Report_1 Daoism and its related architectural forms A literary study from the meaning of Daoism to the ritual life of Daoism and its architectural forms
Vivian Song 4510372 [email protected] Irene Cieraad Research Seminar AR3AI055 03.2017 2/ 15 Keywords: Daoism, ritual life, yang and yang, wuwei, equality, meditation, architectural forms.
Abstract: Daoism, like Christianity, is one of the most influential religious in Eastern culture. The founder of Daoism, Laotzu, is believed to have lived 500-600 years before the birth of Christ. Daoism began as a philosophy, but evolved into a religious belief system around 440 AD. It contains many philosophies which are alien to the western culture. For instance, the thinking of ‘yin and yang’, the ‘wu wei’ attitude, and the meaning of ‘oneness’…The philosophies and spirits of Daoism decide the typologies of the Daoist temples and buildings. For instance, the equality of the rooms, the layouts of the temples…Also, they shape the ritual life of the followers. As one of the most crucial religion in Eastern culture, it also influenced the renewal and meditation of Christianity after the Protestant Reformation in 17th century.
The motivation of the thesis is issuing an idea that converting the Roosenberg Abbey into a study center of Daoism. Thus, It is intriguing to understand the philosophies of Daoism and its spirit rules. The relations between the Daoist temples and Daoist ritual sequences are also referred. In this way, it is very helpful to manage the design of the new program for the Roosenberg Abbey. Also, it is possible to compare Dom Hans van der Laan’s architectural languages with the Daoist buildings, by which way I could find some aspects in common.
In this thesis, I mainly name the term as ‘Daoism’ according to Chinese pronunciation, but in some references it is named as ‘Taosim’ based on a similar pronunciation.
Structure: Chapter 01 The meaning of Daoism. Chapter 02 From the ritual life to architectural sequence. Chapter 03 Conclusion of the literary study. 3/ 15 Chapter 01 The meaning of Daoism.
Dao is fairly well known in the west today. As the multiple explanations of Christian, it exists various statements under Daoism based on different understandings of it nowadays. It is not the emphasis of the thesis which is to elaborate the deep meanings and differences between the various explanations. Instead, in this chapter, the general philosophies of Daoism and its basic meaning would be referred. It would give some clues to understand how does this religion influences the daily life of its followers, and in a way changed the layouts and decorations of their religious buildings.
Tao cannot be defined in words and is not and idea or concept. Thus the Tao is the course, the flow, the drift, or the process of nature. The person who lives in Tao understands the polarity and the inner unity of Yin and Yang, the feminine and the masculine principle. He knows the wisdom of acting without violence, he follows the ‘watercourse way’, because everything in life is fluid. Without decay, there is no growth, without death no life and without pain no joy.1
In his book Tao: The watercourse way2, Alan Watts introduced the meaning of Daoism as the watercourse in 1975. He found that in Chinese perspective, knowledge and action are not two separate issues. There is but one concern and it encompasses both the way of things and their use. The Chinese have summarized this in a single term: Dao.
Daoism strives to adapt to the rhythms of the universe and the order of natural law. Neither lawmaker nor creator regulates metaphysical space. Each individual element has its place in the cosmos. In Daoist philosophy, the world is referred to as tiandi, meaning heaven and earth.The human head, with its round shape, is compared to heaven and human feet, with their rectangular shape, are compare to earth. Heaven embodies the masculine and the mind, earth represents the feminine and the material. Thus, understanding the world becomes a matter of realizing that those who are driven by the mind may be no different than those driven by materialistic behavior. This is expressed in the famous Daoist saying: ‘Heaven and earth are father and mother of the ten thousand things.’
1 Watts, A. (1975). Tao: the watercourse way. New York: Pantheon Books.pp.41,42ff.
2 Watts, pp.41,42ff. 4/ 15
Daoist philosopher He Shang-gong described the relationship thus:’(in the beginning,)the Way gave birth to the One. The One gave birth to the Two: it created Yin and Yang. The Two gave birth to the Three: Yin and Yang create the harmonious, the clear and the clouded, the Three breaths, which are divided into Heaven, Earth and Man. The Three gave birth to creations: Heaven, Earth and Man together create everything. The heaven spreads, the Earth transforms, and Man educates and nourishes.’3
Interestingly, the creation of the world in Daoism is totally different from the creationism in western Europe who believes it is the god who created everything. By the contrast, in Daoism, humankind is part of the unity, part of heaven and earth. It forms a single body and a single experience. This is the central thesis of Daoist thought. It concerns itself with humankind as a reflection of the cosmos. There is no single god, creator and ruler of humankind and the cosmos in Daoism. In Chinese philosophy, there is no such separation between man and god. By archiving an understanding of the self as its relates to the cosmos, the individual becomes part of the great cosmic game. A set of principles serve to guide us along the path: the principle of respect, as expressed through symbol and gestalt; of harmony, as expressed through yin and yang; and of mindfulness, as expressed through wu wei. Based on these principles, the Daoism not only build a series of daily rules for the monks and its followers, but also be reflected on its architectural forms. In the next chapter, the three mentioned principles would be elaborated with their ritual rules and corresponding spatial organizations.
3 Roman Malek, Das Tao des Himmels (Freiburg: Herder, 1996) p.24 5/ 15
Chapter 02 From the ritual life to architectural sequence
The focus on Daoism should not be limited by its profound philosophies, but pay attention to its influences on people’s ritual life and its reflections on its container— the architecture of Daoism. In this chapter, three main philosophies of Daoism will be elaborated, as a lens to understand the complexity between the religion and its relatednesses with others.
Symbol and Gestalt Distinguished from the western alphabet, the Chinese script contains a lot of symbolic qualities. The earliest characters of Daoism are created based on ancients’ observations of astrometry. (figure 1.) Many of the characters are directly transferred from the images of the natural scenes and human’s behaviors. Each character is a symbol of an image, which contains thoughts, ideas and internal imagery. Daoist culture draws on symbolic and aesthetic qualities. Daoist art and culture, while continuously seeking meaning in all things, are also charactered by a search for a refined aesthetic.
The way that Daoist followers carry and dress, their personal appearance, are also a kind of gestalt. The same is true for its building typologies. The Daoist temples and buildings reveal their identity through architectural gestalt. Gottfried Semper, the master of nineteenth century, noted that, ‘the individual peculiarities of the different systems of architecture will remain incomprehensible to us until we have gained an understanding of the socio-political and religious conditions of those nations and ages to which the architectural monuments are indeed no more than the artistic expression of these social, political, and religious institutions.’4 Based on this, the summarized three links from the Daoist philosophy to architectural form should be referred.
Linking Heaven and Earth with a magical line The unity of heaven and earth, of nature and man, is one of the central tenets of Daoist philosophy. This theme must therefore all be incorporate into gestalt of their religious buildings. this connection is revealed through the use of virtual, and sometimes visible, lines that lead from a heavenly spot, usually a mountain or hilltop, to the city.5
4 Gottfried Semper, Kleine Schriften (reprint, Mittenwald, 1979) p.351.
5 Alfred Schinz, The Magic Square, Cities in Ancient China. ( Stuttgart/London: Alex Menges) p.416. 6/ 15
Jietansi, Peking « The dynamics of interacting forces of nature Kraftespiel der aufeinander einwirkenden Naturgewalten
V' < Ancient Chinese observation of astronomical constellations Sternbilder nach den Beobachtungen im alten China
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O 2 4m Reconstructed master plan of Jiqingwei showing its Rekonstruierter Aniageplan von Jiqingwei, aus dem der defensive character and castle-lil 181 7/ 15 Linking Heaven and Earth with square and circle The layouts of most Daoist temples can be seen as the dialogue with heaven. The square represents the earth, which corresponding to the circle of the heaven. In the master plan of a religious building Jiqingwei(Figure 2.), we can see that the outlines of the building shaped as a square which contains four towers on each edge of it. The central road divided the whole area equally, which connected many passages to individual dwellings. Outside square with inside the circle Some monuments in Daoist buildings contains both square and circle layout. The design of Hall of Classic( figure 3.) shows a game of circles and square within unnatural orders, which relates to the social norms and ceremonial rites in Daoism. The outside circle covered the inside square suggests the basic rules of Daoist followers, namely being tactful and smooth to others while being stable and mild from inside. The alternation between square and circle in the gestalt of houses depicts various degrees of worldliness where human intelligence and the force of nature alternate as the leading elements. Yin and Yang At the very roots of Chinese thinking and feeling there lies the principle of polarity, which is not to be confused with the ideas of opposition or conflict. In the metaphors of other cultures, light is at war with darkness, life with death, good with evil, and the positive with the negative, and thus an idealism to cultivate the former and be rid of the latter flourishes throughout much of the world. To the traditional way of Chinese thinking, this is as incomprehensible as an electric current without positive and negative poles, for polarity is the principle that + and -, north and south, are different aspects of one and the same system, and that the disappearance of either one of them would be the disappearance of the system.6 6 Watts, pp.19,20ff. 8/ 15 Outside the Square and Within the Circle SYMBOLIC MEANING AND The design for The Hall of Classics Integrates AESTHETICS IN CITIES a game of circles and squares with the con- cept ofthe magic square with nine fields. Unnatural order, Li, is only applicable within LINKING SPIRITUALITY AND GESTALT the confines of f o u r walls or enclosures.This _^ I N THE ANCIENT CHINESE CITY unnatural order consists of social norms and- Taoist culture draws on symbolic and aesthetic ceremonial rites, invented by people to guide qualities.Taoist art and culture, while contin- behavior and eTnotions, and to reflect these uously seeking meaning in all things, are in architectural and urban form. Confucius, Newly erected city gates reflecting the destroyed historic also characterized by a search for a refined gates, Kunming, 2000 the Master of Li, declared at one time that aesthetic. We encounter signs of this effort everything "outside ofthe square," fang wai, tayout for the Hall of Classics In traditional Chinese script and art, as well did not concern him. ™ as in Its efforts t o create and promote high- quality architecture and urban design. The alternation between square and circle in Figure 3. The layout for the Hall of Classic. the gestalt of houses depicts various degrees of worldliness where human intelligence and drying Heaven and Earth with a Magical the force of nature alternate as the leading Lin^ elements. Upon entering a Chinese garden - The unity of heaven and earth, of nature usually through a round gate - one is met ams analysing the and man,IS one ofthe central tenets of Taoist ent of Doofst philoso- by Irregular shapes and curving motion. While pplication in Chinese philosophy This theme must therefore also the palace courtyard features only stones, be Incorporated into the gestalt of their cities. the garden is dominated by water and plants. This connection Is revealed through the iverse, the same groups f/g/h/i use of virtual, and sometimes visible, lines itions existed long before The four directions, each represented me into being. Yet, in by four animals, relate to parts of the that lead from a heavenly spot, usually a eas and cultures, the con- human face and orientations of Thothee r Sacred Field or the Magic Square The emperor of China consulting the turtle oracle, vere called by different aspects. drawing from 1906 mountain or hilltop, to the city. N Black turtle and serpent, XuanwTheu carapace of the tortoise was used as a E Green dragon, Qinglong S Scarlet sparrow, Zhuque medium to convey messages from beyond Magic line connecting heaven and earthind Yang philosophy of oped into the relationship W White tiger, Baihu n integrated into the the world ofthe ten thousand things": it was Linking Heaven and Earth with Square and igrams in the l-ching, i The instrument, the compass, for II the probabilities and the analysis of a certain cose at lai a d into the fire, where it cracked, and the in all orders of Nature certain location, under certain cir- circle relationships, be they cumstances, at a certain time, anresultind g lines were read as an oracle. spiritual. with certain people; with the assi- In the Imperial Palace of Beijing's Hall of stance of the compass, data are he options to consider: obtained as inputs for the proposal Classics, built in 1906, the square represents chart of k) The Luo-Shu diagram is founded in this ritual. the diagram showing ele- the earth, the circle represents heaven.The e mutual restraints. k The proposal, showing the advanLik-e the carapace ofthe tortoise, it shows a tages and disadvantages of a certain house with the square base and the round case and their probabilities. square divided into nine fields.This magic peak combines the two.This symbol has le diagram showing • the mutual promo- I The diagnosis concludes the prosquar- e is a symbol for a fundamental order I sheng. posals and the analysis from the archetypal power and to this day defines the above diagrams. of the world that went beyond human gestalt of many important public buildings. ng the creator of the phi- comprehension. It became the symbolic plan d the system, relates to all In the seventeenth century Michelangelo com- such as directions, for the Chinese city early on. isons, etc. As the user, he,, pleted the rectangular basilica of St. Peter's inding the theory, applies opriotes to himself the with a dome. In the nineteenth century, the :es and results. Capitol building was erected in Washington as a sequence of rectangles and circles. And at •ns relevant to the five Elements the end of the twentieth century, the German Wood Fire Earth Metal Water government Insisted that the old rectangular Green Red Yellow White Block East South Central West North Reichstag building be once more crowned Spring Summer Late Summer Autumn Winter with a cupola. Sour Bitter Sweet Spicy fHot Salty Liver Heart Blader Lung Kidney The Luo-Shu diagram, created in response to a command Square and circle connecting heaven and earth;The Hall from heaven of Classics in the Imperial Palace of Beijingg Gree, 190n 6 Scarlet Soaring White Black i Dragons Sparrow Serpent Tiger Turtle Flourishing Wealth Power and Whittle Death Authority and 108 Deminishing Figure 4. The diagrams of Daoist philosophy. 9/ 15 This illustration shows the basic principles of the Daoist philosophies. (figure 4) The drawing (a) illustrates the constellations of the universe is the achievement of the astronomic observation, which is the context of yin and yang. Drawing (b) shows the well-known yin and yang illustration, which involving all the probabilities and possibilities in all orders of nature and human relationships, be they material or spiritual. This part also occupies the core position of this principle. The illusions (c) and (d) tell the elements of mutual restrains and mutual promotions respectively. (e) represents the creator of the philosophy and the system, namely the man. (f),(g),(h) and (i) which toward four directions represent four animals, related to parts of the human face and orientations of other aspects. North: Black turtle and serpent, Xuanwu. East: Green dragon, Qinglong. South: Scarlet sparrow, Zhuque. West: White tiger, Baihu. Drawing (j) means the instruments, the compass, for the analysis of a certain case at a certain location, under certain circumstances, at a certain time, and with certain people. The illustration (k) names the the advantages and disadvantages of a certain case and their possibilities. The last (l) concludes the proposals and the analysis from the above diagrams. In Daoist mythology, the confrontation between what exists and what is new, and between the complete and the perfect, is articulated through the ongoing struggle between the blue dragon and the white tiger. This is the rivalry between the masculine energy of the eastern morning and the feminine energy of the western evening. It remains the oldest and, to this day, the most relevant theme in caring for the transformation of the architecture. When referring the black and white part of yin and yang illustration, it does’t mean the separation of the oneness, but showing the truth that without the existing of the black, the white part would also disappear. As Laotzu mentioned, things are created equal( all from the oneness of Dao), but different. In Daoist rules, ‘ the way to acquire positive is to contain negative.’ (chap. 28) The balance of the existence should be taken as the main task of the life. Corresponding this principle into architectural aspect, this always means the equalities and the balances of the building components. The existing balance doesn’t mean each 10/ 15 component within the same size. Instead, it shows the domain and secondary, the gain and loss are always in balance. What is vanishing in space implies the increase of distance. Inversely, what is decreasing in size has the potential of becoming a monument( like bell tower or church). Referring to spatial organization, a simple composition would be experienced as a complex one instead. On the other hand, no matter how complex a composition is, its complexity will not always clearly exists in the mind when it is experienced by people who used to live there. The adjustable balance of a symmetrical form is made possible by containing intangible axiality, either in the form of an intangible axis or intangible baseline. For instance, a religious building of Daoism(figure 5), which covered by the natural surroundings. The group of the buildings contains multi-sized buildings based on their functions. However, with all the edges organized in the same vertical line, the whole layout looks very ordered. There is a courtyard in each individual building, some are shaped as a long bar while others are look like a central square, and they related these buildings through the internal connection on typology. Three towers are located on the edge as boundaries from the natural forest. A bridge makes a connection between the river which detaches the buildings from the daily life and the whole religious area. Another example shows the balance of building as well(figure 6.). When a relative large-scale space is built, a courtyard as a transition is always applied. Small cells are connected by a corridor, which balances the internal core spaces. What the Daoist layouts suggest is also similar to daily life itself, human life in particular. As the finest product of nature, man’s body is a state of balance when his arm and his legs are in a position to be moved effectively to compensate for position changes of the body. To allow for this free compensational change of man’s bodily position, various sizes of organizations works together to build the harmony. 11/ 15 Roof layout plan of a silk-cultivating N illage near Shunde in the Pearl River delta a Ancestral hall and tutorial school b Dwelling c Storage d Poultry and animal pen e Watchtower f Open space Plan der Dachanordnung eines Dorfes bei Shunde im Delta des Perlstromes, wo Seidenraupen gezüchtet werden. Ahnenhalle und Schule Wohnbereich Lagerraume Hühnerhof und Tierpferch Wachtturm Freier Raum Longitudinal section of the same village, showing how this settlement adapts to a tropical climate. Typical planning consists of such features as high ceilings, narrow alleys and planting of fruit trees and evergreen trees around the villages. Langsschnitt durch das Dorf. Die Aniage der Siedlung wird durch das tropische Klima bestimmt. So sind z. B. hohe Decken, enge Gassen und die Kultivierung von Obstbaumen und immergrünen Baumen im Umfeld des Dorfes typische Merkmale. Figure 5. The master plan of Daoist temples. ïTJIii J«L IIILJ' LiiiiiliiililiiiiiiJ ïTJIii J«L IIILJ' LiiiiiliiililiiiiiiJ 0 TTI1 2 3 4ml I" "I IfTT TTIl I" "I IfTT J mm u 183 J mm u _ _ j pzr*- -f—I 1 • • I- 'Ht-' jp ^ »J W k « - -1-. , ^ »J W k « - -1-. , t ¬ _ _ j pzr*- -f—I 1 • • I- 'Ht-' jp t ¬ I - I - A residence at Taoxi, Xiaslnan Haus in Taoxi, Xiashan A residence at Taoxi, Xiaslnan Haus in Taoxi, Xiashan in Cfiaoyang county im Kreis Chaoyang in Cfiaoyang county im Kreis Chaoyang a Main hall a Grofier Saol a Main hall a Grofier Saol Inner hall b Innere Halle Inner hall b Innere Halle North-south hall c Nord-Südhalle Figure 6. North-soutThe masterh hall plan of Daoistc Nord-Südhall residente building, Side hall d Seitliche Halle iiijj.fl Side hall d Seitliche Halle iiijj.fl Back hal! e Hintere Halle Taxi,Bac Xiashank hal! in Chaoyange country,Hintere Halle China. Front hall f Vordere Halle Front hall f Vordere Halle •!—1-,J -1" ;|1H»^ l~.-a Corner tower g Eckturm GHa umu cue Corner tower g Eckturm GH•!—1-,aJ umu-1" ;|1H»^ l~.-cua e < < -4 < < -4 General plan of Chenjia ci, the Gesamtplan der Chenjia ci, der -I General plan of Chenjia ci, the Gesamtplan der Chenjia ci, der -I Ancestral Hall of the Chen family, at Ahnenhalle der Familie Chen in der Ancestral Hall of the Chen family, at Ahnenhalle der Familie Chen in der Zhongshan Seventh Road, Guang- Zhongshan-sieben-Strafie, Guang- Zhongshan Seventh Road, Guang- Zhongshan-sieben-Strafie, Guang- zhou with layout also adapted to zhou. Auch hier hat das tropische zhou with layout also adapted to zhou. Auch hier hat das tropische tropical climate, Klima den GrundrifB beeinflul3t. tropical climate, Klima den GrundrifB beeinflul3t. a Entrance hall a Eingangshalle a Entrance hall a Eingangshalle 0 1 2 3 4m b Platform b Plattform b Platform b Plattform 0 1 2 3 4m c Main hall Grower Saal c Main hall Grower Saal d Shrine Altar d Shrine Altar e Classroom Schulzimmer J 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 e Classroom Schulzimmer 1 1 1 • I* «f " J 1 I 1 1 1 1 • I* «f " f Covered passage - -f »f - Clberdachter Durchgang - | f Covered passage Clberdachter Durchgang - -f »f - - | g Courtyard Hof 1 mmi g Courtyard Hof 1 mmi h Office Büro h Office Büro 1 r— . •—1 .III , • • • • • 1 i i 1 r— . •—1 .III , • • • • • 1 i Students' quarter Schülerwohnungen ^ _ I III I i Students' quarter Schülerwohnungen ^ _ i Library Bibliothek 1 1111 F T i Library Bibliothek 1 I III 1111 I F T k Storage Lagerraume k Storage Lagerraume 'IF1 i T T 'IF1 i T T > > %' V|'— r > > %' V|'— r Plan types of people's houses in mn m Plan types of people's houses in mn m Verschiedene Plane von aus standar- -f Verschiedene Plane von aus standar- -f Chaoshan district developed from disierten Grundelementen entwickel- Chaoshan district developed from i—^ disierten Grundelementen entwickel- i—^ basic planning modules. J -H-^ , basic planning modules. -H-^ , ten Volkshausern im Bezirk Chaoshan. ten Volkshausern im Bezirk Chaoshan. J Simotouche (four-horse 'J— ,1 1 Simotouche (four-horse ,1 1 Simotouche (Vierspanner-Wogenj- "1 Simotouche (Vierspanner-Wogenj- "1 'J— carriage) residence carriage) residence Hous in Ganghou, und Sanbilian Hous in Ganghou, und Sanbilian at Ganghou, Jieyang, and at Ganghou, Jieyang, and (drei verbundene Wandej-Haus (drei verbundene Wandej-Haus Sanbilian (three-interconnected Sanbilian (three-interconnected in Chenghai in Chenghai walls) residence at Chenghai ^ 1 \ — J O' 1 2 3 4ni walls) residence at Chenghai ^ 1 \ — J O' 1 2 3 4ni 185 185 \ \ 12/ 15 Wu Wei The Chinese ideogram for wei is derived from the image of an elephant with a human hand holding its trunk. wei symbolizes comprehension and dexterity, but also making, doing, acting, and controlling. Wu stands for negation or denial. Thus, wuwei is the denial of wei. Watts writes that the person living in Dao understands the wisdom of acting without violence and follows the ‘watercourse way’, because everything in life is flux.7 As described by John Blofeld in Taoism: The Quest for Immortality, ‘wu wei, a cardinal principle of Taoists, literally means ‘no action’…it means avoiding action that is not spontaneous, acting fully and skillfully by all means but only in accordance with present need’8 The acting mindfully, and cultivating an attitude of non-action, is not a call for passivity, resignation, or laissez-faire. On the contrary, it is based in acute awareness, dedicated commitment, and the readiness to act when necessary. But not getting caught up in things, one can achieve perspective and insight and thus avoid being swept up in polarized positions. Attentive listening allows for mindful action. When this philosophy transferred into architectural languages, it becomes a little bit abstract. It means not only solve a problem superficially, but to identify the core issue and find a fitting response gradually. This means the idea can be integrated at any time based on the different and various requirements. 7 Watts. pp.41,42ff. 8 John Blofeld, Taoism: The Quest for Immortality (London: Mandala Books, 1979) p.10. 13/ 15 Conclusion The literary study of Daoism is a starting point of my research. As a lens to see the eastern religion and its related architectural forms, it provides the ideas to extend the program of Abbey Roosenberg as a meditation center(use the eastern way). The philosophies that related to Daoism can also give me some clues to organize the space and functions. The gestalt, yin and yang and wuwei philosophies which are crucial to Daoism can also included in the new program of meditation center. In order to do the further research based on this topic, in the second report, i will focus on the social research, which can make the assumption more persuaded, and the third report will be the conclusion and the completed program. 14/ 15 Reference 1. Watts, A. (1975). Tao: the watercourse way. New York: Pantheon Books. Topics: Tao, Buddhism, meditation, Yin-yang, Wy-wei. Summary: Definition of ‘Tao’. It translates ‘Tao’ into several philosophic words, which including the Yin-Yang Polarity, the core meaning of ‘Tao’, the ‘Wu-wei’ thinking and Chinese written language. 2. Kohn, L. (1996). The Looks of Laotzu. Asian Folklore Studies, 55(2), 193-236. Topics: Tao Te Ching, Buddhism, Deities, Head, Physiognomy, Taoism, Radiance. Summary: It introduces the founder of Taoism--- Laotzu and three sources of Taoism: the traditional Chinese physiognomy; the Taoist doctrine, and the list of thirty-two marks and eighty secondary signs. 3. Girardot, N. (1983). "Let's Get Physical": The Way of Liturgical Taoism. History of Religions, 23(2), 169-180. Topics: Taoism, Sacred texts, Religious rituals, Tao, Sectarianism, Buddhism, Traditions, Meditation, Religious rites. Summary: The complex history and religious significance of the Taoist traditions. 4. Creel, H. (1956). What Is Taoism? Journal of the American Oriental Society, 76(3), 139-152. Topics: Taoism, Immortality, Philosophical Taoism, Tao, Taoist philosophy, Buddhism, Emperors, Magicians, Soul, Death. Summary: It gives and explanation about what does Taoism mean, and its central philosophical insight. 5. Zhang Zhao-Kang. (1987). China : Tao in der Architektur. Basel: Birkhäuser. Topics: Taoism, Chinese buildings, religious buildings, human’s behaviors, daily life. Summary: Through introducing some buildings around China (not only the public religious buildings, but also private houses which are used for 15/ 15 meditation), and people’s lifestyle, it relates the architectural languages and the meaning of Taoism. 6. Wang, Z.(2001). Gongshi-zhi-hun: ru Daoshi yu Zhongguo jianzhu wenhua. Fudan Daxue Chubanshe. Topics: Architecture, influences of Taoism, Buddhist architecture, Confucian influences. Summary: The book gives an introduction about the traditional religious(Buddhism, Daoism, Confucian) in China and their influences on architectures and arts. 7. Carl. Fingerhuth.(2004). Learning from China: the Tao of the city. Basel: Birkhäuser. Topics: Taoism, universal influences of Taoism, urban scale, city development, human’s behavior. Summary: It gives some ideas about how does the Taoism translate into architectural language. The author lists the examples around the world, from Algeria, Italy, Japan and so on. 8. Chang, A. I. T. (1956). The Existence of Intangible Content in Architectonic Form Based Upon the Practiclity of Laotzu's Philosophy. Princeton University Press. Topics: Laotzu, Taoism, intangible, architectural form. Summary: This book emphasis on the intangible meaning of Taoism, and relate it to architectural form in religious buildings. 9. Grava, A. (1963). Tao: An Age-Old Concept in Its Modern Perspective. Philosophy East and West, 13(3), 235-250. Topics: Potentiality, Actuality, Tao, Oneness, Metaphysics, Esoteric symbolism, Atoms, Nothingness, Symbolism, Dualism. Summary: It is the purpose of this article to show the correctness of the original interpretation of Tao, in terms of its creative potentiality, and its relational character, versus the later interpretations of it by some Neo- Taoists.