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The Vulnerability of Social-Environmental Systems and Farmers’ Livelihood to Climate Change on China’S Loess Plateau

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The Vulnerability of Social-Environmental Systems and Farmers’ Livelihood to Climate Change on China’S Loess Plateau The Vulnerability of Social-Environmental Systems and Farmers’ Livelihood to Climate Change on China’s Loess Plateau LI WANG A thesis in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Environmental Policy and Management School of Humanities Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia December 2012 PLEASE TYPE THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: WANG First name: LI Other name/s: Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD School: School of Humanities, Institute of Environmental Studies Faculty: Faculty of Arts and Social Science Title: The Vulnerability of social-environmental systems and farmers’ livelihood to climate change on China’s Loess Plateau Abstract 350 words maximum: (PLEASE TYPE) Climate change is increasingly affecting social-environmental systems and rural communities across the globe. It is expected to impact upon the climatic conditions on China’s Loess Plateau, principally through prolonged variations in rainfall and droughts, pushing communities and farmers beyond their current adaptive capacity. There is an urgent need for assistance in building resilience and undertaking climate change adaptation efforts in order to reduce the vulnerability of social-environmental systems and farmers' livelihoods on the Plateau. The social-environmental systems on China’s Loess Plateau are unique in that they are extremely dynamic and fragile due to severe deforestation, soil erosion, water stresses, and poverty, which have occurred over many centuries. Two remarkable and vast programs, the Loess Plateau Watershed Rehabilitation Program (1994-2005) by the World Bank, and the national Grain for Green (1999-current) project, to a large extent, have made the social-environmental systems on the Plateau more resilient to environmental stresses. However, neither of these two initiatives has integrated climate change scenarios into planning, design or implementation. It reveals that emerging vulnerabilities to climate change have already affected these initiatives’ long-term sustainability. For instance, trees planted died due to severe water scarcity and farmers’ were forced to re-farm retired land due to reduced farm income caused by unfavorable climatic effects. Therefore, the integration of climate change implications into the policy-making processes and adaptive management strategy are keys to enhancing the resilience of social-environmental systems on the Plateau. The case study area of Huachi explores in greater depth the vulnerability of agriculture and farmers’ livelihoods to climate change. It identified the following adaptive strategies currently available to local farmers: cultivation of drought resistant crops and varieties; water-saving agricultural technologies; and non-farm employment. It has been found that farmers’ resilience to the adverse effects of changing climatic conditions has been improved. The results also found that main factors can enhance farmers’ adaptive capacity are farmers’ knowledge and skills; access to climate information, farming technology and infrastructure; access to markets, farmland tenure and off-farm activities. These findings have considerable relevance for the Chinese Government in their efforts to develop policies aimed at improving these factors. Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). Nahid Sultana 01/12/2012 …………………………………………………………… ……………………………………..……………… ……….……………………...…… Signature Witness Date The University recognises that there may be exceptional circumstances requiring restrictions on copying or conditions on use. Requests for restriction for a period of up to 2 years must be made in writing. Requests for a longer period of restriction may be considered in exceptional circumstances and require the approval of the Dean of Graduate Research. FOR OFFICE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for Award: THIS SHEET IS TO BE GLUED TO THE INSIDE FRONT COVER OF THE THESIS ORIGINALITY STATEMENT I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and, to the best of my knowledge, it contains no materials previously published or written by another person or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged. Signed: Date: 01/12/2012 i COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ‘I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 words abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I have obtained permission to use copyright materials; where permission has not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation.’ Signed: Date: 01/12/2012 AUTHENTICITY STATEMENT ‘I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion to digital format.’ Signed: Date: 01/12/2012 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is no easy task, doing a PhD thesis. I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to all those people who have given their invaluable support. In particular, I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, A/P John Merson and co- supervisor, Visiting Fellow Mr. Sandy Booth. They are very generous with their time, knowledge and encouragement, professionally assisting me in each phase to complete the thesis. In addition, I should like to thank Professor LIU Yonggong from the College of Humanities and Development at China Agricultural University, who gave me important and indispensable advice on my thesis both in person and on the phone. Many thanks also to Mr. ZHAO Hua from Gansu Water Resource and Soil Conservation Bureau, and Mr. WEI Guoji from Huachi Water Resource and Soil Conservation Bureau, for helping to arrange the fieldwork for me; and particularly to local farmers in Huachi for their remarkable hospitality and for their participation in interviews and discussions. This thesis was financially supported by the ‘Australian Leadership Awards Scholarship’, which was offered by the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID). The Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at the University of New South Wales further financed my fieldwork in China in 2009. I gave my great thanks to these organisations. And finally, but not least, I’d include my friends, colleagues, and my family who are highly appreciated for their spiritual support, particularly my husband, ZHANG Hui to whom this thesis is dedicated. Despite all the above support I received for this thesis, I am solely responsible for any errors and/or omissions. iii ABSTRACT Climate change is increasingly affecting social-environmental systems and rural communities across the globe. It is expected to impact upon the climatic conditions on China’s Loess Plateau, principally through prolonged variations in rainfall and droughts, pushing communities and farmers beyond their current adaptive capacity. There is an urgent need for assistance in building resilience and undertaking climate change adaptation efforts in order to reduce the vulnerability of social-environmental systems and farmers' livelihoods on the Plateau. The social-environmental systems on China’s Loess Plateau are unique in that they are extremely dynamic and fragile due to severe deforestation, soil erosion, water stresses, and poverty, which have occurred over many centuries. Two remarkable and vast programs, the Loess Plateau Watershed Rehabilitation Program (1994-2005) by the World Bank, and the national Grain for Green (1999- current) project, to a large extent, have made the social-environmental systems on the Plateau more resilient to environmental stresses. However, neither of these two initiatives has integrated climate change scenarios
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