south pacific e e H U M fS M M

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SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 1 ae 2 Page

Ilaisa Vakata cooks with FIJI-GAS at the Suva TraveLodge -GAS SPEEM Tonga as SPEED-E-GAS TONGA and inFiji asFIJI-GAS * SPEED-E-GASis known inPapua New Guinea as GUINEA GAS, in Fast...efficient...reliable OT PCFC ULTN TID URE, 1976 QUARTER, BULLETIN, THIRD PACIFIC SOUTH storage terminals distributing distributing terminals storage Pacific region. Pacific the throughout SPEED-E-GAS Australian major the of member a Limited, Company Supply Gas The associated with a network of bulk bulk of network a with associated is Companies of Group Boral domestic requirements in these these in requirements domestic and commercial industrial, for SPEED-E-GAS efficient fast now supply Rarotonga and Nukualofa Lautoka, Suva, Santo, Honiara, dependable and highly efficient efficient highly and dependable areas. Kieta,Wewak, Rabaul, Lae, fuel, so vital to the development of development the to vital so fuel, modern living. modern Terminals at Port Moresby, Port at Terminals The Gas Supply Company Limited Company Supply Gas The SPEED-E-GAS is completely completely is SPEED-E-GAS ebro h Group the of member A HeadOffice, 221 MillerStreet North Sydney North 2060 Phone92-0951 OT BL21 HOLT $A0.95c within SPC area south pacific $A1 Australia BULLETIN SNZ1.20 New Zealand OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC COMMISSION Vol. 26 No. 3: 3rd Quarter, 1976

► Road development in New Caledonia 6 C. Richard

► Concrete blocks for rural low-cost housing 9 R. J. Binning and K. C. Calvert

► Regional Conference on root crop production 12 Michel Lambert

► Constitutional development in Micronesia: Part 2 14 Samuel F. McPhetres

► The Secretary-General of the South Pacific Commission visits COP (Pacific Oceanological Centre) 24

► How solar energy can make living more comfortable 26 R. K. Hill

► Manpower planning and economic development in a Pacific context 34 Dr I. J. Fairbairn

► Rhinoceros beetles in Papua New Guinea 38 Geoffrey O. Bedford

► Pacific reading 42

► Theses and dissertations 44 Dr William Coppell

► Recent stamp issues 48

(The original text of all articles is English unless otherwise indicated.)

Noumea, the capital of New Caledonia, is the home of the South Pacific Commission which is housed in the white, star-shaped pentagonal building in the foreground of our cover C ^ n V P V P'cture- Later this year, the Sixteenth South Pacific Conference will meet in this building for Kj Uv c i one 0f the most significant conferences in the 30-year history of the SPC. (Photo by the late Dr Guy Loison.)

The South Pacific Bulletin, first published in January 1951, The Commission does not accept responsibility for statements features articles on activities in the South Pacific Commission's made in contributed articles. three main fields of operation: economic, health and social All enquiries concerning the South Pacific Bulletin should be development. Articles are contributed by specialists working directed either to the Secretary-General, South Pacific Com­ in these and related fields in the SPC area. The Bulletin mission, BPD5, Noumea CEDEX, New Caledonia; or The has a selective, world distribution among people and institu­ Editor, SPC Publications Bureau, Box 306, Haymarket, NSW, tions in widely differing fields sharing a common interest in 2000, Australia. Subscription rates: within SPC area— $A3.80 the purposes and work of the Commission. (1 yr.), SA10.50 (3 yrs.); elsewhere— see subscription form Unless otherwise stated, all material appearing in the South inside. Map inside shows SPC area. Pacific Bulletin may be reproduced without prior reference Editor of Commission Publications: C. E. BIRCHMEIER. provided acknowledgement is made to both source and author. Advertising Manager: FRANK O’CONNELL (Phone: 212 2344).

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 3 These IMF distributors

PAPUA NEW GUINEA FIJI. TONGA. WESTERN NEW CALEDONIA TAHITI Ela Motors Limited. SAMOA AND OTHER SOUTH Pacific Motors S.A., Ets, Donald, P.0. Box 75, PACIFIC TERRITORIES B.P. H 5, P.0. Box 131. PAPEETE PORT MORESBY Motor Division, Burns Philp NOUMEA CEDEX (South Sea) Co. Ltd.. NEW HEBRIDES Branches and Dealers P.0. Box 355, BRITISH SOLOMON ISLANDS CONDOMINIUM throughout Papua SUVA. FIJI ■ W .TTHTTry I Pentecost Pacific S.A., New Guinea Branches throughout the region Santo and Port Vila can show you how IMF slashers keep going in conditions that would stop others short An MF slasher will make short work of any under stress. That’s one good reason to make shredding, clearing or cutting job and it takes an MF slasher your first choice, but there are only a demonstration to prove this. The sec­ plenty of others too! Like the fully shrouded ret of MF’s superiority is the use of a large design of the output shaft that prevents any diameter disc with four swing back blades. possibility of wire or other material fouling The disc utilises the flywheel principle to the shaft to cause damage to the machine. maintain constant drive revs, so you get a Take your choice from fully-mounted or reserve of power to keep going even under trailed models in 4,5 and 6 foot cutting widths. the severest cutting conditions. Another What’s more when you buy MF you’re not left advantage of the flywheel is that it drastically for dead . . . your distributor backs your reduces horse­ choice of MF with power require­ parts and service ment so you don’t to keep you on put the tractor the go at all and implement times.

MFE 74043

Page 4 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 THE SOUTH PACIFIC COMMISSION

The South Pacific Commission is a consultative Until 1974, Commissioners from the participating and advisory body which was set up in 1947 by the Governments met in annual Session. The South six Governments then responsible for the adminis­ Pacific Conference first met in 1950, and became an tration of island territories in the South Pacific annual event in 1967. It was attended by delegates region. These were Australia, France, the Nether­ from countries and territories within the Com­ lands, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the mission's area of action, and met immediately before United States of America. Participation by the the Session. Netherlands Government ceased at the end of 1962. In October 1974, in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, The Independent State of Western Samoa was representatives of the participating Governments admitted as a participating Government in October signed a Memorandum of Understanding which pro­ 1964, the Republic of Nauru was admitted in July vides for the Commission and the Conference to 1969, the Dominion of Fiji in May 1971 and Papua meet annually in a joint session known as the South New Guinea in September 1975. Pacific Conference. The Commission’s purpose is to advise the par­ The Principal Officers of the Commission are the ticipating Governments on ways of improving the Secretary-General (and Chairman of the Programme well-being of the people of the Pacific island terri­ Research and Evaluation Council), Dr Macu Salato, tories. The Commission is concerned with health, and Programme Directors and members of the economic, and social matters. Its Headquarters are Council, Dr G. Loison, Dr F. Mahony and Dr J. G. at Noumea, New Caledonia. Motha.

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 5 Road Development in New Caledonia

By C. RICHARD, Public Health Engineer, South Pacific Commission

The word ‘road’ — route in French — is was decided to fund surveying projects for new derived from via rupta or ‘the beaten track’, roads, to be followed by the construction of a the name given to the Roman roads. A good number of new sections, together with the reno­ road must be well laid out, have an adequate vation of others which were no longer capable cross-section and be able to withstand the wear of meeting the demands placed on them. From and tear caused by traffic. All countries have its south-eastern to its north-western tip, New devised legislation to cover road traffic. Caledonia extends some 400 km, with an aver­ age width of about 50 km. The main feature In the developed world, in particular Western of the road network is Territorial Highway No. Europe and the United States, road networks 1 (RT1), following the West Coast (easier to have made astounding progress since the begin­ reach and more densely populated than the ning of the century (France has 15 km per East Coast), which runs the entire length of 1,000 inhabitants, the United States ten, Great the island, linking Noumea with Bouloparis, La Britain eight, Federal Germany five). This has Foa, Bourail, Poya, Pouembout, Kone, Voh not been the case in the South Pacific islands and Koumac.

where the factors inherent in an island situa­ The RT1 at Foret-Noire after resurfacing tion, such as topographical and hydrological peculiarities and difficulty in obtaining public works equipment and materials, combine to make the construction of roads a very expensive To date, 22 such roads have been built (the business, especially when they are to be used RT22, on the island of Lifou, is the only Terri­ by a small number of vehicles covering small torial Highway in the Loyalties). Taken as a distances. whole, the road network covers approximately 1,200 km. In many small islands in which the bulk of the population is concentrated in coastal areas, Since 1969, commendable efforts have been a single coast road is generally enough; roads made to face up to the continual increase in serving the mountainous and virtually unin­ the number of vehicles (by the end of 1975, habited interior are of limited use. Only since 70,000 had been registered). However, the the end of World War II have road networks prime objective — a good sealed road (RT1) gradually begun to appear in the larger islands, from north to south — is still far from being where they were made necessary by expanding fulfilled. A number of less immediate objectives business and social exchanges. In New Cale­ have also been under study for some years. donia, for example, there were practically no They include: sealed roads outside the main town of Noumea before 1950. Surfacing of certain stretches of road on the East Coast, to meet the expected rise in In the aftermath of the 1970 nickel boom, it tourism.

Page 6 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Construction of bridges so as to obviate, once Houailou, on the RT3, is one of the key points and for all, car ferries and fords. on the East Coast. A 20-km section of the highway, beginning at Houailou, could be sealed Although plans for a number of new roads as early as 1976, and subsequent stretches to were drawn up as early as 1970, many of these the north thereafter. projects were shelved following the recession in The islands have not been forgotten. The 1972. Such was the fate of a planned high- road from Tadine to Netche, on the island of density road from Noumea to Port-Boise, a Mare, is to be improved in the near future, future mining centre in the southern part of the together with the connecting road to the aero­ island. Similarly, a number of streamlining and drome (which is probably to be relocated). resurfacing operations were projected. The RT1, especially in the vicinity of Noumea, has Bridges and viaducts are, of course, a vital absorbed most of the work actually carried out. feature of road building. On the East Coast, there is a very narrow strip of land between the sea and the steeply rising mountain slopes. Rain­ The overhead junction near the nickel works fall is extremely heavy, and triggers off violent channels traffic in four directions: to the indus­ reactions in the many small lowland valleys. trial zone in Ducos, towards the suburban The lower stretches of the rivers are short but housing areas, towards the city centre, or onto also relatively flat, with the result that their the RT1. An express lane was built alongside estuaries tend to widen drastically. In times of the latter; it is ultimately to extend from heavy rain, the surface level rises swiftly, and Noumea to Paita, via the new low-cost housing it is usually impossible to continue operating estate at Koutio, and the future hospital. Earth­ car ferries. works have been completed to within a few kilometres of the estuary of the Dumbea river.

Further along the RT1, from Tontouta Air­ port (55 km) to Foret-Noire (106 km), the highway has been straightened and resurfaced. The same operations were carried out from Bassee-Poya area to Pouembout, and from Gomen to Koumac. The exit road from Koumac towards Poum was to be completed by the end of 1975. Progress has also been made on the remaining territorial highways: RT2: straightened and improved from Robinson to La Coulee; RT4*: surfacing completed from Boulouparis to the beginning of the uphill section (col de Nassirah); The Ducos flyover RT7*: ten kilometres of surfacing at the col d’Amos; A number of estuaries have now been bridged: RT14: from Noumea aerodrome to the RT1. Tchamba, Amoa, Tiwaka, Tipindje, Hienghene, Tanghene. Unfortunately, some of these are one-way structures, but there has been an There is cause for optimism. The European undeniable improvement in driving conditions. Development Fund is to finance partially the building of a coastal road from Moindou to Since 1972, bridges have been built over the Bourail, thus avoiding a mountainous stretch. Nepoui River and the Riviere Salee, both on the Work is also expected to begin on the road RT1. In addition, the bridge at Voh, which had from Bourail to Poya, and in the area of Poya been destroyed by flooding, has been replaced itself, which is subject to flooding. Although Somewhat nearer Noumea, a bridge has been RT1 between Gomen and Kone may well be built over the La Coulee River. The area also developed at a later date, the main emphasis features fly-overs at Ducos and Koutio, together will be placed on completing the Noumea-Kone with a bridge over the canal between these two stretch. localities.

The development of the road along the East It is intended to continue the programme Coast to encourage tourism is a further long­ with the construction of a bridge over the term project on which work could begin soon. Riviere near Noumea, and others at Pouembout and Koumac, in the northern part of the territory. *The RT4 and the RT7 are two of the main coast-to- coast roads. As far as the East Coast is concerned, con-

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 7 struction of a bridge over the Ouaieme River Adequate road drainage is now acknowledged is not scheduled for the moment; however, a to be of great importance in New Caledonia, good number of bridges submerged at high tide as indeed in practically all tropical countries. will be replaced by more adequate structures A perfectly drained road having a mediocre (Ba, Neavin, Moneo, etc.). lay-out and surface will always outlast a magnificent surface with a badly-designed or Roads in New Caledonia have always been insufficient system of drainage. built to French specifications. Until recent years these were: The problems raised by urban traffic in Noumea will perhaps be overcome following the implementation, as of March 1976, of a traffic Vertical development project. Vehicle counts were Horizontal connecting carried out in different parts of the city in connecting radius in metres radius 1974 and 1975. A similar study is soon to be Basic in metres made on all roads outside the capital, thus Speed (2-way normal absolute Category (km/h) road) minimum minimum enabling the Public Works Department to determine the priorities for the whole of the Exception 120 12,000 750 500 territorial road network more accurately. □ (i.e. motorway) Category 1 100 6,000 500 300 C ategory 2 80 2,500 300 200 ADB EXTENDS TECHNICAL C ategory 3 65 1,200 200 125 ASSISTANCE TO SOLOMON ISLANDS It should be noted that the average speed in New Caledonia varies between 80 and 120 km The Asian Development Bank has agreed to per hour, according to the area; this applies provide advisory technical assistance to the essentially to the RT1. The RT1 features a Government of Solomon Islands for the Second sealed strip 7 m wide on an 11 to 12 m plat­ Agricultural and Industrial Loans Board Pro­ form. Minor roads, such as the RT3 and RT6, ject. This follows the technical assistance approved by the Bank in 1974 to study the feasibility of expanding the role of the Agri­ cultural and Industrial Loans Board (AILB). The aim of the current technical assistance is to strengthen the AILB and then transform it into a full-fledged development bank to enable it to meet the growing needs for development finance in the country. The technical assistance involves a total of about 30 man-months of expert services and will be implemented in two phases. The first phase will be undertaken by a Senior Institu­ tional Expert for a duration of six months and will involve amendments of the AILB Charter, formulation of a Policy Statement, recruitment of local counterparts and staff, setting up procedures and planning the staff training programmes. The second phase is for a dura­ tion of 12 months. During this period, the Senior Institutional Expert will assume the position and functions of General Manager of the reorganized AILB and will provide opera­ tional guidance and training. He will be Bridge over La Coulee River supported by a Loan Operations Expert as Assistant Manager. This phase will involve extensive training for both the internal and field generally have a 5.5 m road surface on a 9 m platform. staff, the completion of which should lead to the assumption of managerial functions by local Gradients of ten per cent are the exception counterpart trainees from the expatriate staff. on the RT1. The planned road from Moindou The local counterpart funds, facilities and ser­ to Bourail has only one fairly steep slope (seven vices to support the technical assistance will be per cent). Wherever possible, circular bends provided by the Government. connecting straight stretches have been made as Established in 1955 as a statutory body, the gradual as possible. Obviously, however, this AILB is the only indigenous financial institution tends to become impossible in certain moun­ in Solomon Islands with the authority to operate tainous stretches. in development financing. □

Page 8 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Concrete blocks for rural low-cost housing

By R. J. BINNING and K. C. CALVERT, Kristian Institute Technology of Weasisi

Traditional island housing although cheap in terms of money is costly in labour and creates a mass of social problems because of its low durability. What parents will listen to a lecture on family planning when their future comfort depends on having a large enough family to guarantee them a new house every five or six years in their old age?

KITOW, with the assistance of a grant from the ‘Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific’, has begun to develop a system for the manufacture of permanent housing materials which is applicable to outer island areas where there is no transport. At present the only im­ ported items required are roofing iron, hard­ ware and cement. However, present research Filling and compacting the mould with concrete work is being done on the manufacture of mix. pozzolanic or ‘cold’ cement from coral lime and volcanic tuff or breadfruit ash. This can be made on a village industry scale and should materially cut the cost of imported materials in outer island building industry.

Author V. S. A. Richard Binning using inclined blocks to build up a gable end on a building which is to be plastered.

Because many islanders have worked in Pulling out the inserts on a knock-in bond beam towns at some time and gained skills in plaster­ block, after the main body of the mould has been ing and blockwork, it was decided to try and drawn leaving the side plates in place. The two develop a system of hurricane-proof housing 4" blocks are used to support the block until it using concrete blocks as the basis. The only is set. commercially available machines for hand operation that produce a block with a After a study and trials conducted with the ‘standard’ 16" x 8" face cost in the vicinity ‘Eclipse’, ‘Supreme’, ‘Ajax’, ‘Lightning’, of $500 to $600 in the islands and do not make ‘Rapid’, ‘Hamcol Junior’, ‘Foot’ and ‘Cinva the wide range of bond beam, lintel, corner, Ram’ types of hand-operated block moulds, inclined gable end, and other types of blocks KITOW has developed an improved prototype, which are normally available from large-scale based largely on the ‘Eclipse’ patents which manufacturers. were given to KITOW by the owner, Mr

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 9 THINKING CONTAINER HANDLING? THINK CLARK.

Clark Equipment Australia CY500—600 range. Want a cont­ CLARK EQUIPMENT supplies a complete family of ainer stuffer with triple-stage up­ AUSTRALIA LIMITED, Australian-made container handling right that moves in and out of Industrial Truck Division, equipment. Want a Van Carrier that containers without bumping its Salisbury Rd., Hornsby, can stack, pick out a single cont­ head? Clark has it and all the NSW, Phone: 47—1071. ainer at random and move it away others between — plus the full Telex: AA20356 at 12 mph? Clark has it. Want a service back up, central parts heavy-duty lift truck that can facilities and world wide reputation handle loaded containers and stack that'll put you on top. three-high? Clark has it in the

CITD 10A P age 10 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 A demonstration set up at the Tantia District given by a surface wash of an aqueous-based Show to show how steel reinforcement can be silicone waterproofing agent such as ‘Aquella’ placed within the block structure. but the cost of this, about 1-2 cents per block, approaches that of Onoda TT. Natrass of Auckland, just before his death. The basic mould produces a 6" wide block: This mould has no mechanical vibration or that is, 40 x 20 x 15 cm, but by buying an extra compaction but is rammed by hand, inverted set of spacing bars and cores 4" and 8" blocks on a flat surface and the inserts held down by can be made if required. KITOW is seeking the feet while the body is removed. It can grant aid to enable it to begin commercial make 100 to 150 blocks a day depending on manufacture of these moulds for sale through­ whether they are standards, halves, knock-in, out the Pacific. It is estimated that the basic bondbeam blocks, cornerblocks or inclined price be about SI00. blocks for bricking in the gable ends of a Other aspects of the KITOW low-cost building. One of the main features is that the housing system revolve around the use of blocks"have a solid top which allows easy placement of mortar and the laying of blocks by semi-skilled labour. If a vertically reinforced pillar is required, several light taps with a hammer will produce a hole in either end of the block which can be vertically aligned and filled with cement and steel to give a 4" x 5" solid column where re­ quired. Horizontal beams and lintels can be made in a similar way. This means that all the walls can be built without the use of any box­ ing timber or shuttering at all. The door and window frames are set into the blockwork and provide sufficient support for the lintel blocks until the beam is poured. A further method of cost cutting is to do One of KITOW’s workmen holding a knock-in away with the need for plastering. The right bond beam block to show how the holes are choice of aggregate and fines will give a dense, placed for filling from the top. precisely moulded block with sharp corners which can be accurately laid and the joints hand-pitsawn coconut timber for roofing mem­ tooled to give a reasonable surface finish in one bers using specially tipped saws, and insulated operation."To do this, however, requires addi­ ceilings made from island produce. With these tional waterproofing, either by addition of an basic materials an enterprising islander can oil emulsion such as ‘Onoda TT' to the con­ build a permanent house to his own design and crete mix water, or, better still, by a lime incorporate a sense of pride and ownership into whitewash containing a percentage of fat which the structure which is not the case with can be made locally. Further protection can be standard ‘one design’ housing schemes. □

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 11 REGIONAL CONFERENCE ON ROOT CROP PRODUCTION

Suva, Fiji, 24-29 November 1975

By MICHEL LAMBERT, Tropical Agriculturalist, South Pacific Commission

Until fairly recently, the production of edible At the Third Conference of Directors of root crops in the Pacific Islands had not been Agriculture and Livestock, held at Lae, Papua- a matter of active concern to research workers New Guinea (31 January-6 February 1974), and agriculturalists. However, trials aiming at concrete proposals for the inception of a long­ increasing yield per surface unit had been con­ term project on the development of root crops ducted in some territories which rely heavily on in the SPC area were put forward by the these root crops for food; the methods involved Secretariat of the South Pacific Commission. include the introduction of high-yielding varie­ The Conference gave its full support to the ties, improvement of agricultural methods, and project, and recommended that a technical con­ weed, pest and disease control. ference be convened as soon as possible (by April 1975 at the latest), to examine all details Over the past few years, the most active pertaining to the project. proponents of such research work have been The SPC was subsequently to receive backing the Agricultural Research Station at Koronivia, from the UNDP/Regional Representative and Fiji, and Dala Agricultural Research Station. the regional FAO technical and research staff Solomon Islands. At the same time, a substan­ concerned with edible root crops. Consequently, tial collection of varieties of sweet potato was the project was acknowledged as being of established at the Aiyura Agricultural Station, mutual interest, thus qualifying for UN techni­ in the Highlands of Papua New Guinea. All cal and financial assistance. This materialized island territories became increasingly interested in the form of an FAO mission funded by in the development of tuber crops. UNDP, which, in September/October 1975,

An experimental taro (Colocasia esculenta) field A flourishing yam plantation at Inarajan, Guam, at the Koronivia Agricultural Research Station, October 1975. March 1975.

The First Conference of Directors of Agricul­ compiled an inventory of edible root crops in ture and Livestock (Noumea, New Caledonia, the South Pacific, together with a progress 24-28 January 1972), noting that research work report on research undertaken. The mission had been undertaken in the area, and recognis­ was also to make new proposals on a project ing the importance of taro and yam in some for stepping up root crops production in the territories, recommended that the South Pacific Pacific, for consideration at the above-men­ Commission compile the results of such research tioned technical meeting. and publish a handbook on the production of taro and yam. The meeting was held in Suva, Fiji, from

Page 1 2 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 24-29 November 1975. It was opened by the Honorable Ratu Josua Toganivalu, Minister for The Secretary-General and staff of the Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests. Those pre­ South Pacific Commission announce with sent included consultants from the French deep regret the death in Paris on June 27 Overseas Scientific and Technical Research of Dr Guy Loison, who had been Director Office (ORSTOM—Noumea), the Asian Vege­ of the Commission’s Health Programme table Research and Development Centre (Tai­ since 1962. wan), the University of the West Indies and Dr Loison, who was 62 years old, the Tropical Products Institute of London. obtained his Doctorate of Medicine at the Naval Medical School, Bordeaux, in 1938, Eleven countries and territories from the and a Master's Degree in Public Health at Pacific area were represented at the Conference, the University of California (Berkeley) in which was chaired by Ratu Epeli Kanaimawi, 1961. He was appointed Clinical Profes­ Director of Agriculture, Fiji. Mr Morris Tafatu, sor of Public Health at the University of Director of the Agricultural Department of Hawaii in 1973. He studied tropical dis­ Niue, was elected vice-chairman. Amongst the eases at Marseilles, hygiene and social observers present were representatives of SPEC GUY medicine and acupuncture in Paris, and (South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-opera­ social anthropology at the Sorbonne. tion), FAO, the University of Papua New LOISON Dr Loison was Medical Officer in French Guinea, the Australian National University, the Polynesia from 1940 to 1944, and in New College of Tropical Agriculture of Hawaii, the Caledonia from 1944 to 1947. From 1948 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture DEAD to 1951 he worked in South Vietnam, and (Ibadan, Nigeria), UNDP, the University of the in 1952 in Morocco. South Pacific, and the University of California. He first joined the Commission in 1952 as Research Officer for Health. In 1958 Thirty-five working papers were submitted to and 1959, Dr Loison worked as Assistant the Conference for examination. The exceptional to the Director of the Endemic Diseases information content of the documents, the first Department in Equatorial Africa, and in of their type in the South Pacific, warrants their 1960 he was appointed Director of the publication (as the official proceedings of the Medico-Social Section, Institute of Ad­ Conference) by SPC. They will therefore be vanced Studies, Brazzaville, Congo. published in 1976. In January 1962, Dr Loison rejoined the Commission as Director of the Health Programme. He served as Consultant to a A subsequent article will be devoted to the number of international organizations, implementation of the recommendations made and was a member of the Permanent by the Conference, together with all decisions Committee on Public Health and Medical concerning the inception of the long-term root Sciences and President of the Medical crop development project in the Pacific Islands. Association of New Caledonia. In his capacity as Programme Director The South Pacific Commission wishes to (Health), Dr Loison was responsible for acknowledge its indebtedness to those members planning and directing all the work under­ of the Fijian Government and the Ministry for taken by the South Pacific Commission in Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests whose the field of health. He was deeply de­ thoughtful and tireless assistance in the organi­ voted to his task, and his death is a sad zation and running of the Conference was to a loss indeed, not only for his colleagues large extent responsible for its success. □ at the Commission and in the medical profession, but for the whole of the Pacific region. In accordance with his expressed wish, Dr. Loison’s body was flown back to New COOK ISLANDS JOINS ADB Caledonia for burial and reposed in the Central Hall at Commission Headquarters throughout Friday 16 July; many paid The Cook Islands has been admitted to their last respects. A brief memorial ser­ membership of the Asian Development Bank vice for Commission staff and friends of with effect from 20 April 1976. The Cook the family was held that night, and the Islands is an Associate Member of the United Secretary-General gave a short eulogy. Nations Economic and Social Commission for The funeral service was held the following Asia and the Pacific, and is the seventh South morning in Noumea's Cathedral, with the Pacific country to join the Bank. Archbishop, Monseigneur Klein, officiating. Large numbers of friends accompanied the The admission of the Cook Islands brings the body to Noumea’s cemetery, where short Bank’s total membership to 42 countries — addresses were given by representatives 28 from within the region and 14 from outside of War Veterans of Indo-China and the it. " n Medical Association of New Caledonia. □

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 13 The Author: Mr McPhetres has been a re­ searcher for the Trust Territory Department of CONSTITUTIONAL Education, a Peace Corps District Representa­ tive in Truk District, a Peace Corps staff member in the Ivory Coast and Somalia, a high school teacher of social studies and French. He holds a Bachelor's degree from the University DEVELOPMENT of California, a Diplome des Etudes Superieures from the Centre Europeen Universitaire in political science and a minor in linguistics as IN MICRONESIA well as advanced degree work in education. PART 2. Underlying Conflicts in Micronesia: Constitution Making

By SAMUEL F. McPHETRES, researcher and programme developer for the Trust Territory Education for Self-Government programme.

the allocation of budgets and developmental planning to meet locally perceived needs. This whole process is reducing dependence on the central administration and increasing a tendency to feel that working with other districts and sharing limited resources is no longer necessary or desirable. Palau has recently been flirting with the de­ velopment of a tanker superport, which, if built, would bring in revenues measured in millions of dollars to that district (population 13,000). The Marshall Islands have been benefiting from the presence of the Kwajalein Missile Range for years, taxing the US-scale salaries, employ­ ing local people at the range and benefiting in other ways from the American military presence The Committee on General Provisions, chaired by (this is not to underplay the social and eco­ Delegate Petrus Tun (Yap), was responsible for nomic problems related to the island of Ebeye, initial considerations on topics such as the where most Micronesian employees of Kwaja­ national boundaries, citizenship, and transitional lein base actually live—about 6,000 people on provisions. (PIO) less than one-tenth of a square mile). The Marianas District voted 78.8 per cent to join the US and, as some commentators put it. to reject the other districts. Yap, Truk and Ponape, possibly because of close ethnic and Over the past several years, there has been cultural ties, have not developed any great dif­ an intensifying of parochial district interests to ferences among themselves and there has been the detriment of the development of a spirit of no show of aggressive interest in the industrial nationalism for Micronesia. Some of this development of these districts by their people. parochialism can be attributed to official government policy, some to ethnic rivalries and some to chance locations of exploitable re­ sources or other factors. Traditional/Modern Micronesia has one of the highest educational In the area of official support for local levels in the Pacific. Approximately 40,000 of autonomy, the policy of decentralization has the 50,000 school-age Micronesians are enrolled certainly had its effect. Administrative and in public or private schools. Under the US ad­ legislative decision-making has been gradually ministration, one in every 100 Micronesians has increased at the district and local levels, grant­ completed or is enrolled in a post-secondary ing increasing power to local interests. At the educational institution, usually on a scholarship present time, all of the districts have chief or grant provided by the COM or the adminis­ executives, District Administrators, who come tration. Each year hundreds graduate with cer­ from that same district, although by the organi­ tificates, bachelor’s and master’s degrees and zation chart they are appointed by and respon­ return to the islands. The employment of these sible directly to the High Commissioner. Dis­ educated but unskilled young people is a prob­ trict governments are getting more control over lem; the same problem is found in nearly every

Page 14 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 developing country in the world where a Compromise as a Constructive Force diploma on the wall obviates the need for any­ thing resembling manual labour. And each In the light of these and other conflicts, the year there are increasing numbers of Micro- system of the Convention had to be geared for nesian high school graduates leaving for finding compromise. In fact, there were several colleges. mechanisms operating in the design of the Con­ vention process as well as ad hoc improviza- tions which were finally successful in finding Left behind are those who are traditionalists solutions to what at the time seemed like in­ by choice or by chance. The old men and soluble problems. The first tool for compromise women (and a large proportion of young was the path taken by proposed elements of the women), the traditional chiefs, the dropouts Constitution from inception to inclusion (or and the unlucky ones who didn’t get a scholar­ rejection). (See Figure 1.) ship: these are the traditionalists. They do not understand or are reluctant to accept rapid or substantial changes in their lives or any change FROM PROPOSAL TO ARTICLE: THE PATH OF AN IDEA at all in some cases. These are also the ones who, in many cases, have been the least affected (Majority V ote) by modern government, living on remote tiny Committee proposal is debated by the Committee islands and atolls visited once every three to of the whole, changed, six months by a swiftly passing field-trip vessel. accepted or rejected by simple majority vote and The seeds of conflict between the old and the final accepted product is new, the traditional and the modern, the edu­ referred to the Style cated and the uneducated, the English speakers, committee the Japanese speakers and the vernacular-only speakers are on fertile ground.

Strong v. Weak Government In line with the conflicts already described, (Majority there was another one which weighed heavily Vote) on the Convention delegates. This was fear of Introduced to any government at all as opposed to the Plenary Session for First Reading opinions held by new young nationalists who and assigned to advocate a strong central national government appropriate stand­ for the new nation. ing committee (No debate or changes) Opponents of the strong government theory were those who, because of the history of Micronesia, look on any government as an alien agency designed especially by outsiders for the control and exploitation of the in­ habitants. The bitter and sometimes divisive debate over the subject of eminent domain (the right of a government to take private property for public purposes under certain circum­ stances) was a key example. The traditionalists I Delegate \ opposed this power at any level of govern­ 1 [ Proposal \ (An Idea) J ment services on a justified need basis. The nationalists (a small group of whom also be­ came known as ‘devil’s advocates’) wanted Full Convention considers final complete draft some eminent domain power to exist at the Constitution as a whole national levels to guarantee the central govern­ document. 3/4 ment the power to fulfil its obligations to the affirmative vote needed for final approval of citizens. new Constitution

In the end, there was no mention of eminent domain in the Constitution at all, although FIGURE 1 differing versions came up three times in an effort to stabilize the power at some acceptable level and prohibit its use at others. The result Using the above procedure, no individual of the debate was a government with the central idea carried the originator’s identity very far authority holding only those delegated powers and the proposal could be considered with spelled out in the Constitution and the states relative objectivity as it was blended with re­ (districts) holding all others. lated proposals, moulded by discussion and

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 15 finally turned into a committee proposal for Compromise in the Micronesian way is best consideration by the full membership. exemplified by the results of the question about where to place traditional leadership in the new This was not enough for some of the pro­ government. The Yapese, probably the most posals, however. Proposal 100, the so-called traditional group in Micronesia, felt secure Palauan Constitution, drafted by the Palauan enough to say that they knew the role of their delegation and having its apparent origins in a leaders and that there was no need to create an previous draft prepared by Paul Warnke, lawyer artificial role at the national level as advocated and consultant to the Joint Committee on by some other chiefs. Other traditional leaders future status, contained the previously men­ (notably from Truk and Ponape) and their tioned seven non-negotiable demands. The supporters felt strongly that if there was no elements of this draft were separated out and role at the national level, the power and in­ assigned to various appropriate working com­ fluence of the chiefs might be threatened by mittees. Then, after strong pressure by the national legislation and policy. A related debate disgruntled Palauans, it was recalled as a whole revolved around the civil rights questions of document and referred to a special adminis­ equal protection of the law, freedom of re­ trative committee. There it languished under ligion, speech and the preservation of customs protest by the sponsors until a special con­ and traditions. ference committee, chaired by the President of the Convention, Tosiwo Nakayama, was created A chamber of chiefs was then proposed as to deal with the unresolved issues in the final part of the executive branch, with specific days. In this way, Proposal 100 and several of authority over traditional and customary mat­ its demands found their way into the new Con­ ters in the territory. In the end, one provision stitution in various forms, including the was adopted in the Bill of Rights protecting tradition and custom, and another stating that nothing in the Constitution may be interpreted to prevent the establishment of a role for the chiefs at the national level if the need arises or to deprive the traditional leaders of their traditional rights and prerogatives. At one moment, when it appeared that the chiefs were going to get short shrift in the Constitution, they staged an effective, short boycott of the sessions, resulting in a resolution to be appended to all copies of the Constitution recognizing the role of the leaders. No chamber of chiefs was included, but the state and national governments are permitted to provide for a ‘functional role’ for the chiefs at a later date. The need for Micronesian unity was the final motivation for compromise on the Constitution and, when it was all over, President Nakayama said: ‘Micronesians have told the world for the first time we are united.’

Delegates to the ‘ConCon’ assigned to the Style and Arrangement Committee deliberate on the The Constitution of the Federated appropriate wording for the Constitution. (PIO)States of Micronesia The Constitution is divided into several Preamble (actually the first article adopted by major parts. They are: Preamble, territorial the Convention for inclusion in the Constitu­ boundaries, sovereignty, civil liberties, citizen­ tion), the unicameral legislature (with some ship, governmental structure and functions, adjustments unique to Micronesia) and equal finance and taxation, general provisions, and distribution of revenues received from foreign transitional provisions. There are 16 articles in sources not specifically allocated by the donor. the 23-page document (English). Not accepted by the Convention was a proposal for locating the new seat of government in The Preamble: The Preamble, adopted from Palau although a resolution was adopted later the Palauan draft Constitution, is a lyric state­ recommending that Palau be given careful study ment of Micronesian unity and self-determina­ once the needs and circumstances of relocating tion: *. . . Our seas bring us together, they do the national capital from Saipan to another dis­ not separate us . . . our differences enrich us trict were known. Secession, proposed by the . . . The Micronesian nation is born in an age Palauans, has also been rejected as a district when men voyage among stars; our world itself right. is an island . . .’

Page 16 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 1

National Boundaries: Micronesia has been The freedom of religion clause recognizes the without national boundaries since its identifi­ particular debt that many Micronesian leaders cation by the Spanish. Even today, the lines owe to religious organizations for their educa­ generally used on maps of the Trust Territory tion. It says that although there is freedom to are not legal boundaries. Currently, there is a practise and freedom from governmental inter­ three-mile territorial limit around each island; vention in religion, there is also specifically an additional nine miles are considered an permitted governmental assistance to parochial economic resource zone. schools for non-religious purposes. In accordance with the Congress of Micro­ nesia’s position at the Law of the Sea Con­ Citizenship: Beginning from a very restrictive ferences in Caracas and Geneva, and foreseeing version of a citizenship clause which would an acceptance of 200-mile limits, the Conven­ severely limit the types of people who might tion adopted a provision defining the limits of become citizens after this Constitution became the new nation based on the archipelagic theory effective, the Convention softened its position with a baseline drawn between the outermost and finally passed a clause which admits to citi­ islands of those districts that ratify the Con­ zenship people who are TT citizens at the time stitution. All waters within that line would be that the changeover takes place; persons born internal and there would be a 200-mile marine later of one or more Micronesian citizens; and space measured outward (subject to later inter­ others who may be provided for by law through national agreements). This same section de­ naturalization. fines the means for setting boundaries between states on the principle of equidistance and the Taking special note of the Northern Marianas acquisition of new territory. Covenant and its grant of US citizenship to the Marianas under the Commonwealth status, with Sovereignty: One of the most far reaching the alternative of US nationality for those who reject citizenship, the Micronesian Constitution provisions in the Constitution is the supremacy clause. Stating that this Constitution will be­ would allow those who choose US nationality come the supreme law of the land when it in the Marianas to maintain Micronesian citi­ becomes effective, the Constitution will become zenship if they declare their intention in a the moving force in further negotiations with Micronesian court within six months of becom­ the United States concerning termination of the ing US nationals. Trusteeship Agreement and a new political There is also a recognition of the theory that status governing Micronesia’s relations with the once a Micronesian always a Micronesian. In rest of the world. It becomes clear, in fact, that the case of Micronesians who hold dual citizen­ independence is the principle contained in the ship, they may be Micronesian nationals and Constitution, although there are provisions citizens of another country, but not citizens of allowing the new government to assign certain both. Citizenship is a crucial element in land powers, such as defence and foreign affairs, to ownership. Recognizing the scarcity of land another nation. This would be the case under and its cultural value to the society, it was the presently designed draft Compact of Free determined that only Micronesian citizens or Association. The Compact will now have to be wholly owned Micronesian corporations may changed to conform with the Constitution if acquire land in the new nation. the recommendations of the Convention are accepted by the Congress of Micronesia, now negotiating through the Joint Committee on Structure: It is, perhaps, in the structure of the Future Status (JCFS), chaired by Palauan new government that the Micronesian com­ Senator Lazarus Salii. promise between modern and traditional, par­ liamentary and presidential, strong and weak Civil Liberties: The list of civil rights included government becomes clearest. in this Constitution includes most of those After much debate and not a little con­ commonly considered inalienable in a demo­ troversy, the final structure of the Micronesian cratic society: freedom of expression, religion, central government has the standard division of assembly, non-discrimination on the basis of powers between the executive, legislative and sex, race or social status and various protec­ judicial branches with corresponding checks tions against unreasonable legal procedures such and balances based on the American model. as ex post facto laws and bills of attainder. But the legislative branch, while unicameral, Capital punishment and slavery are also pro­ combines the character of a senate and house. hibited. Each district will have one ‘at large’ congress­ But there are also some unique provisions. man who will serve for four years. In addition There is a clause protecting Micronesian there will be 18 congressmen elected on the traditions and customs even though they may basis of population for two-year terms serving violate other provisions of this Constitution and in the same house and with the same voting allowing them to be codified by district legis­ position. Qualifications for both are the same; latures if they do not conflict with the Con­ minimum of 30 years of age, a citizen for at stitution. least 15 years and a resident of the state which

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 17 he is representing for at least live years. Other the Justices are not required to be citizens of qualifications may be established later by law the Federated States of Micronesia. and each state may allocate one of the two-year positions to an ‘at large’ traditional leader. Final Finance and Taxation:In one of the most con­ approval of legislation is by delegation votes troversial debates of the Convention, agreement with one vote per delegation emphasizing the was arrived at which gives the national govern­ equality of all districts. ment very limited revenue-raising authority. The national government may impose import A combination of parliamentary and presi­ taxes. Fifty per cent of all taxes must be dential executive was arrived at late in the returned to the states in which they were Convention. The President and Vice-President collected. This revenue-sharing principle is are to be elected by the Congress membership modelled after the law currently in effect and from among the four-year ‘at large’ members. applies to the present three per cent tax on They may not come from the same district and wages and salaries. may serve only two four-year terms consecu­ tively. The one difference of note is that the Under the delegated powers provisions of the President and Vice-President must have been Constitution, the states have all other taxing bom citizens of the country. powers except that they may not use them to interfere with interstate commerce. The Constitution provides for fairly complete separation of powers between the executive and In other areas, the Constitution outlines how the legislative branches with veto power and the annual budget will be prepared and pre­ veto override in the executive and legislative sented to the Congress, gives the Congress branches respectively. The judicial branch is power to alter appropriation recommendations fairly straightforward: there will be a Supreme and the President an item veto over the Con­ Court with a Chief Justice assisted by no more gressional version. Three specific funds for than five Associate Justices. The Court will money coming to the national government were have both appellate and original jurisdiction; also created: the General Fund, Special Fund the national courts to be established later will and the Foreign Assistance Fund. This last was include all matters arising under the Constitu­ the subject of heated controversy since one of tion and interstate and international questions. the non-negotiable demands of the Palauan delegation required equal distribution of non­ Land again stimulated a unique provision in specified funds from foreign sources. In the the judicial system. With only about 700 square final version, it was agreed that money coming miles of land surface scattered over the ocean, to Micronesia in the form of foreign aid not it is obvious that land should be considered earmarked for specific distribution would be something more valuable in Micronesia than deposited in this fund for subsequent equal perhaps other places where it is more abun­ distribution among the states and the national dant. The result of this concern for land is government. It was also understood that this twofold. First, fear of government intervention category of revenue would probably not amount based on real or imagined historical experience to a large portion of the national income and resulted in the complete absence of any power that it would, in fact, decrease as Micronesia of eminent domain being mentioned in the became more self-sufficient. Constitution. As one delegate said, it is a power which has been exercised by foreign A national auditor has also been provided governments and to place it in the Constitution for in this section of the Constitution. The would make the Micronesian Government a auditor would be very independent and respon­ foreign power. Another element involved is the sible for the review of all national appropria­ feeling that the traditional use of the power tions and how they are spent. His area of re­ through custom would meet all reasonable sponsibility includes all governmental agencies, needs of the government. non-profit organizations receiving government money and statutory agencies. Secondly, the court system establishes the right of any state to set up an exclusive Land Transitional Provisions:Looking forward to Court with final jurisdiction over all land mat­ the time when the Constitution will be approved ters in the state. Although the State Constitu­ by the people of Micronesia and to the change­ tion may allow for appeals even to the national over from government through the Trusteeship courts, it is not obligated to do so in land matters. Agreement and the US administration to the The feeling was that land questions should be Constitution of the Federated States of Micro­ dealt with at the level of government closest nesia, there is a section dealing with the gradual to the people and the customs. implementation of this Constitution. The Justices of the Supreme Court will be Under the ‘effective date’ clause, within one appointed by the President with the advice and year after the referendum the Constitution will consent of the Congress (two-thirds approving) become effective, except for those provisions for a term lasting during ‘good behaviour’. One in conflict with the Trusteeship Agreement or interesting element in the judicial system is that the UN Charter. Upon termination of the

Page 1 8 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Trusteeship, the Constitution will become fully government although the ratification process is supreme. fairly cumbersome. The Compact would have to be called a treaty and it would require a Also provided for is the continuation of TT two-thirds affirmative vote by state legislatures laws, district and municipal governments, court as well as the endorsement of the new Congress. actions and other current rules and regulations, Preparations are now under way for a resump­ rights and responsibilities until they are tion of the negotiations sometime in 1976. amended, repealed or expire, unless they are in conflict with this Constitution. Local govern­ Approval of the Constitution ments, however, even though they have no statutory existence, may continue until the new According to Public Law 5-60, the High Congress or State Constitutions recognize them, Commissioner of the Trust Territory is em­ even though they may not be in concordance powered to set a date for a national referendum with the provisions of the Constitution. to approve or disapprove the Constitution. It could take place within one year although there The new government will inherit all TT is no time limit set. property, obligations and rights of the old Before the vote, however, there will be a government except in districts which do not campaign throughout the islands to inform the ratify this Constitution. people about the contents and implications of Again, expressing the concern over land the document. It must, according to law, be ownership and use in Micronesia, there is a translated into the major languages of the requirement that all land use agreements of an islands and this has been taken to mean most indefinite period be renegotiated within five major dialects as well. At the time this article years after the effective date of the Constitution. is being written, the Constitution is being trans­ Further indefinite leases are specifically pro­ hibited and all current indefinite leases auto­ matically become invalid after the five-year period.

The Constitution and Political Status It was understood during the Convention that the Constitution would not spell out any specific political status for Micronesia. How­ , f. , ever, it was also accepted that it would give s direction and guidance to the negotiations * ** presently taking place between the United States Government and the Congress of Micronesia. The language of the final document implies that independence and its principles are to be the overriding concern of the new government. In the Sovereignty clause (article III), it is clearly stated that the Constitution will be the supreme law of the land, thus conflicting with the Draft Compact of Free Association which it jubilant President Nakayama shakes hands with staff member Victor Uherbelau after he signed states that the Constitution of Micronesia will the Draft Constitution on 8 November. High have to be in conformity with the Compact. Commissioner Edward E. Johnston and Nick Although neither the Compact nor the Con­ Santos, a representative of one of the Micronesian stitution has yet been ratified by Micronesia’s Students organizations at the University of people, the Convention did pass a resolution Guam, look on. (Photo by the author) recommending to the negotiators that from now on, although neither is law, the Constitution is to be given priority status and that the Compact lated into 14 vernacular languages and, con­ be renegotiated where conflicts with the Con­ sidering the complexities of the legal language stitution may appear. This position has been used, this is no easy task. accepted in an informal meeting of the Joint Committee on Future Status held to review the A post-Convention committee made up of implications of the Draft Constitution for the selected delegates and staff members of the status negotiations. Convention has been formed to help administer the pre-election campaign, co-ordinating the Free Association, which has been the object Administration’s Education for Self-Govern­ of current negotiations, is not ruled out, how­ ment programme with their own and the Con­ ever. The Constitution allows certain functions gress of Micronesia. Since the Constitution does of government to be delegated to another not have to be approved by the US Govern­

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 19 ment or any other agency, including the Con­ Constitution was accepted by the people. Presi­ gress of Micronesia, the first step in seeking the dent Nakayama expressed the hope that the popular vote and approval of the Constitution people would endorse it because, in his words: has been taken with a massive distribution of 'It is a good Constitution . . . one that people the English version. Radio broadcasts, trans­ of Micronesia can live with.’ lations, meetings, publications, interviews, film programmes and public gatherings will all take place at different times in the future. Footnote To be approved in the Referendum, the Con­ In the recently concluded second regular stitution must receive a simple majority in two- Session of the Sixth Congress of Micronesia, the thirds of the districts of the TT. A majority spectre of separation again raised its head. The against the Constitution in any one district will Palauan delegation to the House of Represen­ negate application of the law to that district and tatives spoke clearly favouring separation of it will then be free to seek its own political the Palau islands from the rest of Micronesia. future outside of the Federated States of Micro­ In addition, a group of Palauan residents of Saipan, some allegedly highly placed govern­ nesia. If less than two-thirds of the districts comprising the Trust Territory at the time of ment officials (no signature list has been made the Referendum approve, presumably the whole public) have issued a statement favouring the thing will go back to the drawing-boards. separation of Palau and, among other things, a referendum in Palau to take place before the Constitutional Referendum in which the people Conclusion will be asked to reject the proposed Constitu­ tion. The fragile unity of Micronesia, which found its most eloquent expression in the final hectic In addition, the Congress narrowly passed a days of the ConCon, will be given its true test bill establishing a Commission on Transition when the people come to the referendum. The and Status. This commission will have two Marianas may, by that time, already have been primary responsibilities: the first, to replace separated administratively from the rest of the and continue the duties of the former Joint districts in accordance with the transitional Committee on Future Status in negotiations provisions of the Covenant for a Common­ with the United States; and, second, to plan wealth. In some districts, notably the Marshalls, and recommend the steps that can be taken to strong opposition or at best a general lack of implement provisions of the Constitution both interest can be predicted, creating a herculean before and after the Constitutional Referendum. challenge for the proponents of the Constitution This bill has yet to be approved by the High whose responsibility it will be to convince the Commissioner (2 March, 1976). people that it is the best for Micronesia and all of its districts. The formal portrait of the delegates to the The mood is optimistic, however, and the Micronesian Constitutional Convention in Saipan at the White Sands Hotel. The delegates people involved so far are very enthusiastic represented politicians, businessmen, doctors, with the prospects. High Commissioner Edward lawyers, policemen, judges, farmers, fishermen E. lohnston stated to Convention President and traditional leaders. The lone woman Tosiwo Nakayama that the administration delegate is Mrs Mary Lanwi from the Marshall would do whatever it could to see that the Islands District. (PIO) to become separate from one another . . .’ Postscript Haruo declared: ‘Our goal must be unity. For only a unified front can withstand the future The difficult times ahead for Micronesian challenges, and the forces of outside influence.’ political development are made clear by two Saying he twice represented Micronesia in meet­ conflicting viewpoints reported in the March 1 ings of the South Pacific Commission, he added issue of Highlights, published on Saipan by the he was ‘amazed' at their collective concern for Public Information Office of the TTPI. We the overall Pacific Region, where in our case reprint them so that readers can see the prob­ regionalism and self-interest sometimes become too apparent. lems confronting Micronesians with diverging Haruo said South Pacific leaders’ concern over interests. their sovereignty made them feel ‘it was odd’ that their northern neighbours would even consider Palau Wants Separation ‘voluntarily’ giving it up to another nation which Palau Congressmen Kuniwo Nakamura and frequently involves itself in ‘domination’ of the Polycarp Basilius officially announced 25 February islands. that Palau ‘is prepared to take whatever steps He said South Pacific leaders ‘had hopes that are necessary to separate itself politically from the all of Micronesia would support their efforts to rest of Micronesia’. make the Pacific a nuclear-free zone instead of a In a speech before the House, Congressman shield for warring nations’. He said he agrees Nakamura said 'Palau must have a government with them. that is responsive to its people.’ He said it is his The Truk Congressman related that life in the opinion, the Palau delegation and the people of Pacific Region is ‘uniquely different’ from those Palau ‘can no longer wait’. He said: of the so-called ‘developed nations where we find 'We cannot subject ourselves to a future govern­ war, poverty, hunger, violence, crime, and drug ment where the majority that rules it is politically addiction’. He declared: and culturally many miles away from the islands ‘We do not find these things in Micronesia— and the people of Palau.’ except perhaps where culture and traditions have He said it has become ‘apparent that govern­ been forgotten, or where Micronesians have let go ment by compromise and government by recon­ the best of their culture in order to grasp the ciliation would not be in the best interests of all worst of the white man’s ways.’ He said ‘such concerned in Micronesia, including Palau’. people have nothing to look back on, and nothing Nakamura declared: to look forward to’. ‘If Palau attempts to remain a part of Micro­ Congressman Haruo asserted that separation nesia, (it) runs the risk of facing economic movements in Micronesia today ‘stem from the stagnation and retardation.’ frustrations of being victimised by outside in­ His senior Palauan colleague, Congressman terests’. He said it is unfortunate that Micro­ Polycarp Basilius, said in a statement inserted into nesians do not ‘control’ today. He said only the House Journal that the ‘traditional chiefs, Congress is controlled by Micronesians, which elected leaders, and a majority’ of his people have makes it even more ‘difficult’ to stop outside conveyed their desire to the Palauan delegation ‘political, military, and economic forces that wish to the Congress of Micronesia that Palau ‘will to divide us’. soon begin taking steps necessary to achieve its Haruo said the problem of being confronted political status goals’. with outside influences makes it more difficult to Basilius said his people have indicated their Congress to seek the right kind of development desire ‘to establish a political identity distinct and for Micronesia. He said for those who feel separate from the rest of Micronesia’. He said: 'neglected' they must realise that ‘we are trying ‘I also want to take the opportunity to request to accomplish in this generation what other the United States Government to consider our nations took perhaps several hundred years to position and open the door for negotiations on a achieve’. He noted that only recently did Micro­ close and long-term relationship with the people nesia begin receiving experts from the United of Palau’. Nations to help put together a plan according to The Palau Congressman noted that his people each district’s needs which also takes into account have ‘made this decision and taken these steps Micronesia’s basic national interests. with no ill feeling for any other district of Micro­ The Truk Congressman said it ‘would be a nesia. but with the determination to carve out for shame and a pity’ if the other districts ‘don’t Palau the best possible future for her people and make a major effort to reorient our society, our her future generations’. educational system and our daily lives to keep the Congressman Basilius asked the Congress to best of what we have inherited from our ‘assist the people of Palau in exercising their free ancestors’. will to end the Trusteeship Agreement and to Congressman Haruo asked the rest of Micro­ create a new political status appropriate to the nesia ‘not . . . to be misguided any longer by the particular circumstances and desires’ of the people insecurities of a few who would choose to deviate of Palau. from the culture and heritage of their ancestors’. Haruo Hopes for Micro-Unity And this item from an Hawaiian newspaper shows how feeling in the Marshall Islands adds Truk Congressman Sasauo Haruo called upon the Congress and the people of Micronesia to complications to the Micronesian constitutional work in ‘unison’ towards one goal and objective— problem. Micronesian unity. He said: ‘It is an unfortunate pity that many of us of this Marshalls Will Oppose Unity generation do not seem to grasp the lessons of history . . . the unfortunate result is . . . instead Members of the Marshall Islands Political Status of learning to live together as islanders, we choose Commission are travelling to the United Nations

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 21 to voice strong opposition to a US-backed plan for Micronesian unity under a new constitution. In an interview in Honolulu Saturday (June AUTHOR’S NOTE 19) with the Honolulu Advertiser, Tony DeBrum, Vice-Chairman of the Commission, said Marshall Islanders overwhelmingly favor independence as The observations made and the conclu­ a separate State, once U.S. administration of the sions drawn in the article ‘Constitutional UN Trusteeship ends in 1981. DeBrum is on his Development in Micronesia’, were based way to the UN along with Senator Amata Kabua. on information and circumstances avail­ able and existing at the time it was writ­ According to the Advertiser article, the trip to ten. the United Nations by the Marshalls group to voice a desire for independence is both a ‘first’ However, because of the fluidity of the and another step emphasizing the danger of more situation in Micronesia today and the fragmentation in the vast island area the United impending major decisions concerning the States has ruled under a UN mandate since 1947. draft Compact of Free Association and DeBrum will address the Trusteeship Council other issues facing the Congress of Micro­ of the United Nations June 30. His speech will nesia and the people, there may have come just four weeks after the initialing of a been substantial changes or new circum­ Compact of Free Association by representatives stances created by the time this article is of the United States and the Micronesian Joint printed in the South Pacific Bulletin. In Committee on Future Status. the next issue of the Bulletin the author DeBrum said Rep. Ekpap Silk, one of the two will attempt to describe any new situation Marshallese delegates to the talks, initialed the and late developments that are known, compact, despite the fact that the district legis­ but readers should be aware that changes lature earlier voted—by a margin of 15 to 4—to are taking place or projected which are seek separate negotiations with the United States. not predictable with any degree of accu­ The other delegate, DeBrum said, attended the racy. last session ‘to say that the Marshall Islands do Samuel McPhetres not recognize the authority (of the Micronesian □ committee) to negotiate on behalf of the Marshall Islands’. He referred to Rep. Ataji Balos. There are two basic reasons why the Marshall­ ese want no part of the proposed Micronesian Federation, DeBrum said. One is economic. ‘For years we have felt the Congress of Micronesia has SEA LAW CONFERENCE been laying an excessive tax burden on us,’ he FOR GUAM NEXT YEAR said. ‘For every tax dollar kept in our district, we have had to give up 14 to the central government. We pay a tremendous amount in income taxes to The Pacific Asian Studies Association pro­ the Trust Territory Government, more than half poses to hold a conference on island and archi­ its import taxes, and produce more than half of pelago sea law in Guam from February 2-6, all exports (copra) produced by the territories,’ 1977. The South Pacific Commission, partici­ he said. pants in the world-wide conferences on inter­ national sea law, PASA members and the The money comes mostly from Kwajalein, a vital missile-testing site entirely controlled by the general public are being invited to attend. United States. The main theme of the conference will be to Domination of the Kwajalein atoll by the explore past and present international agree­ American military is the second major reason why ments reflecting on island rights in relation to the Marshallese are insisting on self-determination Laws of the Sea and to formulate general pro­ and independence. Again, the issue here is mostly posals for future modifications of International economic, as well as a question of ethnic pride. Sea Law as they apply to the unique problems In short, the islanders feel Washington is not pay­ of islands. ing anywhere near a fair price for use of property it simply has taken over without the real owners’ The conference will consist of four days of permission, according to DeBrum. working sessions and a final day of symposium. ‘We have no problems with the idea of associat­ The sessions of the conference will be taped and ing ourselves with our Caroline neighbors as equal, a transcript prepared. The final report will be sovereign nations, or associating ourselves with published in a 1977 issue of the Journal, Pacific them for economic co-operation,’ DeBrum said. Asian Studies. ‘But just because we are friends doesn’t mean we have to get married—a marriage, forced on us, Graduate and undergraduate university credit that is not going to work,’ the Marshalls Director in conjunction with conference participation will of Public Affairs was quoted as saying. be available. Additional information concerning Palau Sen. Roman Tmetuchl will also attend the conference may be obtained by writing to the hearings to represent the Palau Political Status the Conference Chairman, Dr Stanley Malkin. Commission. Palau, as well as the Marshalls, has University of Guam, Box EK, Agana, Guam threatened to seek a separate status. 96910. □

Page 22 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 We’re a long distance airline and we’ve been Suva: CML Building, Victoria Parade, Tel. one for over 54 years. So we understand the 24624. Papeete: Immeuble Laguesse, Place kind of care and attention you most Notre Dame, Tel. 29.530.Port Moresby: appreciate across the world. We’ve also been ANG House, Cnr. Hunter & Douglas Sts., flying the Pacific as long as anyone in the Tel. 2185. Norfolk Is:c - Burns Philp business. So when you’re going to Australia, Co. Ltd., Tel. 2195. Asia, Europe, Great Britain, or North America ask your local Travel Agent to book you Qantas to the world. Or write or call Qantas in Noumea: 29 Rue Jean Jaures, Tel. 274744.Nadi: Nadi Airport, Tel. 72888.

LB1.2340

SOUTH PACIFIC BUllETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 23 THE SECRETARY-GENERAL OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC COMMISSION VISITS COP (PACIFIC OCEANOLOGICAL CENTRE)

During his stay in Polynesia for the Symposium on the Primary Prevention of Psychiatric Disorders organized by the South Pacific Commission and the World Psychiatric Association, the Secretary-General of the Commission, Dr E. Macu Salato, visited the Pacific Oceanological Centre (COP) at Vairao.

After being welcomed by Mr de Chazeaux, Director of the Centre and CNEXO representative for the Pacific, and Mr A. Michel, Scientific Adviser for Aquaculture and Fisheries, Dr Salato was informed of the activities of the Centre, which focus essentially on the development of live bait fishing, and fish, crustacean and mollusc farming.

Dr Salato took particular interest in the pathological aspects of aquaculture. He was also told of the exchanges of material between French Polynesia and Fiji. On several occasions, COP has sent New Caledonian shrimps (P. merguiensis) to Raviravi, Fiji, where excellent results have been achieved under mass-breeding conditions; and in return, Fiji has provided the Centre with another species, P. monodon. These have since been induced to reproduce by the COP Aquaculture team, and their offspring are being used in large-scale growth experiments, both at Vairao and at AQUACAL (Baie de St Vincent, New Caledonia).

Commenting further on this promising exchange scheme, the CNEXO representative for the Pacific mentioned France's intention to take an active lead in developing the harnessing of ocean resources for the benefit of Pacific islanders.

Page 24 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Aerial view of the COP.

“ 11 ■ _ * ' « y - - WiJ | . r T ' «**! M w j m K f . _ Sfiir* 5 ' < '

* * - • -~wai ' § ■

Weighing shrimps (P. vanamei). experimental growth tank containing benthic algae.

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 25 how solar energy can make living m ore comfortable

By R. K. HILL

We are grateful to Mr R. W. R. Muncey, chief of the CSIRO Division of Building Research, for permission to reprint Report 30, by R. K. Hill, titled ‘Utilization of Solar Energy for an Improved Environment within Housing for the Humid Tropics'. If solar energy can make domestic life in the tropics more agreeable, this report will be of keen interest to all our readers.

Summary: Trials are described wherein It is well known that, within the humid tropics, thermal comfort is largely the customary horizontal air movements dependent upon an adequate air movement. The tropical house therefore is within housing for the humid tropics, due typified by an elongated floor plan and numerous windows. The windows, to breeze penetration, are replaced by a vertical flow of air. The proposed ver­ together with the doors, must normally remain fully open to utilize the available tical flow is induced largely by the breeze to the full. For the same reason the internal walls are frequently of absorption of solar energy by the roof partition height only or are fitted with costly louvres. Because of this, the house and enables the creation within the house suffers from a lack of acoustic privacy but does provide, when situated in rural of an environment which is quieter, surroundings, quite acceptable living conditions. However, the tropics now cleaner, and more secure than is presently possible. contain sizable urban communities with relatively high population densities and the house must be considered unsuitable for these changed conditions.

The open doors and windows so admirable house and suffer the resulting thermal discom­ for breeze penetration now admit noise and fort. One obvious cure for these troubles is dust with equal efficiency and it is almost im­ air-conditioning but this is still beyond the possible to make the house secure from prowlers economic reach of the majority of the popula­ and burglars. The dilemma that faces the occu­ tion of all but the most affluent countries. In pants is whether to leave doors and windows the light of present concern for the world’s open and accept these nuisances, including the supply of fossil fuels, this is. perhaps, not with­ risk of attack and theft, or to close up the out some advantage.

Page 26 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 The USA is frequently cited as an indicator On the other hand, the openings required by of world trends and it is therefore pertinent that the vertical ventilation system are not only very air-conditioning demands now form a significant much smaller in area and not visible to casual proportion of the summer electrical generation inspection but, because of their configuration, load of that country and are reputed to bear a may have a smaller need for screening. This major responsibility for the recent power- paper gives details of an arrangement wherein shedding on the Atlantic coast. A recent study the vertical air movement is largely induced by by Woodhead and Scanes1 of operational and solar energy. maintenance costs in Northern Australia pro­ duced figures in the region of $400-$600 per It is of interest that ventilation systems based annum for air-conditioning units servicing a on naturally induced vertical air flows were single room only. widely employed in the early years of this century, the most notable proponent being A vertical flow pattern of ventilating air Boyle2 who relied on air density differences and rather than the customary horizontal flow would wind-driven air pumps for the successful opera­ enable doors and windows to be kept closed tion of his installations. and permit the acoustic isolation of the various rooms. Windows which were relieved of the GENERAL PERFORMANCE OF THE CUSTOMARY necessity for admitting breeze could be reduced HOUSE IN THE HUMID TROPICS in size, thus reducing glare and heat inflow, and could also be constructed and sited in such a Since the aim of the proposed arrangement way that security would be improved. Further­ is to devise a house having improved standards more, in houses relying on ventilation by door of quietness, cleanliness and security while re­ and window there is a tendency for hot air taining or equalling the existing standards of generated within the building to collect up thermal comfort, it is worthwhile describing against the ceilings sometimes requiring the something of the performance and shortcomings installation of special exhaust fans whereas, of the customary house. with the system of vertical ventilation, heat generated by cooking, washing or lighting not The usual house of Northern Australia and only finds immediate release but also, in some Papua New Guinea (Fig. 1) is high-set and measure, improves the rate of air flow. timber framed and this, together with the exten­ sive encouragement of air movement, leads to Insect screens to doors and windows are a internal temperatures that correspond closely necessity over much of Australia and Papua to the external air temperature. In most cases New Guinea. The screens are not only a source the maximum temperature within the house of difficulty and inconvenience to the occupants equals or exceeds the external maximum: of the house but, given the extensive window houses which are poorly insulated or have pro­ areas of present designs, they represent a con­ nounced penetration of sunshine may exceed siderable expense in fitting and maintenance. the external temperature by 4° or 5°C. These

fig u r e l : Typical house built for the tropics.

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 19Z6 Page 27 generalizations, drawn from a number of tem­ within houses are not readily available, but in perature investigations carried out in various the author's experience they are desirable on houses in Port Moresby, are confirmed by the perhaps two days out of three and one night calculated house temperatures of Ballantyne out of three. This is confirmed by unpublished and Spencer.3 data4 taken from a comfort survey made in Port Moresby during November 1972. Con­ The humid tropics are noted for equable sidering only those Caucasians living in houses weather and steady temperatures but even there fitted with fans, 44 per cent of the 1100 votes the diurnal temperature cycle is such that early received were cast when the fans were in use. morning conditions within the house are quite acceptable on most days of the year. This con­ Unlike the morning when the temperature of dition rapidly changes as the sun rises (Fig. 2), the house keeps pace with or anticipates and as temperatures rise above 25°C increasing ambient, during the evening and night the tem­ air movement is required to maintain thermal perature of the house is apt to lag behind and comfort. When this is not forthcoming from remain warmer than the surrounding air. This the breeze, resort is often made to electric fans. is partly because radiation is less efficient at reducing internal temperatures than is direct insulation at increasing temperatures, and partly because air changes will be fewer because of a general reduction of wind strength after sun­ set. Additionally, considerations of privacy and security dictate at least a partial closure of the openings of the house. It is probable that in the urban tropics the greatest disruption to sleep is caused not by thermal discomfort but by noise. An overhead fan quickly ameliorates problems caused by temperature and humidity but, although it has some virtue as a source of masking noise, it is no match for noisy traffic or a rowdy party. The open plan and open windows of the tropi­ cal house reduce the prospects of sound attenua­ tion to insignificant proportions: the writer came to rely on the noise of the next-door alarm

MON TUE WEQ THU FR! SAT SUN clock, situated some 15 metres distant, as his getting-up signal! The slight diminution of noise FIGURE 2: Comparison of internal temperatures for a typical achieved by the conventional tropical house is house with ambient for Port Moresby in September (South East demonstrated by the results shown in Table 1 Trade Winds season). which compares noise intensities measured in­ ternally and externally at a house in suburban At best, wind is a fickle servant and there is Port Moresby. little relationship between the need for air movement and the strength of the breeze actually experienced. With some perversity OUTLINE OF THE PROPOSED DESIGN Nature has arranged matters such that in the doldrums both calms and sunshine intensity are Houses in the arid tropics frequently feature at a maximum. Statistics on the use of fans high thermal inertia as a means of stabilizing temperatures, but it is not usually recommended TABLE 1 for the humid tropics although Ballantyne, Barned and Spencer5 found some evidence to GENERAL NOISE LEVELS INSIDE AND OUTSIDE A NORMAL TROPICAL suggest that, even there, high thermal inertia HOUSE, 10 pm, IN A SUBURBAN AREA OF PORT MORESBY may improve thermal comfort. However, if doors and windows must remain open and the Broad Centre Outside on Inside Living Room house is elevated to ensure maximum breeze Band Frequency of Porch (Louvre Windows Open) penetration then benefit cannot be taken of the Spectra Octave Band dB (A) dB (A) potential held by masonry walls and slab-on- the-ground construction for reduced noise trans­ A _ 34, 64,* 62,* 67* 34, 58,* 62,* 60,* 64,* 66* mission, more even temperatures and greater UN — 55 58 security. — 125 Hz 38 38, 56* — 2 5 0 35, 6 0* 32 The possibility of enhanced ventilation — 5 0 0 34, > 6 0 * 32 through window openings by virtue of the solar — 1 00 0 3 1 ,6 0 * 27 energy absorbed by the roof was suggested by — 2 0 0 0 26 26 — 4 0 0 0 23 20 Van Straaten, Lotz and Van Deventer6 who — 8 0 0 0 22 20 described ceiling apertures above the windows connecting to the roof space and exhausting * Cars passing. through an opening above the ridge of the roof.

Page 28 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 It is doubtful if the occupants of such a build­ ing would benefit greatly since the incoming air is encouraged to ‘short-circuit’ directly from the windows to the ceiling vents rather than • penetrate into the room. However, the aim of the proposed arrangement is not to increase an existing air movement but rather to substitute , an entirely different flow pattern with the pur­ pose of creating an improved environment within the house. In Papua New Guinea, most houses are roofed with galvanized corrugated iron pitched at 5° and rectangular in form (Fig. 1). Reflec­ tive insulation is looped between the timber rafters which are ceiled with hardboard sheets. The proposed system calls for identical materials but rearranged such that air channels are provided between the insulation and the galvanized iron. These channels have access to f i g u r e 3: Schematic arrangement for vertical solar induced the interior of the house through ceiling vents ventilation. running the length of the outer walls and have an outlet along the length of the roof ridge. asbestos-cement walls on timber studs and a The pitch of the central portion of the roof skillion roof of corrugated galvanized iron. would be steeply increased to provide a stack Lining and ceiling were of hardboard and the effect but otherwise no additional materials ceiling was insulated with double-sided reflec­ would be required and costs in consequence tive insulation to give internal dimensions of would be slight. Entry of air to the house would 3000 x 2500 x 2450 mm. These buildings are be through under-floor openings along the illustrated in Figure 4. inner walls. A possible layout is illustrated in The structures had been originally built to Figure 3. compare window performance. One was fitted with a prototype double glazed window 1350 x EXPERIMENTAL APPRECIATION OF THE 800 mm (the test building), and the other in­ PROPOSED SCHEME corporated an entire window wall of glass louvres (the control building). The Department of Public Works of Papua New Guinea kindly made available in Port Establishing Trial Moresby two adjacent single-room buildings of To compare the performance of the two typical construction: suspended timber floors, buildings before alterations began, the doors

FIGURE 4: Experimental single-room buildings, Port Moresby.

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 29 and windows were closed and internal tempera­ observer remained outside, the effect of air tures recorded for a week. Comparisons were movement being ignored. also made with ambient air temperature: in the absence of a Stevenson screen, the thermograph Nevertheless, it was felt that the high internal was sited beneath an adjacent elevated building. air temperatures would possibly interfere with = 1 metre from the ground and somewhat masked thermal comfort studies and therefore the four by surrounding vegetation. It is probable there­ walls and floor of each building were lined with fore that the reference air temperature may be double sided reflective insulation to reduce the t a little lower during the day and a little higher heat inflow from these sources. during the night than that given by a Stevenson screen. In general, the thermal performance of the two buildings was comparable in the Trial of Vertical Ventilation fully closed condition (Table 2) although the control building, because of greater sun pene­ The roof of the test building was modified tration, reached slightly higher daytime maxi­ along the lines indicated earlier except that, mum temperatures. the roof not having a ridge, the studs of the end wall were extended 1200 mm and sheeted with hardboard to form a stack that was 100 TABLE 2 mm wide and ran the length of the building. A 450 x 600 mm opening was cut in the floor. A COMPARISON OF TEMPERATURES WITHIN THE TEST AND CONTROL This was fitted with a sleeve extending towards BUILDINGS WITH AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE APRIL AND JUNE, 1973 the ground and surrounded by a concrete block wall to form an acoustic baffle. Details of the design are given in Figure 5. The upper face Time Below Transition of the galvanized iron roof was coated with Temperature matt black paint for increased absorption of Measuring Av. of Av. of solar energy. Situation Max. Temps Min. Temps Daily Proportion of Average Ambient Time (hrs) (%)

1. Establishing trial with buildings in original condition and both fully closed up (7 days) Control building 3 7 .5 ° C 2 5 .0 ° C 11.1 Test building 3 6 .0 2 5.0 1 1.2 A m bie nt 30.5 24.5 16.4 2. Trials with vertical ventilation installed in test building (a) Control building opened each day (4 days) Control building 3 2 .0 ° C 2 5 .0 ° C 1 1.2 Test building 3 1 .0 2 5.0 11.6 A m bie nt 30.5 2 4.0 15.9 (b) Control building continuously closed up (3 days) Control building 3 6 .5 ° C 2 6 .0 ° C 8.0 Test building 3 1 .0 2 6 .0 10.5 A m bie nt 3 0 .0 25.5 14.3

3. Trials with vertical ventilation after lining test building with 100 mm concrete block (a) Control building opened each day (5 days) Control building 2 9 .5 ° C 2 4 .0 ° C 13.9 72 Test building 2 8.0 24.5 2 0.6 107 A m bie nt 2 9 .0 23.5 19.3 100 (b) Control building continuously cl Dsed up (2 days) Control building 3 6 .5 ° C 2 4 .0 ° C 12.3 67 Test building 2 8 .0 24.5 19.5 107 A m b ie n t 29.5 23.5 18.2 100 FIGURE 5: Arrangement of the test building at Port Moresby illustrating the flow path of solar A further means of comparison was provided induced ventilation (dimensions in mm). by the relative duration of the daily period during which the buildings remained at or So that the control building might approxi­ below a criterion temperature. The temperature mate more closely the conditions within an selected was the neutral-to-warm transition occupied house, the windows were fitted with temperature (27.6°C) of Ballantyne, Barned curtains which were opened at 8 a.m. and and Spencer5 and the buildings returned an closed at 4 p.m.; in addition, at 8 a.m. the door almost equal performance at a little less than was half-opened and 50 per cent of the windows 70 per cent of ambient. That is, an occupant were opened and at 4 p.m. the door and 90 per of the buildings would be thermally neutral (or cent of the windows were closed. These times cool) for 70 per cent of the time that such a were dictated by the normal working day sensation would have been experienced had the whereas, in a real situation, a house is more

Page 30 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 likely to be opened at 7 a.m. and closed at that the average maximum temperature within 6 p.m. The restriction on the amount that the the test building was now 0.5°C less than am­ door and windows were opened was to compen­ bient and 1.5°C less than the control. The sate for the higher ratio of openable area to time below the transition temperature within enclosed volume applying to the single-roomed the test building was now 107 per cent of the control building than for a house. For three corresponding time for ambient temperature; days the building remained closed. The window that is, thermally comfortable temperatures of the test structure was fitted with a fixed were now possible for a greater period each canopy since, although the building was cor­ day inside the test building than outside. rectly aligned for sun control (window facing true north), the width of the eave was in­ sufficient to prevent sun penetration. Air Movement and Thermal Comfort Within the Results (Table 2) showed that the ventilation Test Building system of the test house (in which door and The test building was occupied by the writer window remained closed continuously) was able and used as an office for three days during the to hold down the average maximum tempera­ south-east trade wind season and the relation ture to within 1-2°C of ambient, but that the explored between thermal comfort, temperature closed-up control building produced a tempera­ and air movement (Table 3). The measure of ture 5-6°C above ambient. With door and thermal sensation employed is comparable with windows left open, temperatures in the control the seven-point scale of Bedford7 and others; building were then comparable with the test neutral and warm are considered acceptable building. With the vertical ventilation system, conditions; hot and very hot are unacceptable. the time during which the test building was Air velocities were measured by a vane below the transition temperature was 73 per anemometer which, for the assessment of wind cent of the time that the ambient temperature strength, was held at a height of two metres in was below this temperature, a performance a clear area some 15 metres from the test build­ which was marginally better than that of the ing. Internal measurements were taken by control building when opened daily; the figure traversing the outlet-air plenum and converting for the control building when continuously the average air velocity into changes/hour. closed dropped to only 56 per cent of ambient time. Air movements considerably in excess of those expected were measured during the test Effect of Increasing Thermal Inertia recorded in Table 3 with the result that ther­ mally comfortable conditions were obtained Although the performance of the vertical despite an internal temperature rising to 30°C. ventilation system was encouraging, it was felt To a large extent this was due to the action of that with the elimination of the breeze as a the deflector at the floor aperture which directed factor in thermal comfort, maximum tempera­ a stream of air having a velocity in the region tures should be reduced still further. For of one to 1.5 metres/second around the ob­ example, Ballantyne, Barned and Spencer5 in server. Conditions outside the direct influence their study of acclimatized Caucasians living in of the airstream were, of course, less pleasant Port Moresby established the preferred tem­ but still acceptable. It was clear that wind perature under conditions of slight air move­ was augmenting the inductive effect of the ment as 25.8°C but this fell to 24.3°C under solar energy absorbed by the roof but con­ conditions of no air movement. The test build­ firmation of this could not be obtained until ing therefore was lined internally with 100 mm the end of the season of the south-east trade concrete blocks and the trial repeated over winds. another week. Table 4 presents the results of a longer period The result (Table 2) was most satisfactory in of assessment made in the doldrums season TABLE 3 AIR MOVEMENT AND CONDITIONS AT THE TEST BUILDING DURING THE S.E. TRADES SEASON

Temperature °C Wind Air Time Thermal Skin Date Changes Sky (hours) Int. Ext. per Hour Speed Direction Sensation Condition (m/s)

7 /6 /7 3 1000 __ _ 29 1.2 SE Cloudy _ 2 2 /6 /7 3 1330 27 29 56 3.3 5E Clear Neutral Dry 3 /7 /7 3 0910 26 — 55 — — Clear Warm Damp 0940 — — 89 — — Clear _ _ 1030 27 — 73 2.8 SSE Clear Warm Dry 11 30 28 — 60 — — Clear Warm Dry 1330 — — 99 3.1 S Clear — — 1530 29 — 88 — — Clear Neutral Dry

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 31 TABLE 4 CONDITIONS AT THE CONCRETE BLOCK LINED TEST BUILDING DURING THE DOLDRUM SEASON

Wind Temperature °C Air Time Changes Speed Direction Thermal Skin Date (hours) Int. Ext. per Hour (m/s) Sky Sensation Condition

17/12/73 1400 30.5 31 56 1.6 w Clear Warm Damp 1500 31 31 43 — — Hazy Warm Damp 1600 31 30.5 26 0.6 w Cloudy Warm Sweat visible 1700 30.5 29.5 26 0.7 w Cloudy — — 18/12 /73 0800 26.5 26 17 1.3 N Hazy — — 0900 27 28 26 1.6 NW Cloudy Neutral Damp 1100 28 30 29 0.8 NW Clear Warm Damp 1 300 29 30 26 0.9 NW Cloudy Warm Damp 1500 29.5 30 28 1.1 W Cloudy Warm Damp 1 9/12 /73 0630 26 24.5 15 0.2 N Clear Neutral Dry 0830 26 26.5 1 7 1.3 N Hazy Warm Dry 1 1 30 29 31 33 1.3 W Hazy Warm Dry 1330 30 31 50 1.3 SW Hazy Warm Damp 1430 30.5 31 73 1.4 W Hazy Warm Damp 1600 30 30 26 0.2 NW Rain Warm Damp 1630 30 27 25 0.9 N Rain Neutral Damp 2 0 /12 /73 0800 26 31 19 1.1 N Hazy Warm Dry 0930 26.5 28 21 0.7 E Clear Warm Damp 1 1 30 29 31 43 1.8 SW Clear Warm Dry 1 300 30 31.5 44 2.0 s Clear Warm Damp 1400 30.5 31 56 2.4 s Clear Warm Dry 1600 30.5 31 56 2.3 s Hazy Warm Damp 1800 30 30 22 0.8 s Clear Warm Damp 2000 29.5 29 16 0.4 s Clear Warm Damp 2200 29 28 17 NIL — Clear Warm Damp 2 1 /1 2 /7 3 0815 27.5 28 22 0.3 E Clear Warm Damp 0845 28 30 42 1.4 s Clear Neutral Dry 1000 30 31 — — NW Clear Warm Dry 1030 30 31 22 0.5 W Clear Warm Damp 1115 30.5 32 41 1.3 SW Clear Warm Damp

1200 31 32.5 45 1 . 0 SW Clear Warm Damp

during which observations were made during The results are given in Table 5 of measure­ the night, during periods of calm and during ments made in front and inside the structures rain. A number of general appreciations could of the noise emanating from a stationary motor- be made: mower. (a) At no time, even at night or during periods of calm, did the upwards flow cease or show It will be seen that with the louvre windows evidence of down-draughts. of the control building open there is negligible (b) Air flows showed the expected general pat­ reduction in noise intensity levels but with the tern of reduced flows during the night and a windows closed—a thermally intolerable situa­ maximum near noon—the magnitude being tion—the measured noise intensity is reduced affected by both the wind and cloud patterns by 5 to 15 dBA. The smaller and double­ of the day. glazed window of the test building, however, (c) Comfort conditions were marginally accept­ enabled a noise intensity reduction of some 15 able despite internal temperatures in excess of to 30 dBA to be achieved within the building. 30°C. It is considered that these ‘reduced’ intensities (d) The least favourable time was the late would be approximately equivalent to subjec­ evening when the use of an electric fan would tive noise levels of 50 per cent and 25 per cent be desirable. respectively of the external noise. In relation to (a), it was initially speculated that night-time radiation heat loss from the Unfortunately, circumstances did not permit blackened roof to clear skies may have suffi­ the tests to be repeated after the structural ciently chilled the air in the roof space so that alterations had been made but subjective obser­ the buoyancy effect of the room air would be vation suggested that the improvement had overcome and a reverse flow initiated with been maintained. A motor-driven air com­ greater benefit to the occupants of the house. pressor was situated near the buildings during the December trials and its noise output was Acoustic Environment such that conversation was impossible in the near vicinity including inside the control build­ An acoustic comparison was made of the ing. However, normal speech inside the test two buildings before the installation of the building was quite audible with the majority of vertical ventilation path in the test building. intruding noise apparently coming through the

Page 32 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 TABLE 5

NOISE LEVELS OUTSIDE AND INSIDE THE TEST AND CONTROL BUILDINGS BEFORE INSTALLATION OF DRAUGHT SYSTEM

Test Building Control Building Broad Band Centre Frequency Interior Interior Louvres Spectra of Octave Band 1 2' in Front Interior 1 2' in Front Louvres Open Closed dB (A) db (A) dB (A) dB (A) dB (A)

A _ 67 45.5 65 64.5-66 55.5-57.5 B — 71 52-54 68 68.5-70 60.5-62.5 C — 72 55-57 70 69-70 62-63 LIN — 72-73 57-59 71.5 69-70 63 — 63 Hz 64 45-48 64? 56 50.5 — 125 66 54 63 62 57 — 250 68 50.5 65-66 64-66 60-62 — 500 68 45-46 67 65 55 — 1000 59 38-41 68 59.5 48 5 — 2000 56.5 27-28 55.5 54.5 42 — 4000 54.5 25-26 52.5 53-55 41 — 8000 53.5 20 49.5 49-50 34 clearance spaces around the closed door rather than through the baffled floor opening.

CONCLUSIONS 1. A natural system of vertical ventilation has been demonstrated which may have poten­ CORRESPONDENCE tial for improving the built environment of tropical housing; a house is envisaged having comparable thermal comfort to conventional INVITED designs but which is quieter, cleaner and offers greatly increased privacy and security. 2. The proposed ventilation system utilizes The South Pacific Bulletinaims to similar materials to a normal roof but merely arranges them differently so that the cost of serve the needs and interests of providing the air channels would not be great the people of the South Pacific and would be offset by the elimination of the region. It would wish to provide a expensive louvre windows common to many designs of tropical houses. forum for the interchange of opinions and ideas. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Grateful acknowledgement is made to Mr P. Dubout of the Division of Building Research Comment on or criticism of the who carried out the acoustic tests on the tropi­ Bulletin’scontents and letters on cal house and test buildings. topics of general interest to the REFERENCES Pacific area are cordially invited. 1. Woodhead, W. D., and Scanes, P. S., L ivin g in Photographs are also welcomed, Remote Communities, Part 3—Air Conditioning of Dwellings in a Tropical Climate, D.B.R. Report TB27-3, 1972. and, where requested, prints 2. Boyle, R., The Ventilation of Public Buildings (Boyle and/or negatives will be returned and Son), 1923. 3. Ballantyne, E. R., and Spencer, J. W„ ‘Climate and promptly after use. Comfort in a Humid Tropical Area’,Build Inter­ national, July/August 1972, 214. 4. Unpublished data, Division of Building Research, CSIRO, November 1972. Correspondence should be 5. Ballantyne, E. R., Barned, J. R., and Spencer, J. W.. Environment Assessment of Acclimatized Caucasian addressed to: The Editor, South Subjects at Port Moresby, Papua, Third Australian Building Research Congress, 1967. Pacific Bulletin, Box 306, Hay- 6. van Straaten, J. F., Lotz, F. J., and van Deventer, E. N., The Sun and the Design of Buildings for market, N.S.W. 2000, Australia. Tropical Climates, Symposium on Environmental Physics as Applied to Buildings in the Tropics, Roorkee, 1969. 7. Bedford, T„ Basic Principles of Ventilation and H eating, p. 87 (H. K. Lewis & Co.), London, 1948. □

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 33 MANPOWER PLANNING AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN A PACIFIC CONTEXT

By Dr I. J. FAIRBAIRN, Economist, South Pacific Commission

rHuman beings are the form of capital ultimately instrumental to all social and economic change.' — Zambia’s First Development Plan (1966-1970)

Manpower planning in Pacific countries is implemented in the past. Others are suffering very much at the embryonic stage, virtually from the social and economic effects of large non-existent in some countries (Tonga, the numbers of young men going overseas to work. Cook Islands, Western Samoa and Niue) and carried little beyond the elementary stage in Manpower problems in a Pacific context are others (American Samoa, Fiji and Papua New typically associated with two basic, co-existing Guinea). Yet the need to institute manpower phenomena: a labour surplus — predominantly planning on a comprehensive basis, or to place unskilled — and a shortage of persons possess­ it on a firmer footing, is widely recognised ing vital skills. Surplus labour is the product of throughout the region, even by the smallest of high rates of increase of population and work­ Pacific countries. force maintained over an extended period of time and set against a background of slow- Basically, this reflects the rising tempo, as growing— or static — economy, coupled with well as the increasing complexity, of the process inadequate attention to education and training of social and economic development in the in the past. In many cases, surplus labour is region, with the associated need for a wide also associated with the so-called ‘partially- variety of skills, as well as the desire to pursue employed’ labour—the underemployeds—found national development objectives in a way that in rural sectors of Pacific countries, and who is rational and purposeful. In particular, it need to be put into more productive and reflects the high priority attached to the human- effective use. In order to combat unemploy­ resource factor in national development pro­ ment, the creation of more productive employ­ grammes on the part of Pacific countries and ment opportunities, supported by adequate the need to ensure that this factor is developed education and training (including retraining) along lines which will maximize its contribution programmes and, possibly a degree of overseas to the national development effort. Without migration, is called for. However, it must be firm information on manpower, both present said that very few Pacific countries have a and future, on the one hand, and a meaningful reasonable prospect of absorbing their growing analysis and application of the results on the populations by wage employment in the fore­ other, government efforts to accelerate economic seeable future, even if present rates of popula­ development will be seriously handicapped. tion increase were reduced substantially.1 There are, of course, more specific and some­ The shortage of trained manpower is not what more immediately urgent reasons for the peculiar to the Pacific region, but is has, per­ heightened interest recently shown by Pacific haps. been felt more acutely by Pacific countries countries in manpower planning, and indeed, in because of the relative intensity with which the general field of population dynamics. The recent development efforts have been mounted. problem of unemployment (and underemploy­ A wide variety of skills is needed in connection ment), made worse in town and city centres by with both the public and the private sectors the rural/urban migration, and the need to find and, typically, the overall demand for skills jobs for the annual crop of school leavers is tends to outstrip the rate of economic growth region-wide in scope. A serious loss of skills as well as the rate of increase of the labour and ‘brains’ is being experienced by a number force.2 * Sometimes the shortage has been aggra­ of countries, while ambitious localization vated by over-rapid attempts to achieve self­ schemes being implemented by others have reliance in basic skills through the replacement quickly depleted the limited supply of local skills. 1. See G. Foggon. ‘The role and functions of Labour Departments . . . in Report of the First Conference of South Pacific Labour Ministers, Australian Govern­ One or two other countries are grappling with ment Publishing Service, Canberra, 1974, p. 42. the problem of unrealistically high job expecta­ 2. F. H. Harbison. ‘Approaches to Human Resource tion on the part of the labour force, perhaps Development* in G. M. Meier, Leading Issues in Economic Development (2nd edn), Oxford Univer­ reflecting faulty training and education practices sity Press, 1970, p. 612.

Page 34 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 of expatriate staff, and by an acceleration in incentives, emigration and the like.4 the brain/skills drain. The skills gap is widely felt in the Pacific Forecasting the manpower needs of an , region and has prompted almost all Pacific economy over time is apt to be hazardous, countries to launch vigorous training pro­ and may amount to little more than making grammes in order to close the gap, or at least partly informed guesses and exercising intuition narrow it somewhat. Even so this does not and personal judgement. Information and * provide a quick solution, as the building up of statistics on basic components of the economy, high-level manpower is a matter which takes such as GNP, and its sectoral origin, may be many years — decades for the highest levels of lacking or unreliable. Vital information on manpower. If government development pro­ population and employment required as a basis jects are to be successfully implemented, the for projections (occupational division of the only alternative left is a greater use of expatriate labour force, age groupings, migration move­ manpower. ments) may be weak and fragmentary. Techno­ logical development and changes in popular The essential purpose behind manpower taste cannot be predicted with any degree ot planning is to attempt to match the prospective certainty so that any assumptions adopted in manpower requirements of an economy, by relation, for example, to output-labour ratios various skills, with supply, in order to achieve and new industries and products, are likely to national objectives and plan targets laid down go awry. Difficulties also arise over forecasting by government, such as a certain growth rate employment trends in situations where subsist­ of GNP and of major economic sectors or ence sectors remain substantial components of branches of industry. In this, it seeks to avoid, the economy, and in defining precisely who is or to keep to a minimum, any imbalances or unemployed and/or underemployed. distortions in manpower utilization that might occur in the absence of such planning. This is But even if comprehensive and detailed man­ essentially a balancing act which, in a nutshell, power projections are precluded by the lack of involves ‘finding jobs for men on the one hand basic data, an attempt should be made to deter­ and finding men for jobs on the other’.3 mine systematically the manpower needs of key priority areas of the economy. These special Though various different approaches to man­ power planning might be taken, a number of areas are for government policy-makers to vital steps and stages can be readily identified. define, but once defined, their manpower In the first place, it is necessary to assess the implications must be examined by manpower various aspects of the population and workforce analysts and planners and guidelines formulated which form a basis for manpower planning—the for their realization. In this, forecasting for present size and projected change during the some priority areas will be less problematical than for others — easier, for example, for base and forecast year or a specific plan period; age and sex structure; participation ratios; level government services like teaching and nursing of training and education; geographical distri­ than for the private industrial sector. bution; and occupational and sectoral distribu­ tion. The areas of priorities that are likely to be most relevant for many Pacific islands are agri­ In the second place, it is necessary to deter­ culture and fisheries, calling for basic skills iike mine the projected manpower requirements of field extension workers to serve small farmers, the economy by occupations and by branches co-operative personnel, credit officers, veteri­ of industrial sectors in line with current national narians and applied research scientists, fisheries growth objectives. Normally, such projections training officers and boat mechanics. A miscel­ would apply to the period of the national lany of skills associated with rural development development plan — commonly a five-year in general is important. Tourism, with its period — but projections may also be made for attendant need for hotel managers and super­ a longer ‘perspective’ plan period of around 20 visors. caterers, waiters and service and clerical years. Areas of the economy which stand to staff, also rates highly throughout the region. experience a shortage or a surplus of manpower For a number of countries, shipping is of major can then be identified from a comparison of importance and calls for a wide variety of projected supply and demand. navigational, mechanical and servicing skills. Other vital priority areas are: building and In the next stage, consideration must be given construction, middle-level technical and profes­ to the formulation of a suitable set of policies sional skills (including teaching), crafts and and plan of action designed to remedy and trades. correct the projected imbalances. The policy ' variables involved depend to some extent on the circumstances of each country but will generally relate to training and education, job 4. A list of strategic policy variables for Fiji is given in W. H. Bartsch, ‘Manpower Assessment and Planning: the Fiji Experience’, pp. 5-6. Paper presented at the SPC Regional Conference on Manpower Planning, 3. V. R. K. Tilak. Manpower Planning in Asian Coun­ Labour Recruitment and Migration Policies, Noumea. tries, ILO Regional Office, Bangkok, 1970, p. 1. 7-11 July, 1975 (Working Paper 2).

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 35 As noted previously, the major purpose of as a result of inefficiency in the handling of new manpower planning is to minimize imbalances machines and technology.5 in the demand and supply of manpower, by occupations and major sectors of the economy, The comments made so far refer primarily over the operational plan period or periods. to manpower planning in the traditional sense 4 Where surpluses or shortages occur beyond, of ensuring that a broad harmony is achieved say, a minimum, technically-sustainable level— between the anticipated demand for trained perhaps due to the absence of effective man­ manpower and the numbers that are trained * power planning in the past—the outcome is and educated. This is manpower planning unemployed labour on the one hand and unfilled narrowly conceived as a predominantly quanti­ vacancies on the other. Assuming that growth tative exercise. However, increasing support has in GNP is a good thing, this means, in effect, been given to the view that manpower planning that the economy loses out in terms of output needs to take a broader perspective to account forgone or unrealized, which in turn can have for other vital aspects of the manpower prob­ major implications for the consumer sector, lem, such as the question of suitable incentives investment and the long-term pattern of econo­ to attract labour to vital occupations, popula­ mic growth. This also means that investment tion control measures, training policies and funds channelled into training and education organizations and migration.6 programmes in the past have been largely wasted. For small-scale economies the impact In other words, the stress should be on of manpower imbalances can be particularly ‘human-resource development’ rather than man­ serious. power planning as customarily defined.

The inter-dependence between the pheno­ The need to provide adequate incentives and mena of surplus labour and shortage of skilled rewards for scarce categories of manpower manpower should be recognized. The creation should be a fundamental element in an overall of further employment opportunities is depend­ strategy of human-resource development. Salary ent in some degree on the extent to which and wage rates, status and related considera­ existing bottlenecks in the expansion of both tions must be attractive enough to induce unskilled and skilled categories of labour can persons to acquire and develop certain necessary be eliminated. The shortage of a particular skills, and, eventually, to enter high priority skill may act to deter investment in a project professions and occupations. This should be which would have set in motion the employ­ backed up by scholarships and appropriate ment of additional unskilled and skilled labour policies designed to loosen any existing barriers previously unemployed. In other words, the to job mobility and, possibly, outright compul­ solution of a particular skill bottleneck acts as sion. Failure to account for adequate incentives a catalyst for the creation of further employ­ in manpower planning means that much of ment in respect of both immediate and closely government effort put into training and educa­ related projects. tion schemes is condemned to failure from the very start. There are other, perhaps less obvious, penal­ A more broadly-based approach also needs ties for failure to undertake manpower planning to examine the consequence of new develop­ as an integral element of social and economic ments and influences that are likely to play an development programmes. With a shortage of increasingly important role in determining the skills there will be some tendency for business­ basic characteristics of the labour force, includ­ men (and government, to a lesser extent) to ing the availability of skills. In the Pacific, bid competitively for scarce categories of labour measures being taken by a number of countries by offering higher standards of salaries and in the field of family planning and related areas wages. In theory, this will have an inflationary of population control, and their consequences, effect on the general salary and wage structure both present and long-term, for the labour with potentially unfavourable repercussions for force should be analysed. Also important for the economy as a whole, particularly in terms many Pacific countries is the impact of greatly of resource allocation, foreign trade and income accelerated emigration flows. distribution. On both these issues, manpower analysts are It may also encourage entrepreneurs to look expected to help in formulating appropriate for alternative techniques of production which policy guidelines to remedy any undesirable would minimize the use of the now more expen­ trends that may be observed — in effect, taking sive labour as against other inputs of produc­ measures to influence the basic determinants of tion (such as capital) which, in turn, is inimical to employment. In a context of changing tech­ nology and industrial structures, a failure to 5. The point has also been made (P. Hodgkinson, per­ take measures to enhance the adaptability of sonal communication) that in some cases, the shortage labour by appropriate retraining schemes along­ of jobs in the private sector has been a factor in an unnecessary proliferation of jobs in the government side programmes to develop new lines of skills, sector. could also result in a loss of potential output 6. Harbison, op. cit., p. 616.

Page 36 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 the rate of growth of the labour foree itself. Thus, it may be considered essential in the national interest to make a more intensive effort If you in the field of family planning to slow down the future growth of the work-force to what is con­ sidered more absorbable limits; and to regulate are in the Pacific outmigration as a means of keeping scarce skills at home. for BUSINESS . . .

A vital element in human-resource develop­ ment is the establishment of appropriate train­ ing and educational institutions which will effectively meet the manpower needs of the country once they have been identified. Close consideration needs to be given to the role of formal education from primary to tertiary level, including vocational and technical training, as compared with informal training in the form, for example, of adult education, out-of-school youth training, refresher courses and retraining schemes. The value of overseas studies should also be assessed since it is not always an unmixed blessing for developing countries. Equally close consideration must be given to the role of the private sector in training — practical on-the-job training, apprenticeship or PLEASURE . . . systems and the like. On the latter, a close linkage with the private business sector will need to be maintained by manpower planners in order to assess its potential for training in addition to gauging its manpower needs.

One other factor which should be considered in human-resource development can be men­ tioned : the relationship between technology and employment. In a situation of abundant labour characteristic of many Pacific countries it makes sense to promote the use of labour-intensive methods of production (assuming that a range of techniques is available) in order to maximize the employment effects of investment. This approach is also appropriate in the light of the scarcity of critical skills, which suggests that less technically complex and more labour-intensive techniques should be adopted. A careful moni­ Branches at: toring by the manpower analysts of investment Suva, Sigatoka, Nadi, Lautoka, The Bank of New Zealand offers a complete commercial and personal banking service activity, both private and public, is called for Ba and Labasa. in the Pacific for residents, travellers and Agencies in Fiji at: overseas businesses. These include: Export and this should be followed, where appropriate, and Import Facilities—Currency Exchange by policy measures to correct any undesirable Marks St., Cumming St., Waiu — Financial Transactions—Trade Informa­ Bay, Lami, Nausori, Navua, tion and Introductions— Collections and trend observed to be taking place in the direc­ Deuba, Namaka (Nadi), Market Payments—Travellers' Cheques— Letters of Credit—Safe Custody—General Advisory tion of capital intensity. (Lautoka), Tavua, Nasea Service—Travel Arrangements, Bookings, (Labasa), Savu-savu. A 24- etc.— Savings Bank Facilities in New Zea­ hour agency service operates land, Fiji, Western Samoa and Tonga. To conclude, effective planning for human at Nadi International Airport. resource development should account for all Represented at APIA: the above elements as basic ingredients of an (Bank ot Western Samoa) integrated and broadly-based approach, though, Represented at NUKU’ALOFA: of course, some of these elements will figure less (Bank of Tonga) prominently in some countries than in others. Failure to do this could be costly in social and economic terms and lead to poor and wasteful Bank of utilization of manpower, social problems due to unemployment, loss of output potentially realis­ able, and, ultimately, a frustration of national efforts to initiate and accelerate the process of New Zealand economic growth. □ 4837 Established in the Pacific Islands since 1876

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 37 RHINOCEROS BEETLES IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA

By GEOFFREY O. BEDFORD, Agri­ cultural Entymologist in the UNDP/ FAO Pest and Diseases Survey Project, Koronivia Research Station, Nausori, Fiji.

Twisted and crumped fronds front a young palm crippled Scapanes by australis form a beautiful abstract pattern.

Several species of rhinoceros or horned palm to feed on the sap, thus damaging the beetles (Order Coleoptera, Family Scarabaeidae, young, unopened fronds. When these injured Subfamily Dynastinae) attack coconut palms in fronds emerge they show many V shaped cut­ New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. From tings. Severe and repeated attacks may destroy 1968 to 1971, I was based at Keravat, New the growing point of the palm, causing its death, Britain to carry out ecological and biological or the wounds made by the rhinoceros beetles studies on these pests under the auspices of the may attract and allow the entry of secondary UNDP/FAO/South Pacific Commission Project pests such as the palm weevil, Rhynchophorus for Research on the Control of the Coconut bilineatus Montrouzier, the larvae of which feed Palm Rhinoceros Beetle. on the interior of the stem and set up a lethal rot. The two most important species of beetles are Oryctes rhinoceros L. and Scapanes australis Sternberg. O. rhinoceros is widespread through­ There are three other rhinoceros beetles of out south east Asia, extending from Mauritius, minor significance to coconut palms. India and Ceylon eastwards, and has accident­ ally been introduced into a number of South Pacific countries such as Fiji, Tonga, Samoa (i) On Lihir Island in Papua New Guinea, and the Palau Islands. It reached West Irian and on Guadalcanal in the Solomons, Tricho- and the Gazelle Peninsula of New Britain during gomphus fairmairei Arrow has been reported World War II, and then spread to New Ireland boring into the unopened spadices of palms. and Manus Island, but it has not yet reached the Papuan or east New Guinea mainland, (ii) The elephant beetle Xylotrupes gideon Bougainville or the Solomon Islands. S. aus­ L. is widespread and sometimes feeds on open tralis is endemic to West Irian, Papua New coconut inflorescences; it has been reported to Guinea (including the Bismarck Archipelago) chew through the midribs of fronds, though this and some islands of the Solomons. is rarely observed. They often congregate in large numbers to feed on the bark of poinciana Both these beetles fly into plantations and trees (Delonix regia Bojer (Rafinesque)) ignor­ attack palms by boring into the heart of the ing numerous young palms growing nearby.

Page 38 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 (iii) Oryctes centaurus Sternberg resembles O. rhinoceros but is larger in size. Its distribu­ tion is unusual, being restricted to West Irian and the Papua New Guinea mainland, and ' apparently to one island (Epi) in the New Hebrides. It is associated mainly with sago palms (Metroxylon sagu), breeding in the dead « standing sago trunks and feeding in the crowns of living sago palms, but it can attack coconut palms growing nearby, in the same way asO. rhinoceros. For many years the larvae of a number of these species were unknown or subject to con­ fusion, but descriptions and a key for identifi­ cation have now been provided (Bedford 1974).

Differences between Oryctes and Scapanes O. rhinoceros and S. australis differ from one another in a number of biological characteris­ tics, such as the age group of palms they attack, the type of breeding sites they prefer, and the duration of their life histories. O. rhinoceros in the Bismarck Archipelago generally attacks palms aged from about five years, and may particularly attack tall mature palms. S. australis, on the other hand, is restricted to attacking palms from just past the seedling stage (about 12 months) up to about five years of age. Palms about one-and-a-half to two years old are often very susceptible. Sometimes they are killed outright, and some­ times they are crippled for a prolonged period with the fronds twisted, deformed and stunted and the leaflets compressed together. Observations in some young coconut palm plantings in the Gazelle Peninsula in 1968-1970 showed that males and females of O. rhinoceros occurred in about equal numbers (male/female sex ratio 0.91) and usually singly in feeding holes in the palms. On the other hand 5. australis males were much more frequently found than females (male/female sex ratio 3.69), and a female when found is usually accompanied by a male, the female being deeper in the hole; this was attributed to females spend­ ing much time searching for oviposition sites. Thus S. australis never damages tall mature palms. So, in an area where S. australis is present but not O. rhinoceros there may be heavy damage on the young palms and none on the tall trees. Should damage appear on the tall trees, it would be an indication that O. rhinoceros may have entered the area. S. australis is a more

Five deadly male destroyers: (a) Oryctes rhinoceros; (h) Scapanes australis grossepunctatus; (c) Xylotrupes gideon;(d) Trichogomphus fairmairei; and (e) Oryctes centaurus. Page 39 important pest than O. rhinoceros because it Natural Enemies attacks the palm at a more vulnerable stage, Natural enemies seem to have little effect on often with lethal results discouraging to the rhinoceros beetles, which tend to have a cryptic planter. O. rhinoceros attacks when pahns are behaviour, the larvae being concealed in breed­ older and more able to withstand and recover ing sites while the adults only become active at from damage. night. The marsupial flying phalanger ( Petaurus breviceps papuanus Thomas), which can nest O. rhinoceros is very versatile in the range of in the tops of dead standing palms, attacks and breeding sites it may use. Its larvae can develop eats adult rhinoceros beetles, but it does not in the tops of dead standing palms, decaying feed on the larvae. coconut trunks and stumps, other types of The parasitizing wasp, Scolia ruficornis F„ decaying wood, and sawdust and compost heaps. which paralyses and oviposits on Oryctes larvae, It had been thought for many years that S. was introduced from Zanzibar and reportedly australis used breeding sites similar to those of it became established in the Vunapope area on O. rhinoceros, but it has now been found that the Gazelle Peninsula. However, I did not find S. australis is restricted to breeding at the sur­ any parasitized larvae among many collected face of the soil under decaying bush logs in from that area and it is believed that this wasp cleared areas, or in the soil around the roots of visits only breeding sites of friable material such decaying tree stumps. as sawdust and compost heaps and does not enter hard materials such as dead standing I have never found it in the tops of dead palms or recumbent trunks which are often the standing coconut palms or associated with other main O. rhinoceros breeding sites. decaying coconut wood. Sometimes, it may The assassin bug Platymeris laevicollis Dist. breed in the black humus under heaps of (a member of the Reduviidae family), also decaying cocoa pod husks. O. rhinoceros larvae from Zanzibar, a predator on Oryctes adults, are often abundant in breeding sites; for was bred in large numbers and released for instance, the top of one dead standing palm several years in the 1960s by the Department may contain up to 50 or 60 large third instar of Agriculture, Stock & Fisheries, but there is larvae. S. australis larvae are on the other hand no evidence that it became established. A small much rarer, only an occasional isolated larva number of cases of infection with the fungus being found under a decaying bush log. Metarrhizium anisopliae (Metsch. (Sorokin)) were found in S. australis adults on the Gazelle For breeding studies it was very difficult to Peninsula. hnd a medium in which S. australis females would lay eggs, but eventually it was found that Control Measures they would oviposit in boxes of black soil. The Removal or reduction in the amount of avail­ larvae may be fed on a mixture of 1:1 cow- able breeding sites remains a very important dung: rotted sawdust. Such studies conducted control measure for O. rhinoceros and S. aus­ in the insectary showed that S. australis has a tralis. However this activity can be orientated much longer life cycle than O. rhinoceros. The according to what we now know of the breeding lengths of the different stages of the life history site preferences of the two species. For O. are shown in Table 1. rhinoceros, elimination of dead standing palms, decaying palm trunks and stumps, and exposed compost heaps, is essential. In some cases this TABLE L material need not be carried away but may be concealed from the insect under a dense cover Duration of the life history stages, and fecundity, Scapanes of crop which forms a vegetative barrier (Wood australis grossepunctatus and Oryctes rhinoceros, in the insectary. 1968). For S. australis control, it is very desirable Average duration (days) to reduce to a minimum the number of decaying Stage S. a. grossepunctatus O. rhinoceros bush tree trunks in areas newly cleared and planted with young palms. However, in regions where only S. australis exists, if old palms are Egg 32 12 to be cut down in well established plantation First instar larva 35 16 areas with no bush, to make way for replanting Second „ „ 45 19 with young palms, there is no need to remove Third „ „ 190 60 the old coconut trunks as these are not used by Total larval life 270 95 S. australis for breeding. Also in bush areas Prepupa 21 13 cleared for palm planting the S. australis prob­ Pupa 45 22 lem gradually diminishes after several years as Total immature stages 368 142 the felled bush tree trunks rot away. Total adult life (female) 115 274 Young palms can be easily reached and pro­ „ „ „ (male) 116 192 tected by the periodical application of lindane Fecundity (total eggs laid granules or a mixture of 1:9 BHC powder by a female) 30 51 (6.5% gamma isomer): sawdust to the frond axils. In areas where onlyS. australis is present,

Page 40 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 cal, and such traps only catch a proportion of the beetle population. Experience in other areas has shown that for these reasons attractant trapping is not an effective or economic method of beetle control. The virus Rhabdionvirus oryctes Huger, a baculovirus originally discovered in Malaysia (Huger 1966), has had a considerable effect in generally reducingO. rhinoceros populations in other countries such as Western Samoa, Tonga, Fiji and Mauritius, and could have a similar effect against O. rhinoceros in Papua-New Guinea. Young larvae of S. australis have also been found to be susceptible to this virus (Bedford 1973). With the discovery of this virus, the Project was handed over to the various island territories; in a future article, I will deal with the virus and the process of turning the fight against the rhinoceros beetle over to the individual governments and administrations.

REFERENCES

Bedford, G. O. (1973). Experiments with the virus Rhabdionvirus oryctes against the coconut palm rhino­ ceros beetles Oryctes rhinoceros and Scapanes australis grossepunctatus in New Guinea. J. Invertebr. P athol 22:70-74. Bedford, G. O. (1974). Descriptions of the larvae of some rhinoceros beetles (Col., Scarabaeidae, Dynas- tinae) associated with coconut palms in New Guinea. Bull. ent. Res. 63:445-472. A young palm with Scapanes boring in the trunk; Huger, A. M. (1966). A virus disease of the Indian note the chewed fibre. rhinoceros beetleOryctes rhinoceros (Linnaeus) caused by a new type of insect virus,Rhabdionvirus oryctes gen. n, sp. n. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 8:38-51. Wood, B. J. (1968). Studies on the effect of ground vegetation on infestations ofOryctes rhinoceros (L.) (Col., Dynastinae) in young oil palm replantings in Malaysia. Bull ent. Res. 59:85-96. □

BACK ISSUES Many back issues of the South Pacific Bulletin are still available at 90 cents Australian ($US1.20) per copy, post free. The following issues, however, are out of print: All of volumes 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 14 and 17; An adult of Scapanes australis grossepunctatus killed by the fungus, Metarrhizium anisopliae. Vol. 6, no. 4; Vol. 7, nos. 1 and 2; Vol. 8, nos. 2, 3 and 4; Vol. 1 2, nos. 1, 3 and 4; such as the Solomon Islands, this treatment may Vol. 1 3, nos. 2 and 4; only be necessary until the young palms grow Vol. 1 5, nos. 1 and 2; out of the age group in which they are liable Vol. 16, nos. 1, 2 and 4; to be attacked. In O. rhinoceros areas such Vol. 1 8, nos. 1 and 4; treatments are much more difficult to apply to Vol. 20, nos. 3 and 4; the taller palms and would probably not be Vol. 21, nos. 1 and 2; Vol. 24, no 2. economical. All orders should be sent to; The chemical ethyl chrysanthemate is an South Pacific Commission Publications attractant for O. rhinoceros and can be used in Bureau, inexpensive traps. However the chemical itself Box 306, Haymarket, NSW 2000, is expensive, many traps are needed and each Australia. trap requires repeated servicing with the chemi­

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 41 examples is given in the introduction pages. A particularly important aim of the book is to assist pupils in learning the stress and rhythm of important structural patterns and contrasts; each song has been written so that the beat of Pacific Reading the music is consistent with the stress in spoken sentences using the same structure and thus the child in singing the song will be practising the correct stress patterns for that Material in this section is contributed by the South particular structure. Pacific Commission Publications Bureau. Please direct any enquiries to Box 306, Haymarket, NSW, 2000. All orders for this publication should be sent direct to the SPC Publications Bureau, Box 306, Haymarket, N.S.W. 2000, Australia.

SPC ENGLISH LANGUAGE NEW SPC HANDBOOK TEACHING PROGRAMME The latest title in the SPC Handbook series— Citrus The song book— Time to Sing—previously referred to Production in the South Pacific—has been finalized for in these notes is now available from the SPC Publications printing by the Publications Bureau and copies should be Bureau. The price (in the SPC area) is SAl.OO per copy, available by the time these notes are in print. The need for plus postage. Especially written for use with young a simple, practical guide to citrus production was recom­ children who are learning the English language in primary mended by participants at the Technical Meeting on or elementary schools, Time to Sing is a teacher’s book Tropical Fruits held in Rarotonga, Cook Islands; this containing 30 songs designed to support and co-ordinate handbook, compiled with the close co-operation of those with the progression of the Tate Oral English syllabus technical experts who attended that meeting, is intended to Books 3 to 6. The songs (words and music) were written fulfil that need. by Barbara Beveridge (formerly with the Fiji Department of Education, School Broadcasts Branch) and the accom­ Illustrated with black and white photographs, the hand­ panying teaching notes were prepared by Norma Mansfield book provides pertinent information on: citrus types; pro­ (former SPC Language Teaching Specialist). duction of young trees; establishment, management and maintenance of a citrus orchard; major pests and their Each of the 30 songs in the book is set out on a double control, harvesting and preparation for market. One page; on the left-hand side is the music, written in both chapter deals with the nutritional aspect of citrus and in­ conventional and sol-fah notation, while on the right-hand cludes a selection of simple recipes. The pomelo, a citrus page are the verses set out in a box, similar to the sample now gaining popularity in some Pacific areas, is also pages reproduced below. In some songs, only the first described in an annex. Although intended mainly for small verses are given in full but the teacher can create addi­ farmers/growers, extension and agricultural officers, this tional verses, if needed, by substituting the words and handbook should also be of assistance to those people phrases printed in italics below the full verses. Accompany­ who may be interested only in planting a few citrus trees ing each song are notes for the teacher on its introduction to provide an additional source of income or just provide and use with suggestions for dramatization through action fruit for the immediate family. and group-to-group singing; additional information detail­ ing the purpose and correct use of the book with specific Inquiries concerning this handbook should be sent to This is the cover of the Time to Sing song hook with sample pages showing how the book is laid out.

A fter OE 2/85

1 can touch the table:

' can f°uch the door;

I M " touch the blackboard: ' can todeh the f,oor

' “ m'' '““Of the yellow sun; The Son is uety high;

' louch 'he yellow moon; 1 can't touch the sky.

>r Scl S •Tf <>r.il nneli>h II, s* i »Sh should he explained 1 sP««ch Training cxerci Remember (hat c »"h the fZc'l'J * hc.n n « In „ verb I, , u ' 14 'trein'd jtv roll'll c TABIp. i S S , tV m "•«> » -ng w„| help ,he fbiMrfn '■Hind I CANT Tin feeatnc for on '« 'he second He .rrwTt," ,'n,, "IS l,?hl- ,' Hhcreav J K'' (here „ a Before 'he floor •n ,he w’"S' ,c" •Afferent ch.ldra "Can you touch the mopV'x”" • v

,heJ: T., r*Wp Mw£h,... ' '0Uch lhcm "hen the childre

Page 42 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 SPC Publications Bureau, Box 306, Haymarket, N.S.W. Inquiries concerning this book should be sent to SPC 2000, Australia. Publications Bureau, Box 306, Haymarket, N.S.W. 2000, Australia. Price within the SPC area is SA3.50 per copy.

* REPRINT-HANDICRAFTS OF THE SOUTH SEAS NEW LANGUAGE TEXTBOOK

Developing Language, by G. A. Pittman; 220 pp.; price $A5.00 plus postage. Published by Sapphire Books, 8 Cherana Place, Kareela, 2232, N.S.W., Aust. George Pittman, the South Pacific Commission’s first Language Teaching Specialist (1964-68), has continued his work in English text book writing with a new book called Developing Language published in Sydney.

ENGLISH AS THE LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION The book is intended to consolidate the students’ know­ ledge of English based on the Tate syllabus and to apply it to English as the language of instruction. While therefore there is an organized structural base, the book contains an organized and massive enlargement of vocabulary, especi­ ally in the areas of science and maths. This is the first book we have seen to attack this problem at its roots with the bond between structure and different levels of vocabu­ lary clearly indicated to the student.

A NEW SYNTHESIS— SENTENCE STRUCTURE AND MEANING AND THINKING But the most novel feature of the text is the attempt to teach the fact that grammar affects meaning (not merely correctness) and then relate this to ways of thought. In one sense the book is a move back to grammar teaching but this is not the old ‘dead’ grammar. Lively situational presentation should make grammar allied to meaning acceptable to the student. Great emphasis is laid on prin­ cipal mental processes reflected in minor structural points; With the co-operation of both Government departments that is, generalization, proportion, possession, and thus the and other organizations concerned with the production book may be seen as, to some extent, a justification of and marketing of handicrafts, the South Pacific Com­ Miss Tate’s insistence on tiny structural words which in mission has just published a revised, expanded edition of this work are now shown to move mountains. Handicrafts of the South Seas. Attractively produced with a four-colour cover and illustrated with some 97 black and EXERCISES white and 11 colour photographs this handbook is a com­ In line with present conditions in many schools exercises prehensive guide to native arts and crafts currently avail­ are provided at different levels of attainment. This feature able from the following countries and territories within the should greatly help busy teachers who can select levels for Commission area: American Samoa, Cook Islands, Fiji, classes, groups or individuals. The book is recommended Gilbert Islands, New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands, for lower Secondary forms and there are few senior forms New Hebrides, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Island, which could not gain markedly from it. The author states Solomon Islands, Tokelau Islands, Tonga, Trust Territory that this type of upgrading of language skills will show of the Pacific Islands, Tuvalu, Wallis and Futuna Islands, beneficial results in all school subjects. Western Samoa. Each country/territory is prefaced with a brief outline of CORRESPONDENCE INVITED its history and development, followed by a detailed description of the main products available. Because of the The South Pacific Bulletin aims to serve the needs and interests of the people of the South Pacific truly individualistic way in which the handicrafts of the region. It would wish to provide a forum for the Pacific are produced, the illustrations in the book are in­ interchange of opinions and ideas. tended primarily to give a general impression of the type of Comment on or criticism of the Bulletin’s con­ weave, decoration, or shape of a woven object or the gen­ tents and letters on topics of general interest to eral impression of certain types of wood carving. A guide the Pacific area are cordially invited. Photographs ‘ to the prices of handicrafts has been included separately are also welcomed, and, where requested, prints from the main text, and it is hoped that this list will be and/or negatives will be returned promptly after updated annually in order to provide purchasers with use. ' accurate buying information. Although intended mainly as Correspondence should be addressed to: The a guide for buyer and importer of handicrafts the general Editor, South Pacific Bulletin, Box 306, Haymarket, reader will also find much of interest in this book. N.S.W. 2000, Australia.

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 43 Theses and Dissertations 1 on the South Pacific 1

Compiled by Dr W. G. Coppell, School of Education, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia.

With this issue we begin what we expect will be a valuable come the title of the work, the university or institution, service to all students and scholars interested in the South the year the degree was conferred, the degree for which Pacific Commission area: a continuing list of theses the thesis was written and the number of pages— roman and dissertations on the Pacific islands and peoples that numerals indicate preliminary pages before the thesis have been submitted to universities throughout the world. proper. Our object is to keep all those studying the Pacific informed The list is being compiled by Dr W. G. Coppell of Mac­ on research that has been undertaken in this field. quarie University, who hopes that any theses not included This new service will benefit established scholars and will be brought to his notice so that scholars may have a academics as well as students who are working towards complete reference not available elsewhere. All corres­ their degrees, particularly in Pacific tertiary institutions. pondence should be directed to him, c/o South Pacific In our listings, the author's surname appears first, in Commission, B.P. D5, Noumea Cedex, New Caledonia. capitals, followed by Christian names or initials. Then The series begins with theses on the Cook Islands.

COOK ISLANDS

AGNEW, Trevor Gordon COLE, Patrick Dale Frederick Joseph Moss and his term of office in the Cook Glasgow, Seddon and the Cook Islands, 1892-1897. Islands. University of Otago, 1965. M.A. xx, 87 pp. University of Otago, 1966. M.A., iv, 64 pp. COOK, John Gould An assessment of the effects of a tourist industry on the economy ALLEN, Bryant James of the Cook Islands. The development of commercial agriculture on Mangaia: social University of Canterbury, 1969. M.A., 217 pp. and economic change in a Polynesian community. Massey University, 1969. M.A. 198 pp. COPPELL, William George Development and education in the Cook Islands: a study of BARRAU, Jacques community and development in an emergent Pacific Islands Les plantes alimentaires de I'Oceanie: origines, distribution et territory. usages. University of Southampton, 1969. Ph.D. xii, 291; 268, xliv pp. Thesis, Faculte des Sciences, Universite d’Aix-Marseille, 1957. 192 pp. Cook Islands pa ssim . COWAN, George T. Urbanisation in Rarotonga, with particular reference to housing BI.YTH, Conrad Alexander settlements. The export industries of the South Pacific Islands groups, with University of Auckland, 1968. Dip. Town Planning, vii, 73 pp. special reference to Fiji, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands and Niue and to some aspects of their trade with New Zealand. CROCO.V1BE, Marjorie Tuainekore Otago University, 1951. M.A. 121 pp. Maretu’s narrative of Cook Islands history. University of Papua New Guinea, 1974. M.A. 275 pp. BRASS, Henry Douglas CROCOMBE, Ronald Gordon History of the Cook Islands and Niue. Land tenure in the Cook Islands. University of New Zealand (Auckland), 1933. M.A. Australian National University, 1962. Ph.D., 366 pp., genea­ logical maps in pocket. BROWN, James Goldie A history of the Cook Islands. CURRIE, Ernest Raymond University of New Zealand (Christchurch), 1936. M.A., 122 (5) W. E. Gudgeon, his contribution to the annexation of the Cook PP- Islands. University of Otago, 1963. M.A., 40 pp. BURGESS, Crawford Jamieson DAVIES, George Neville The impact of western economic life on the Cook Islands. Dental disease among the Polynesians of Pukapuka, or Dangar University of New Zealand (Canterbury), 1950. M.A. 105 pp. Island. University of Otago, 1953. D.D.S., 223 pp. CA1RD, Annabel Jane Lieutenant-Colonel Walter Edward Gudgeon and the Cook DAVIES, Thomas L. Islands, 1898-1901. School achievement of non-Maori Polynesians: a survey of the University of Otago, 1965. M.A. 45 pp. achievement in school subjects of bilingual Samoan, Niuean and

Page 44 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Cook Islands children attending a New Zealand primary school LAY, Tracey Earl and a consideration of some factors which may influence this A study of certain aspects of human ecology in the Polynesian achievement. high islands during the pre-contact period. University of Auckland, 1962. M.A., 133 pp. University of California (Los Angeles), 1959. Ph.D., 229 pp.

DOUGLAS, Edward Macpherson Kohn MCDONALD, Neil Robert A migration study of Cook Islanders. The daily press and the Cook Islands, 1945-63. Victoria University of Wellington, 1966. M.Sc., 221 pp. Victoria University of Wellington, 1966. M.A., 98 pp.

FRY, Edward Irad McINTOSH, Gavin Heath Growth and health in Cook Islands children. The administration of justice in the Cook Islands, 1890-98, with Harvard University, 1958. Ph.D., xiii, 298 pp. special reference to the divided jurisdiction between the native courts and the Western Pacific High Commission. FURNEAUX, Matelita University of Otago, 1967. M.A., vi, 43 pp. Pacific Islands students at Auckland University: an exploratory survey of the problems of learning and adjustment of under­ MacKENZIE, Margaret graduates from Tonga, Cook Islands and Western Samoa. Cultural and social aspects of pre-schoolchildren’s health on University of Auckland, 1973. M.A., ix, 84 pp. Rarotonga, Cook Islands. University of Chicago, 1973. Ph.D. GEORGES, Zigrid L. Polynesian social structure: a re-examination. MacLEAN, B. H. University of Sydney, 1966. B.A. Hons., 159 pp. New Zealand’s administration of the Cook Islands. A u ckla n d U niversity C ollege, 1951. M.A., 149, 6, 10, 4 pp. GILSON, Richard Philip Administration of the Cook Islands (Rarotonga). University of London, 1952. M.Sc., vi, 539 pp., maps, tables. McMILLAN, Hector Thomas The administration of the Cook Islands Protectorate, 1888-1900. Auckland University College, 1949. M.A., 197 pp. GUNSON, Walter Neil The missionary vocation as conceived by the early missionaries of the London Missionary Society in the South Seas, and the MAITA’I, Fana'afi extent to which this conception was modified by their experi­ A study of the developing pattern of education and the factors ences in Polynesia, 1797-1839. influencing that development in New Zealand's Pacific depend­ University ot Melbourne, 1955. M.A., vi, 168 (14) pp. encies. Victoria University of Wellington, 1957. M.A., iv, 395 pp. GUNSON, Walter Neil Evangelical missionaries in the South Seas, 1797-1860. MARTIN, Robert John Australian National University, 1959. Ph.D., 565 pp. New Zealand, Great Britain and the Cook Islands Protectorate, 1888-1892: a survey of select opinion and a discussion of the various factors involved. HOOPER, Anthony Bramston University of Otago, 1962. M.A., 36 pp. Social relations among Cook Islanders in New Zealand. University of New Zealand (Auckland), 1958. M.A., vii, 201 pp. MENZIES, Brian John A study of a development scheme in a Polynesian community: HUNTER, John Desmond the citrus replanting scheme. Diet, body build, blood pressure, serum cholesterol levels and Massey University, 1970. M.A., iv, (ii), 226 pp. cardiovascular disease in Cook Islands Polynesians: a compara­ tive study of two Polynesian groups on different diets. University of Otago, 1962. M.D., 81 pp. NIEDERHOLZER, Robert Carl Youth education in the Cook Islands. JOHNSTON, Kenneth M. University of California (Berkeley), 1962. Ph.D., 315 pp. Village agriculture in Aitutaki: a study in commercialization. Victoria University of Wellington, 1964. M.A., 234 pp. NIELSON, Donald Lesley Long-range VHF propagation across the geomagnetic equator. Stanford University, 1969. Ph.D., ix, 149 pp., 1 p. Observations KAY, F. James made in the Cook Islands. A twentieth century Polynesian migration: an inquiry concerned with reasons for the migration of Cook, Niue and Samoan islanders to New Zealand and their adaptation to a European PHILLIPS, James F. social system with a consideration of some comparative data. A demographic profile of the Cook Islands. University of Canterbury, 1950. M.A., v, 144 pp. University of Hawaii, 1972. M.Sc., xxv, 409 pp.

KESBY, J D. PREN DERG AST, Patricia Ann British missionaries in the South Pacific, 1842-1900, their evalua­ A history of the London Missionary Society in British New tions and policies with regard to the indigenous peoples. Guinea, 1871-1901. Oxford University, 1963. B.Litt., 229 pp., map. University of Hawaii, 1968. Ph.D., 508 pp. (Pp. 178-212, Cook Islands teachers in Papua.) KITTO, Graeme Trevor Non-Maori Polynesians in three New Zealand communities; a RADCLIFFE, Helen geographic study of some aspects of migration and settlement. The recall of Moss from the Cook Islands. University of Auckland, 1969. M.A., xix, 142, 111 pp. University of Otago, 1962. M.A., 34 pp.

KOLFF, John RALSTON, Caroline The national income of the Cook Islands, 1963-64. Pacific beach communities in the nineteenth century. Victoria University of Wellington, 1965. M.A., 309 pp. Australian National University, 1970. Ph.D., 363 pp.

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Page 46 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 ROSS, Angus STONE, David J. New Zealand aspirations in the Pacific in the nineteenth century. Self-rule in the Cook Islands: self-government and politics in a Cambridge University, 1949. Ph.D., (5), xiii, 500 pp., maps. new micro state. Australian National University, 1971. Ph.D., 511 pp. SADARAKA, Sadaraka Metuakore £ A study of the factors affecting the development of commercial STONE, N. Joan agriculture in the Cook Islands. Transition to dependence: the Cook Islands and New Zealand Victoria University of Wellington, 1961. M.A., 283 pp. colonialism to 1915, with reference to Government-Maori relations in New Zealand. t SATTERTHWAITE, Lenore Antoinette Australian National University, 1974. M.A., xv, 237 (18) pp. New Zealand, Samoa and the Cooks. A lis o n University of Otago, 1961. M.A., 34 pp. ST. GEORGE, Margaret Elam Pacific infants' performance scale: some preliminary and com­ SHF.PPARI), Carroll A. parative New Zealand studies. The Cook Islands through European eyes, 1820-1850: an assess­ University of Waikato, 1972. B.Phil., 87 pp. ment of the evidence. Oxford University, 1971. B.Litt., xiii, 104, (5) pp. SULZBERGER, Diane The attitude of Sir Apirana Ngata towards the Cook Islands and SPINLEY, Betty M. Samoans. A study of two cultural groups by the Rorschach technique. University of Auckland, 1972. M.A., i, 29 pp. Essay presented for the Jacob Joseph Scholarship, Victoria University College, 1949, 57 pp. WARD, Jack H. Mutual intelligibility between certain Polynesian speech commu­ SPARKS, Robert William nities. Polynesian tattooing: the techniques, iconography, patronage, University of Hawaii, 1962. M.A., iv, 561 pp. Includes Rarotonga. profession and aesthetics. University of Hawaii, 1968. M.A., vi, 137 pp. Pp. 47-50: Aitutaki, WHITE, Pauline Joy Atiu, Mangaia, Rarotonga. John Balance and the Pacific Islands. University of Otago, 1964. M.A., 26 pp. STONE, David J. Political resurgence in the Cook Islands: the path to self­ YASUDA, Ayako government, 1944-1965. The structure of the Penrhyn phrase. University of Auckland, 1967. M.A., xii, 610 pp. University of Hawaii, 1968. M.A., iv, 168 pp. □

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SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER, 1976 Page 47 TUVALU RECENT STAMP ISSUES The new Pacific nation of Tuvalu has issued a set of attractive multicoloured stamps featur­ ing the country’s new coinage. The special issue was released on 21 April in the following values: 5c — Octopus 10c — Red Eyed Crab 15c —Flying Fish 35c — Green Turtle The design on each stamp is similar in subject to the coin it features; for instance, the 5c stamp has an octopus and a representation of the 50c coin, also featuring an octopus. G. Drummond was the designer and Walsall Lithographic Co. Ltd. the printers. The stamps are 1.25 x 1.29 mm in size with CA water­ marked paper.

PITCAIRN ISLANDS Pitcairn Islands commemorated the 200th anniversary of American independence with a set of four stamps. Two designs are of local Pitcairn interest and two relate historically to the United States. The series was designed by English artist Jennifer Toombs and printed in multi-colour lithography by John Waddington Ltd. The stamps are 30 per sheet on block CA watermarked paper. Issue date at Pitcairns was approximately 4 July, but this depended on the arrival of ship­ ping. Designs are as follows: 5c — Fletcher Christian 10c — HMS Bounty 30c — George Washington 50c — Mayflower

WESTERN SAMOA On 27 April, Western Samoa released a set of four stamps depicting types of fishing used in the island group. Artists from the Victor Whiteley Studios designed the stamps, which were printed in England by Harrisons and Sons Ltd. Lithography was used and there are 25 stamps to the sheet on Kava Bowl watermarked paper. The designs are: 10 sene — Mullet Fishing 12 sene — Fish Traps 22 sene — Samoan Fishermen 50 sene — Net Fishing □

Page 48 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, THIRD QUARTER 19 7 6 sKtEER.KUBE!

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