Towards a Typology of Climate Service Usability Gaps
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sustainability Article Mind the Gap: Towards a Typology of Climate Service Usability Gaps Kevin Raaphorst 1,* , Gerben Koers 2, Gerald Jan Ellen 2, Amy Oen 3, Bjørn Kalsnes 3, Lisa van Well 4, Jana Koerth 5 and Rutger van der Brugge 2 1 Department of Geography, Planning and Environment, Radboud University, 6525XZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands 2 Department of Urban Water and Subsurface, Deltares, 3584BK Utrecht, The Netherlands; [email protected] (G.K.); [email protected] (G.J.E.); [email protected] (R.v.d.B.) 3 Department of Risk, Slope stability and Climate adaptation, NGI, N-0855 Oslo, Norway; [email protected] (A.O.); [email protected] (B.K.) 4 Department of Geotechnical risk and climate adaptation, SGI, SE-581 93 Linköping, Sweden; [email protected] 5 Coastal Risks and Sea-Level Rise Research Group, University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 19 December 2019; Accepted: 15 February 2020; Published: 18 February 2020 Abstract: Literature on climate services presents a large diversity of different services and uses. Many climate services have ‘usability gaps’: the information provided, or the way it is visualized, may be unsuitable for end users to inform decision-making processes in relation to adaptation against climate change impacts or for the development of policies to this end. The aim of this article is to contribute to more informed and efficient decision-making processes in climate adaptation by developing a typology of usability gaps for climate services. To do so, we first present and demonstrate a so-called ‘climate information design’ (CID) template with which to study and potentially improve the visual communicative qualities of climate services. Then, two climates services are selected for a further, qualitative explorative case study of two cases in the north and south of the Netherlands. A combination of focus group sessions and semi-structured interviews are used to collect data from Dutch governmental stakeholders as well as private stakeholders and NGOs. This data is then coded to discover what usability gaps are present. We then present twelve different types of usability gaps that were encountered as a typology. This typology could be used to improve and redesign climate services. Keywords: climate services; spatial planning; climate adaptation; visual communication; information design; stakeholder involvement 1. Introduction Europe is increasingly confronted with the effects of climate change. In some regions climate change can lead to drought, while in other areas heat stress or increasing precipitation can become a major problem [1,2]. In addition to climate change mitigation, there is a need for climate adaptation to guarantee that contemporary and future societies can endure these challenges. This means that decision-makers and other stakeholders need to understand their responsibilities and obligations concerning climate change impacts and adaptation [3]. In adaptation processes, so-called climate services are used to communicate climate data to adaptation professionals and other stakeholders to facilitate well-informed climate adaptive decision-making. Sustainability 2020, 12, 1512; doi:10.3390/su12041512 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 20202020, 1122, x 1512 FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 22 21 Climate services (CS) offer information about climate change, its potential impacts, and possible adaptationClimate measures services [3 (CS)–6]. oTheffer exact information definition about of CS climate is still change, subject to its debate. potential As impacts, a point of and departure, possible weadaptation look to measuresthe European [3–6]. Commission's The exact definition CS initiative of CS is, where still subject it is recogniz to debate.ed As that a pointthe term of departure, 'climate services'we look tohas the a broad European meaning Commission’s [7]. Based CS oninitiative, several definitions where it isin recognized a variety of that literature the term [3– ‘climate11] we positservices’ that hasCS:a (1) broad provide meaning useful [7 ].information Based on severaland knowledge definitions related in a variety to climate of literature change or [3 –climate11] we changeposit that impacts; CS: (1) (2) provide are used useful for (climate) information informed and knowledge decision-making related by to decision climate-makers, change orincluding climate nonchange-governmental/pr impacts; (2) areivate used individuals for (climate) and informed organizations decision-making; (3) act as guidance by decision-makers, and counselling including in their use;non-governmental (4) entail the transformation/private individuals of climate and organizations;data into customized (3) act asproducts guidance (5) andencompass counselling a variety in their of differentuse; (4) entail tools, the such transformation as maps, projections, of climate scenarios, data into and customized assessments; products (6) support (5) encompass climate a change variety adaptation,of different tools,mitigation such, asand maps, disaster projections, risk management; scenarios, and (7) assessments;are produced (6) as support a result climate of a specific change demandadaptation, (user mitigation,-driven) and[3,12] disaster. The goal risk management;of CS is to support (7) are produced decision- asmaking a result and of a can specific be directed demand towards(user-driven) various [3,12 end]. The users: goal politicians, of CS is to supportmanagers, decision-making private enterprises, and can inhabitants be directed, etc. towards As such, various CS alsoend users:play a politicians,role in education managers, and private awareness enterprises,-raising inhabitants,[13]. In short, etc. we As define such, CS alsoas information play a role servicesin education that andprovide awareness-raising information about [13]. Inclimate short, change, we define climate CS as impacts, information climate services adaptation that provide, and mitigationinformation measures about climate for decision change,-makers climate impacts,and other climate stakeholders adaptation, to create and mitigation understanding, measures raise for awareness,decision-makers and make and other decisions. stakeholders to create understanding, raise awareness, and make decisions. Hamaker et al. distinguish distinguish between between ‘climate ‘climate data data services’, ‘adaptation services’, ‘mitigation services’services’,, and and ‘disa ‘disasterster risk risk management’ (Figure (Figure 11).). According to HamakerHamaker et al.,al., CSCS areare basedbased onon observational data (satellite data, measurements). This This data data is is used used as as input input for for climate climate data data services services (climate models, forecasting, forecasting, maps) maps) to to assess assess useful useful information, information, often often r relatedelated to climate change impactsimpacts [14] [14].. Plans Plans for for adaptation, adaptation, mitigation, mitigation, and and disaster disaster risk risk reduction reduction are are developed developed based based on on thesethese insights. insights. These These plans plans can can then then lead lead to to the the actual actual action: the the implementation implementation of of the the measures. measures. Figure 1. Categorization of climate services [14] [14] (p. 17) 17).. According to to this conceptual model model (Figure (Figure 11),), aa CSCS cancan bebe interpretedinterpreted asas thethe sumsum ofof climateclimate informationinformation (often(often modeling modeling output), output), the the actual actual service, service, and theand response the response (a plan (a and plan climate and adaptiveclimate adaptiveaction). Currently, action). Currently, we observe we thatobserve there that is not there a wide is not variety a wide of variety CS available of CS available that take that into take account into accountthis conception this conception as a whole. as a A whole. review A of review the CS of that the is CS available that is via available the European via the climateEuropean adaptation climate adaptationplatform indicates platform that indicates the majority that the ofmajority CS provide of CS informationprovide information with regard with toregard the planning to the planning phase, phasewhile, onlywhile a marginalonly a marginal number number of tools of focus tools on focus the actingon the phaseacting [ 15phase]. The [15] current. The current use of climateuse of climatedata and data scientific and knowledgescientific knowledge within CS is within focused CS on providingis focused access on provid to climateing information,access to climate rather information,than communicating rather than knowledge communicating with aparticular knowledge goal with and a audienceparticular in goal mind. and The audience problem in facingmind. Theend-users problem of CSfacing seems end‐users not a lack of CS of seems knowledge not a perlack se,of knowledge but rather knowing per se, but which rather knowledge knowing which to use knowledgeand when, asto welluse and as knowing when, as how well toas deal know withing riskshow to and deal uncertainties with risks and related uncertainties to different related kinds to of differentclimate knowledge. kinds of climate knowledge. These observations imply imply the the existence of of ‘usability ‘usability-gaps’-gaps’ [16] [16] at various levels ( (e.g.,e.g., strategic and operational) and in different different phases of adaptation processes.processes.