264-65). tutor to Redival as well, and he does show

Affection for her, it does not develop into After Ansit speaks, Orual reflects Friendship (philia) as it did with Orual on the truth of her words. She had indeed and Psyche. In , Lewis “heaped up needless work to keep him The Four Loves points out that Friendship develops out of [Bardia] late at the palace, plied him with companionship when two or three questions for the mere pleasure of “discover that they have in common some hearing his voice.” She had even wished insight or even taste which the others do Ansit dead. She finally admits to herself, not share…” (96). In this case, Orual and

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Psyche and the Fox seem to share a love speak to Orual of Psyche’s death and then of learning and a love for poetry that breaks down and leaves weeping” Redival does not share. She cannot (Gibson 233). understand why they enjoy sitting on the Although Orual feels Affection for lawn every day merely talking. She never the Fox and romantic (albeit possessive) feels a part of their camaraderie, and the love for Bardia, Bardia feels only Fox’s true friendship never includes her Friendship and loyalty for Orual. as it does the other two sisters. Friendship, in The Four Loves, is built In addition to Affection and upon common interests. Orual’s natural Friendship, the Fox also exhibits Gift-love ability with a sword as Bardia’s student is (agape) several times throughout the the beginning of their common interest. narrative. When he recognizes that Orual When she takes over her government and will probably never marry or receive “concerns herself with military, romantic love, he tenderly sings to her a diplomatic, and domestic affairs of state, song of consolation. Orual recalls that he the base of their friendship broadens sang that song “very tenderly and as if he considerably” (Gibson 238). They spend pities me…” (9). And when Orual is much time together as Orual keeps him desperately ill, he maintains a “long vigil with her, plying him with questions; so by her bedside” (Gibson 223). Orual their Friendship grows. constantly tries to save the Fox from King As Lewis points out in The Four Trom’s furies, but at one point, the Fox Loves, when friendship exists between says to Orual that he is ready “to risk the man and woman, it sometimes changes flogging and impaling—for your love and into romantic love. For Orual, it very hers [Psyche’s]” (149). shortly does. “But on Bardia’s side there is While Orual had used Psyche’s the barrier of his love for his wife, as well love for her to her own advantage as the ugliness of the Queen” (Gibson (fearing she would lose Psyche to the 238). No hint is given in Till We Have gods) and forced Psyche to light the lamp Faces that Bardia feels a romantic interest to see her husband, the Fox likewise cries in Orual. When the two of them first find and begs Orual not to fight Prince Argan Psyche on the mountain, and they are of Phars, out of love for her and his fear of forced to remain there overnight, Bardia losing her. But the Fox at least recognizes suggests that, since it is cold, they sleep what he has done and soon after says to “back to back, the way men do in the Orual, “But I was wrong to weep and beg wars” (Till We 131). Bardia and Orual and try to force you by your love. Love is practice together with their swords, ride not a thing to be used” (204). With that together, and even fight battles together. statement, the Fox demonstrates his true It is evident that Bardia thinks of her as a Gift-love. true friend as he would a fellow soldier, The Fox’s greatest demonstration though he is also “unfailingly courteous” of his love for Orual is his decision to stay and obedient to Orual as his sovereign with her even after she has freed him. He (Howard, The Achievement 178-79). truly wants to go back to Greece, but he When Bardia is ill and close to death, the remains with Orual out of concern and priest Arnom tells Orual that Bardia is love for her (210). “your loyalest and most loving subject” The Fox’s Gift-love toward Psyche (Till We 258). While Bardia loves the is evident as well. He is like a true father Queen in true Friendship, he also loves to her and loves her deeply when she is his wife Ansit with true Eros. Bardia and growing up. How much he loves her his wife are not pictured together very becomes clear after Psyche has been often in the novel, but evidence of sacrificed to the gods, for “he tries to Bardia’s love and faithfulness are present.

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At one point, when Queen Orual wants change throughout the novel—it is always Bardia to stay longer at the palace, Bardia an example of true or Gift-love. begs to leave so that he can be with his When Psyche was a child, she was wife when their child is born (222). He loving and obedient to everyone in the mentions Ansit frequently in castle. She especially loved to spend time conversation, and others in the palace with the Fox and Orual. speak to Orual of Bardia and Ansit’s good Later, when the Fox falls sick with marriage. Even the Fox says to Orual the plague that is spreading through about Bardia and his wife, “He’s as Glome, Psyche is the one who unselfishly amorous as Alcibiades. Why, the fellow nurses him back to health. The story of married her undowered…” (Till We 146), his recovery spreads throughout the an unheard-of thing in Glome. Bardia is an kingdom, and everyone tells the “story of example of “Utter selflessness” and “love how the beautiful princess could cure the and faithfulness to his wife…” (Howard, fever by her touch” (Till We 30). Soon half The Achievement 179). Bardia is a true the city is gathered at the gate of the personification of Eros in its best form castle calling for Psyche to come out and and of Friendship in its best form. heal them. Though others urge her not to Ansit herself personifies Gift-love go out to the sick rabble, Psyche says, “Let since she never chides Bardia for being me go out…They are our people” (31). away from her so much. When Orual goes Thinking she might really be able to help, to speak with Ansit after Bardia’s death, she walks around touching those in the Ansit tells her that she, the Queen, caused crowds for hours, never complaining— his early death by overworking him. even when she, too, comes down with the When Orual tells Ansit she should have fever. She demonstrates true love (Gift- said so earlier so that Orual could have love) toward the people of Glome retired him early with great honors, Ansit throughout the time of the plague. replies, “Tell you? And so take away from At first, the number of people with him his work which was his life? … Keep the plague grows smaller. But when more him to myself at that cost? Make him mine and more people become ill, their so that he was no longer his?” (Till We worship of Psyche stops, and they begin 264). In the same manner, Ansit also to say that her “touchings didn’t heal the speaks to Orual of her son Ilerdia who is fever but gave it” (37). Even then, Psyche growing up and is expressing his tries to help the people, but when she independence from his mother more and walks into town they call her “the more. Ansit says of his growing Accursed” (Till We 39). independence, “Do you think I’d lift up my After Psyche has been chosen to little finger if lifting it would stop it?” be the offering to the Shadowbrute, and (264). She exemplifies “a love which does Orual sneaks into the chamber where the not cling to its object, but rejoices in the soldiers were holding her, Psyche is more joys of the other even though it means a concerned with Orual and the beating separation” (Gibson 247); this is their father has just given her than with something that Orual could never do. herself. She unselfishly weeps for love In contrast to Orual is Psyche. and pity of Orual, but sheds no tears for Everyone around her comments on how herself and her fate (Till We 68). beautiful Psyche is. From her childhood Psyche tells Orual not to hate on, the people of Glome almost worship Redival for spitefully telling the priest of her for her beauty and kind spirit. Her Ungit that Psyche was usurping the love for Orual, for the Fox, and even for worship intended for Ungit. Orual hates Redival and the people of Glome does not Redival for that, but Psyche says to forgive her and pity her for “she also does

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what she doesn’t know” (69)—truly a A Description demonstration of forgiveness and Gift- of C.S. Lewis’s Four Loves love as Lewis describes it in The Four . Psyche also speaks of dying Loves Four main kinds of love – willingly for the people of Glome. Psyche’s love for Orual may be I. AFFECTION (Storge) seen again when Orual finds her in the Usually between relatives green valley on the Grey Mountain. She Perversions: confesses that she has been perfectly - controlling affection happy with her new husband and home, - craving for affection, except for her longing to see Orual again - making others feel guilty for not (102). She tells Orual, “I’ll not rest till showing affection you’re as happy as I” (105). When Orual cannot see Psyche’s new palace, she promises to implore the god to allow II. FRIENDSHIP (Philia) Orual and to see and enjoy everything she Unites those with common is enjoying. But Orual rejects everything interests in small groups of 2s or 3s Psyche says, for she does not believe in or more the gods as Psyche does. Perversions Everything about Psyche shows – pride, exclusiveness, cliques her unselfish love for Orual, for the Fox, for the people of her kingdom, and for the III. ROMANTIC LOVE (Eros) gods, whom she has loved and sought since childhood. Lewis purposefully gives Purely romantic love the reader a picture of agape love, Gift- Gives to the loved one unselfishly love, in a mere mortal, Psyche, in order to Committed to the loved one set forth an example of an attainable kind Perversions of love for which all should – worshipping of pursuing ‘being in strive. That perfect Gift-love that he love’ rather than loving a person describes so well in The Four Loves, he personifies in Psyche and he contrasts in - Venus – sexual attraction without Orual, hoping that the reader will want to real love, pleasure for its own sake practice Psyche’s kind of love and to avoid Orual’s kind of love. Love is the theme of IV. CHARITY (agape) the novel. Gift-love – doing what’s truly best “To awaken a desire for love and for others goodness—this was Lewis’ purpose in almost everything he wrote…” (Carnell, Giving of oneself without thought of Bright Shadow, 161). getting anything in return Need-love – everyone needs others & God Perversions – selfishness, possessiveness, controlling others.

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Works Cited

Camell, Corbin Scott. “Lewis on Sorge: A Rejoinder.” C.S. Lewis Bulletin Sept 1980: 8-10. Gibson, Evan. C.S. Lewis: Spinner of Tales. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1980. Hannah, Margaret P. “Orual: The Search for Justice.” Mythlore 2:3 (1970), 5-6. Howard, Thomas. The Achievement of C.S. Lewis. Wheaton, IL: Harold Shaw Publishers, 1980. Kilby, Clyde S. The Christian World of C.S. Lewis. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1964. Kilby, Clyde S. “Till We Have Faces: An Interpretation.” The Longing for a Form: Essays on the Fiction of C.S. Lewis. Ed. Peter J. Schakel. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press, 1977. Lewis, C.S. The Four Loves. New York: Harvest Book/Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975. ---, Till We Have Faces. New York: Harvest/Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975. Lewis, W.H., ed. Letters of C.S. Lewis. New York: Harvest/Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975. Starr, Nathan Comfort, C.S. Lewis’s Till We Have Faces: An Introduction and Commentary. New York: The Seabury Press, 1968. Urang, Gunnar. Shadows of Heaven: Religion and Fantasy in the Writing of C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and J.R.R. Tolkien. Philadelphia, Pilgrim Press, 1971. Van Der Weele, Steve J. “From Mt. Olympus to Glome: C.S. Lewis’s Dislocation of Apuleius’s ‘ and Psyche’ in Till We Have Faces.” The Longing for a Form: Essays on the Fiction of C.S. Lewis. Ed. Peter J. Schakel. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press, 1977. Walsh, Chad. The Literary Legacy of C.S. Lewis. NewYork: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979.

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