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NATURAL RESOURCE ASSESSMENT ETHODOLOGIES FOR THE PROPOSED HIGH-LEVEL WASTE REPOSITORY AT YUCCA OUNTAIN, YE COUNTY, NEVADA

by

Russell G. Raney

Economic Models and Cost Analyses

by

Nicholas Wetzel

U. S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of ines

Western Field Operations Center

Spokane, WA

Prepared for the U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Under Interagency Agreement NRC-02-84-004

NRC FIN D1018

WrnF8E *08o- r1-C,,'v'ESELISDQ11, 1 MLOO03 51NO-b

- ABSTRACT

Resource assessment of proposed high-level waste (LW) repository sites and adjacent areas is mandated by Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations (10 CFIR) art 60. The intent of this document is threefold. First, it provides information to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) on accepted methods of resource assessment applicable to the proposed Yucca Mountain, Nevada HLW repository site, so DOE can demonstrate, to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), compliance with regulations governing resource identification and evaluation. Secondly, it provides information that NRC can use in making a finding of DOE's compliance with the -requirements of 10 CFR Part 60. And lastly, it will provide input to the NRC's technical position and review guide. lethods of resource assessment, including but not limited to, geologic mapping and sampling, geochemical surveys, geophysical surveys, deposit modeling, and geomathematical studies, along with the advantages, disadvantages, and uncertainties associated with the use of the various methods, are discussed. Resource quantification, qualification, and evaluation methods and techniques are presented, as well as data sources for estimating capital and operating costs on the development and ey' ction of potential resources. Extraction/economic models for 5 s~ ,ted deposit types are also presented. CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ......

INTRODUCTION ......

1. REGULATORY BASIS FOR ASSESSMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES......

1.1 Definitions ......

1.2 Regulations Mandating Resource Assessment......

1.3 Regulatory Compliance......

1.4 Methods of Resource Assessment Available for Use as Part of Site Characterization ......

1.5 References ......

2. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT METHODS ......

2.1 Resource Identification......

2.1.1 Background Data Collection ......

2.1.1.1 Literature and Database Research ......

2.1.1.2 Personal Contacts ......

2.1.2 Identification of Natural Resources of the Geologic Setting ......

2.1.2.1 Application of Background Data ......

2.1.2.2 Identification of Potential Resources within the Controlled Area

2.1.3 Field Data Collection, Compilation, and Interpretation ......

2.1.4 Deposit Modeling and Deposit Models. . .

2.1.4.1 Model Selection Rationale ......

2.1.4.2 Descriptive Models

2.1.5 Exploration Methods 2. 1.5. 1 Geological Mapping

2.1.5.2 Sampling Methods

2.1.5.3 Geochemical Exploration Methods

2.1.5.4 Geophysical Exploration Methods......

2.1.5.5 Exploration Drilling Methods ......

2.1.5.6 Borehole Geophysical Methods

2.1.5.7 Geomathematical Methods

2.1.5.8 Map Data Compilation and Correlation of Sample Data ......

2.1.5.9 Data Analysis and Model Refinement . . . . .

2.2 Resource Estimation ......

2.2.1 Discovered Resources......

2.2.1.1. Mineral Resources ......

2.2.2 Undiscovered Resources ......

2.3 Resource Evaluation ......

2.3.1 Capital and Operating Costs ......

2.3.2 Cost Components ......

2.3.3 Systems for Cost Estimating and Cost Data Sources

2.3.4 Economic Analysis ......

2.4 Economic Models ......

2.5 References

SUMMARY ......

.'-CRONYMS and INITIALISMS ......

GLOSSARY ......

I-I 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ......

6. 1 Information Sources ......

6.2 Deposit Modeling and Deposit Models ......

6.3 Mapping, Sampling, Surveying, and Drilling .. .

6. 4 Geochemistry and Geophysics ......

6.5 Exploration and Economic Geology . . . . .

6.6 Sample Analysis ......

6. 7 Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing . . . .

6.8 Geomathematics ......

6.9 Extraction, Processing, and Economics . .

6.10 Geotechnics ......

6.11 General......

Appendix A. Annotated Bibliography--Case Histories and Papers Pertaining to Resource Discoveries in which Geochemical and/or Geophysical Exploration Methods Played a Major Role ......

Appendix B. Location abbreviations of deposits referenced in Section 2.1.4.2 ......

Appendix C. Costing backup data -_tt/ /vAfnN/ ^lc- as , Ad £4R deve/7me.4

-~~~~~~~~~~ ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE 1. Resource Assessment Procedures

2. Generalized Stratigraphic Column, Yucca Mountain Area

3. Location of Yucca Mountain in Relation to Calderas and Caldera Complexes in the Southwestern Nevada Volcanic Field

4. Schematic Cross-Section of Yucca Mountain, Crater Flat, and Bare Mountain Shoving Known and Postulated Subterranean Features

5. Schematic Cross-Section of Hot-Spring Au-Ag Deposit

6. Schematic Cross-Section of Typical Creede-Type Epithermal Vein Deposit

7. Generalized Map, Metal and Mineral Zoning in Polymetallic Replacement Deposits in the Main Tintic District, Utah

8. Schematic Cross-Section of Cu Skarn Deposit

9. Major Elements of Mineral-Resource Classification Excluding Reserve Base and Inferred Reserve Base

10. Reserve Base and Inferred Reserve Base Classification Categories

11. ROCKVAL Approach to Mineral Resource Assessment TABLES

TABLE 1. Sampling Methods

2. Comparison of Commonly-Used Analytical Methods

3. Changes in Plants due to Increased Concentrations of Some Trace Elements

4. Vapor Indicators of Mineralized Zones

5. Mean Values for Some Important Elements in Major Igneous and Sedimentary Rock Types

6. Summary of the Dispersion of Various Elements in the Secondary Environment and Applications in Geochemical Exploration

7. Commonly-Used Pathfinder Elements

8. Comparison of Major Geochemical Exploration Methods

9. Geochemical Exploration Methods Applied to Selected Deposit Models

10. Comparison of Major Geophysical Exploration Methods

J11. Geophysical Exploration Methods Applied to Selected Deposit Models

12. Exploration Drilling Methods and Normal Characteristics

13. General Applications, Advantages, and Disadvantages of Standard Mineral Resource Estimation Methods

14. ROCKVAL - Geologic Parameter Definitions

It Mld- /o6/dtW/fe 65 / /5 re tf FIGURE 1. - Resource assessment process INTRO DUCTION

1. REGULATORY BASIS FOR ASSESSMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

1.1 Def initions

For purposes of clarity and brevity, it is necessary to define several frequently used terms. The following definitions are, for the most part, taken from NRC and Bureau of Mines (BOM) references

"Resources" as used here is a collective term for all metallic and nonmetallic minerals and ores; fuels, including peat, lignite, and coal; or "dry heat." Ground or surface water in the usual sense (i.e., potable, agricultural, or industrial water at ambient temperature at relatively shallow depths), hydrocarbons (oil, gas, tar sands, asphalt, etc.), and geothermal occurrences are addressed in a separate report by the Center for Nuclear Waste Regulatory nalyses (CNWRA). However, ground water in the form of mineral brines (other than sodium chloride brines), or even waters of relatively low salinity, a-re included as resources if at depths generally below those at which potable ground water is extracted, and if ti are potentially valuable for their dissolved mineral content (1) 1/. TV erm "natural resources" is used in the context of 10 CFR Part 60 (2) an is synonymous with "resources."

"Resource exploration or exploitation activities" as used here eans o . . any action, such as borehole drilling or sinking of shafts, in the search for mineral commodities (." The term "mineral commodities" is synonymous with "resources".

The term "deposit" is used in reference to the physical occurrence of a resource.

"Site characterization" as defined by 10 CFR Section 60.2 (2) is "The program of exploration and research, both in the laboratory and in the field, undertaken to establish the geologic conditions and the ranges of those parameters of a particular site relevant to the procedures in 1 CFR Part 6. Site characterization includes borings, surface excavations, excavation of exploratory shafts, limited lateral excavations and borings, and in situ testing at depth needed to determine the suitability of the site for a geologic repository, but does not include preliminary borings and geophysical testing needed to decide whether site characterization should be undertaken"

Resource assessment is not a primary goal of site characterization, and any geological, geochemical, geophysical, or engineering data acquired for Dt purposes, when applied to -resource assessment, may be incomplete or rc in ignificant uncertainty. This notwithstanding, integration of such a n the resource assessment progran may prove to be of value in ass(ssi n the site's resource potential and, of greater importance, the potential for post-closure human interference

1/ NuNmbers in parentheses refer to items in the list of references following each section. 6 1.2 EffLulations Maniating Resource Assessment

DOE is required by 10 CFR Part 60, Subpart (2), to apply to NRC for a license to receive and possess source, special nuclear, and byproduct material at a geologic repository operations area (GROA). License applications shall consist of general information and a Safety Analysis Report that includes provisions set forth in 10 C Section 60.21(c) (1-15) (2).

Resource assessment requirements as specified in 10 CFR Section 60.21(c)(13), (2) state that the Safety Analysis Report shall include:

An identification and evaluation of the natural resources of the geological setting, including estimates as to undiscovered deposits, the exploitation of which could affect the ability of the geologic repository to isolate nuclear wastes. Undiscovered deposits of resources characteristic of the area shall be estimated by reasonable inference based on geological and geophysical evidence. This evaluation of resources, including undiscovered deposits, shall be conducted for the site and for areas of similar size that are representative of and are within the geologic setting. For natural resources with current markets the resources shall be assessed, with estimates provided of both gross and net value. The estimate of net 11 value shall take into account current development, extraction and marketing costs. For natural resources without current markets, but which would be marketable given credible projected changes in economic or technological factors, the resources shall be described by physical factors such as tonnage or other aount, grade, and quality.

DOE is further required by 10 CFR Part 60, Subpart E (2) to identify existing or potential resources, within the controlled area, whose exploration for or exploitation of may constitute an adverse condition relating to the repository's ability to isolate radionuclides from the accessible environment. These potentially adverse conditions are specified in 10 CFR Section 60.122(c)(17-19) (2):

(17) "The presence of naturally occurring materials, whether identified o undiscovered, within the site, in such form that: (i) Economic extraction is currently feasible or potentially feasible during the foreseeable future; or (ii) Such materials have greater gross value or net value than the average for other areas of similar size that are representative of and located within the geologic setting."

(18) Evidence of subsurface mining for resources within the site."

(19) "Evidence of rilling for ay purpose within the site."

I 1.3 ReQulatory Compliance

The intent of this document is to: (1) provide information to DOE on accepted ethods of resource assessment to demonstrate to NRC compliance with regulations governing resource identification and evaluation as part of site characterization at Yucca Mountain, (2) provide information that may be used by NRC in making a finding of DOE's compliance with the requirements of 10 CFR Part 60, and (3) provide input to the NRC resource assessment technical position and review guide.

1.4 Methods of Resource Assessment Available for Use as Part of Site Characterization

Geological, geochemical, geophysical, and engineering data acquired for other purposes as part of site characterization, supplemented by information from activities conducted specifically for resource assessment, may form the basis for new mineral deposit models or may be employed to augment existing models, the use of which may indicate undiscovered resources within the geologic setting. In addition to resource exploration methods, this document outlines mineral deposit models in current use that are available for a resource assessment program or that may be of value to otV ^' activities within the overall site characterization program.

1.'- References

1. Harbaugh, J. W. Resource Exploration. Techniques for Determining Probabilities of Events and Processes Affecting the Performance of Geologic Repositories, R. L. Hunter and C. J. ann, eds., Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, 1984, NUREG/CR-3964, pp. 2-1 - 2--37.

2. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. 1 CFR Section 60.21(c)(1-15), 10 CFR Section 60.122(c)(17-20). 2. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT METHODS

Resource assessment within or near the Yucca Mountain site is mandated by Federal regulations to minimize the riskt that explaration-exploitation activities in the past, present, or future do not adversely affect the site's ability to isolate radionuclides from the accessible environment. The objective of Section 2 is to outline those methods and deposit models commonly employed in performing resource assessments, and to present methods, techniques, and models for the economic evaluation of resources.

For purposes of clarity, Section 2 presents the resource assessment process in a linear fashion with resource identification, followed by resource quantification and qualification, and finally followed by resource evaluation. It must be understood, however, that information developed in later stages of an assessment program may require modification, refinement, or abandonment of exploration methods or deposit models used, or conclusions reached, in earlier stages.

Conceptually, the resource assessment process is a three-step linear progression in which: (1) an area's resources are identified; (2) estimates are made of resource quantity and quality; and (3) studies are conducted to de'-rmine gross and net value of the resource. In practice, however, it is bl, described as an iterative and intricate process; inherent within the prowess is an infinite number of certainty levels (0-100 percent certainty range) that depend on the type and abundance of available data. For example, information developed during the course of quantification and qualification may indicate the presence of additional resource commodities not recognized in the resource identification step. Figure 1 is a simplistic diagram of the rather complex resource assessment process.

The three-step resource assessment approach is employed by the EBO1 in its mission to provide input for consideration in policies that affect national minerals issues (such as supply/demand analysis, wilderness area withdrawals, etc.) and by the private sector for purposes of eventual resource extraction. The basic difference between EOM and private sector assessments lies in the amount of resource (time, effort, funding, etc.) committed to the assessment. Typically, industry assessments involve greater expenditures of funds and manpower and carefully weigh the risks of committing large sums c:f money against the potential rewards.

Resource identification includes, but is not limited to, a host of activities and studies sUCh as backg-round literature research, deposit Modeling, field ativities, data analysis and evaluation, and geomathematical studies; methods for conducting these studies are presented in Section 2.1. Methods for de-riving resource quantity and quality a-re discuised in Section 2.2; methods employed fr estiniatin gross and net resource value as required by 10 CFR Pa-rt GO (1) are outlined in Section 2. Economic models are discussed in Section 2.4

/ Figure Resource assessment process Exploration drilling, trenching, and other piercement methods are normally employed to identify and evaluate resources. Data acquired using these techniques (in conjunction with other methods and techniques) are used to define deposit limits, determine resource quantity and quality, lithology, mineralogy, structure, and geometry, and to develop new or refine existing deposit models. However, in resource assessment of the Yucca Mountain site, the use of piercement methods is somewhat limited due to the necessity of maintaining repository integrity 10 CFR Section 60.15(d)(1-4)] (1). Accurate delineation of an ore body, for example, may require many boreholes on close centers in direct conflict with provisions of 10 CFR Section 60.15(d)(1-4). The use of test adits, raises, winzes, or deep surface pits are similarly restricted. Because of these regulatory restrictions, a significant level of uncertainty regarding the existence, extent, quantity, and quality of resources within and in proximity to Yucca Mountain is unavoidable. In view of this, non-piercement exploration and evaluation methods such as geological mapping, surface sampling, geochemical and geophysical surveys, and geomathematical techniques must be relied upon to provide much of the data necessary for resource assessment.

Resource assessment methodologies, techniques, and deposit models presented here are not all-inclusive; only the most important or widely used (with ar cations to Yucca ountain) are discussed. However, the fact that a p cCLlar mineral commodity, methodology, deposit model, or technique is neY 6er included nor discussed in detail does not preclude its use. Infrequently-used or esoteric techniques Ee.g., vapor sampling using sulfide-sniffing dogs (2, p. 30)) or those that require extensive multidisciplinary knowledge (biogeochemical prospecting, geozoological prospecting, etc.) may certainly be employed if necessary or desirable.

Geologic conditions on and/or near the proposed LW site will ultimately dictate the exploration methods employed. For example, some electrical and electromagnetic geophysical methods are decreasingly effective with increasing depth and may be of little or no practical use in assessing the mineral potential of Paleozoic and older units underlying the site; seismic reflection methods employed in past studies in the vicinity of the site have reportedly produced less than satisfactory results; the lack of standing bodies of water and perennial streams limits hydrogeochemical surveys to ground water; sparse vegetation and small faunal populations similarly limit geobotanical, biogeochemical, and geozoological surveys. And, as stated above, regulations restrict the placement of exploratory boreholes.

Detailed information on resource assessment methodologies, deposit models, and techniques is presented in references included in t-ie References and Bibliography sections of this report. 2. 1 Resource Identi ication

2.1.1 Background Data Collection

The body of geologic literature available to the researcher is enormous and and ranges widely in quality. Older studies and references may or may not be valid in light of more recent investigations. Therefore, care must be exercised to ensure data incorporated in the resource assessment progra is of the highest quality and is as current as possible.

2.1.1.1 Literature and Database Research

Resource identification begins with comprehensive research of the literature and computerized databases maintained by a host of entities including Federal, State, and local governmental agencies, the private sector, and academic institutions. The object of the research is to amass regional and site-specific data to: (1) identify those areas that have been the object of resource exploration and/or exploitation; (2) develop preliminary deposit models; (3) define areas for geological, geochemical, and geophysical examination; (4) define areas for preliminary borehole drilling; and (5) provide data for geomathematical studies and comparisons. Ti' -e applications are discussed in Section 2.1.2.1.

S " ces of information include, but are not limited to, the following:

Federal Government

BOM--Results of BOM research, investigations, and studies are routinely issued as Reports of Investigations (RI), Information Circulars (IC), Bulletins, mineral commodity reports, Mineral Land Assessment (MLA) reports, Mineral Yearbooks, and other publications. The Bureau maintains extensive mineral property files that may include War Minerals Reports, Defense Minerals Exploration Administration (DMEA) reports, borehole and sample data, and other valuable information. Additionally, the BOM's computerized Minerals Industry Location System (MILS) (the nonconfidential segment of the Minerals Availability System EMAS)) contains location and identification information on over 180,006 mines, prospects, geothermal wells, and mineral locations in the United States, including Alaska and Hawaii (3)..

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)--The USGS collects, compiles, and publishes a great volume of geotechnical information in its ulletins, Circulars, Professional Papers, Water Supply Papers, topographic, geologic, and hydrographic maps, Memoirs, Mineral Resources Data System (formerly Computerized Resource Information an - CRIB) database (4), reports, fi.' , open-file reports, and miscellaneous publications. Additionally, p 1nal journals, notes, unpublished reports, and othcer data sources may '-.ai lab] e at local USGS offices.

Dther Federal sources of info-rmation include reports, files, notes, mierioirs, and databases maintained by the Bureau of and Management (BLM) which maintains cUrrent ineral-interest and claim recordation files; Office of Surface Mininq (M); M1ine Safety and Health nldministration ia -

(MSH) ; National rchivevs (NA); Library of Congress (C), U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service (USFS); U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC); U.S. Department of Defense (DOD); DOE; U.S Department of Labor (DOL); and the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS).

State and Local. Governments

State information sources include State geological and/or mining bureaus or agencies (e.g. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Oregon's Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, etc.); historical societies; office of mine inspectors; department of minerals or mineral resources; agencies with permitting or licensing responsibilities; State highway departments and/or commissions; utility commissions (gas, power, water, etc.); and libraries.

Local government sources include clerk and/or recorder records; city and county tax assessor's records; highway and road departments; public utilities; libraries; and agencies with permitting and/or licensing responsibilities.

Private Sector

Bk ess and nonprofit organization sources of information include mining als or exploration companies; historical societies and museums; industry and/or trade associations; consultants; and commercial data bases.

Educational Institutions

Sources of information ay include, but are not limited to, college and university departments of geology, mining, geophysics, geochemistry, hydrology, history, economics, social science, and their associated libraries. University Microfilms International, 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106, maintains a clearing house for doctoral dissertations that are available for a fee as Xerox copies or on microfiche. The Geological Society of America (GSA) periodically publishes bibliographies of theses and dissertations.

Other Sources of Information

Other sources of information, including bibliographies, indices, abstracts, translations of foreign research papers, directories, periodicals, i.nformation retrieval systems, and literature on geology and associated disciplines are presented in Section .1.

2. 1. 1.2 Personal Contacts

Vh ble information is often gained through personal contacts with . e deab).e! i.nd i.vi.du als . In fornati.on *such as unpublished and general].y anavailable eologic, mineralogical, and engineering data, personal reports, notes, memoirs, or files is often obtained by direct contact with LAuthors, editors, compilers, and others associated with works identified over the couree of 1literature/data base research. Other sources of information imay include interviews with industry representatives J.S 'geologists, engineers, cartographers, drillers, miners, etc.); local residents (ranchers, loggers, prospectors); members of geological, Mineralogical, speleological, or historical societies or associations; 'tate or local labor nions; professional associations (Geological Society )f America, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum ngineers, Northwest Mining Association, etc.); college and university Professors; and former Federal, State, and local government employees.

.l.2 Identification of Natural Resources of the Geologic Setting

!.1.2.l Application of Background Data

Background data are compiled and analyzed to determine a number of factors go be incorporated into an assessment program. These include, but are not Limited to:

L. What, if any, documented resource exploration or exploitation has ensued on or near the site;

lentification of specific sites for geological, geophysical, and 3e emical surveys;

3. What possible resources could be reasonably inferred to exist on site 3r in analog areas;

S. What deposit model or models may (or may nor) apply to the site and iciiiity;

5. Identification of preliminary drilling targets;

E. What boreholes are open for well logging.

?.l.3 Field Data Collection, Compilation, and Interpretation

Information nd analyses developed during literature searches are ubsequently supplemented and refined based on data collected through letailed geological mapping, surface and subsurface sampling, geochemical xnd geophysical surveys, borehole drilling, and other field investigations. rhe results of the field examinations may indicate the need for further ;ite-specific studies to delineate any discovered resources, to provide lata for additional deposit modeling or geomathematical analyses, or for ;onnage-gracle estimations.

-h ailability and application of methods used i field data collection kn'-<#eir subsequent compilation, and interpretation are presented in the .ol:Lowinq Sections.

. 1.4 Deposit Modeling and Deposit ode).s 16 This section examines resources and associated resource deposit models that could reasonably be expected to exist at and in the vicinity of Yucca loun-- tain and the rationale for selecting a particular deposit model for inclusion here. Geological, eochemical, geophysical, and other exploration methods applicable to the particular resource are discussed in Section . 1.5

As site characterization proceeds and new data are acquired, it may become necessary to consider deposit models not included here or require modifications or hybridization of a particular model or odels. Further, such newly-acquired data may not support continued consideration of one or mo-re of the odels. While briefly mentioned in the following discussions, geothermal, hydrocarbon (other than coal, lignite, etc.), potable water, and brine resources (other than mineral brines) a-re not addressed at length. (These commodities are addressed in detail in a separate report by CNWRA) .

A mineral deposit model is a concept or an analog that represents in text, tables, and diagrams the essential characteristics or attributes of a deposit type (5). The use of deposit models in resource assessment activities may alert the resource investigator to indications of a mi-ralized zone. Further, familiarity with deposit models developed for t rea in and around Yucca Mountain may be of value in geological, g"iemical, geophysical, and drilling activities conducted for site characterization purposes other than resource assessment.

Resource deposit models are the eys to any deposit identification, since valid exploration models of known mineral deposits aid the researcher to focus on critical geologic attributes of a target area. Furthermore, deposit odels can conserve time and funds that ight otherwise be expended to collect data not critical to identifying a resource. A comprehensive listing of references on deposit models and deposit modeling is presented in Section 6.2.

Deposit modeling terminology is somewhat confusing and often inconsistent in its application. Most terms, however, are analogous to two fundamental model types: empirical and genetic deposit models. Empirical models (also known as "occurrence" r "descriptive" models) are bsed solely on observation and fact. Genetic models (also known as "process," "conceptual," or "interpretive" iodels) incorporate epirical data and an analysis of the genetic components of the deposit and their interactions. The two fundamental models (13 empirical and 2J genetic) are employed to identify those data compilations and field activities that ay be conducted to test an area for the presence of a particular deposit type. T he combined use of empirical and genetic models at Yucca Mountain and in analog areas allows the researcher to identify those geologic criteria that arr' most reliably related to resoutrce ocCIrjrences. This combination of ff imental models is i eneral1yreferred to as an '' xploration'' or

" gn ition crite-ria" model (C) -

The use of eposit models facilitates> extrapola-tior into relatively unexplored areas () and, when employed in one or mnore mcet(hodsr of qeomathe matical resource assesswcment, may al ' ow reasonabile (tir~ates to be made of an area s Source potentia.. Descriptive models presented in this section were modified from U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1693, Mineral Deposit Models, Dennis P. Cox and Donald A. Singer, editors, (7) which represents one of the most authoritative publications on this subject to date. Each descriptive model presented is duly referenced to its author by appropriate footnotes.

It is appropriate to include by way of an introduction to deposit modeling, the preface to Bulletin 1693 authored by Paul. B. Barton. The decision to include Barton's preface verbatim, rather in synopsis or abstract form, was based on: 1. an attempt on the part of the authors to minimize the confusion and inconsistencies alluded to above, 2. a presumed necessity for the reader to be aware of the background and development of the models presented here sans any unintentional editorial bias, and 3. the need for an understanding on the part of the reader of the uncertainties inherent in the formulation and application of the models. References cited by Barton are footnoted at the end of the discussion.

Conceptual odels that describe the essential characteristics of groups of similar deposits have a long and useful role in geology. The first models were undoubtedly empirical attempts to extend previous experiences into future success. An example might be the seeking of additional gold nuggets in a stream in which one nugget had already been found, and the extension of that model to include other streams as well. Emphasis-within the U.S. Geological Survey on the synthesis of mineral deposit models (as contrasted with a long line of descriptive and genetic studies of specific ore deposits) began with the collation by R. L. Erickson 1/ of 48 models. The 85 descriptive deposit models and 60 grade-tonnage models presented here are the culmination of a process that began in 1983 as part of the USGS-INGEOMINAS Cooperative Mineral Resource Assessment of Colombia (2/). Effective cooperation on this project required that U.S. and Colombian geologists agree on a classification of mineral deposits, and effective resource assessment of such a broad region required that grade-tonnage models be created for a large number of mineral deposit types.

A concise one-page format for descriptive models was drawn up by Dennis Cox, Donald Singer, and Byron Berger, and Singer devised a graphical way of presenting grade and tonnage data (not presented here). Sixty-five descriptive models (3/, 4/) and 37 grade- tonna e models (5/, 6/) (not included here) were applied to the Colombian project. Because interest in these models ranged far beyond the Colombian activity, it was decided to enlarge the number of models and to include other aspects of mineral deposit modeling. Our colleagues i the Geological Survey of Canada have -receded this effort by publishing a superb compilation of models o deposits important in Canada (7/). Not surprisingly, our models converge quite well, and in several cases we have drawn freely from the Canadian publication.

It is a well-known axiom in industry that any excuse for drilling may find ore; that is, successful exploration can be carried out /in even though it i; founded upon an erroneous model. Examples include successful exploration based on supposed (but now proven erroneous) structural controls for volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits in eastern Canada and for carbonate-hosted zinc in east Tennessee. As the older ideas have been replaced, additional ore has been found with today's presumably ore valid models.

Although models have been with us for centuries, until recently they have been almost universally incomplete when descriptive and unreasonably speculative when genetic. What is new today is that, although we ust admit that all are incomplete in sore degree, odels can be put to rigorous tests that screen out many of our heretofore sacred dogmas of mineral formation. Examples are legion, but to cite a few: (1) fluid--inclusion studies have shown conclusively that the classic Mississippi Valley-type ores cannot have originated from either syngenetic processes or unmodified surface waters; (2) epithermal base-and precious-metal ores have been proved (by stable-isotope studies) to have formed through the action of meteoric waters constituting fossil geothermal systems; and (3) field and laboratory investigations clearly show that volcanogenic massive sulfides are the products; of syngenetic, submarine, exhalative processes, not epigenetic replacement of sedimentary or volcanic rocks. Economic geology '_-'has evolved quietly from an "occult art" to a respectable science as the speculative models have been put to definitive tests.

Several fundamental problems that may have no immediate answers revolve around these questions: Is there a proper number of models? ust each deposit fit into one, and only one, pigeon- hole? Who decides (and when?) that a model is correct and reasonably complete? Is a model ever truly complete? How complete need a model be to be useful?

In preparing this compilation we had to decide whether to discuss only those deposits for which the data were nearly complete and the interpretations concordant, or whether to extend coverage to include many deposits of uncertain affiliation, whose characteristics were still subjects for major debate. This compilation errs on the side of scientific optimism; it includes as many deposit types as possible, even at the risk of lumping or splitting types incorrectly. Nevertheless, quite a few types of deposits have not been incorporated.

The organization of the models constitutes a classification of deposits. The arrangement used emphasizes easy access to the models by focusing on host-rock lithology and tectonic setting, the features most apparent to the geologist preparing a ap. The ;ysterti is nearly parallel to a genetic arrangement for synrenetic s, but it diverge stroangly for the epigenetic where it creates some strange juxtapositions of deposit typeP Possi ble amtbiguities are accommo(iat(,ed, at least in part, by usring rmultiple entries in the master list (this refers to a table not included here). In considering ways to make the model compilation as useful as possible, we have become concerned about ways to enhance the ability of the relatively inexperienced geoscientist to find the model(s) applicable to his or her observations. Therefore, we have included extensive tables of attributes in which the appropriate models are identified.

Our most important immediate goal is to provide assistance to those persons engaged in mineral resource assessment or exploration. An important secondary goal is to upgrade the quality of our model compilation by encouraging (or provoking?) input from those whose experience has not yet been captured in the existing models. Another target is to identify specific research needs whose study is particularly pertinent to the advance of the science. We have chosen to err on the side of redundancy at the expense of neatness, believing that our collective understanding is still too incomplete to -rule out some alternative interpretations. Thus we almost certainly have set up as separate models some types that will ultimately be blended into one, and there surely are grouping established here that will subsequently be divided. We also recognize that significant gaps in coverage still exist. Even at this stage the model compilation is still experimental in several aspects and D-continues to evolve. The product in hand can be useful today. We anticipate future editions, versions, and revisions, and we encourage suggestions for future improvements.

Footnotes

1/ Erickson, R. L. (compiler). Characteristics of Mineral Deposit Occurrences. USGS Open-File Rept. 8-795, 1982.

2/ Hodges, C. A., D. P. Cox, D. A. Singer, J. E. Case, B. R. Be-rger, and J. P. Albers. U. S. Geological SurveY-IGEOMINAS Mineral Resource Assessment of Columbia. USGS Open-File Rept. 84-345, 1984.

3/ Cox, D. P.., ed. L. S. Geological urrvey-INGEOMI NSineral Resoucrce Assessment of Colu_)b 0,re Dencs it Models. USGS Open-File Rept.. 83-423, 1983a.

4/ Cox, D. P. U.S. Geo_oical Survey-INGEOMINOS Minera]. eSoU-rce Assessment of Columbia;_ dditional Ore DePosit Models. USGS Open-File Rept. 83--901, 1983b.

- ;-n,e/ r D. A. and D. L. Mosier, eds. Mineral Deposit Tonnane--Grade Mi ;. USGS Open-Fie Rept. 3-623, 1983a.

6/ -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Mii-eral Deposit Tonnaipe-G-racde ...... Models II. US1S C1pen-F'ile RFept. 83-902, 1983b.

7/ Eckstrand, 0. F., ed. Canadian Mineral Deposit Te a Geo..og..cal Synopi Geological Survey of Canada, Economnic Geolocqy Report 36, 1984. .1.4.1 Model Selection Rationale rhe rationale for selection of deposit models for inclusion in this iocument is based in most part on information, hypotheses, and postulates taken from the literature, and assumptions made in consideration of such information. The sources of reference material used in the selection include, but are not limited to the following:

. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletins, Professional Papers, Information :irculars, Maps, Open-file Reports, etc., primarily those dealing with Yucca ountain and vicinity;

R. Publications of the Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology;

3. NRC and NRC contractor publications;

4. Publications by Lawrence Livermore and Los lamos National Laboratories;

5. U. S. Bureau of Mines publications;

6. 'arious text and reference volumes, and;

7N-

Information from the above sources was examined and a number of important points on which to base assumptions, and subsequently, the selection of deposit models, were identified; these points are listed below:

1. Yucca Mountain consists in the ain of a thick sequence of calc- alkaline ash-flow tuffs (11).

2. The site is underlain by Paleozoic marine rocks of ndetermined thickness (12) and at varying depths that may host resources in a wide variety of deposit types (see figure 2). Possible depositional scenarios nay include but are not limited to: A. mineralization of Paleozoic and/or Tertiary rocks by hydrothermal fluids eanatinq from deeply buried plutons (most likely granitic, but afic bodies but mafic can-not be ruled out) Postulated to exist beneath and proximal to the site (13, 4); B. ineral ieposits related to an underlyint metamorphic cre comtplex (15) ; C. nineralization related to possilile contact etasomatisim; or D.. JissolLtion, concentration, transportation, and subsequent re-deposition of iiir al material along one or more postulated u;der]ying low-angle faults (. :y circulating meteoric waters heated by an magmia scOuroe eneath r Flat adjacent to Yucca Mountain. The ci-rculati.n ht-water scnarioc ias been S:ug gested by Odt .") as a pos,.i~blc2 ge;-letic mel for t:e emplacement of gold Fiigure 2.--- Strati gaphie Column Modified from Yucca Mtn Site Characterization Plan (1988)

FIGURE 2.- Generalized sratigraphic colutin, Yucca Mountain area

Zy `3 deposits in Paleozoic rocks at the Stirling ine on the east flank of Bare lounta in.

3. Large fault/breccia zones have been identified on the flanks of Yucca Mountain (Windy Wash Fault, Solitario Canyon Fault, Bow Ridge Fault, Fran Ridge Fault, etc.). These zones, especially those on the margin of Crater Flat (Windy Wash, Solitario Canyon), may represent sites of mineral deposition.

4. Underlying Paleozoic rocks may be lithologically and structurally similar to rocks northeast of the site that are documented hydrocarbon producers (8). Further, investigations by Chamberlain (18) suggest that an overthrust belt, analogous to that in Utah/Wyoming, in which Mesozoic thrusting has placed permeable Devonian carbonates over organic-rich Mississippian rocks has been recently defined in central Nevada. Both rock types, presumably, are capped by relatively impervious Mississippian black shales.

5. Postulated heat sources (perhaps related to the Crater Flat/Prospector Pass Caldera Complex, buried pluton (s), etc.) and circulating groundwater may constitute a yet to be identified geothermal resource or may have fo d mineralized areas within fossil geothermal systems. Figure 3 shows tt patial relationship of Yucca Mountain to major calderas and caldera co-pexes in the southwestern Nevada volcanic field.

6. The tectonic setting of Yucca Mountain is generally characterized by Proterozoic continental rifting; Paleozoic subsidence with deposition of miogeosynclinal sediments; late Cretaceous-early Tertiary east-directed faulting; widespread Tertiary extentional tectonism and volcanism (19, pp. 84-88).

For purposes of deposit model selection and, based on the above and other available information, the following assumptions have been made:

1. Faleozoic marine sediments underlie Yucca ountain at varying depths;

2. Plutonic rocks underlie and possibly intrude the Paleozoic sediments Ander at least a portion of the proposed site;

3. Yucca Mountain hosts a mietamorphic core complex;

4. Crater Flat represents a portion of the Crater Flat/Prospector Pass :aldera Complex as suig ested by Carr and others (20).

5. A magma chamber underlies Crater Flat at an undetermined depth;

traction of resources in Paleozoic rocks beneath Yucca MIOuntain would no> -itikely be carried out via long drifts or declines with terfminal vertical shafts (rather than from shafts driven from the ofirest the Rountain) ; the drifts or declines would be most likely be driven from the east or west flanks (probably fron the west) of the ountain; extraction of resources in tffs ould be via vertical shafts or declines on the flanls Dr crest of the mountain. 23 Figure 3. Location of Yucca Mountain in Relation to Calderas andi Caldera Complexes in the Southwestern Nevada Volcanic Field.

z/1 Modified from Carr 119861 0 50 KILOMETERS I I' I I I *I 0 25 MILES

C&I dcems L, FIGURE 3.- Location of Yucca Mountain in relation to Calnns and aldera complexes in southwestern Nevada volcanic field 7. Technical advances over the next 10,000 years will allow economic extraction of resources at much greater depths than lcurrently feasible;

8. dvances in drilling technology over the next 10,000 years will allow large boreholes to be drilled to much greater depths in much shorter times;

9. Depletion of near-Surface resources and changes in economics over the next 10,000 years will, by necessity, force exploration/extraction at greater depths.

Information and assumptions presented above are summarized and schematically shown in figure 4 to illustrate possible environments that could engender one or more of the deposit models presented here. The diagram is not drawn to scale, bedding attitudes may not conform to ap data, and specific rock types are not identified with the exception of a distinction between Paleozoic and Tertiary accumulations. Further, relative sizes of the features, attitudes of underlying low-angle nornal or reverse faults, and spatial relationships are purely conjectural. Possible geothermal, hydrocarbon, or potable water resources are not included.

Zs- -

Figure 4 Schematic cross-section of Yucca Mountain, Crater Flat, and Blare !iountain, Showing Known and Postulated Features.

szb ( ( (

w E

Postulated detachment -fault Paleozoic marine sediments

FIGURE 4.- Schematic cross-section of Yucca Mountain, Crater Flat, and Bare Mtr" showing postulated subterranean features 2.1.4.2 Descriptive Models rhe following escriptive odels have been selected as representing possible resources that may occur on, in, beneath, o proximal to Yucca lountain. Geochemical and geophysical exploration methods applicable to a particular model or models are presented in Sections 2.1.5.3 and 2.1.5.4, respectively. The locations of deposits used as examples for the model (country, state, or other political subdivision, etc.) are listed in Appendix . HOT-SPRING AU-AG 1/ (See Figure 5)

DESCRIPTION: Fine-grained silica and quartz in silicified breccia with Au, pyrite, and Sb and As sulfides.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (21).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT:

Rog ..j : Rhyolite.

Textures: Porphyritic, brecciated.

Que Ranne: Mainly Tertiary and Quaternary.

Depositional Environment: Subaerial rhyolitic volcanic centers, rhyolite donmes, and shallow parts of related geothermal systems.

Tectonic Settinq: Through-going fracture systems related to volcanism al., subduction zone, rifted continental margins. Leaky transforn faults.

Asiiate eis: Epithermal quartz veins, hot-spring Hg, placer Au.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION:

Hineraloqy: Native Au + pyrite + stibnite + realgar; or arsenopyrite + sphalerite + fluorite; or native Au + g-selenide or tellurides + pyrite.

Texture/Structure: Crustified banded veins, stockworks, breccias (cemented with silica or uncemnented). Sulfides may be very fine grained and disseminated in silicified rock.

Alteration: Top to bottom of system: chalcedonic sinter, massive silicification, stockworks of quartz + adularia and breccia cemented with quartz, quartz + chlorite. Veins eneral]y calcedonic, sonie opal. S cme deposits have alunite and pyrophyllite. Anmonium feldspar (buddingtonite) may be pesent.

Ore Controls: Through-goinq fracture systers, brecciated cores of intrusive domes; cemented breccias important carrier of re.

Weatherinq: Bleached country rock, yellow limonites with jarosite and fine--graired alunite, hematite, rgoethite.

GE ;mical S ignature: Au + s - S:) + H + TI hi !ghe i system, increasin depth, decreasi)-ig As + Sb T + Hg with depth-. Locally, N14, W.,

L/ Modified from Berger, t. F. Descriptive Mode-.-l of -Iot-S prin: Au--Ap. Paper in Mineral Deposit Models, I). F:. Cox and I). A. S:i. mger, es... USGS Bull. 1693, 1986, p. 143. 0 Examples:

McLauqhlin, USCA 2/, (2,23) *. Round Mountain, USNV, (24) ate Delamar, USID, (25) *.

* Add itional non-proprietary information available through BOM Mineral Industry Location System (MILS).

** Additional information available in Lowe, Raney, and Norberg, BOM IC 9035, pp. 162. Figure 5 Schemati.c Cross-Section of 1Iot--Spsin3 Qu. rq I)eposit.

30 -Silica sinter: Sb, As, Au. 7 Ag. Hg in seams -Opalized rock or porous, vuggy silica: Native S. cinnabar Pervasive silicification: dispersed As, Sb. Au, Ag. TI Stockwork veins: Au, Ag, As. Ti, Sb. in quartz, chalcedony Acid leaching: Kaolinite. alunite silica, jarosite. - Hydrothermal brecciation: Au, Ag, As, Sb, T suifides and quartz TI-- - Quartz-sulfide-adolaria veins: 1 to 2 km Quartz-sulfidechlorite Au, Ag. As. (Cu. Pb. Zn) I veins: Cu.Pb.Zn, (Au. Ag

Redrawn from Cox and Singer (1986)

FIGURE 5.- Schematic cross-section of hot-spring Au-Ag deposit -

Hot-Spring Hg 1/

APPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Sulfur ank type of White (26) or sulfurous type of Bailey and Phoenix (27).

DESCRIPTION: Cinnabar and pyrite disseminated in siliceous sinter superJacent to graywacke, shale, andesite, and basalt flows and diabase dikes.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (26),(28).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Types: Siliceous sinter, andesite-basalt flows, diabase dikes, andesitic tuffs, and tuff breccias. aqe Range: Tertiary.

Depositional Environment: Near paleo ground-water table in areas of fossil hot-spring system.

T rue Setting(s): Continental margin rifting associated with small vo\.f1e mafic to intermediate volcanism.

Associated DePosit Types: Hot-spring Au.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION

Mineralogy: Cinnabar + native Hg + minor niarcasite

Texture/Structure: Disseminated and oatings on fractures in hot-spring sinter.

Alteration: Above paleo ground-water table, aolinite-alunite-Fe oxides, native sulfur; below paleo ground-water table, pyrite, zeolites, potassium feldspar, chlorite, and quartz. Opal deposited at the paleo water table.

Dre Controls: Paleo ground-water table within hot--spring systernl; developed along high-angle faults.

Geochemical Sionature: H + As + S 4 Au.

Examjples: Sulfur Eank., USC0 (28). l/ "-dified from White, D. E. De-,scriptive Jodl--Hot-Sprin9.[.j.. Paper in Ii Ll Deposit Mlocdels, D. P. Cox and D. A. Sinqer, e. USGS F.uLl. 1693, -L Ap. 173.

3/ CREEDE EPITHERMAL VEINS 1/ (See Figure 6)

4PPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Epithermal gold (quartz-adularia) alkali-chloride- type, polymetallic veins.

DESCRIPTION: Galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, sulfosalts, + tellurides, + gold in quartz-carbonate veins hosted by felsic to intermediate volcanics. 3lder miogeosynclinal evaporites or rocks with trapped seawater are associated with these deposits.

GENERAL REFERENCES: (29), (30).

GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT

Rock Types: Host rocks are andesite,-dacite, quartz latite, rhyodacite, rhyolite, and associated sedimentary rocks. Mineralization related to calc-alkaline or bimodal volcanism.

Textures: Porphyritic.

n anue: Mainly Tertiary (most are 29-4 m.y.).

Depositional Environment: Bimodal and calc-alkaline volcanism. Deposits related to sources of saline fluids in prevolcanic basement such as evaporites or rocks with entrapped seawater

Tectonic Setting: Through-going fracture systems; major normal faults, fractures related to doming, ring fracture zones, joints associated with calderas. Underlying or nearby older rocks of continental shelf with evaporite basins, or island arcs that are rapidly uplifted.

Associated Deposit Types: Placer gold, epithe-rmal quartz-alunite, Au, polymetallic replacement.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION

Nineralo.y: Galena + sphalerite + chalcopyrite + copper sulfosalts + ,ilver sulfosalts + gold + tellurides bornite + arsenopyrite. Gangue ninerals are quartz + chlorite + calcite + pyrite + rhodochrosite + barite

- fluorite siderite + anke-rite + sericite + adularia + kaolinite. 3pecula-rite and alunite may be present. rexture/Structure: Banded veins, open space filling, lamellar qua'tz, Jtockwo-rks, collofornm textures.

1 Modified from osier, D. L., T. Sato, N. J. Page, ). A. Sinqer, and . . rrer Ds.Cr.fiotive Model of Creede Epitljermal Veins. Paper in Min eral )eposit Models, D. P. Cox and D. A. Singer, eds. USGS ull. 16931 1986, p. L45. Alteration: Top to bottom: quartz + 1aolinite +- montmorillonite + zeolites +* barite + ca]cite; qua-rtz F- illitie; quartz + adularia + illite; quartz + :hlorite; presence of adularia is variable.

)re Controls: Th rouLh-going or anastomosing fracture systems. High-grade ;hoots where vein changes strike or dip and at intersections of veins. langing-wall fractures are particularly favorable.

Jeatherinq: B4leached country rock, goethite, jarosite, alunite--supergene 3rocesses often iportant factor in increasing grade of deposit.

3eochemical Sigqnatu!re: Higher in system u + As + sb + Hg; au + ag + Ib + Zn + Cu; Ag + Pb+ Zn, Cu + Fb + Zn. ase metals generally higher grade in ieposits with g. W + Bqi ay be present.

_xanples Creede, CO (31), (32) * Pachuca, MXCO (33) Toyoha, JAPH11 (34 )

Afdditional non-proprietary information available through BOM Mineral Endustry Location System (MILS). Figure 6. Schematic Cross-Section of Typical Creede-Type Epithermal Vein Deposit. Barren quartz calcite Former surface + fluorite + barite

Redrawn from Cox and Singer (1986)

Ca FIGURE 6.- Schematic cross-section of typical Areedic-type epithernmal viln deposit REPLACEMENT SN 1/

APPROXIMATE SYNONYM. Exhalative Sn (35),(36).

DESCRIPTION: Stratabound cassiterite-sulfide (chiefly pyrrhotite) replacement of carbonate rocks and associated fissure lodes related to underlying granitoid complexes.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (37).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT:

Rock TYpe: Carbonate rocks (limestone or dolomite); granite, monzogranite, quartz porphyry dikes generally present; quartz-tournmaline rock; chert, pelitic and Fe-rich sediments, and volcanic rocks may ne present.

Textures: Plutonic (equigranular, seriate, porphyritic).

Aue Range: Faleozoic and Mesozoic most common; other ages possible.

De-sitional Environment: Epizonal granitic complexes in terranes c ining carbonate rocks. NOTE: The genetic replacement classification f >4hese deposits has been questioned and an alternative exhalative synsedimentary origin followed by postdepositional metamorphic reworking hypothesis proposed (35), (36), (38).

Tectonic Setting(s): Late orogenic to post orogenic passive emplacement of high-level granitoids in foldbelts containing carbonate rocks; alternatively, Sn and associated metals were derived from submarine exhalative processes with subsequent reequilibration of sulfide and silicate minerals.

Associated Dep sit~yTes: Greisen-style mineralization, quartz-tourmaline- cassiterite veins, Sn-W-Mo stockworks, Sn-W skarn deposits close to intrLlsions.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION:

Mineralogy: Pyrrhotite + arsenopyrite + cassiterite + chalcopyrite (may be major) + ilmenite + fluorite; minor: pyrite, sphalerite, stannite, tetrahedrite, magnetite; late veins: sphalerite + galena + chalcopyrite + pyrite 4 fluorite.

Texture/Structure: Vein stockwork ores, and assive ores with laminations following bedding in host rock, locally ut by stockwork veins, pyrrhotite `le rccrystallized.

1/ ocified fron Reed, E. L. Descriptive Miodel of Replacement Sn. Paper in Ylineral Deposit Models, D. P. Cox and D. A. Singer, eds. USGS Bull. 1693, 1986, P. 6... -

Alteration: Griesenization (+ cassiterite) near granite margins; sideri.tic alteration of olomite near sulfide bodies;toutmali.nizat:ion of lastic sediments; proximity to intrusions may produce contact aureoles in host rocks .

Ore Controls: Replacement of favorable carbonate units; fault-controlled fissure lodes commons Isolated replacement orebodies may lie above granitoid cupolas; faults provide channels for mineralizing fluids

Geochemical Signature: Sn, As, Cu, B W F Li, Pb, Zn, Rb.

EQ mupls: Renison Bell, UTS (37). Cleveland, UTS (39). Mt. Bischoff, UTS (40.). Changpo-Tongkeng, CINA (41.). EPITHERMAL QUARTZ-ALUNITE Au 1/

APPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Acid-sulfate, or enargite gold (42).

DESCRIPTION: Gold, pyrite, and enargite in vuggy veins and breccias in tones of high-alumina alteration related to felsic volcanism.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (42).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Types: Volcanic: dacite, quartz latite, rhyodacite, rhyolite. iypabyssal intrusions or domes. rextures: Porphyritic.

geRanie: Generally Tertiary, but can be any age.

Depositional Environment: Within the volcanic edifice, ring fracture zones 3f calderas, or areas of igneous activity with sedimentary evaporites in Ha- lent.

Fe - nic Setting(s): Through-going fracture systems: keystone graben Structures, ring fracture zones, normal faults, fractures related to loming, joint sets.

Issociated DepcsLtTpes: Porphyry copper, polymetallic replacement, eolcanic hosted Cu-As-Sb. Fyrophyllite, hydrothermal clay, and alunite leposits.

)EPOSIT DESCRIPTION lineralony: Native gold + enargite + pyrite + silver-bearing sulfosalts + :halcopyrite + bornite + precious-metal tellurides + galena + sphalerite + tuebnerite. May have hypogene oxidation phase with chalcocite + covellite - luzonite with late-stage native sulfur.

11teration: Highest temperature assemblage: quartz + alunite )yrophyllite ay be early stage with pervasive alteration of host rock and reins of these minerals; this zone may contain corundum, diaspore, Lndalusite, or zunyite. Zoned around quartz-alunite is quartz + alunite + ,aolinite + ontmorillonite; pervasive propylitic alteration (chlorite + ~alcite) depends on extent of early alunitization. Ammonium-bearing clays lay be presents

Ire controls: Through-going fractures, centers of intrusive activity. 1p and peripheral parts of porphyry copper systems.

/Modified from Berger, B. R. Descriptive odel of Ep ithernial Quartz--- lunite Au. Paper in Mineral Deposit Models, D. P. Cox and D. A Singer, ds. UGS ull. 1693, 1986, p 158. r Weathering.: bundant yellow limonite, jarosite, goethite, white argillization with kaolini.te, fine-grained white alunite veins, hematite.

Geochemical Sigature: Higher in system: Au + As + Cu; increasing base metals at depth. Also Te and (at El Indio) W.

Examples: Goldfield, USNv (43) *, **. Kasuga mine, JAPN (44). El Indio, CILE (45). Summitville, USCO (46) * Iwato, JAPIN (47).

* Additional non-proprietary information available through BOM Mineral Industry Location System (MILS).

** Additional information available in Lowe, Raney, and Norberg, BOM IC 9035. pp. 115.

39 PORPHYRY MO, LOW-F 1/

IPPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Calc-alkaline Mo stockwork (48).

DESCRIPTION: Stockwork of quartz-molybdenite veinlets in felsic porphyry and in its nearby country rck.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (48).

BEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Tymes: Tonalite, granodiorite, and monzogranite.

Textures: Porphyry, fine aplitic roundmnass.

Rae Range: Mesozoic and Tertiary.

Depositional Environment: Orogenic belt with calcalkaline intrusive rocks.

Tectonic Settina(s): Numerous faults.

i•ated Dposit Types: Porphyry Cu-Mo, Cu skarn, volcanic hosted Cu-As-

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION iineralog: Molybdenite + pyrite + scheelite + chalcopyrite + argentian tetrahedrite. Quartz + K-feldspar + biotite + calcite + white mica and :lays. rexture/Structure: Disseminated and in veinlets and fractures.

lteration: Potassic outward to propylitic. Phyllic and argillic overprint.

3re Controls: Stockwork in felsic porphyry and in surrounding country rock.

Jeatherinq: Yellow ferrinmolybdite after molybdenite. Secondary copper ?nrichment may form copper ores; in sorne deposits.

3eochemical Sionature: Zoning outward and upward from 1o + Cu + W to Cu + TU to Zn + Fb, + Au, 4- Aq. F may be present but in amounts less than 1000

:)pm -

L/Voclified from Theodore, T. G. Description of PorpjIoy PMLow-F.Faper .n Mineral Deposit Models, D. P. Cox and D. A. Singer, eds. USGS u]ll. 1.693, 1966, p. 120..- ExKanples: Butckinghaml, USNV (49) *, **. USSR deposits (50).

* Additional non-proprietary information available through BOI Iineral Industry Location System (MILS) .

** Additional information available in Lowe, Raney, and Norberg, BOM IC 9035. pp. 90 . REPLACEMENT SN /

APPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Exhalative Sn (35),(36).

DESCRIPTION: Stratabound cassiterite-sulfide (chiefly pyrrhotite) replacement of carbonate rocks and associated fissure lodes related to underlying granitoid complexes.

PRIHARY REFERENCE(S): (37).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONET:

Rock__ypg: Carbonate rocks (limestone or dolomite); granite, onzogranite, quartz porphyry dikes generally present; quartz-tourrmaline rock; chert, pelitic and Fe-rich sediments, and volcanic rocks may ne present.

Textures: Plutonic (equigranular, seriate, porphyritic).

Aqe RanM: Paleozoic and Mesozoic most common; other ages possible.

Dennsitional Environment: Epizonal granitic complexes in terranes c ining carbonate rocks. NOTE: The genetic replacement classification f ,hese deposits has been questioned and an alternative exhalative ,synsedimentary origin followed by postdepositional etanmorphic reworking hypothesis proposed (35), (36), (38).

Tectonic Setting (s): Late orogenic to post orogenic passive emplacement of high-level granitoids in foldbelts containing carbonate rocks; alternatively, Sn and associated metals were derived from submarine exhalative processes with subsequent reequilibration of sulfide and silicate minerals.

Associated Deposit Types: Greisen-style mineralization, quartz-tourmaline- cassiterite veins, Sn-W-Mo stockworks, Sn-W skarn deposits close to intrusions.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION:

Mineralogy: Pyrrhotite + arsenopyrite + cassiterite + chalcopyrite (may be major) 4 ilmenite + fluorite; inor: pyrite, sphalerite, stannite, tetrahedrite, magnetite; late veins: sphalerite + galena + chalcopyrite pyrite + fluorite.

Texture/Structure: Vein stockwork ores, and massive ores with laminations following bedding in host rock, locally cut by stockwo-rk veins, pyrrhotite may be recrystallized.

:1/ 11odified frorn Reed, E. L. Descr'i ptjve _Model of Replacement Sn. Paper in lineral Deposit Models, D. F. Cox and D. A. Singer, eds. USGS Bull. 1693,

p/ Rlteration: Griesenization (+ cassiterite) near granite margins; sideritic .lteration of dolomite near sulfide bodies;toui-rmalinizati.on of clastic sedinrents; proximity to intrusions may produce contaCt aureoles in host rocks.

Dre Controls: Replacement of favorable carbonate units; fault-controlled fissure lodes common. Isolated replacement orebodies may lie above granitoid cupolas; faults provide channels for mineralizing fluids. leocheuieal_.Siaature: Sn, As, Cu, , W, F, Li, Pb, Zn, Rb.

Exanpes: Renison Bell, UTS (37). Cleveland, UTS (39). Mt. Bischoff, UTS (40). Changpo-Ton9keng, CINO (41.). EPITHERMAL QUARTZ-ALUNITE Au /

APPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Acid-sulfate, or enargite gold (42).

DESCRIPTION: Gold, pyrite, and enargite in vuggy veins and breccias in zones of high-alumina alteration related to felsic volcanism.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (42).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

RockTypes: Volcanic: dacite, quartz latite, rhyodacite, rhyolite. Hypabyssal intrusions or domes.

Textures: Porphyritic.

Age Ranue: Generally Tertiary, but can be any age.

eositional Environment: Within the volcanic edifice, ring fracture zones of calderas, or areas of igneous activity with sedimentary evaporites in ba-mn entn

TP>_nic Setting(s): Through-going fracture systems: keystone graben structures, ring fracture zones, normal faults, fractures related to doming, joint sets.

Associated Deposit Types: Porphyry copper, polymetallic replacement, volcanic hosted Cu-As-Sb.. Pyrophyllite, hydrothe-rmal clay, and alunite deposits.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION

Mineralogy: Native gold + enargite + pyrite + silver-bearing sulfosalts + chalcopyrite bornite + precious-metal tellurides + galena + sphalerite + huebnerite. May have hypogene oxidation phase with halcocite + covellite lzonite with late-stage native sulfur.

Alteration: Highest temperature assemblaie: quartz + alunite + pyrophyllite ay be early stage with pervasive alteration of host rock. and veins of these minerals; this zone may contain corundum, diaspore, andalusite, or zunyite. Zoned around quartz-alunite is quartz lunite + kaoli ite 4 montmnoillonite; pervasive propylitic alteration (chlorite + calcite) depends on extent of early alunitization. Ammonium-beavring clays may be resent.

Ore ont-rols: Throuch-going fractures, centers of intrusive activity. Up and peripheral parts of porphyry copper systenis.

i/Modified froni Ferqer, EF. R Descriptive Mode] of _fitherrmaJ. Quartz--- AIunite R. Paper in Mineral Deposit Models, D. P. C-ox and D. A. Singer, eds. USGS ull. 1693., 1986, p. 1s58. Li, Weathering: Abundant yellow linionite, jarosite, goethite, white argillization with kaolinite, fine-gr(ained white alunite veins, heatite.

Geochemical Signature: Higher in system: A + A + C; icreasing base metals at depth. Also Te and (at El Indio) W.

Exanlples: Goldfield, USNV (43) *, **. Kasuga mine, JAPN (44). El Indio, CILE (45). Summitville, USCO (46) *. Iwato, JAPN (47).

* Additional non-proprietary information available through LBOM Mineral Industry Location System (ILS).

** Additional information available in Lowe, Raney, and Norberg, BO IC 9035. pp. 115.

41 PORPHYRY MO, LOW-F 1/

4PPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Calc-alkaline Mo stockwork (48).

)ESCRIPTION: Stockwork. of quartz-molybdenite veinlets in felsic porphyry xnd in its nearby country rock.

IRI1ARY REFERENCE(S): (48).

WEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT lock Types: Tonalite, granodiorite, and monzogranite.

Fextures: Porphyry, fine aplitic groundmass.

Lg~anqe: Mesozoic and Tertiary.

WpositioVnal Environment: Orogenic belt with calcalkaline intrusive rocks. rectonic Setjin_(s): Numerous faults.

L ted Deposit Types: orphyry Cu-Mo, Cu skarn, volcanic hosted Cu-As-

)EPOSIT DESCRIPTION linera g My:Molybdenite + pyrite + scheelite + chalcopyrite argentian ;etrahectrite. Quartz + K-feldspar + biotite + calcite + white mica and lays.

Fexture/Structure: Disseminated and in veinlets and fractures.

|1teration: Potassic outward to propylitic. Phyllic and argillic verprint.

Ire Controls: Stockwork in felsic porphyry and in surrounding country ock. leatherinqj: Yellow ferrimolybdite after molybdenite. Secondary copper nrichment may form copper ores in some deposits.

;eochemcal Sionature: Zoning outward and upward from Mo + Cu + W to Cu + U to Zn 4 Pb, 4 AU, + lg. F may be present but in amounts less than 1,000 pm.

/Modified from Theodore, T. G. I)escription of Porphyry Mo,_Low-F. Paper n Mineral Deposit Models, D. P. Cox and D. A Singaer, eds. USGS IBulL. G93, 198C;, p. 120. q5 Exanmples: Buckingwhan, USNV (49) * *" USSR deposits (0).

* Additional non-proprietary information available through BOM ineral Industry Location System (MILS).

** Additional information available in Lowe, Raney, and Norberg, BO IC 903S. pp. 90.

f6 EPITHERMAL MN 1/

DESCRIPTION: Manganese mineralization in epithermal veins fillings fault and fractures in subaerial volcanic rocks.

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Types: Flows, tuffs, breccias, and agglornerates of rhyolitic, dacitic, andesitic or basaltic composition.

RqpRa.nne: Tertiary.

Depositional Environment: Volcanic centers.

TectonicSettjnq(s): Through-going fracture systerns.

Associated Deposit Tpes: Epitherrmal gold-silver.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION

Hi--ralogy: Rhodoch-rosite, anganocalcite, calcite, quartz, chalcedony, b. e, zeolites.

Texture/Structure: Veins, bunches, stringers, nodular masses, disseninations.

Alteration: Kaolinitization.

Ore Controls: Through-going faults and fractures; brecciated volcanic rocks.

Ueatheripg: Oxidization zone contains abundant manganese oxides, psilomelane, pyrolusite, braunite, wad, manganite, cryptomelane, hollandite, coronadite., and Fe oxides.

Geochenical inatre: Mn, Fe, (Pb, Ag, Au, Cu). At Talamantes, W is i npo rtant.

Exaqples: Talarantes, XCO (51). Gloryana, USN1Y1 (52) *. Sardegna., ITL.Y (53)n

J Additional non-proprietary information available through BOIM Mineral Industry Location Systewm (MILS)

I/Modified from Mosier, D. L. Desc.riptive Model of pith ermal IMn. Faper in Mineral Deposit odels, D. . Cox and D. A. Singer, eds. USGS 13ull. 1.6'93, 1.36, p:. IG.65 CARBONATE-HOSTED AU-AG 1/

APPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Carlin-type or invisible oJ.d.

DESCRIPTION: Very fine grained gold and sulfides disseri)inated in carbonaceous calcareous rocks and associated jasperoids.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (54).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Types: Host rocks: thin-bedded silty or argillaceous carbonaceous limestone or dolomite, commonly with carbonaceous shale. Intrusive rocks: felsic dikes.

Textures: Dikes are generally porphyritic.

Age Ranne: Mainly Tertiary, but can be any age.

Dpositional Environment: Best host rocks formed as carbonate turbidites in omewhat anoxic environments. Deposits formed where these are intruded b- neous rocks under nonmarine conditions.

Tectonic Setting(s): High-angle normal fault zones related to continental margin rifting.

Associated DepositIyRPes: W-Mo skarn, porphyry Mo, placer Au, stibnite- barite veins.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION

Mineralogy: Native gold (very fine grained) pyrite + realgar + orpiment + arsenopyrite + cinnabar + fluorite barite + stibnite. Quartz, calcite, carbonaceous matter.

Texture/Structure: Silica replacement of carbonate. Generally less than 1 percent fine-grained sulfides.

Alteration: Unoxidized ore: jaScperoid + quartz + illite 4 kaolinite *alcite. Abundant amorphous carbon locally appears to be introduced. Hypoqene oxidized ore: kaolinite + montmorillonite + illite + jarosite + alun1ite. Ammonium clays may be present.

Ore Controls: Selective replacement of carbonaceo.us carbonate rocks adjacent to and alonq high-angle fault: C,Ot eq:i.oCrl thrUst fuAltts or

I/Modi fied from Berqer, 1. RP.. De.scri otive Oode.of -OUAIbona.te--Ic.L.. Paper i-n ineral Deposit odels, 1). P. Cox and I). A. Singer, es. SG':, Bull. 1.6933, 986, p. 75. Weathering: Light-red, gray, and (or) tan oxides, light-brown to reddish- brown iron-oxide-stained jasperoid.

Geochemical Signature: Au + AS + Hg + W + Mo; As + Hg + Sb + T + F (this stage superimposed on preceding); NH3 important in some deposits.

Examples: Carlin, USNV (55) *, **. Getchell, USNV (56) *, **. Mercur, USUT (57) *.

* Additional non-proprietary information available through OM Mineral Industry Location System (MILS).

** Additional information available in Lowe, Raney, and Norberg, BOM IC 9035, pp. 96, 112, respectively. SIMPLE SB DEPOSITS 1/

APPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Deposits of quartz-stibnite ore (58).

DESCRIPTION: Stibnite veins, pods, and disseminations in or adjacent to brecciated or sheared fault zones.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (59, 0).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Types: One or more of the following lithologies is found associated with over half of the deposits: limestone, shale (commonly calcareous), sandstone, and quartzite. Deposits are also found with a wide variety of other lithologies including slate, rhyolitic flows and tuffs, argillite, granodiorite, granite, phyllite, siltstone, quartz mica and chloritic schists, gneiss, quartz porphyry, chert, diabase, conglomerate, andesite, gabbro, diorite, and basalt.

Textures: Not diagnostic.

Ai anne: Known deposits are Paleozoic to Tertiary.

Depositional Environment: Faults and shear zones.

Tectonic Setting(s): Any orogenic area.

Associated Deposit Types: Stibnite-bearing veins, pods, and disseminations containing base metal sulfides + cinnabar + silver + gold + scheelite that are mined primarily for lead, gold, silver, zinc, or tungsten; low-sulfide Au-quartz veins; epithermal gold and gold-silver deposits; hot-springs gold; carbonate-hosted gold; tin-tungsten veins; hot-springs and disseminated mercury, gold-silver placers; infrequently with polymletallic veins and tungsten sarns.

i/Modified from Bliss, J. D. and G. J. Orris. D esc;iptionM ocdel of Sirmpl e Sb Deposits. Paper in Mineral Deposit Models, D. P. Cox and D. A. Singer, eds. USGS Bull. 1693, 1.986 p. 183.

So DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION

Mineralogy: Stibnite + quartz + pyrite + calcite; inor other sulfides frequently less than 1 percent of deposit and included + arsenopyrite + sphalerite + tetrahedrite + chalcopyrite + scheelite + free gold; minor minerals only occasionally found include native antimony, arcasite, calaverite, berthierite, argentite, pyrargyrite, chalcocite, wolframite, richardite, galena, jamesonite; at least a third (and possibly more) of the deposits contain gold or silver. Uncommon angue minerals include chalcedony, opal (usually identified to be christobalite by X-ray), siderite, fluorite, barite, and graphite.

Texture/Structure: Vein deposits contain stibnite in pods, lenses, kidney forms, pockets (locally); may be massive or occur as streaks, grains, and bladed aggregates in sheared or brecciated zones with quartz and calcite. Disseminated deposits contain streaks or grains of stibnite in host rock with or without stibnite vein deposits.

Alteration: Silicification, sericitization, and argillization; minor chloritization; serpentinization when deposit in mafic, ultraniafic rocks.

Or- Controls: Fissures and shear zones with breccia usually associated w fault; some replacement in surrounding lithologies; infrequent open- 5 filling in porous sediments and replacement in limestone. Deposition occurs at shallow to intermediate depth.

Weatheripg: Yellow to reddish kermesite and white cerrantite or stibiconite (Sb oxides) may be useful in exploration; residual soils directly above deposits are enriched in antimony.

Geocheical Si nature: Sb + Fe + As + Au + Ag; Hg + W + Pb + Zn may be useful in specific cases.

Exampjes: Amphoe Phra Saeng, THLD (61). Caracota, LVA (62). GOLD ON FLAT AND ASSOCIATED HIGH-ANGLE FAULTS 1/

DESCRIPTION: Disseminated !iold in beccia along low-angle faults.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (63).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rockiypes: Ereccia erived from granitic rocks, gneiss, schist, mylonite and unmetamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Rhyolitic dikes and plugs

Textures: Chaotic jumble of rock and vein material. ftan e: Unknown. Examples in southern California and southwestern Arizona are mainly Mesozoic and Tertiary.

DeP.positoanal Environment: Permeable zones: source of heat and fluids unknown.

Te- nic Settjn~qs): Low-angle faults in crystalli.ne and volcanic terrane. P< des detachment faults related to some metanmorphic core complexes and th',t faults related to earlier compressive regimes.

Associated Dpsit ypes: Epithernial quartz adularia veins in hanging-wall rocks of some districts.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION

Mineralogy: Gold, hematite, chalcopyrite, minor bornite, barite, and fluorite.

Texture/Structure: Micrometer-size gold and specular hematite in stockwork veining and brecciated rock.

Alteration: Hematite, quartz, and chlorite. Silicification. Carbonate II i no-r a .S ..

Ore Controls: Intensely brecciated zones along low--anq:Le faults. Steep nornal faults in hanginq wall.. Sheeted veins. Weatherin: Most ore is in oxidized zone because of lower cost of recovery. Mn- oxidec:s.

Geochemical_._..... Snature:...AI...... Ru, C Fe, F, Ba. Very low level anomalies in 0g, fls , n(i W.

i/tMdi fied from 1.0U).ey, F. A Descriptive Model. of Gldlo Flat FXlts.

:aper i 11ineral Deposit Models D :. Cox and D. . Si.nqer, ecs. USGS B.,..]...... 1. 3 1 p 6 51. .r-,> Examples: Picacho, USCA (64) *. Copper Penny and Swansea, USr)Z (65) *.

* Additional non-proprietary information available through BOM Mineral Industry Location System (MILS)" BEDDED BARITE 1/

IPPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Stratiform barite.

DESCRIPTION: Stratiform deposits of barite interbedded with dark-colored :herty and calcareous sedimentary rocks.

3EOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Types: Generally drk-colored chert, shale, mrudstone, limestone or iolostone. Also with quartzite, argillite, and greenstone. aeRae: Proterozoic and Paleozoic.

Depositional Environment: Epicratonic marine basins or ebayments (often with smaller local restricted basins).

Tectonic Settinn(s): Some deposits associated with hinge zones controlled by synsedimentary faults.

As- -iated Deposit Types: Sedimentary exhalative Zn-Fb.

D"vIT DESCRIPTION

Mineralowy: Barite + minor witherite + minor pyrite, galena, or sphalerite. Barite typically contains several percent organic matter plus some HeS in fluid inclusions.

Texture/Structure: Stratiform, commonly lensoid to poddy; ore laminated to massive with associated layers of barite nodules or -rosettes; barite may exhibit primary sedimentary features. Small country rock inclusions may show partial replacement by barite.

Alteration: Secondary barite veining; weak to moderate sericitization has been reported in or near some deposits in Nevada.

Dre Controls: Deposits are localized in second- and third-order bsins.

Weatherinj: Indistinct, generally resemtlintg liestone or dolostone; ccasionally weather-out rosettes or nodules. Seochemical Signature: Ba; were peripheral to sedielint-hosted Zn-lb, ay iave lateral (Cu)-Fb-Zn-Ba zoning or regional antqanese haloes. High rganic C content.

L/Mlodified from Orris, . J., Deqriptivt;.e iodt: of Bt,(c.5q: Earite.. Fa per i- qine-ral Deposit Models, D. . Cox and D. A. Singer, eds. USGS Bull 16.93, L986, p. 21.6. S Exanfpfles: Meggen GIY (6). Magnet Cove., usAR (67) It.. Northumberland, USNV (68) i'..

* Additional non-proprietary information available through E-011 Mineral Industry Location System (ILS)"

** Additional information available in Iowe, Raney, and Norberg, BOM IC 9035, pp. 143.

5s REPLACEMENT MN 1/

DESCRIPTION: Manganese oxide minerals occur in epigenetic veins or cavity fillings in limestone, dolomite, or arble, which may be associated with intrusive complexes.

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

RokTypes: Limestone, dolomite, marble, and associated sedimentary rocks; granite and ranodiorite plutons.

Qge Ranpe: Mainly Paleozoic to Tertiary, but may be any age.

Degitional Environment: Miogeosynclinal sequences intruded by small plutons.

Tectonic Settings): Orogenic belts, late orogenic agmatism.

Rssociated Deposit Type: Polymetallic vein, polymetallic replacement, skarn Cu, skarn Zn, porphyry copper.

D[ IT DESCRIPTION

Mineraloqy: Rhodochrosite + rhodonite + calcite + quartz + barite fluorite + jasper + manganocalcite + pyrite + chalcopyrite + galena + sphalerite.

Texture/Structure: Tabular veins, irregular open space fillings, lenticular pods, pipes, chimneys.

3re Controls: Fracture permeability in carbonate rocks. May be near intrusive contact.

Weathering: Mn oxide minerals: psilomelane, pyrolusite, and wad form in the weathered zone and make up the richest parts of most deposits. Limonite and kaolinite.

pcheoiral Signature: Mn, Fe, P, Cu, Ag, Au, Pb, Zn.

_xamniles: Lake Valley, USNM (69 * Philipsburg, USMT (70) x. Lammereck, STR (71).

AAdditional non-proprietary information available through BOM Mineral [ndustry Location System (ILS).

L/Viodified from Mosier, D. L. Descriptive lodel for Fepla.cement M!n. aper Ln Mineral Deposit Models, D. F. Cox and D A. Singer, eds. USGS ull. L693, 986, p. 105. POLYMETALLIC REPLACEMENT DEPOSITS / (See Figure 7)

APPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Manto deposits, many authors.

DESCRIPTION: Hydrothermal, epigenetic, Ag, b, Z, Cu minerals in massive lenses, pipes and veins in limestone, dolomite, or other soluble rock near igneous intrusions.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (72).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Tpes: Sedimentary rocks, chiefly limestone, dolomite, and shale, commonly overlain by volcanic rocks and intruded y porphyritic, calc- alkaline plutons.

Textures: The textures of the *replaced sedimentary rocks are not important; associated plutons typically are porphyritic.

Ap- Range: Not important, but many are late Mesozoic to early Cenozoic.

D~~itional Environment: Carbonate host rocks that commonly occur in broad sedimentary basins, such as epicratonic miogeosynclines. Replacement by solutions emanating from volcanic centers and epizonal plutons. Calderas may be favorable.

Tectonic Setting(s): Most deposits occur in mobile belts that have undergone moderate deformation and have been intruded by small plutons.

Associated Deposit Types: Base metal sarns, ad porphyry copper deposits.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION

Mineralaogy: Zonal sequence outward: enartlite + sphalerite + argentite + tetrahedrite + digenite + chalcopyrite, rare bismuthinite; galena + sphalerite + argentite + tetrahedrite + proustite + pyrargyrite, rare jamEsonita, jordanite, boUrnonite, stephanite, and polybasite; outermost sphalerit + rhodochros... Wide;pre.ad quartz, pyrite, nmarcasite, arite. Locally, rare gold, ylvanite, and calaverite.

Texture/Structure: Ranges fromn mtassiive to highly vuggy and porous.

Alteration: Limestone wallrocks are dolomitizec1 and silicified (to form jasperoid); shale and igneous rocks are chloritized ad ommon.y are 4 arr l.lized; where syngenetic iron oxide mi)inerals are.: present; roc's are p" ized. Jasperoid near ore is coarsc.r grainecd and cntains trace of b.a< e and pyri t..

1/Modified from Morris, H. T. D-.rscript :ive Node I olyIf ret a.. i C i~eacwent D>eposits. P aper in IMinera1 I)eposit Model s., I). 1:. l-cx and ).. n. Singer, eds. USGS Bull.. 1693, :1.9f6, p. 99. Ore Controls: Tabular, podlike and pipelike ore bodies are localized by faults or vertical beds; ribbonlike or blanketlike ore bodies are localized by bedding-plane faults, by usceptible beds, or by preexisting solution :hannels, caverns, or cave rubble.

Weatherinq: Commonly oxidized to ochreous masses containing cerrusite, anglesite, hemimorphite, and cerargyrite.

3eochemical Sionature: On a district-wide basis ore deposits commonly are zoned outward from a copper-rich central area through a wide lead-silver zone, to a zinc- and manganese-rich fringe. Locally Au, As, Sb, and i. Jasperoid related to ore can often be recognized by high a and trace Ag :ontent.

Examples: East Tintic district, USUT (73) *. Eureka district, USNV (74) *. Manto deposit, MXCO (75)

itional non-proprietary information available through OIM Mineral [n try Location System (MILS)...... Dominant mineralogy Metals -2Al~~~~ Ore Gangue

Sphalerite + Fine-grained Zn-Mn Sphalerite + pyritic I rhodochrosite jasperoid E X P LANA TIl O LijL A4 ~~~2 -0 -T0;

.0 Galena Fine-grained sphalerite jasperoid with Replacement ore body Pb-Ag . argentite + barite crystals Ag sulfosalts and quartz- 0 W + tetrahedrite lined vugs I 12. I .. I 1I Paleozoic carbonate u X I - rocks It. . . l,6 . I . ._ Enargite- Medium- Monzonite of Tertiary -L1' ,... famatinite + age grained jas- '.. ~~~~.:.Cu-Au - 9 C tennantite period and Cu - tetrahedrite + coarse crystals Northern limit of sphalerite + of quartz and important copper argentite + ...... I...... barite ore bodies digenite Zn -A- ,- . Southern limit of important zinc ore bodies Modified from Cox and Singer (1986)

FIGURE 7.- Generalized map, metal and mineral zoning in polymetallic replacemcnt deposits in the main Tintic district, Utah Fil!Ure 7. Generalized ap, etal and ineral Znirig in olymnetallic Replacement Deposits in the Mlain Tintic I)istrict,, Utah FE SKARN DEPOSITS 1/

DESCRIPTION: Maqnetite in calc--silicate contact etasornatic rocks.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (76, ZZ).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Types: Gabbro, diorite, diabase, syenite, tonalite, granodiorite, granite, and coeval volcanic ocks. Limestone and calcareous sedirnentary rocks.

Textures: Granitic texture in intrusive rocks; ganoblastic to hornfelsic textures in sedi mentary ocks.

Age Range: Ii ainly Mesozoic and Tertiary, but may be any age.

Deppsitional Environment: Contacts of intrUsion and carbonate -rocks or calcareous clastic rocks.

Te--onic Settingss): Miogeosynclinal sequences intruded by felsic to nafic p; ns. Oceanic island arc, Andean volcanic arc, and rifted continental ma..,'l n.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION

Mineralogy: Magnetite + chalcopyrite + Co-pyrite pyrite pyrrhotite. Rarely cassiterite in Fe skarns in Sn-granite terranes.

Texture/Structure: Granoblastic with interstitial ore ninerals.

Alteration: Diopside-hedenbergite + rossular-andradite + epidote. Late stage aphibole + chlorite ilvaite.

Ore Controls: Carbonate ocks, alcareoUs rocks, igneous ontacts and fracture zones near contacts Fe skarn ores can also fo-rm in gtbbroic host rocks near felsic plutons.

Ueatherini: Magnetite generally crops out or forms auYndlant float.

Geochesical and Geophysical Sijqnature: Fe, C, Co, nt, possi bly Sn. Strong magnetic anomaly.

I/Modificl fron Cox, D. P. D qc fpiv tpdel of -e Skarn) e pq sit r:.a :er in Mineral Deposit Models, D. F. Cox and D. . Siniler, edti lilSGiS LBull. 1693, 1986, 1. 94. / --

Exgaiples: Shinyamni JPN (78) Cornwall, USl:'A (79) *. Iron Springs, USUT (80) *.

* Additional non-proprietary information available through EBOM Mineral Industry Location System (MILS).

6/ ZN-PB SKARN DEPOSITS 1/

DESCRIPTION: Sphalerite and galena in alc-silicate rocks..

PRIBARY REFERENCE(S): (81, 8).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Tyes: Granodiorite to granite, diorite to syenite. Carbonate rocks, calcareous elastic rocks.

Textures: Granitic to porphyritic; granoblastic to hornfelsic.

Flue Range: Mainly Mesozoic, but may be any age.

Depositional Environment: Miogeoclinal seqlences itruded by generally small bodies of igneous rock.

Tectonic Setting(s): Continental margin, late-orogenic agmatism. As -iatqD_ DeposI Types Copper skarn. _ ____~ ~ ~a _...

D& uSIT DESCRIPTION

Mineralony: Sphalerite + galena + pyrrhotite + pyrite magnetite chalcopyrite + bornite arsenopyrite + scheelite + bismuthinite + stannite + fluorite. Gold and silver do not form minerals.

Texture/Structure: Granoblastic, sulfides massive to interstitial.

Alteration: Mn-hedenbergite andradite + rossularite + spessartine + bustaMite 4- rhodonite. Late stage 11n-actinolite + ilvaite + chlorite + dannemorite + rhodochrosite.

Ore Controls: Carbonate rocks especially at shale-limestone contacts. Deposit may be hundreds of meters from intrusive.

Weathering: Gossan with stronig Mn oxide stains.

Geochenical Sionature: Zn, Fb, Mn, Cu, Co, AU, Aq, As, W, Sn, F possibly Le. Mai netic anomalies.

Exanoles: BIan an, AU(U (83) lariover-Fiery'ro distiet7 USN11 (84).

i.tional non--proprietary information avai lat::le throUiEh EOM Mineral r.itry Iocat io-n ystIm)tenl ILS )-

I/Modi fied fr-rom Cox, D. P Descri tive McIe'l of Zt--Pb Skarn Deposits. :2 aper in Mineral Deposit Models, D. P. Cox and D . Singer, ecs. USGS

¢-? 1. 1. . 3 (-,9,3 1 f9tr, ) ( ? :" .- -? CU SKARN DEPOSITS 1/ (See Figure 8)

DESCRIPTION: Chalcopyrite in calc-silicate contact metasomatic rocks.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (85, 86 ).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Types: Tonalite to mnonzogranite intruding carbonate rocks or calcareous clastic rocks.

Textures: Granitic texture, porphyry, qranoblastic to hornfelsic in sedimentary rocks.

Ag ange: Mainly Mesozoic, but may be any age.

Pgpasitional Environment: iogeosynclinal sequences intruded by felsic plutons .

TP - inic Settine(s): Continental margin late orogenic magmatism.

RAiated Dposit Tnes: Porphyry Cu. zinc sarn, polymetallic replacement, Fe skarn.

DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION

Mineralogy: Chalcopyrite + pyrite + hematite magnetite + bornite pyrrhotite. Also olybdenite, bismuthinite, sphalerite, galena, cosalite, arsenopyrite, enargite, tennantite, loellingite, cobaltite, and tetrahedrite may be present. Au and g may be important products.

Texture/Structure: Coarse granoblastic with interstitial sulfides. Bladed pyroxenes are common.

Alteration: Diopside + andradite center; wollastonite + tremolite outer zone; marble eripheral zone. igneous rocks may be altered to epidote pyroxene + garnet (endoskarn). Retrograde alteration to actinolite, chlorite, and clays may be present.

Ore Controls: Irregular or tabular ore bodies in carbonate rocks and calcareous rocks near igneous contacts or in xenoliths in igneous stocks. EBreccia pipe, cutting skarn at Victoria, is host for ore. Associated igneous rocks are commonly barren.

We- Nerin_: Cu carbonates, si] icat(-s, Fe-rich ossan- Calc-silicate ml als in stream pebbles are a good guide to covered deposits.

1/lyM(dified from Cox, D. P. Descriptive Model of Cu Skarn Deposits.I ape r in Mineral Deposit Models, D. P. Cox and D. A. Singer, eds. USGS Bul. 1j3 193£ Gs p.n 8(t6. Geochemical Signature: Rock analyses may show Cut-u--Aq--rich inner zones grading outward to Au-Ang zones with high Au:Ag ratio and outer Ffb-.Zn--XAq zone. Co--fs--Sb-Bi may forn} anomalies in some sarn deposits. Magnetic anomalies.

Examples: Mason Valley, USNV (87) *. Victoria, USNV (88) *, **. Copper Canyon, USNV (9) * ** Carr For'k, USUT (0) *

* Additional non-proprietary information available through BON Mineral Industry Location System (ILS).

** Additional information available in Lowe, Raney, and Norberg, BOM IC 9035. pp. 178, 78, respectively.

(a9 Thermal aureole: Garnet-pyroxene Wollastonite Wollastonite Marble zone *

XPLAT + ++ON pWZ'~+ + + + ':::::::::.zne

...... +++++++++++ E X P L A N A T 0 N

Replacemen t Pyroxene-epidote alteration endoskarn) bodies of or potassic and/or phyllic alteration + chalcopyrite tatei disseminated chalcopyrite-molybdenite pyrite. pyrrnc and magnetite Tonalite or granodiorite pluton El--- ~ LiiP-- . Shale Limestone Calcareous Sandstone sandstone

.i Boundary of mineral zone in thermal \ aureole

Redrawn from Cox and Singer 1986)

FIGURE 8.- Schematic cross-section of Cu skarn deposit

'Uc Figure . Scshematic Cross--Setion of C Slarn De:posi~t

~5 W-MO SKARN DEPOSITS 1/

DESCRIPTION: Scheelite in calc-silicate contact metasomatic rocks.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (91), (92).

SEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock T e: Tonalite, granodiorite, quartz mnonzonite; limestone. rextures: Granitic, granoblastic.

Re RanM Mainly Mesozoic but may be any age.

Pepsitional Environment: Contacts and roof pendants of batholith and thermal aureoles of apical zones of stocks that intrude carbonate rocks.

Tectonic Settin (s): Orogenic belts. Syn-late orogenic. associated Deposit ypes: Sn-W skarns, Zn skarns.

DE IT DESCRIPTION

Iineralony: Scheelite + olybdenite + pyrrhotite + sphalerite + zhalcopyrite + bornite + arsenopyrite + magnetite + traces of wolframite, fluorite, cassiterite, and native Bi.

Alteration: Diopside-hedenbergite + grossular-andradite. Late stage spessartine + almandine. Outer barren wollastonite zone. Inner zone of passive quartz may be present.

)re Controls: Carbonate rocks in thermal aureoles of intrusions.

3eocheical Si nature: W, Mo, Zn, Cu., Sn, i, Be, As.

-xamles. Pine Creek, USCA, (93) *. Mactung, CNBC, (94) Strawberry, USCA, (5) *.

* Additional non--proprietary information available through Bflineral Endustry Location System (ILS).

L/Modified from Cox, D.. P. Descriptive.odel of W Skarn Depo it;. P a per in lineral Deposit Models, D. P. Cox and D. A. Singer, e. USGS IEkull. i.G93, L9 86, p. 5 . ~6 1:7LUORIDE-RELATED ERYLLIUM DEI-I-OSITS I!

DESCRIPTION: eryllium minerals in non-pegmatitic ockts.

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (96).

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

Rock Types: Carbonate rocks o r calcareous clastic or vlcano--clastic rocks most favorable. Silicic volcanic rocks, especially rhyolite rich in e, K, .Si, and F Also in hypothermal veins in ordinary (non-carbonate) schist, gneiss, and amphibolite at highly-productive oomer mine in Colorado.

p.etpsitional Environment: Hypothermal and epithermal veins; replacement deposits; contact metamorphic deposits (beryllian tactites).

Tectonic Setting(s): Regions characterized by high-angle faults---most commonly block-faulted areas like Basin and Range; caldera ring fractures.

DF .IT DESCRIPTION

It-a oqzy: Primary minerals; beryl, bertrandite, phenakite, chrysoberyl, helvite, barylite. Associated minerals; fluorite, topaz, quartz, magnetite, hematite, maghemite, siderite, minor pyrite, bismuthinite, wolframite, scheelite, cassiterite, rare base metal sulfides.

Alteration: Beryllian tactites; Ca, Fe, and Mg silicates, fluorite common, less common magnetite. Hypothermal and epithermal veins; K-feldspar, quartz-white mica greisen, bertrandite-mica aggregates, euclase widespread in hypothermal deposits, kaolinite and smectite in epithermal deposits.

Weathering: Beryllium minerals resistant to weathering, sometimes Be mineral crystals found loose in clisaggregated vein material.

Geochemical Sionature: Be, , Fe, W Sn, topaz conanon. gxaples: Boomier, USCO, (97) * York Iountain-. De ;Joits USAK., (98) *

Additional Reference: (99)

* Additional non-proprietary information available thro]U h BOMl ineral In-' try Location Syst(em ILS)

1/ Modified from Gri f-fi tt-5., W. R< C;aaracteris tiCs C f Iii ne . Depos :i. \. L. Erickson. ed. USGS Ope n-file Rep. 8 2-79, '982., £P.SCFj6 ------

SPOR OUNTAIN BE-F-U /

DESCRIPTION: Be-F-U minerals in tuffs, tffaceoUs breccias, and associated fault breccias. The e-F-U deposits at Spor MoLuntain are the only ones of this type of economical value, but the existence of numerous minor occurrences elsewhere indicates that there is a class of ore deposits that resembles those at Spor Mountain and that additional economic deposits will be found (100).

PRIMARY REFERENCE(S): (100)

6EOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT

RotZIyLfles: Tuffs, tuffaceous breccias, and associated fault breccias interlayered with volcanic dome-and-flow complexes of high-silica, high- fluorine, commonly topaz-bearing rhyolite; carbonate rocks are present in basement beneath the rhyolite.

Tectonic Setting(s): Regions characterized by high-angle faults--most commonly block-faulted areas like Basin and Range; caldera ring fractures.

D IT DESCRIPTION

Mineralogy: Bertrandite, fluorite, secondary yellow uraniun minerals, Mn oxides, topaz.

Alteration: Extensive argillic (smectite) alteration displaying distinctive popcorn" texture.

Geochemical Siqnature: Be, F Li, Cs, Mn, Nb, Y U, Th, topaz common. Mo, Sn, and W may be anomalous.

Exampes: Spor Mountain, USUT, (00) *.

Additional References: (101), (102), (103), (104), (105).

* Add itional non-proprietary information available through 011 Mineral Industry Location System (ILS).

/ Modified from Lindsey, D. A. and D. R. Shawe. Characteristics_of Mineral Deposits, R L Erickson, ed. USGS Open-file Rep. 2-795, 1982, pp. (;7-C.36 2. 1 5 Expl.oration ethods

3ection 2.1.5 discusses generally accepted methods and practices for locating a assessing natural resources at Yucca ountain by describing standard assessment methoclologies employed in the minerals industry and in Zovernlment. It also addresses the rationale for selecting a particular Methodology or hybrid methodology and includes a description of Uncertainties associated with those methodologies.

3eologi.c/geochenmical/geophysical activities planned for purposes other than resource assessment may provide valuable information. Every effort should De made to integrate data gained through these investigations, along with pre-existing data, into the resource assessment program.

.1.5.1 Geological apping rhe site at Yucca Mountain and analog areas should be the object of a program of detailed geologic mapping on as large a scale as is practical sing photogrammetry air photos, environmental resource technology satellite (ERTS) imagery, Thematic Mapper, SPOT (Systeme Probatoire ji r'ervation de la Terre) imagery and simulation data, etc.], topographic Al pological maps, cross sections, and other data acquired in background erch or provided by other site characterization activities. Field and backnround data will be employed to produce detailed composite geological naps on which rock formations, geologic structure, faults, mineral trends, jed or formation attitudes, and other germane data are plotted. Mapping results are analyzed and interpreted to produce structural analyses, cross sections, stratigraphic columns, and other map-related products for further study, and to identify target areas for subsequent sampling, drilling, or jeochemical/geophysical surveys. -. 1. 2 vampl intj Methods

Savpling is a systematic process of obtainin a representative unit of ore, -VOClf., Soil, gas, fluid, fauna]. or flora] parts, or other aterial for the purpose of analysis. Sampling is conducted as part of a exploration program to locate and determine the quantity and/or quality of a potential resource. An important use of sample analyses is in the construction of suites of elements for the various rock types that occur or postulated to occur at the site. Suites of elements should be constructed for silicic tuffs, sarns, carbonate and other sedimentary rocks, and for pltonic ro c ks.

Samples may be obtained fron rock outcrops; st-ream or wash sediments; fan, playa, or other deposits; stream, spring, geothermal, mine, or well waters; soil; air; drill cores, cuttings, or sludges; flora; fauna; mines; mine dumps, tailings or ore piles; processing plant dumps, tailings, or lag; and exploration pits, trenches, and adits, among others. Each sample should be suitably containerized and clearly arked with sampler's name and project, sample location, date, type of aalysis desired, and other pertinent info-rmation.

Thr Caost important or widely used sample types include, but are not limited t hose presented in table 1 Methodologies employed in obtaining -re" -sentative samples are discussed in detail in references listed in Section 6.3.

The nature, composition, and percentage of special constituents of samples collected in the field ay be determined by various physical, atomic, or chemaical means that include, but a-re not limited to, those ethods presented in table 2. ' I-v

TABLE . Common Surface and Subsurface Sample Types - > Advantages, Disadvantages, and Applications Sampl e Advantages Disadvantages Applications type ______Channel Provides reliable information Difficult to collect in hard In mineral exploration em- for tonnage and grade rock; costly in terms of time ployed to determine tonnage calculations required; bulky and gra d a- eAplr _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i Chip flay be considered quantita- Less reliable than channel Employed in sampling hard tive for tonnage and grade samples rocks in mineral exploratiotf- calculations; random samples 14*4-"E " in hydrocrbun may be considered qualitative e xplzrAt ont for homogeneous bodies; less bulk than channel samples

Grab Provides information pertain- Cannot be used for tonnage/ Used in mineralogic, petro- ing to presence of economic grade calculations graphic, or chemical analysis; minerals; overall composi- character samples tion, maximum grades possible for mineralized zones

Bulk Provides metallurgical in- Costly, large volumes (up to Used to determine metallurgi- formation from large volume several tons) required cal properties of material; of material information gathered used to design beneficiation plant

Soil Provides geochemical data Requires large number of Normally employed as a follow- pertaining to minerals or samples taken on a grid or up survey when geochemical or elements that may occur lines; time-consuming geophysical anomaly encounter- anomalously n the under- eV lm p l or 1n lying rock hyr:2rbrh: "~p ti

Sediment Provides information pertain- Requires large number of May be employed to calculate ing to minerals, elements, samples; time-consuming tonnage and grade of placer hydrocarbons within a drain- deposits; to gather mineral- age or catchment area; useful ogical or chemical data in a in placer deposit identifi- drainage or catchment area cation

Drill Depending on type of drilling Costly, time consuming; may Employed to gather subsurface method employed, provides be unable to drill-lin rough data in mineral ad-4y4e- information pertaining to terrain cac.tn exploration; normally subsurface lithology, miner- used after one or more of the alogy, structure, etc. above methods has shown

I______. positive results

'1 ~~~~~~~~~q I

TABLE1Sanp i.nqJiwthos TABLE 2 Comparison of Commonly Used Analytical Methods -

2.. I1.5.. 3 (3c.'hIm2: : 7..?fli i eLJ.. : . Exl)E x p oo1 a ttinIete i n- 18 E t 1- o t S

'ILxplcration eochemistry", accordinE to Levinson (., "also called ieochnmi).cal prospectin!:g, is the practical application of theoretical >eochemical principles to mineral exploration. Its specific aim is to find new deposits of metals, nonmetals, or accumulations of crude oil and Natural gas, and to locate extensions of existing deposits, by employing :hemical methods.. The methods used involve the systematic measurement of ?ne or more chemical elements or coMpounds, which sually occur in small amounts. The measurements are made on any of several naturally occurring, 2asily sampled substances such as rocks, stream sedi.ments, soils, waters, vegetation, glacial debris, or air."

3eochemical exploration is accomplished by the eployment of various rliethods in a _ochezmical survPy of the area under consideration. The Dbjective of a geochemical survey is to identify anomalous concentrations of elements or compounds that ay i.ndicate the presence of a mineral rieposit or hydrocarbon accuMulation.

-exploration geochemical surveys are classified in two general categories: reconnaissance surveys and detailed surveys. Each classification may em r-oy any or all of the various survey methods.

eaissance_ surveys are conducted to evaluate a large area (from hundreds to tens of thousands of square ilometers) with the purpose of delineating possible mineralized (or hydrocarbon) areas for followup studies, and to eliminate (from future consideration) barren ground. Typically, reconnaissance surveys incorporate a low sample density, perhaps 3rne sample per square ilometer or one sample per 100 square kilometers.

Detailed surveys are carried out on a local, uch smaller scale from a few square kilometers to tens of square ilometers with an objective of locating as exactly as possible individual resource occurrences or incli cations of structures favorable for resource occurrence. Sample intervals in a detailed survey ay be as small as 3 meters or less, Especially where veins or small targets are sought. rhe os t widely ued exploration geochemical survey nmethods, or types, includc7 but re not limited to, soil, rock, stream sediment, water, *v.;tatn.-, and vapor (including sil ases and air) . Samples collected nay be analyzed using oe or more of the procedures listed in table 2 or -ter pi roceCdu reS uch a pet ro ] raph i a nalysi s and icroprobe, as neede d

C)j:i.. su vys e ntail sampling of soil and other residual deposits to test fo' alomalous; co-centrations of elements or compounds released from the o..r ock. by the proci-essies: of wathering and leachi.nil

s._j~lgI . :Lty ica oLeochemr bedrock SUY rveys) are basued on the .t' o hole rock s:Le (which may inc lode1 utL is not linited to., )( r.. i B' i sta hi e isotope instrumental neutron activation analysis

N!), 'uknd hydrothernal alteration stud:iies) or of contained minerals or .t ..' :niin: 2, wi ti a rock. sample-L. This type of survey has great zoterftit. outli ni nil favorable geochemitical o-r metal lolenic provinces and for ident1.ti fyic g favvora 1:.1( hs t *co:ro t-: su r v-c Y

Str~ea s~edimnt i:urve are neployed alsust exc.u:tvtly for reconnaisf.;ance studies in drainage basins, and if properly collected, the samples represent the best composite of materials froi -, catte het c-ea upstream from the sampling site (2). Other sediments that ay be present in the Yucca Mountain vicinity (terraces, fans, playas, etc.) may also be sampled.

Water oc i2ydrolfeochemical survey s a-re baed on the collecti.On of samples of ground or surface water for qualitative and uantitative analysis of dissolved elements or compounds. The technique is useful in the identification of dispersal trains and haloes that nmay be indicators of th.? aresence of a mineral or hydrocarbon occurrence. Water surveys are .art i.cUlarly useful in areas where it is i.fficult to cb:tain roc!-f so.i.], or sedimnt samples.

VeQetation surveys fall into two general caterories: (1) Geobotanical surveys that involve a visual survey of vegetation, and (2) biogeochemica:L surveys that consist of the collection and chemical analyses of whole pl - -ts, selected plant tissues, or humus 3/.

Gdttanical studies include the recognition of the presence or absence of particular plant species or communities that may be indicative of certain elements or compounds, o- the recognition of deformed or oddly--colored plants whose characteristics are the result of deleterious or toxic effects caused by an excess of certain tr ace elements (2) . Table 3 presents a *.escription of visual changcs in plants that ay resull for elevated Concentrations of some trace elements in soils.

Briogeochenical exploration ethods involve chemical analyses of plants or parts of plants that may have incorporated certain elements or compounds in their tissues. T-rees and peatophytes, with their deep -root systems, are particularly amenable to biogeochermical analysis. Recent studies by the USGS Su! gest that rtemisis tridentata NlUtt. a sauebrush common to the Axestern 1.!. S upta.tkes qol an.j r.:a be L..eful as a too)l in exploration (loG)......

Ihe Use of vegetation ;urvey_ as a gLi.e- to m:,nera]. ceou-ces is oe- -I'I p t han, any thor- qf:joch c: i:'cal. Ith . anfd iao recI C ,:: ,peti a si. .. in efxecut*tion and i-t-- p-ta i -, i .:j to oDf the(.: ci rawback.:s thlis neoc~h. '-.xem p:l.Latio- ~i n:thod ias h~cea accesfs fll et n I.Ioy-, i

.nri:a'iated ter-fanes in Canada aId d e-Tt ter-anos in the so;wuth em llnited 3t a ton E and rlth c-rsn t.a? X; i ( j-) 4 / ,

:i_ .. aot- ko"sV:-id i!i' (1{.1 Ži;;) *';i "- 1 i. i. .* . .. ''{;: 11+ - .? I ~:j.i..;1 l; t~i. -ll :. 3. ne- J. at . . n S ;:! i2 .; .. it Ii. i/ Li. or ehe:lj :i. cal t oc''- a :; rhay is: I:;e aid io, taj an:).I.J. t:i. L e s 4/ See Cfan-rolntl (195r2, :Lt3.'ia., :!.9( i.J; , ½-at-. ..- Sapor (s

)ther methods include heavy mineral surveys, surveys of bog and Muskeg Materials, chemical analysis of tissues from fish or other fauna, isotope surveys, geozoological techniques (use of animals or insects in ineral prospecting) 5/, and overburden surveys.

5/ See Brooks, 1983, pp. 5-108--"Geozoology in Mineral Exploration" (Section .5) for a detailed discussion of the use of animals and insects in mineral exploration. FAEBLE 3 Changiies in F')ants due to Increas ed Concentrsation of son:l rrace : mn-itsi TABLE 2. Comparison of Commonly Used Analytical Methods

flane Lower detection limit Advantages Disadvantages

\<_ Atomic Generally less than IU ppm; Rapid, sensitive, specific, Accuracy sUtters with high Absorption some elements in ppb range accurate, and relatively abundances Inexpensive Not satisfactory for some Several elements may be de- important elements such as termined from same solution Th, 11,Nb, Ta, and 1i

About 40 elements appli- Destructive cable to exploration geo- chemistry

Partial or total analyses possible Colorimetry Generally less than 10 ppm Inexpensive, simple, sensi- Only one element (or a small for elements commonly tive, specific, accurate, and group) determined at one time analyzed portable Not suitable for high Partial or total analyses abundances possible Some reagents unstable

Tests not available for some- important metals

Destructive Emission a. Usually only major and tiulti-element capabilities Complex spectra Spectrography minor elements detected (for all instruments) (visual detection) Requires highly trained Only small sample required personnel b. Generally from 1-100 ppm (for all instruments) for most elements of interest Generally slow (except for (photograph detection) direct reader)

c. Generally from 1-100 ppm Sample preparation very for most elements of interest critical and time-consuming (electronic-direct reader) Destructive X-ray 50-200 ppm on routine basis; Simple spectra Sensitivities not as good as Fluorescence more sensitive with special other methods for many elements procedures Good for high abundances of elements Analyses slower than some other methods Uses relatively large sample Analyses are relatively expensive All elements from fluorine to uranium are practical on modern equipment Certain liquids (e.g., brines) can be analyzed directly

Excellent for rapid quali- tative checks

Non-destructi ve Chemical 100 ppm Precise, accurate Less sensitive and more time- Analysis consuming than instrumental Can be used with instru- analysis mental techniques Usually not suitable for determination of noble metals Fire Assay Less than 0.005 oz/ton Au; Can be used for all ores, Normally applied to noble 0.001 oz/ton platinum group concentrates, or alloys if metals (Au, Ag, platinum group metals when used in fire properly performed metals); time-consuming; assay-spectrographic requires special laboratory procedure equipment

4*0--

-l lABLE 3. Changes in Plants due to Increqged Concentration of some Trace Elements

Element Character of changes U. Th, Ra When present in small amounts, causes acceleration of growth in plants; high concentrations lead to the appearance of deformities in vegetative shoots, dwarfism, dark-colored or blanched leaves

Fluorine Premature yellowing and falling of leaves (topaz greisens)

B Slow growth and ripening of seeds, dwarfism, procumbent forms; dark green leaves, deustate at edges; high concentration in the soil causes total or partial disappearance of vegetation

Mg Reddening of stems and leaf stalks, coiling and drying of leaf edges

Cr Yellowing of leaves, in some cases thinning of vegetation until its total disappearance

Cu Blanching of leaves, necrosis in leaf tips, reddening of stems, appearance of procumbent, degenerating forms; in some cases, total disappearance of vegetation

Ni Degeneration and disappearance of some forms, appearance of white spots on leaves, deformities, reduction of corrolar petals

Co Appearance of white spots on leaves

Pb Thinning of vegetation, appearance of suppressed forms, development of abnormal forms in flowers

Zn Chlorosis of leaves and drying of their tips. Appearance of blanched, underdeveloped, dwarfed forms

Nb Appearance of white deposits on the blades or leaves of some types of plants.

Be Deformed shoots in young individuals of pines

Rare Sharp increase in the size of leaves in some wood species earths

Source: Beus and Grigorian (1975)--see Section 6.4.

/t TABLE 4. V"ipor I n C)-t Ili I i.. Z fo)dZ0. TABLE 4. Vapor Indicators of Mineralized Zones -er- Wydrocahron Accumulations

Vapor Type of Deposit

Mercury (Hg) Ag-Pb-Zn sulfides; U, Au, Sn-Mo ores; polymetallic (Hg-As-Sb-Bi-Cu) ores; pyrites

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) All sulfide depositsc31.ioLa4ana.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) All sulfide deposit hs

Carbon dioxide, oxygen (CO2 , 02) All sulfide ores; Au oresap--'

Halogens and halides (F, Br, I) Pb-Zn sulfides; porphyry copper deposits

Noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) U-Ra ores; Hg sulfides; potash depositts

Organometallics such as (CH3)2HgAsH3 Possibly all sulfides; Au-As and compounds of Pb, Cu, Ag, Ni, Co, deposit.droczY4 bew5=_ etc.

F~~vn~nCn~~mrrlfi=t2) n LUTWb e4' Source: Levinson J,-Q80) (2). V jq ?'

40100- TABLE 5 Iean values for some iportart elements in major i neocts and sed i aentary rock. ty pei5..

'11L (

5 TABLE . - Mean values (ppm) for some important elements in major igneous and sedimentary rock types.

Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Element Ultrabasic Basic Acid Alkaline Sandstone Limestone Shale Black shale Antimony 0 1 0-2 0 -2 1 1-3 Arsenic 1-2-8 2 1.l5 2-5 4-15 75-225 Barium 2-15 250-270 600--830 100-500 20-200 300-800 450-700 Beryllium 0-2 0-1-1-5 3--5 2-12 1 <1-1 1-7 1 Bismuth 0-02 0-15 0 ) 1 0-3 0 2-1 Boron 5 5-10 15 9 9-10 10-100 Cadmium 0 1 0-2 0-1-0-2 0 1 0-1 0 2-0- 3 Chromium 2000-3400 200-340 2--4 1 10-100 5-10 100-160 10-500 Cobalt 150-240 25-75 1'-8 8 1-10 0-2-4 10-50 5-50 Copper 10-80 100-150 10--30 10-40 5-20 20-150 20-300 Fluorine 100 340-500 480--810 570-1000 180-200 220-330 500-940 Gold 0-1 0-035 0-01 Lanthanum 3.3 10-27 25--46 6 20-40 25-100 Lead 0-1 5-9 10-30 10-40 5-10 16-20 20-400 Lithium 2 10-15 30--70 28 7-29 2-20 50-60 17 Manganese 1100-1300 2200 600--965 385 670-890 Mercury 0-08-0-09 0-04--0 08 0-03-0-1 0-03-0-05 0 4-0-5 Molybdenum 0-3-0-4 1-1-4 2 0 1-1 0-1-1 1-3 10-300 Nickel 800-3000 50-160 2--8 2-4 2-10 3-12 20-100 20-300 Niobium 15 20 220 30-900 20 Silver 0-3 0-3 0-*15 0-4 0-2 0 9 Tantalum <1-1 0-5-1 3-4 1-2 2-3- 5 Tin 0-5 1 3 Titanium 3000 9000 23100 4400 4300-4500 Tungsten 0-5 1 2 0-5 2 Uranium 0-001-0-03 0-6-0-8 3-5.-4-8 2 3-2-4 Vanadium 50-140 200-250 20--25 34 10-60 2-20 50-300 50-2000 Zinc 50 90-130 40-60 5-20 4-25 50-300 100-1000 Zirconium 20-70 100-150 170 -200 300-680 20 120-200 10-20

Source: Reedman (1979 g- TAEBLE 6. Sunmary of the ; i :el ofk V2arious eenents in the secondary environment and applications :in exeoceni(plaoration TABLE 6. - Summary of the dispersion of various elements in the secondary environment and applications in exploration

ANTIMONY Soils: 5 ppm. Waters: 1 ppb. Mobility: Low. Uses: Geochemical prospecting for Sb has been undertaken, but is not very important. It has been- used as a pathfinder for gold and may produce coincident anomalies over some base metal deposits.

ARSENIC Stream sediments: 1-50 ppm. Soils: 1-50 ppm. Waters: 1-30 ppb. Plant ash: 1-2 ppm, >10 ppm may indicate mineralization. Concentrations up to 1 observed in certain plants growing over mineralized zones. Mobility: Fairly low, readily scavenged by iron oxides. Uses: Has been mainly used as a pathfinder for Au and Ag vein- type deposits.

BARIUM Soils: 100-3000 ppm. Anomalous concentrations over barite mineralization >5000 ppm. Peaks at many percent. Waters: 10 ppb. Mobility: Low. Uses: Has been used in geochemical prospecting for barite, but dispersion limited by low mobility.

BERYLLIUM. Stream sediments: <2 ppm. Values >2 ppm may delineate areas of beryl mineralization. Soils: <2-6 ppm. Values >10 ppm may define beryl-bearing pegmatites. Peak values >100 ppm over rich zones. Mobility: Low to moderate. Uses: Be has been used in geochemical exploration for beryl deposits. Similar anomalous values may occur over unmineralized alkaline rocks.

BISMUTH Soils: <1 ppm. Values >10 ppm may define Bi mineralization. Mobility: Low. Uses: Little work has been done with geochemical prospecting for Bi. Most Bi is produced as a by-product of other ores and there are only a few very small deposits that have been worked for Bi alone. Surveys in Zambia show peak values of 200 ppm over Bi-bearing vein deposits. May also have value as a pathfinder for certain vein Au deposits. TABLE . - Continued

CADMIUM Soils: <1-1 ppm. Values over a few ppm are anomalous and may be due to mineralization containing traces of Cd. Mobility: High--closely follows Zn. Uses: As in the case of Bi, Cd is produced as a by-product of other ores (lead-zinc) so that there has been little work done on prospecting for Cd. It-has been used as an aid in lead-zinc prospecting to distinguish between anomalies likely to be due to mineralization (Zn + Cd) from those unlikely to be due to mineralization (Zn only). Surveys in Ireland have shown that this can be misleading since very high Cd values (200 ppm) have been found with a Zn anomaly apparently unrelated to mineralization and low Cd values (a few ppm) are associated with a strong Zn anomaly related to good mineralization.

COBALT Stream sediments: 5-50 ppm. Soils: 5-40 ppm. Anomalous concentrations over mineralization >100-500 ppm. Waters: 0-2 ppb. Plant ash: 9 ppm. Mobility: Moderately high, but readily scavenged and held by Fe-Mn oxides. Uses: Has been used for Co prospecting, but, since Co is generally produced as a by-product of other metals, surveys are rarely conducted for Co alone. Useful as an ancillary element in surveys for other base metals which may be accompanied by Co mineralization.

COPPER Stream sediments: 5-80 ppm. >80 ppm may be anomalous. Soils: 5-100 ppm. Anomalies >150 ppm may indicate mineralization. High background basic rocks can give rise to values of many hundreds of ppm. Waters: 8 ppb. >20 ppb may be anomalous, but hydrogeochemistry rarely used for Cu owing to limited mobility. Plant ash: 90 ppm. Values >140 ppm may be anomalous. Mobility: High at pH's below 5-5, low at neutral or alkaline pH. Also may be adsorbed by organic matter and coprecipitated with Fe-Mn oxides, but Cu is less readily scavenged by Fe-Mn oxides than other base metals (e.g. Co, Zn, Ni). Uses: Stream sediment and soil sampling surveys have been widely used in all parts of the world in Cu prospecting and there is a large literature on the subject. Biogeo- chemical methods have also been used with some success. To help distinguish anomalies due to unmineralized basic rocks from anomalies likely to result from mineralization the Co/Ni ratio has been used in soil surveys. A high Co/Ni ratio (>1) indicates that anomalous Cu values are more likely to be due to mineralization than Cu anomalies accompanied by low Co/Ni ratios. TABLE L. - Continued FLUORINE Soi s: 200-300 ppm. Anomalies over mineralization >1000 ppm with peaks at many thousands of ppm. Waters: 50-500 ppb. Values >1000 ppb in river waters may be due to mineralization. Mobility: Fairly low. Uses: Geochemical surveys have been undertaken for fluorite in various parts of the world using soils, groundwaters and river waters as sampling media. F now commonly used as a direct indicator, but Pb and/or Zn generally used as pathfinders before advent of specific-ion electrode analytical technique.

GOLD Soils: <10-50 ppb. Values >100 ppb may indicate mineralization. Waters: 0-002 ppb. Mobility: Generally extremely low under neutral, alkaline and reducing conditions, but may be moderately high with formation of complex ions under oxidizing conditions in both acid and alkaline environments. Uses: A number of soil surveys using Au as a direct indicator of Au mineralization have been conducted in various parts of the world with considerable success. Before cheap and sensitive AAS analytical method for Au was available, the use of pathfinders such as As and Sb was common, but not used so widely nowadays.

HELIUM Atmosphere: 5 2 ppm by volume. Waters: 4-76 X 10-8 cm3 STP/g. Mobility: Extremely high as an inert gas dissolved in waters and diffusing through overburden and fractures in rock. Uses: Pathfinder for U and hydrocarbons using both soil gas and He dissolved in groundwaters.

LEAD Stream sediments: 5-50 ppm. Soils: 5-80 ppm. Values >100 ppm may indicate Pb mineralization. Waters: 3 ppb. Plant ash: 70 ppm. Mobility: Low. Uses: Geochemical surveys for Pb using soils and stream sediments have been successfully employed all over the world. Biogeochemical and hydrogeochemical surveys have also been used with a certain amount of success. Owing to the low mobility of Pb, Zn is often a better indicator of Pb or Pb-Zn mineralization. Pb has been used as a pathfinder for barite and fluorite mineralization.

9f(__ TABLE . - Continued

LITHIUM Stream sediments: 10-40 ppm. Soils: 5-200 ppm. Waters: 3 ppb. Mobility: Moderate to high. Uses: Stream sediment and soil surveys have been used n regional reconnaissance prospecting for various pegmatite deposits since complex Li-bearing pegmatites generally contain minerals of interest such as beryl, cassiterite, pollucite, columbite, in addition to the Li minerals which are of potential economic value. Rarely used.

MANGANESE Stream sediments: 100-5000 ppm. Soils: 200-3000 ppm. Waters: (1-300 ppb. Plant ash: 4800 ppm. Mobility: Usually very low, may become mobile under acid, reducing conditions as divalent ion. Uses: Soil and vegetation surveys have been conducted in prospecting for Mn ores, but Mn is more commonly used as an ancillary element in geochemical surveys to aid interpretation.

MERCURY Stream sediments: <10-100 ppb. Soils: <10-300 ppb. Values >50 ppb may indicate mineralization such as Pb-Zn-Ag ores. Soil gas: 10-100 ng/m3, >200 ng/m3 over base metal ores. Waters: 0-01-0-05 ppb. Values >0 1 ppb may be due to Hg mineralization. Hg in waters readily adsorbed by solids, so waters are not good prospecting medium. Mobility: Generally low, but high as vapor phase. Uses: Has been used successfully in prospecting for Hg ores using stream sediments and waters and soils. Also used as a pathfinder of base metal ores. The vapor phase which can be detected in very small amounts in soil gas or the atmosphere has potential as a pathfinder of many ores. However, this is only true if Hg is present in elemental state. Many ores which contain Hg in sulphides may not release any Hg vapor unless undergoing weathering. TABLE . - Continued

MOLYBDENUM Stream sediments: <1-5 ppm. >10 ppm may indicate Mo mineralization. Soils: <1-5 ppm. >10 ppm may indicate Mo mineralization. Waters: <1-3 ppb. Plant ash: 13 ppm. Very high Mo concentrations (>1X) have been found in the ash of certain plants growing over Mo deposits. Mobility: Generally high, but is low under acid and reducing conditions when it is readily adsorbed by iron oxides and clay minerals. Uses: Stream sediment, soil and vegetation surveys have all been successfully employed in prospecting for o deposits. Mo is also used as a pathfinder for porphyry Cu deposits.

NIOBIUM Stream sediments: 5-200 ppm. Values >200 ppm may indicate Nb-bearing minerals. Soils: 5-200 ppm. Values >200 ppm may indicate Nb-bearing minerals. Mobility: Low. Uses: Both stream sediment and soil surveys have been successfully employed to locate pyrochlore-bearing carbonatites and columbite-bearing pegmatites. Unmineralized or poorly mineralized alkaline rocks may give high values in stream sediments and soils.

PHOSPHORUS Stream sediments: 100-3000 ppm. Soils: 100-3000 ppm. Values >5000 ppm may indicate phosphate-rich rocks. Mobility: Despite the fact that P is essential to life and is taken up by plants from soils, P generally occurs only in sparingly soluble compounds and overall mobility is low. Uses: Geochemical prospecting for P has only been used rarely, but it works extremely well in locating phosphate-rich rocks.

RADIUM Stream sediments: Measured in terms of radioactivity, usually picocuries/gram (pCi/g). 02 pCi/g. Values >1.0 pCi/g may indicate U mineralization. Mobility: Fairly low, adsorbed by organic matter. Uses: Can be used as a pathfinder for U in stream sediments and soils. TABLE @9. - Continued

RADON Soil gas: Measured by a counts. Over U mineralization values may be several hundred a counts/min with short measuring time of radon emanometer. Waters: Measured in terms of radioactivity, usually picocuries/litre (pCi/litre). 10-30 pCi/litre. Values >100 pCi/litre may be due to U mineralization. Mobility: Extremely high as an inert gas dissolved in waters and diffusing through overburden and fractures in rock. Uses: Rn in soil gas and waters is widely used as a pathfinder for U mineralization. Extensive dispersion haloes cannot form owing to the short half-life.

RARE EARTHS Of the rare earths (RE) Ce, La and Y have been used in geochemistry most commonly and some figures for La (pathfinder of cerian sub-group) and Y (representative of yttrium sub-group) are given. Stream sediments: 20-500 ppm La. Soils: 20-1000 ppm La. Values several thousand ppm+ may indicate RE mineralization. <10-100 ppm Y. Plant ash: 16 ppm (total RE). Mobility: Moderately low. Uses: La has been used successfully in stream sediment and soil surveys for locating carbonatites with which RE minerals may be associated. RE elements may also occur replacing Ca in minerals such as apatite and perovskite and may result in soil values similar to those due to the presence of discrete RE minerals such as monazite.

SILVER Soils: <0 1-1 ppm. Values >0-5 ppm may indicate mineralization. Waters: 0-01-0.7 ppb. Mobility: Fairly low. Uses: Has been used in prospecting for Ag and Ag-Au deposits. Sometimes also a useful ancillary element for surveys for complex ores which are accompanied by significant Ag contents.

TIN Stream sediments: <5-10 ppm. Values >20 ppm may indicate mineralized areas. Soils: <5-20 ppm. Values >50 ppm may indicate mineralization. Mobility: Low. Uses: Stream sediment and soil surveys have been successfully employed in Sn prospecting in various parts of the world. Owing to the ease of identifying cassiterite in heavy mineral concentrates, however, traditional prospecting methods are often better than geochemical methods if Sn is present in the coarser size fractions.

9FP TABLE 2. - Continued

TITANIUM Stream sediments: 500-10,000 ppm. Soils: 500-10,000 ppm. Waters: 3 ppb. Mobility: Low. Uses: Owing to ease of identifying ilmenite and rutile in heavy mineral concentrates, geochemical prospecting for T has hardly ever been undertaken. Often used as an ancillary element in regional surveys where it often has considerable value for delineating different rock types.

TUNGSTEN Stream sediments: <2-10 ppm. Values >10 ppm may indicate mineralized areas. Soils: <2-20 ppm. Values >20 ppm may indicate mineralization and values >200 ppm observed over main ore zones. Mobility: Low to moderate. Uses: Stream sediment and soil surveys have been successfully employed in various parts of the world in prospecting for tungsten deposits.

URANIUM Stream sediments: 1-5 ppm. Values >5 ppm may be due to mineralization. Soils: <1-10 ppm. Values >10 ppm may be due to mineralization. Waters: <-1 ppb. Values >2 ppb may indicate mineralization. Plant ash: 0-6 ppm. Mobility: Extremely high, though readily held by organic matter. Uses: Stream sediment, soil, vegetation and water surveys have been successfully employed in uranium prospecting.

VANADIUM Soils: 20-500 ppm. Waters: <1 ppb. Plant ash: 22 ppm. Mobility: Low. Uses: Little use has been made of V in geochemical prospecting, though it is sometimes used as an ancillary element in regional surveys. Can be used to indicate V-rich sulphide deposits.

ZINC Stream sediments: 10-200 ppm. Values >200 ppm may indicate mineralization. Soils: 10-300 ppm. Values >300 ppm may indicate mineralization, but residual anomalies over good mineralization generally >1000 ppm. Waters: 1-20 ppb. Values >20 ppb may indicate mineralization. Plant ash: 1400 ppm. Mobility: High, but adsorbed by organic matter and readily scavenged by Mn oxides. Uses: Zn has been widely employed in stream sediment, soil, vegetation and water surveys all over the world with considerable success in prospecting for zinc, lead-zinc and complex base metal ores. TABLE _. - Continued

ZIRCONIUM Soils: 50-600 ppm. Values >1000 ppm indicate possible interesting concentrations of zirconiferous minerals. Mobility: Extremely low. Uses: Zr has been little used in geochemical prospecting. Owing to irregular and widespread distribution of zircon in igneous rocks and as a detrital mineral, soil values often show wide fluctuations.

Source: Modified from Reedman

?f# TABLE 7. Commnmly-used pathffinder emeont&t.. TABLE . - Examples of pathfinder elements used to detect mineralization.

Pathfinder Element(s) Tve of Deposit

As Au, Ag; vein-type

As Au-Ag-Cu-Co-Zn; complex sulfide ores

B W-Be-Zn-Mo-Cu-Pb; skarns

B Sn-W-Be; veins or greisens

Hg Pb-Zn-Ag; complex sulfide deposits

Mo W-Sn; contact metamorphic deposits

Mn Ba-Ag; vein deposits; porphyry copper

Se, V, Mo U; sandstone-type

Cu, Bi, As, Co, Mo, Ni U; vein-type

Mo, Te, Au porphyry copper

Pd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Co platinum in ultramafic rocks

Zn Ag-Pb-Zn; sulfide deposits in general

Zn, Cu Cu-Pb-Zn; sulfide deposits in general

Rn U; all types of occurrences

SO4 sulfide deposits of all types

Note: In most cases, several types of material (e.g., rock, soil, sediment, water and vegetation) can be sampled. In some cases, such as radon, only water and soil gas are practical. In the case of sulfate, only water is practical. Source: Modified from Levinson (1-97-4 5sa raL le sumimar i.z es tht! most ineprta.t ;s wide ., used cxp.orat i. on eoc hemical survey types and advantares, ciiadvantai.mes-, and apicatioy; lssociatedl with their use. Thie sele tion of a pa- t.cL].ar geochen.a]. xploration type (and associated executionary r;ethod or methods) may i.nclude, but is nt li-rited to, those is:tad in table 8. Det ai].ed iiscuSsions of these and other ethods are presented in cited referernces Listed i Section 2.U5; additionial referenc,:es are presenited in Sectioi .. 4. rable 9 presents the types of geochemical exploration methods that may be )f value in assessinq th resoLu ce potentia J f YcCA lountain in which ?ach ethod is keyed to one or ore of the descriptive deposit models : resented in the preced ing section. rhe success of geochemical methods in ineral exploration is often JiffiCult to evaluate. In most cases, more than one geochemical method has. )een eployed to locate a particular minera:L deposit, and it i.s not always iossible to assign credit to a single method. Fu rther, the techniques or iiethods eployed in a successful exploration program are not always reported by the company or institution sponsori-na the pogram, although utmerous discoveries can be credited to geochem-fical exploration.

e 'son (Z) for example, cites the fol].owing deposits that were .'eredprimarily through the use of geochemical exploration miethods: . a.n--type gold deposits, Nevada; the auri ferous 11uuntau deposit in Jzbec, U.S.S.R.; the IBeltana and roona willemite deposits, South )ustralia; the McArthur River and Lady Loretta lead--zinc deposits, *'ustralia; the Husky lead-zinc-silver deposit, Kerio ill, Yukon; the Island 'opper porphyry deposit, B3ri.tish Columbia; and the Sam Goosley :oppe r--si lve r- olybdenumn deposit in ritish 1Conlumia.

)n overview of case histories a papers prtaining to successful jeochemical exploration programs was published in 1971 by the Canadian [nstitute of Mining and Metalllurgy (130, pp. 5-285) Trhe case h istories nd papers present detailed accounts of the eochemical exploration iethods, analytical techniques, and other germane information on the 'iscovery of a wide rangle of metall ic anc no;nmetal lic o-re bdj. esi worldwide, References to case istories and papers from te above report and other ;ouLres *r- pres-etad in appendix !a

tasic'ally, exploration geoch.eristfy i a si:l echn:i.ciua, but .;ter pretati.on ay not br:e -.o easy a- tlhi a% ;er;::. *: v a ea a Fe- 'u:Les that cani be applied uLniversal.1y "1L,0() .The efo-e. t he selectio o f .articulvfar methods or cmbi.natinon of o , an Jeththe u1-eIrtai. tite issociated with their use, is, larre.ly a fune7tCt:i. o. Cxofersonne I erf;a api.i.c :a.*:; of iiet.t Lis) in te r -re ta; i., a a.y.yssi S eti:i si. t anW

eq q:rl aol i.oar.,} > 1 resce corodiclity SCAU qht, totc rap ., csl:i. atiej anc ti. ie 'IA nd :i !:l cE n. t r :i S 'TABLE 8.. ofoompcriscou . joy' Geochemical Iethods

1' TABLE . Coniparlsof of Major GeoCheilal XI f,.1Lt i ethods (Surveys)

Survey Advantages Disadvantages Applications Scope of survey Sampling lethod(s) Ana1y7ss Type Types

Soil Highly reliable, fewer Large pt of nonsig- Important in mineral Local, detailed; some Taken on grid system; Priia rily variables and limita- nificant anomalies explorationdr4"k-eld limited use in recon- 15-61 m spacing for detail chemical or tions than most methods encountered us, d boinns naissance surveys; surveys, 301-1500 m for instrinnentAi generally used as reconnaissance surveys follow-up to drainage basin survey

Rock (whole High potential for out- Requires numerous rock Widely used in min- Local, detailed- limit- Chip, channel, core, bulk, Petrographic, rock; min- linit.g favorable outcrops; interpreta- eral exploration- ed regional application grab, and other methods; whole rock, eral and/or metallogenic provinces tion often difficult "11gT-ei-4c ..en may be obtained from mineral or fluid and host rocks due to large number of appMT Lius surface or subsurface fluid inclus- inclusions) rock types and changes ons, fire in rock texture over assay, che^- short distances cal, instru- mental

Stream Samples may represent Best results from Important in mineral Reconnaissance 50 g samples of 80 mesh Primarily sediment best composite of streams, lakes, and explorator lo ,j4pite& or detailed surveys usually preferred for chemical or materials from catch- swamps; not appli- We clay, Ijt, black sands; instrumenta' ment area upstream from cable to some sllm hbnJ larger fractions may be sampling site regions; not site 1z0p4*&t+0" required, however spec fic -AA I Water Very useful in wooded Metal concentration Applied to mineral Reconnaissance 100 ml samples in well- Primari y or mountain areas; varies with rainfall; and geothermal ex- or detailed surveys cleaned, hard polyethy- chemical or accurate field deter- ranges of concentra- ploratio¶4 *ist lene bottles; sampling instrurmental minations possible with tion low (ppb); rela- la apIk methods variable, depends equipment tively large samples F-tnn- on location, type sample required; not site required speci fic

vegetation Useful in areas with Highly complex, re- Applied to mineral Reconnaissance Various, depends on Primarily few outcrops and light quires considerable explorationar or detailed surveys type vegetation, areal chemical or to heavy vegetation; skill in execution imi tpd hy.'rz,.0 uu, extent f survey, instrumental humus provides a more and interpretation appliza,44etr expertise of personnel uniform sampling media

Vapor (air Hay be conducted from air- Soil or air contamina- Applied to mineral Reconnaissance liethods depend on type Primarily or soil) craft; sensitive to many tion from nearby in- explorationrt10 or detailed surveys survey (air or soil gas), chemical or elements and compounds dustrial urban environ- u hyss_ ro on taken on ground or from instrurmental ment requires special e nxp4l-~m aircraft, type of gas or systems for collection vapor involved, expertise and interpretation of personnel

Other /

I/ ncludes heavy mineral, bog material, fish and other fauna, isotopic, and overburden surveys.

Source: Levinson (1980) (2). TABLE 9. Geochemical Exploration Methods Applied to Selected Deposit 1odels ( ( I

TABLE 1. - Geochemical exploration methods applied to selected deposit models.

Deposit tvPe Soil, Rock 2 Stream sed.3 Veq.4 Geochemical Signature5 Creede epithermal veins X X X X High in system Au + As + Sb + Hg, Au + Ag + Pb + Zn + Cu, Ag + Pb + Zn, Cu + Pb + Zn. Base metals generally higher in deposits with Ag. W + Bi may be present.

Hot-spring Au-Ag X X X X Au + As + Sb + Hg + Tl higher in system, increasing Ag with depth, decreasing As + Sb + T + Hg with depth. Locally, NH4, W.

Hot-spring Hg X X X X Hg + As + Sb + Au.

Replacement Sn X X Sn, As, Cu, B, W, F, Li, Pb, Zn, Rb.

Epithermal quartz-alunite-Au X X X Higher in system Au + As + Cu, increasing base metals at depth. Also Te and (at El Indio) W.

Porphyry Mo, low-F X X Zoning outward and upward from Mo + Cu + W to Cu + Au to Zn + Pb, + Au + Ag. F may be present but in amounts less than 1,000 ppm.

Epithermal Mn X X Mn, Fe, P (Pb, Ag, Au, Cu). At Talamantes, W.

Carbonate-hosted Au-Ag X X X Au + As + Hg + W + Mo, As + Hg + Sb + Tl + F (this stage superimposed on preceding). NH3 important in some deposits. ((

TABLE . -Continued

Oeposit te Soil, Rock2 Stream sed. 3 Veq. Geochemical Signature5 Simple Sb X X Sb + Fe + As + Au + Ag, Hg + W + Pb + Zn may be useful in specific cases.

Gold on flat faults X X X Au, Cu, Fe, F, Ba. Very low-level anomalies in Ag, As, Hg, and W.

Bedded barite X X Ba, where peripheral to sediment- hosted Zn-Pb, may have lateral (Cu), Pb, Zn, Ba zoning or regional Mn haloes. High organic C content.

Replacement Mn X X Mn, Fe, P Cu, Ag, Au, Pb, Zn.

Polymetallic replacement x x X On a district-wide basis, ore deposits commonly are zoned outward from a Cu-rich central area through a wide Pb-Ag zone, to a Zn and Mn- rich fringe. Locally Au, As, Sb, and Bi. Jasperold related to ore can often be recognized by high Ba and trace Ag content.

Fe skarn X X X Fe, Cu, Co, Au, possibly Sn. Strong mag. anomaly.

Zn-Pb skarn x x x Zn, Pb, Mn, Cu, Co, Au, Ag, As, W, Sn, F, possibly Be. Mag. anomalies. (

TABLE _. - Continued

DeDosit te Soil, Rock2 Stream sed. Veg. Geochemical Signatures Cu skarn X X X Rock analysis may show Cu-Au-Ag- rich inner zones grading outward to Au-Ag zones with high Au:Ag ratio and outer Pb-Zn-Ag zone. Co-As-Sb- Bi may form anomalies in some skarn deposits. Magnetic anomalies.

W-Mo skarn X X X W, Mo, Zn, Sn, Bi, Be, As.

Sour4e: Cox and Singer (%. t4 od. An e ~

17goe e4 4AN /xfCe- A~o 4

FUUINOrES-TORG-EOHEI-CALTABLE_

1. May not be particularly effective for deeply-buried deposits. Pathfinder elements may be detected.

2. Includes whole rock, mineral inclusions, fluid inclusions, etc. on rock outcrops, and core, chips, etc. from drilling.

3. No perennial streams on site; samples from washes and canyons may be barren of fine fractions.

4. Water sampling restricted to groundwater. Samples may detect anomalous concentrations of elements but may be difficult to determine source.

5. Could be useful in Au exploration, especially if Artemesis tridentata Nutt. (a species of sagebrush that absorbs Au) is present on or around site. See Erdman, et. al. USGS OFR 88-236, 1988.

Radiometric methods may be employed to detect radioactive elements in tuffs or ground water. Also, vapor surveys for radioactive elements and Hg may be useful. 2.1.5. 4 (3eophysical Ex ploration Methods

Geophysical exploration methods involve the application f eophysical principles to the search for mineral deposits as well as hydrocarbon accumutlations and geothermal ccurrences), and ay be divided into the following general nethod5s:

1. Seism'ic 2. Gravity 3. Magnetic 4. Electrical and electromagnetic 5. Radiometric 6. Well logging (borehole geophysical ethods) 7. Miscellaneous chemical, thermal, and other methods.

Seismic Methods

Seismic exploration methods (110) consist of generating seismic waves and measuring the time required for the waves to travel fron the source to a series of receivers, usually disposed along a line directed towards the sr e. From a knowledge of traveltimes to the varioUs receivers and the v, ity of the waves, one attempts to reconstruct the paths of the seismic wa>'s. Structural information is derived principally from paths which fall into two main categories: head-wave or refracted (seismic refraction) paths in which the principal portion of the path is along the interface between two rock layers, and reflected paths (seismic reflection) in whi ch the wave travels downward initially and at some point is reflected back to the surface. For both types of path, the traveltimes depend upon the physical properties of the rock and the attitudes of the beds. The objective of seismic exploration is to deduce information about the physical properties of the rocks, especially about the thickness and attitudes of the beds, from the observed arrival times and (to a limited extent) from variations in amplitude and frequency.

Jones and others (111) report that seismic reflection profiling at Ycca 1ourtain has been less than satisfactory and provide possible ex-lanations for the poor record. For a discussion of the poblems pertaining to reflection profiling at the site, see Jones, et. al. (111, pr.. 112 1 .G) _atchin!Js and Ilooney (112) , however, report sucCesSfFul eismic penlet, at i on of 5 to 12 kM of Colunbia River EBasalt and undeerlyinI sediments to obtain the first detailed look at the structure beneath the central Columbia :lateau. The technique used by Catchings and Mooney., h :1.t--re1-olution full-wavefield eismic profiling", ay be useful in deterrninin-i strUCt(AY e., Jepth-to--baseafent, and other factors on and a rondLOC the Yucca Monc-,tain ; i te.

3 tY methods

-r.aty exploration ethods (ravity prospecting) involve the; e;urent zf variation o in the l -ravitatifield of he earth by 1 ,1 C'_i no. i. orne XnCI undergrouncd surveys. Gravity surveys, like agnetics, radioactivity, -ind a few of the mi~no ee;tr ical techniqUes, are a natUrY . sour e nothoJ >/ in which local variations in the density of rks ne- the surface au-- :hanqes in the main gravity field. While primar i 1y eloyed a; a I'. -reconnaissance tool for hydrocarbon exploration, ravity exploration methods have recently become more popular for detailed followup of maqnetic and electromai netic anomalies detected in integrated base-metal surveys in mineral exploration.

Manetic methods

Magnetic exploration methods have much in common with [Iravitation methods in that they both seek anomalies caused by changes in the physical properties of subsurface rocks, require fundamentally similar interpretation techniques (although interpretation of magnetic data is ore complex), and are used mainly for reconnaissance (10., 3).

Whereas gravity methods attempt to locate mineral deposits by the measurement of small changes in the earth's gravitational field, magnetic methods easure variations in the earth's magnetic field caused by the presence of magnetic constituents in an ore body. Further, where maps produced on the basis of gravitational data show mainly regional effects, the magnetic ap appears to be a multitude of residual anomalies which are the result of large variations in the fraction of magnetic minerals contained in the near-surface rocks (0, 143).

Ea Jrical and electromagnetic methods

Electrical exploration methods (electrical or geoelectrical prospecting) involve the detection of surface effects produced by electric current flow in the ground (110) and represent a greater variety of techniques available than other geophysical methods. It is the enormous variation in electrical conductivity found in different rocks and minerals that makes these methods important exploration tools. Electrical methods are almost entirely confined to mineral exploration as they proved effective only for shallow exploration and seldom provide data on subsurface features deeper than 305 to 460 meters (113, PP. 339). Telluric and magnetotelluric methods, however, are routinely used in hydrocarbon explo-ration as the associated fields and currents are able to penetrate to the depths where oil and gas a-re normally found (113). These methods may of value in mineral exploration of the Paleozoic rocks underlying Yucca Mountain. Radiometric method

The racliomet-ric method is used to locate mineral deposits that contain radioactive elemierits or compotutnds. Of the 20 or more naturally occurrinr ^.ements known to be radioactive, only uranium, thoriuM, and an isotope of

\IaturaI. source ethods do no0t r'ecjLifre the introduct:ion1 of artificial S0n- sourcessuch as explc:tsirns or vibrations as i e:i.smic methods, or nt . aiscand d fie1.d-otent oa- n evera 2 of the eletrical methods. ia or ele tr:i cal xp1 orati )n niet h odis 1.n I ude elf I.Potenti.al, telluric andurre maq netCotel uric.s (lt). , audio-frequency IaI netiC fi.e.d s (0FMOGS)l res:istivity, equipotential point and l:i.ne ani ise-a-la-masse, Q2.1ctrIi- ) ana1et andic ( i. J..ued po.lari.zation (I P) .*- -

potassium are of importance in exploration (110). One other element. ru b i d i um , is Use ful for d eteriaiinirn the aq e o f rock1 s. Th e rad i.joeni t r ic method is not as widely used as other eophysical tech,';niqLeS.

These and other geophysical exploration ethods (and applications) are discussed in detail in Telford and others (110), Dobrin (113), Parasnis (114), Eve and Keys (115), and Sheriff (.116) additional reference;s are presented in Section 6.4. Case h istoQrJs and papers; pertaininn to mineral deposits discovered primarily by te use of eophysical explo-ration ethod are presented in appendix 1.4. The most important or widely used methods and some of the advantages and disadvantaqes associated with their us je are summarized in table 10.

Surveys using aircraft carrying magnetic, electrornagnetic, nd other devices are the ost rapid method of finding geophysical anoMialies. Such areal surveys are also the most inexpensive ethods of covering la-rge a-reas and' hence are frequenItly sed for reconnaissence surveys; any anomalies of interest a-re late-r investigated using more detailed acerial su-rveys and/or ground surveys. Seismic exploration is another technique which has been used to explore large areas, both on land and offshore, however, at conside rably reater cost, both in time and money.

T 11 presents the types of geophysical exploration methods that ay be o lue in assessing the resource potential of Yucca Mountain. Eacl- .method is keyed to one or more of the deposit models discussed in Section 2.1.4.2. The selection of a particular method or methods of geophysical exploration may include, but is not limited to, those listed above or in table .I

Deciding which ethod or methods to use on a pa-rticUlar a-rea is extremely important. An effective but costly and time-consUMinq3 procedure involves trying every method imaginable and subsequently focusing on the method (s) that produce results. This "shotgun app-roach" miay be necessary at Yucca Mountain where the total geological pictu-re is; fa-r from clear.

Accordint to Telford (liG) "The choice of a eophysical technique or techniCues to locate a certain mineral depoiit depends on1 the natu-re of the m in -erdr and the ,u''o und ing roIo-s.. So m- ti Iie s a m et h d may g i ve a d i rict indication of the p-resence of the nirneral '.eing soiuqht., for examtple, the mar nei c ethod when, ..sed to find mauneti.c ores; of i ron or nickel; at oter timies. the ethod may only indicate w!teter te condititions are favorable to the Vccu-(rre-ice f the m:1.neraS 1 Liliht." p od exani plme of i ndirecot detectioi i; in the use of sei.m-ric teciniques in vycirocarbon ex-ploration. The:: tiechnicito s th ri;:ei ves do not aut o13l are u.ed a an aid to identify favo-rable st-ratiqahy and t p Lhit -. ay be poductive of oil..':pha leroio pfxtoration a:oter Gf)i. exi T'h niner'al has little or no res ponse to I.P., but t-re can be a i^.on be:- tleccne 1:. 1: : i..a i .rto i1) 1doc;.tcb tI, a ve io,,od c Ir:' rec , -is I f a DU- i. :i.e - f.: :.at.;:.etO - x i s t L) i; Setet Ir :i.-';sp a d e: -i.t tons.. ! V ;:: t C- Li eL--h t~n iorn.<; alr te TABLE 1. Comparison of Iajor Geophysical Exploration Methods ( I (

TABLEA. Comparison of Major Geophysical Exploration Methods

Seismic refraction Seismic reflection Gravity Magnetic Electrical Radiometric

Principal Reconnaissance explora- Detailed exploration for Reconnaissance explora- Exploration for magnetic Exploration for minerals Exploration for radio- applications tion for oil oil tfon for ol and minerals Engineering geology active minerals Engineering geology Geothermal exploration minerals Reconnaissance exploration Geothermal exploration Regional geologic studies Regional geologic studies for oil Geothermal exploration Regional geologic studies Geothermal exploration Quantity actu- Time for explosion wave Time for explosion wave Variations n earth's Variation in magnetic Natural potentials Natural radioactivity of ally measured to return to surface to return to surface gravitational field elements attributable to Current transmitted be- earth materials after refraction by sub- after reflection by sub- attributable to geologic geologic structures tween electrodes, re- surface formations surface formations structures sulting potential drop Induced electric field Quantity com- Depths to refracting Depths to reflecting hori- Density contrasts of Susceptibility contrasts o Resistivities of beds Uraniun content of rocks puted from horizons. horizontal zons. dips rocks depths to zones rocks, approximate depths approximate depths of measurements speeds of seismic waves of anomalous density to zones of anomalous interfaces between beds magnetization of contrasting resis- ti vity Geologic r Folded structures Structural oil traps of Salt domes, structural Basement topography, de- Ore deposits having Uranifum deposits economc fea- all kinds, reefs axes, buried ridges posits of magnetic ores, anomalous electrical tures sought dikes, and similar properties, depth to bedrock, depth to ground by method igneous features water surface Corrections Weathering, elevation Weathering, elevation, Latitude, free-air, Bou- Diurnal variation, normal applied to onset-to-trough' fflter shift guer, terrain NA Background radioactivity data interval

Size of crew ISor more 11-20 S 3 (ground) 2 or 3 (ground) 1-4 (ground) (no. of men) Can measure- No No No Yes Yes Yes ments be made from aircraft? ,.,,

Is method used Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes offshore?

Advantages Provides data useful to Provides large amount of Useful n oil and mineral Simplicity of execution; Useful n mineral explo- Provides infortation on identify beds and to structural data exploration; highly useful n both hydro- ration. Can be used radioactive elements infer bed lithology sensitive equipment carbon and mineral ex- from aircraft or off- ploration; rapid, econ- shore omic and convenient t/ Disadvantages Provides lower volume and Slower and more expensive Interpretation complex; Interpretation complex; Limited applications in Limited applications in less precise data than than most methods; requires independent magnetic effects from hydrocarbon exploration hydrocarbon exploratio^ reflection;limited limited applications in controls; data often rocks may be nfluenced application n mineral mineral exploration ambiguous by small amounts of cer- exploration tain contained minerals; requires independent con- trols such as drill logs -- and seismic data I/Allows depth to/Allos obasemient basementaepth estimates est~mates totob e made;! made; useful useful n1n lneamentl~neament studies. studies. ~ TABLE 11. Geophy-icai Exploration Methods lpplied to Selected Dzposit Miodel s TABLE 11 IS CURRENTLY UNDER DEVELOPMENT. INFORMATION PRESENTED ON TABLE 11 WILL INCLUDE, BUT IS NOT LIMITED TO THE METHOD, CHARACTERISTIC PHYSICAL PROPERTY, MAIN CAUSES OF ANAMOLIES, DIRECT DETECTION INFORMATION, INDIRECT DETECTION INFORMATION, AND THE PARTICULAR DEPOSIT MODEL(S) TO WHICH THE METHODS APPLY. 12 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS ARE TABULATED AND APPLIED TO 19 DEPOSIT MODELS.

T 1V DAS '~~~~~~~~~~~~~~EyT. atellded.n I. leyin g3*Fophysical methods to a particular deposit type, is tended as a guide to what methods or combination of methods myA be pplicable in the YcCa.1 Mountain area. Entries under the heading Applications-Investigations" includes the materials (minerals, ores, etc.) nd/or information that may be directly or indirectly gained by the use of he associated method. For example, telluric methods are useful in tructural studies, and are especially useful in Basin and Range studies. ravity methods may directly detect heavy ores such as chromite, pyrite, halcopyrite, and lead, and provide indirect information on placer onfiguration, karstic cavities, basement topography, or structure. eposit models shown on table 11 that are followed by a question mark ithin parentheses (?) indicate that the associated ethod is only piplicable under certain conditions (e.g., the use of IP in a suspected ot-spring gold environment may be inconclusive unless sulfides are resent). Deposit models followed by double question marks (??) indicate hat a wide range of conditions or certain rare conditions must be et if he method is to be successfully eployed. Because not all geologic onditions are known for Yucca Mountain, the inclusion of these conditional ethods for a particular deposit type was deemed necessary. ec 'sical exploration methods are relatively complex (when compared to ek ical and geochemical methods) and require highly skilled personnel in he_-application, execution, interpretation, and analysis. Uncertainties ssociated with their use are largely a function of personnel expertise, as ell as depth-to-target, geology, lithology, mineralogy, bedding, oliation, physical properties of the rocks, resource commodity sought, opography, and time and funding constraints.

.1.5.5 Exploration Drilling ndications of mineralization gained through the application of the xploration methods discussed above are just that--indications--unless, of curse, the deposit is on the surface. Such indications must be confirmed y drilling; by far, the most definitive (and expensive) exploration ethod. It is normally employed to provide subsurface geological, eochemical, and geophysical information through the recovery of core, hips, and sludge that cannot be obtained through the application of any of he exp].oration ethods discussed so far. Furthermore, borehcl.es provide rannels for geophysical logging and, in the event of a discovery, data for etermini ng a third dimension necessary for calculating deposit volumes and onna E es. reas identified in literature research and field investigations as ctenitial (Jrill targets miay :ecome foci of a drilling program, the extent f which is a function of several factors that include type ant volume of i-ifr atiron required, time and fundin-1 constraints, and borehole J.I, t;ions as stated in 10 CFR Section GO. 15(d) (1-4).. Assessment of the rocks-c' underlyi ni Yucca Mlountain, because of teir depth, must 2y heavily o drill-hole data supplemented by other exploration methods. m;a ney as ls--20 deep O 6, 100 meters) breholes (including the re-entry id deepening of UE25ip#i) may be required to adequately test these roclfs. judi' ci ious Iorehole pacemenit and use of inclined dri].i.ng techrn i quet specially useful in testing for vertical features such as high-angle '4 faults)I te'slting of the 1FEAR]eozoic and perhap: lower sections Cou].d be nffectctd without conflict with the provisions of 10 CFR Section E,0.15 () (1-4). Dio-rehoies driled over the past few years on and around Yucca Mountain ay still be open for deepening or for geophysical logging. Further, drill core from past activities may he available for inspection, authentication 1 and relort ing.

Driflholes completed for site characterization studies other than resource assessment may not uni formly cover the controlled area and ay not be directed at or intersect features favorable to mineralization such as high- angle faUlt zones, detachment zones, or veins. Further, uch driliholes may not be favorably placed or extend to the depths necessary to provide sufficient information to assess the resource potential of pre-Cenozoic rocks and volcanic rocks underlying the site. A large degree of Uncertainty exists that vertical dri]lholes would intersect vertical to near vertical faults or mineralized zones. This notwithstanding, holes drilled for other purposes may provide valuable resource information; efforts should be made to integrate any germane data into the assessment program

In some cases, holes drilled for resource assessment may serve multiple Pu -ses that may require the use of dry-drilling methods if the use of -J ing fluids could compromise the proposed tests or interfere with other tenet> proposed in the site characterization program.

The most frequently used methods of exploratory drilling are dianmond core, rotary, and percussion drilling. Table 12 presents the principal features of these and other drilling methods. Acker (117), Campbell (118), Cumming and icklund (119), and McGregor (20) provide detailed drilling method ol o pies, descriptions, rationales, applications, and associated costs. Additional references a-re presented in Section 6.3. TABLE 12.. Explo ration Drilling Methods and Nornal Characteristics

TP lABLE/I. Exploration Drilling Methods and Normal Characteristics

41~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 c /-..Zat 11 /0Z4-4OF 0 tS , 'ft Geologic information good poor fair (------poor------)

Sample volume small large small (----large---)small large

Minimum hole diameter 30 mm 50 mm 120 mm 300 mm 300 mm 100 mm 1500mm

Depth limit 3000 m 3000 m 100 m 3000m 300 m 100 m 1500 m

Speed low (------high )low

Wall contamination (--variable--) low (------variable------)

Penetration- broken or irregular ground poor (------fair--)(------good------)

Site; Surface or Underground S'U S S SU SU SU S

Collar inclination; range 1800 30 00 300 1800 1800 00 from vertical and down

Deflection capability (--moderate-) none high (------none------) Deviation from course (---high---- )(------low------) high low

Drilling medium: L L.A L L,A A L,A L Liquid or Air

Cost per unit depth high low mod (------high

Mobilization cost low (------variable------) low variable Site preparation cost low (------variable------) low high 2. . 5G6 3orehole eophysical Methods well loqging (borehole geophysical logging surveys) is a widely used qeophysical technique that involves probing the earth with instruments lowered into boreholes, with their readings being recorded on the surface. Eorehole surveys provide direct and indirect lithologic, stratigraphic and structural information, indications of the ineralogy and grade of ore zones, and index measurements for surface geophysical studies. The many boreholes drilled (or planned) on and around Yucca ountain could provide channels for a number borehole geophysical studies.

Well logging has long been employed in hydrocarbon exploration. However, as Telford (, p. 771) points out, well logging has not been used extensively in the search for metallic minerals for several reasons: . Smaller hole sizes in diamond drilling impose some limitations on equipment, 2. identification and correlation is more difficult in the complex geologic structure often associated with mineralized areas, and 3. complete recovery of core eliminates the need for logging. Telford goes on to say, however, that it is unfortunate that well logging is generally underutilized in the mineral industry in that . . . "Well logging is cheap compared to drilling", and, "A variety of geophysical logging techniques sc -J be valuable aids to correlation and identification of mineral- a\.iated anomalies, particularly where core is lost or difficult to id mify.11

Some of the geophysical exploration methods that have been applied to well logging include resistivity, induction, self-potential, induced- polarization and occasionally other electrical methods; detection of gamma- rays and neutrons in radioactivity methods; acoustic logging; and measurement of magnetic and thermal properties. Logging methods and techniques applied to metal and nonmetal deposits are discussed in detail in Dyck. (121), Scott and Tibbets (122), Threadgold (123), Baltosser and Lawrence (124), and Tixier (125). Other germane references are listed in Section 6.4.

2.1. 5 7 Geomatheatical Methods lost analytical tools used in geomatheratical resource assessment have been developed as an aid to exploration with the ultimate objective of locatinq and ultimately extracting minerals and fuels. Low resolution techniques, such as the use of analogs and/or subjective assessment, are eant as initial guides for the application of other, finer techniques (such as ochemistry and geophysics). Only within the past few decades have such i.siUes asy wilderness areas and the need to determine the National mineral :ics; ion created the demand for large scale, "stand alone" resource l fee,, r~eth s;

iiveur andllosier in "A Review of eq ional ineral Resource Assessment. let n c;" (l26) examined over 1t00 research papers on regional mtineral et5O)u PCC assessment and describe 1 methods in common use. These methods, x.ith thce p:-ibl ].e exception of the subjective techniques1 are besfit; applied o la-rle tracts of land that consist of hundreds of thousands or mill i.ons11 of hect;ares (the Yu cca ountain si te en -omIpass e s 800 hectares or ess) , o-r reCulire a specific CLuantity and type of data that may not be available for the site at Yucca lounta in (e.. c., prodUCtiOn records, tonnage and rade estimates, borehole data, etc.).

Resource assessmitent at Yucca Mountain presents a number of problems not normally encountered in a typical regional assessment. These include: (1) relatively snmall tarrqet aea: (2) applicability over textremely long ti mefra mes (10,000 or ore years) ; and (3) regulatory constraints on additio nal data athering (prinia ily drilling) Notwithstanding their widespread development for and application to large tracts of land, and *because of time and funding constraints and limited opportunities for gathering additional resource-related data, subjective probability techni- qUes may (or may not) reprresent the only reasonable alternative (to an adequate, itegrated, wel1-conceived drilling program) for evaluating the resource potential of Yucca Mountain.

Subjective methods of resource assessment allow estimates (typically expressed as a probability) to be made of an area's resource potential in a relatively short period of time. They are inexpensive (when compared to the cost of drilling, geophysical and geochemical surveys, etc.), and can be plied in many cases where physical data are limited. However, these M\. ds rely in arge part on informed judgments of an expert or group of eXT-rts and may contain an unacceptably high degree of uncertainty.

Two general categories of subjective assessment methods are in common use: simple sbjective and complex subjective methods (126)

Simple subjective methods are the most widely employed by industry and government (12G) and produce estimates ade directly by one or more persons, based on their individual experience and knowledge. This ay involve individuals separately or in concert, and one or ore iterations such as those employed by Delphi or Monte Carlo ethods. Shawe (127) employed simple subjective methods to assess the mineral potential of the Round Mountain, Nevada 1:24,000 quadrangle.

Complex subtjectives methods employ a collection of rules (inference networks) based on expert opinion on the nature and importance of geologic rCla'ionship s a;sociated with mvineral deposit types. Harris (12,1) d :i scusst e s hoOan i' fer2nc network rep'es¢rtinnih g ge i . 5 lli--oimi t b; ,.Sed t;o estimate u-raniur endowment.

:Subjcot i.ye *res uroc ass8essmieunt (either simple or compl ex) of Yucca 'iou ntain's resource potential may be enhanced by the use of analogs.,

A .eoraph:c arseas withinl thle geologic setting tlat arc a~nalooqeus to t-he coitrolled area in termi of origin, size, litho.ogy, postdepositional or

1 L, o ce - E a r e 11l.& nta in) f halo c s-. aro often ident;:fiede Ih--i formation a;i nIel dLinr( g ac kg r oun ci soe-ear s' :;Ccmnp7 Vt d I::y fielcl*1 :'... I- ..t : ! i to;X tebl c-oo~ sK: . erfe! :i. nl thie se:e loeC't i. ;:) C f O..foos. * o: bcs: ;.. :o i avalou for res0u re asses isnnt and com'parisionto ' o a;:d .c; itot i. 7.flueCt~t ( ......

(1) Ishoulds~al: te within the same oar geolc:i.c ietti~nEI and '-t d CcoLtin') siili af hc..-It rockvel or associatocd Iitl og ics as llo olf -1!1 Randi date a ea;

(2) Genesis of rocks in both analog and candidate areas should be similar;

(3) Whereas it may be advantageous for postdepsitional (or postorigin, if 2ther than sedimentary rocks) history of both analog and candidate areas to be similar (including depth of burial), it is not andatory; and

(4) Analogs must be extensively explored.

Furthe-rmore, each analog must be thoroughly studied trough examination of 2xisting literature supplemented by laboratory analysis or field tests as Jeemed necessary noting the status of relevant criteria and one or moore nieasures of mineral density (nunbe r of deposits in area, areal extent, Juantity and/or quality of mineralized aterial). These and other relevant Jata (e g., deposit size, average grades, mineral assemblages) are :ompiled, and geological, eochemical, and geophysical differences and Eiimilarities, deposit numbers and sizes, and rades across the analog are noted.

Bare Mountain, west of Yucca Mountain on the western margin of the Crater r 1 -rospector Pass Calde-ra Complex, fits the criteria outlined above and 5t< :1 be considered when selecting analogs.

In summary, all geomathematical resource assessment methods are, at least initially, probabilistic and subjective in nature, whether the assessment Parameters are treated explicitly or implicitly. Uncertainties associated ith the application of these methods can be reduced th-rough information lathe-ring (including borehole drilling), statistical analysis, and Exploration or production, but never totally eliminated, even in extensively explored areas Selection of one or more methods to assess (ucca Mountain's resource potential is constrained by the amount and quality of information currently available, the tools that may be used to lather additional information, and the decisions that are affected by the assessmen t. 3eomathematical resource assessment methods are widely used for estimating cinema' potential on a reg ional, national, or worldwide scale. Howeve-r, it -ay be that none of the crUrent ethods (incudinqir subjective methods) can ldeqsuately address the iLqu- resouce assessment prob .ees encountered at 'Licca MoVn1ta iln".

8/ See ldarbaurlh, (Q29----NUREG/CR--39r4) for a detailed discuss ion of analog rite-ria. -

2. 1.8 1 ap Data Compilation and Co-. el ati-on of Saim:ple Data

Data acquired in literature reseach and fiel di.nvesti ilations are coixpiled, interpreted, and subsequently empl.oyed to produce preli miniary detailed geologic maps of the candidate site, controlled area, and analogs. These maps should be drafted at the largest practical scale and should incl.ude, 2 but not be limited to, major rock units pesent; lithologic contacts; faults, folds, and other structural features; attitudes (strike and di.p) of formations, bedding planes, and folia; ad samlle locations and otlhe-r pertinent data. It is iportant that all locations at which sAples were taken, or geochemical/geophysical surveys were made, are accurately plotted. Locations of boreholes, trenches, ad pits should e sinmilarly noted.

The maps should be accompanied by as rany geol ogic cros;s sections as is necessary to clearly dmostrate the structure and structural relationships of the ap area. Also, stratigraphic column!:i and other graphic representations of te data should be drafted.

Analysis of the maps and concomitant ata ay disclose areas that require additional field studies as well as trgets for exploratory drilling.

CeV on (130), Berkman (131), and Elackader (132) discuss at length the dat(required for inclusion on a geologic map; additional references are presented in Section 6.3. Map symbols, terms, and data collection techniques are similarly addressed.

2.1.5.9 Data Analysis

Data acquired through background research, field i nv.stigations, and the integration of ermane data froii other site characterizati.on prograim.s are compiled and analyzed to determine what, if any, resource(s) ay be present at Yucca Mountain. In the event a resource is identified, additional studies would be become necessary to coIlLect data for an economic evalLatiozn of the resource's gross and-c net value as required by 1e CFR Section 60.21(c) (13). These studies i.`lude, bUt are not lilfsited t::

1. Add i tional. d ril]. ho i.es to d. ieate tihe re(body;

2. Addi tioal s. face/subtur face sanple f-r t!-na and rade; -.. Ce <-.xt i n!!<;

;3. Additional iam.z- I.* e qeolr;-:ica; na: j;

4 " Gotechn i.cal. tud i. eS;

tudi e< re]ated to i.tii-irjmin c5 and ann i I I :.:t r a k..tc; tur; I f t .

evn~c.-t-" t1-a t a2 -f,r':es (J.A,, . , J.t:1: di(et:i ji J C.,ttLIL:~~ [i2,S .

.x ix:.''' e i. '.! f;f Ei ( . c oe-v0[ t!:! l d; (.j: < oI..I0( ! * a: :J. .iC * : Z, t: oD-rder to aa-nee-iti. 's mat e of -reiovce :.onaaci al, -1K1fY i.' acL;jt' d.\nnn w:-.!. ,1 J' r ;_-''; Di.v:Žvffi'5 .; I...... (cŽ (1.'-3) ... ;)5 in the course of any resource assessment, it can never be proven that YucCa Moun7tain does not host mineral or energy resources. It can be said, howevc-r: that. "o resources have been identified within the area to the depths tested." Conversely, interception of old--bearing material is proof that some esource exists regardless of whether the resource is :conomlic or uneconomic given cIrrent market conditions.

The following ections (2.2, 2.3, and 2.4) presents methods, techniques, and economic models that are available for evaluating identified and unidentified resouirces that ay be extant at Yucca Mountain (and analog Areas) to fulfill the requirements of 10 CFR Section 60.21(c)(13). 1:'2. : .. -tO ; t Ii t :, . --

Section 2.2 discusses ethods used to estimate the qantity and quality and to c].assiify minera o iydrocarbon -resources; methods used to estimate discovered and undiscovered resources are cdescribed separately. .lassi.fication of -resources use definitions and guidelines presented in JSGS C:ircular 831 (133). Guidelines for specific reSoufrces are also available, such as USGS CirPcular 882 (134), which classifies phosphate resourrc.es, znd USGS tulletin 1450-E4 (1.3J), which cla.ssifi.es co..il ^'esorcs j

A variety of resou-rce-reserve classification schemes or systems has been developed. Althouph? thiese schemes or systems vary in terminology, structure, and prpose, they share a commonality in attempting to provide a consistent method fr defining, codifying, and reporti.ng mineral rsource quantities. USGS Circular 831 describes the resource classification system develooed and eployed by the Federal Government's pincipal ineral 'esource agencies, the E0M and the USGS. This classification system, and associated terminology, is used in this report. Essential. components of the system a-re raphically illustrated in figures 9 and 10; definitions ininpe to firgures 9 and 10 are presented in Section 5. ~:i c AV Iltr /6

Figure f)

t~~~~~~~f IDENTIFIED RESOURCES UNDISCOVERED RESOURCES Cumulative Production Demonstrated Probability Range Inferred (ar^. S l Measured Indicated Hypothetical I Speculative II PI

ECONOMIC INFERRED RESERVE I RESERVE *MARG IN- ALLY ECONOM IC BASE BASE

SUB- _~~~~~~~~~~~ ECONOMIC I

OcOther Includes nonconventional and low-grade materials I Occurrences A Adapted from USGS Circe 831

-7, /62

- Reserve base and inferred reserve base classification categories 2.2.1 Discovered Resources

Resource estimation is a technical task designed to determine resource 4uantity and quality. It involves integration of collected data and selection of appropriate methods for computations.

2.2.1.1. Mineral Resources lethods for resource estimation can be classified into four broad groups: (1) Average factors and area methods, (2) cross section methods, (3) analytical methods, and (4) mining block methods (136). General applications, advantages, and disadvantages for these methods are described in table 13.

1oo /3 TABLE 4. General Applications, Advantages, and Disadvantages of Standard Mineral Resource Estimation Methods.

Method Applications Advantages Disadvantages

Average Factor Particularly suited Adaptable to most Accuracy may and Area to tabular, bedded, deposit types. depend on personal Methods and large placer Procedures are interpretation deposits. flexible and require rather than no complex formulas. objective geologic Allows for rapid and observations and continuous evaluation sampling. of factual data.

Cross-Section Applicable to most Methods graphically Use would be Methods uniform deposits. portray the geology impractical for The isoline of the mineral small deposits or variation of the deposit. Computations structurally cross-section are relatively simple disrupted method is also and, depending on deposits. used in oil and spacing of sections, gas resource can yield accurate estimation. results.

Analytical Applicable to In conjunction with Morphology of the Methods tabular deposits an adequately designed deposit will not such as coal, exploration drilling be revealed. phosphate rock, and sampling program, oil-shale, large thickness, grade, and lenses, and thick volume are accurately veins. determined.

Mining Blocks Applicable to most Computations Primarily designed Methods mineral deposits are relatively simple for operating with existing and yield accurate underground mines underground resource estimates. or well-delineated workings and drill deposits. holes. Average Factors and Area Methods rhese methods use analogous or geologic blocks within areas delineated by jeologic data where the basic elements (thickness, grade, and weight) are Jetermined directly, computed, or inferred from the same or similar Jeposits. Specific examples of these methods have been described as Arithmetic average (137), weighted average (138), average depth and area (138), statistical (139), analogous (140), and geologic block (140) or ]eneral outline (141). These methods are typically employed when there is k lack of extensive exploration data (e.g., drilling); therefore, resources :alculated by these methods would normally fall into the "Inferred Zesources" category (Figures f and/b.

:ross-Section Methods rhese methods involve the delineation of and subsequent resource estimate For a deposit, using engineering drawings constructed from drill intercept ond other collected data. Variations include the standard, linear, and .soline methods (136). Accuracy of the final resource estimate, using one or more of these methods, depends on the extent of the data and frequency if ctions used to define the resource (e.g. the more sections, the ;nk ?r the individual blocks, and the greater the confidence). Thus, 'eri'rces calculated sing the cross-section methods can be classified as Lither "Indicated" or "Inferred."

Lnalytical Methods

Inalytical methods divide a deposit graphically into blocks of simple leometric forms such as triangles or polygonal prisms. The factors for Bach block can be determined directly, or averaged mathematically. The polygon method is the most common variation of the analytical methods and s employed in conjunction with a diamond drilling program. Similarly, as iith the cross-section method, the level of confidence is directly related :o the detail of the exploration program (e.g., the closer the drill oles, the greater the confidence). Thus, as with cross-section methods, esources calculated using analytical methods can be classified as either Indicated" or "Inferred."

!.in3i BAlocl._s Methods hese methods are typically used to delineate block areas in underground ines and are used mainly for extraction. Examples of mining block methods nclude longitudinal sections (142), mine extraction (138), and ine xplotation (143). These methods are normally employed in operating nderrjround mines, and resource quantities estimated are typically IC ified as "easured." a 2.2 U nd isc o ve recd R eso urces ecause of restrictions on the use of piercement methods (drilling, rench in f, dri ftinq etC ) ani because of time constraints during site haracterization, the use of eormathematical methods appear to be required in estimating the quantity and quality of undiscovered natural resources. or example, tonnages and average grades of well--explored deposits can be z.mployed as quantitative and qualitative resource models for tonnage-grade Estimnates of undiscovered deposits in geologically similar settings (126). JnfortUnately, no sbjecti.ve/geomatheriatical discovery model currently ?xists that could be applied directly in assessing the natural resources of small geographic areas such as HLW repository sites. However, if suitable nethods are developed, they would probably incorporate considerations similar to those techniques discussed in PROSPECTOR (144-148), developed by the Stanford Research Institute, and ROCKVAL (149), currently under Jevelopment by OM. Detailed references on PROSPECTOR are presented in Section 6.3; because little information has been published on ROCKVAL, a Jetailed discussion of this method is presented in the text.

: ROSPECTOR

ROSPECTOR is a computer software system that was initially employed to use tnd imitate the decision process an expert geologist would use to determine bhe favorability of a resource prospect. rhe program employs techniques of artificial intelligence (Al) to represent lmn -ical judgment knowledge in a formal way and to use that knowledge to 3f em plausible reasoning. The system represents inference nets and No i tes probabilities in ways that permit the building and use of larger tnd more intricate inference nets. As opposed to requiring the geologist :o identify all combinations at each level and to rank them, PROSPECTOR Methodology requires the geologist to provide only the odds and likelihood -atios for each rule.

)ue to the complex methodology of PROSPECTOR, the following references from the Stanford Research Institute should be consulted:

Duda, R. 0., P. E. Hart, N. J. Nilsson, R. eboh, J. Slocum, and G. L. Sutherland. Devel.oPment of a mputerbased Consultant for Mineral -X oration.Annual Report, SRI Projects 5821 and 6415, Stanford Research Institute International, Menlo Park, CA, 1977 (147).

Duda, R. O ., P. E. Hare, P,. Barrett, J. G. Gaschnig, K. Konoliqe, ~.Reboh, and J. Slocurm. Develorntient of tePo sp ccto osltto yt .or Mineral Exploration. Final Report, SI Projects 5821 and 6415, Stanford Research Institute International, Menlo Park, CA, 1978 (145)

Gaschni g, J. Development of Uranium Exploration Models for the 'r o ispector Consultant Sstem. Final Report, SRI roject 7856, ;tanford Research Institute International, Menlo Park, CA, 1980 (48).

~O'AL

:0l..() (149) i under constant developjment to i prove one or more aspects, aut has been.ri usecd in rnore than test modJes:i. For ar(eas in which the Us-.ie of ;raditiocnal. asesment: techniques is limited, ROCKVAuI. and similar ethods ay represent the only available options. It must be noted, however., that ZOCKVAL was des i q nec for application to large areas (hundreds of thousands of hecta--esi and larger), and some aspects of the riiethodology depend on the equivalent of the law of large numbers. Thus, ROCKVAL and similar approaches are not, in their current form, appropriate tools for assessing HLW repository sites; however, they could be modified, if it were deemed necessary, to make the resource estimates required by 10 CFR Part 60.

The ROCKVVL approach to natural resource assessment uses data analysis derived using methods described in Section 21, including background data collection, field observation, and geochemical and geophysical analysis. Subjective probability judgments are applied to the collected data to estimate the likelihood of prospects, tonnages, grades, etc. The overall approach is illustrated in figure//.

/O1 IDENTIFIED RESOURCES UNDISCOVERED RESOURCES Cumulative IDENTIFIED RESOURCES UNDISCOVERED RESOURCES Production Demonstrated Probability Range Inferred .-- - - I Measured Indicated Hypothetical Speculative SI S

ECONOMIC Reserves Inferred Reserves I

IMARGIN- Inferred ALLY Marginal Reserves Marginal Reserves ECONOMIC _ --- -_ Inferred SUB- Demonstrated Subeconomic ECONOMIC Subeconomic Resources Resources l Other

Occurrences Includes nonconventional and low-grade materials Adapted from USGS Circ. 831

/; '

.- Major elements of mineral-resources classification, excluding reserve base and inferred reserve base FIGURE i i ,

la) .- Rockval approach to mineral resource assessment The conceptual framework for the assessment of undiscovered but potentially valuable mineral deposit types predicted to exist within a region consists Df four components: (1) A geologic model of endowment (that quantity of resource in deposits meeting specified physical characteristics such as quality, size, and depth); (2) a set of engineering screens (constraints); (3) a set of economic constraints; and (4) a statistical process to express the major geologic and economic results as probability distributions. rhe geologic model of endowment divides the geologic characteristics of a particular deposit type into the following physical factors: endowment thresholds, regional parameters, deposit parameters, and commodity parameters. These are described in tableaus-9 rwo engineering screens are employed to incorporate current technological limitations on the proportion of the mineral endowment that may be reasonably exploited. The first is a recovery factor estimated as the percent of a contained commodity in a deposit that may be efficiently recovered from the ore, and the second is a recoverable depth cutoff, below which current mining technology is unfeasible. rwo economic screens are employed to directly incorporate current (or p-r - 'cted) economic limitations on the proportion of the mineral endowment bh nay be reasonably exploited. The first is an economic cutoff on the ]rb4 value of the ore in a deposit, and the second is an economic cutoff )n the unit value of ore in a deposit. The economic cutoff considers the iariable costs and rate of return necessary to produce a unit of the resource. For the resources in a deposit to be considered potentially economically recoverable, rather than just part of the endowment, both the Iross and the unit cutoff values for the deposit must be equaled or ?xceeded. rhe final step in the application of ROCKVAL is to use the geologic factors knd the engineering and economic screens by synthesizing them into a Monte Carlo simulation model to provide probabilistic estimates of mineral endowment and recoverable resources in terms of both physical quantities xnd values measured in dollars. rhe model simulates one possible state of geologic nature by sampling from ;he probabilities assessed for each of the basic geologic factors and uses ;he resulting values to compute an amount of ore and contained commodities For deposits of a particular type. he characteristics of each simulated deposit a-re then compared against the ?ngineering and economic screens to determine if this deposit's resources tay be considered economically recoverable. This process of simulating a articular state of nature (a Monte Carlo "pass") is repeated many times tnd he results stored, aggregated, and used to build a pobability Ii ;lbution for each of the desired products. The model also aggregates ;he_,-sults across all deposit types being assessed in a region, to provide ;otal estimates for each commodity possible in the region.

/06 , A TAB dAROWSAL - Geologic Para eter Definitions

Endo mn t Thresholds Cutoff Tonnage: A threshold tonnage level arbitrarily set to distisIPzish kAItM asmwalies and deposits to be included in estimates of resource endowment. This threshold should be set well below the current economic cutoff level.

Cutoff Depth: A threshold depth level arbitrarily set to distinguish between deposits to be included in estimates of resource endowment. This threshold should be set well below the current engineering cutoff level.

Cutoff Grade: A threshold grade level associated with each mineral contained in a deposit arbitrarily set to distinguish between anomalies and deposits to be included in estimates of resource endowment. This threshold should be set well below the current economic cutoff level.

Regh.d Parameters Regional A point estimate of the likelihood that all the Favorability: geologic controls necessary for the formation of deposits of a specific type are regionally present.

Significant Prospect: A prospect, occurrence, or anomaly of sufficient interest to cause a prudent exploration geologist to commit to a drilling program.

Deposit Parameters Deposit: A mineral prospect exceeding a specified (cutoff) ore tonnage, grade and depth.

Deposit Likelihood: A point probability estimate of the likelihood that a randomly selected prospect will contain ore in excess of the cutoff tonnage, grade, and depth.

Deposit Size: The estimated range in deposit sizes for the terrane.

Coemodity Parameters Commodity: A mineral of potential economic interest that may be present in a deposit.

0 ce A point probability estimate of the likelihood that Prbe rdity: the particular commodity is present in a deposit above the cutoff grade level.

Iverage Grade: The estimated range in average grade for each commodity present in a deposit, above its cutoff grade. 1.. S it " !.X..{.>..<>..c)Al: - -e--.l l ...... j. ....l-l

Pursuat to 1 CFFR Section 0. 21 (c) (13) , resources; with current markets require estii.-ttio;n of ross and n.et value. Gross value is merely the total dollar value of the commodity (at current prices) in the ground. Net va1 '.e, CRY! the other and is !ross value less the cost of producing a mar k.etable product; thus, it requires estimates of capital and operating costs neceisary for recovery of the commodity. The process used to estimate resource net values uses many of the methodologies that would be employed by industry in alfing the decision to exploit or abandon a S'0eL'SUC' .By using these ethods., sufficient data can be obtained to estimate the costs involved in extracting and marketing the resource, thus determin:ing net value.

;(. 3.. i Capi.tal and Operating Costs

Capital and operating cost estimates are necessary in order to determine the net value of a in(eral resource. Capital costs represent those ixpenditures required to bring a resource into production; operating costs, 31n the other hand, represent those costs required to sustain production. vlajor components of capital and operating costs are described in the fc ' wing section.

2 . Cost Components

Estimating capital and operating costs requires careful examination of the !2eneral cost categories shown below:

ptsa1j Costs o cquiSition - cost of any surface and/or ineral rights. *3 Exploration - costs involved in defining the resource (costs related to methods discussed in Sec. 2.1). o Development - costs required to prepare a mine for production (e.g., driving drifts, sinking shafts, preparing stopes, preproduction stripping, etc.). o Extraction system equipment and plant facilities - costs such as those expended for minintp equipment and mine commnications, water., Cr electrical systems. Q ::cicIessin system - costs associated with purchase and nst .l .at:i. on of proessu; eculpment. 0 ine:t 3.1la-ry reqUi.remients - costs of associated infrastructure. c i neer.n!: desi. un. arld m~la-aaelwient costs - costs associated 1::i.th the design and construction of a mine. Rnv ro~nnentl co.i cos.t s asisoci ate d with easures to miti ate n v :i.*r' an menta. pda; aqe..

1o73 Operating Costs o Labor requirements - cost of labor needed to sustain production (e.g-, miners, truck drivers, drillers, plant operators, mechanics, electricians, etc.) o Supplies - cost of supplies needed to sustain production (e.g., fuel, electricity, explosives, reagents, water, etc.) o Equipment operations - cost to maintain extraction and processing equipment (e.g., repair parts, tires, lube, etc.) a Administration - cost associated with management and administrative functions (e.g., administrative personnel such as plant manager, security guards, purchasing agent, etc.)

Detailed information on cost estimation and cost components may be found in the following references:

Base Line Studies Environmental Assessment/Environmental Impact Statement (EA/EIS) Prearation, and Permitting. o Bureau of Mines Cost Estimating Handbook (150)

Underground Mines o mins and Given, 1973 (151). o bach and Souders, 1975 (152). o trulid (ed.), 1982 (153). a Peele and Church, 1941 (154).

Surface Mines D Cummins and Given, 1973 (151). a Caterpillar Tractor Co., 1984 (155). a Pfleider, 1973 (156). a Church, 1981 (157). a Crawford and Hustrulid, 1979 (158).

Placer Mines a Griffith, 1960 (159). a Stebbins, 1986 (160).

Plant Desin and Cost Estimating. D Currie, 1973 (161). 0 Gilchrist, 1969 (162). D Heady and K. G. Broadhead, 1976 (163). D Pickett, 1978 (164). Pryor,F 1965 (165). 3 Richardson Engineering Services, 1984 (166). z Taggart, 1.945 (167).

Systems for Cost Estimating and Cost Data Sources rhe following section discusses applications, advantages, and disadvantages )f available systems used for estimating capital and operating costs. Cottiat i ystem (CES) (150) 'Cf :ES was first developed in 1975 to assist in the preparation of refeasibility type (+ 25 percent) estimates for capital and operating !osts. The system is applicable to mining and beneficiation of various :ypes of mineral occurrences using current technology. It has been updated so reflect the changes in costs of technologies and is current as of ranuary 1984. The Handbook consists of a series of sections, each Corresponding to a specific mining or mineral processing unit process. Jithin each section are methods to estimate either capital or operating -ost for that unit process; costs are typically presented on a logarithmic icale of cost versus capacity.-

'anadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (CIM) Mining and Mineral 'rocessina and Euipment Cost and Preliminary Canital Cost Estimations .168)

'he CIM estimating Handbook is useful in determining capital costs for many :ypes of mining and processing equipment. The Handbook contains data in ;he form of graphs, tables, and equations to rapidly estimate the cost of individual equipment items. The Handbook cannot be used to estimate ining )r processing operating costs.

40 ist Estimation Handbook for Small Placer Mines (160) rh " Handbook was written specifically to aid in estimating capital and )perating costs of placer mining operations and in designing placer mines Ind plants. It consists of a series of costing sections corresponding to pecific components of a placer operation: exploration, mining, rocessing, supplemental systems, and environmental considerations. Each ,ection contains the methodology to design a unit process or to estimate Associated capital or operating cost. Costs are typically presented on a ogarithmic scale of cost versus capacity. The system is designed to )roduce prefeasibility estimates in July 1985 dollars accurate to within 25 percent. The Handbook contains methods for updating base costs derived 'rom the equations (July 1985 dollars) to current dollars. lining Cost Service (169) lining Cost Service is a subscription service published by Western Mine :ngineering, Spokane, WA. The Handbook provides sections on electric power Lnd natural gas rates, transportation routes and rates, labor rates, cost ndices, supplies, equipment, smelting, taxes, and cost models. Data ontained in the various sections allow the user to estimate capital and perating costs for most mining and processing systems. Sections are Periodically updated (about once a year) negating the need to escalate osts to current dollars. The service provides information pertaining to lo Infrastructure requirements applicable to mining systems.

"e-_Guide (170) he Green Guide, published by Dataquest, Inc., is a handbook that lists osts for new and used construction equipment. The Guide is a Subscription ervice that provides detailed descriptions and costs for nearly all major onstruction equipment, including trucks, excavators, crushing equipment, ''I, air equipment, loaders, graders, pumps, generators, etc. The various sections are updated periodically (every few years); however, generally some escalation of dollar values is required to achieve current costs. The service is limited to capital cost estimates only.

Cost Reference Guide for Construction Euipment (171)

The Cost Reference Guide is a subscription service published by Equipment 3uide-Book Co., Palo Alto, CA. The Handbook provides operational costs for nearly all the equipment contained in the Green Guides and is used to estimate operating costs for specific pieces of equipment. Costs are broken down into operating and overhaul labor, repair and overhaul parts, fuel, electricity, lubrication, tires, ground engaging components, etc. This service, like the Green Guide, is updated on a periodic basis (every few years) and requires some escalation of values to current dollars. The service is limited to operating costs for specific construction equipment Dnly.

2.3.4 Economic Analysis

Tt Prpose of economic analysis is to determine net resource value. This isS complished by using cost estimates of the proposed extraction and processing systems in addition to other costs deemed necessary to achieve production (e.g., environmental and infrastructure costs). Economics are normally measured in terms of net cash flow, on an annual basis. Cash flow has two components; positive cash flow (sales revenue, royalty income, interest income, tax credits, etc.) and negative cash flow (purchase of assets, purchase of materials, labor, supplies, royalty payments, interest expenses, debt repayment, local and Federal taxes, etc.).

Economic analyses can be accomplished using the BOM MINSIM4 computer program for determining discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFRDR) and price determinations. A complete description of the MINSIM4 package is available in Bureau of ines IC 8820, 1980, "Supply Analyses Model (SAM): q Minerals Availability System Methodology" by R L Davidoff (172). other software is available for conducting economic analyses. reliable system, SEE (Software for Economic Evaluation), is available from Investment Evaluations Corp., 23715 Waynes Way, Golden, CO 80401 (1'3).

Is opposed to using computer software, the always reliable "hand Calculation" methods are available. The methodologies for calculating present worth, annual worth, future worth, rate of return, nd brealk.even analysis are described in detail in Economic Evaluation and Investment Der ion Methods by F., J. Stermole (174).

// ,2. 4 I.c cl m .c -c: 'de t.b.

This Section ist; currently undler dev~elopmierit. InciIcudcIe For illustrative pUrpoSeS is an example of the models slated For inclusion. Costin backup data pertaining to the individual viodels will be included in appendi.x C. - -

ECONOMIC MODEL

!X; X * *~ )XX: )t : * . (.X * )t-)1- )> * -A:l., Xe.t -1 - S( 1eV, * - i- ): ,e tt--A ffi. A -. - ,.X ';( t- *4 NR:. * X . *~A. Nt! ***X -Y.* X l Y. '0TE The following wo-I. Ia,t ).i.t c- econonmi model W'El includ e d f'or i.llustrative urposes only. It.; inclusiori -is intended to demonstrate tle tormat, content, and level of detzail of the eonoii)ic models; to be i.ncludecl in the final docume1nt. It is a prototype rodel developed for another rEt.tmines Oro iect and may conta:in mi-nor technical, format or ramrfiatical errors.. Iodels fr eventual iClusion have yet to be selected or developed. rhe athors feel that NRC could et a better ;1ict-ure of what the models will entail. if an example (notwithstandinrg i.ts apparent inai-pplicability) we're included rather than presenting the model in outline for1.

:[t i envisioned economic models will. be developed for Wo/iU skarns5 detachment and associated high-anqLe fault gold deposits, Carl in (EXfA or Bullfrog type) gold, epithermal oldE and one yet to be selected. 'J * )* **** ** **K** * ** * ** ** ** * * * *** * * *-*.* * * * .(****-J*** * * *** * ******* * *** ECONOM IC IIODEL.--NON- 1'ET L LI FE ROUS SKORN DEPOSIT COMODITY--WOLLASTNI IT E

Wol lastonite

Wollastonite deposits in the United States are typically produced by contact metamorphism between Paleozoic and Precambrian limestones and ineous rocks. They are directly associated with sarn deposits. Depending on the original composition of the surrounding rocks, wollastonite deposits are usualJy associated with varying aounts of calcite, quartz, garnet, epidote and diop side.

J. S. wol lastonite production currently exceeds 135, 000 tons/year and is derived from deposits in New York State and California. California Droduction has come froni deposits in the Little and ig Maria Mountains 20 miiles northwest of Blythe, a large deposit in the Paniment Range, 6 miles southeast of Ubehebe Peak, and deposits near Code Siding about idway between Randsburn and Ridgecrest. Other deposits are found in Warm Springs canyon on the east slope of the Panirmint Range, on Hunter Mountain near Darwin, near Sh- Creek in the vawatz Mountains, in the western foothills of the Shadow !Tk. Ains 22 miles northeast of Victorville, and in the Cargo uchacho Moa rains of Imperial County.

Typically, deposits being exploited today contain in excess of 10 million tons grading from 5 to 70 percent wollastonite. The wollastonite is usually banded with thicknesses from 1 to 30 feet for the higher grade material, however, often layers contain more siliceous or calcareous material with varying components of quartz, calcite, garnet, epidote, and diopside.

Impurities in the deposit greatly affect the processing of wollastonite. Where nearly pure wollastonite is mined, generally processing is restricted to crushing and sizing to make various products in a dry circuit. As impurities such as garnet, diopside, and epidote increase, a high-intensity magnetic separation circuit would be used to remove these weakly magnetic gangue materials from the wo. lastonite. However, when excessive calcite or sil-ca are present, a flotation step would normially be required.

For modle] i ng purposes, the depositt i assLr11ed to con-tain 00> wollastoniteq. ;30% calcite, 5 quartz, and 5 wealk magnetics (garnet and diopside). I (jr the sma).. ] medlium, anl :Large operation, tonnages requirec would e , 2 a- million tons., respectively. The deposit woulJd be amenable to open pit mini n andi ai;unles a 31 waste-to-ore t:i ppi n ratii PecauSe of :imlDrities. prcacessilg would require both wet and dry Circuits;. Dry c:i cuits wuld include size reductions, high intensity magnetic separation, and size 1- ification; wet proc essinq would i.nc lude selective flotation to emove Ca ;e and quartz.

J/'1 COrien Pit 14ininBi

The proposed mining of woli.astonite assumes a deposit of sufficient size and width to permit an open pit mining system. Assumptions ade to define the model are as follows:

1) A skarn deposit composed of wollastonite, calcite, quartz, garnet, and diopside. 2) A 3:1 waste--to-ore stripping ratio. 3) M1edium to hard driJ.ling. 4) A 1,640 ft waste haul. 5) A 4,920 ft ore haul to the mill.

The proposed open pit mine would operate one - ten hour shift per day, 5 days per week, 260 days per year. Three separate mining rates have been evaluated: 1) 220 short tons (st) per day ore and 6G0 st per day waste; 2) 440 st per day ore and 1,323 st per day waste; and 3) 1, 1 st per day ore and 3,300 st per day waste.

Mining will utilize "down-the--hole" percussion drills equipped with 2.75 in. tU -ten carbide bits. Holes will be 16 ft deep to maintain 12 ft benches. D ing is accomplished at a rate of 69 ft per hour. Each hole is loaded wirn21 pounds of ANFO, blasting occurs once a day. After blasting, broken ore and waste is selectively loaded into 35-ton rear dump trucrkS using 7 1/2 yard front end loaders. Waste haulage requires a 6 5 minute cycle time; ore haulage requires a 1.2 minute cycle time.

In addition to drills, trucks and oaclers, other mine equipment required for open pit operations include a motor grader for road and pit maintenance, a water truck for dust control, explosives truck, mechanic's truck, and a diesel generator to supply power to mine buildings (office, aintenance shop, and warehouse). q CCS s i.-.

Proposed proce?sin of wol].astonite vari.es coisitderably depenlding on auvtt and type of gangue componets in the ore. General.ly, processinql of wollastoni.te ores consists of dry crushing, sreening. and izinqj to produce various--sized products. Impu-rities, such as qarnet and diopside, a-re typically removed using high--intensity dry magnetic separators. If excessive calcite or quartz is present in the o-re, flotation is used to remove the unwanted material. The evaluation model asSurmes the followinq components; wollastonite, 60 percent by volume; calcite as the major angue .ineral; and to a lesser degree, i order of bundance1 quartz, rarnet. and diopside.

Run-of-mine o-re is delivered by dump truc k from the mine to a surge bin hich feeds the prirmary jaw crusher. Primary crushing reduces the ore to 75 percent minus 5 in. Secondary crushing frther reduces the ore to 100 percent minus 063 in. Discharge from the secondary crusher is elivered to an impact c-rushe-r then conveyed to a eries of high--intensity dry magrnetic separators for removal of oarnet ad diopside.

The weakly magnetic fraction is then conveyed to waste and the nonmagnetic fraction would be conveyed to a series of vibrating screens set at 1/16, i.n. Th ilus 1/16 in. oversize is nearly pu-re wollastonite and is delivered to a\; Jble mill for further size reduction. Pebble mill discharge is then sid in cyclone ai-r sepa-rators wherein various fractions from minus 100 to zmninus 325 mesh is sepa-rated and delive-red to sackers fo-r packaging.

The minus 1/16 in. unde-rsize from the vib-rating sc-reens, composed of wollastonite, calcite and quartz, is wet ground in a ball m:ill then delivered to flotation cells. In the float cells, calcite and qua-rtz is suppressed; the ultimate froth contains a low--grade wollastonite-calcite product. The product is thickened, filtered, and dried ther, delivered to a second pebble mill and cyclone air separators for product sizin9 and packaging. Dust collection from both product sizing and packaging facilities is combined and :packaged as all intermediate rade product.

Products from this ill are ass;umed to be a hiqh--r-rade wollastonite (9 perceEnt CaSiO3) of vW-iouS Si.zo ( percent of production) a low-q-rade o1'%ldSt .7n ite (C-S percet--t CaSiO ) of Vazx r i -;s.zes (i. percent o 1' p-r aduc tion), a d a 7dust ;cr odLuct (3 percent 'ae-1.C) w :.J. rpenia L n. uV-si.'. ' - .'-rcen n-i vr- d uc t i. n) . Th e p reenta ye o : f.gh - a-?t~ 1 .rado , ro Tct 3' W .. vary a:i.::l- the ciun ; f .ii uri.a~ t i r : i n the ori.)

lne -d e i ve n a smLi p tion s, t'ta. d:,ail T . L C) C! UC t ion W L!1 e st, 96O :s 't:,s . i'6t:, J97 ' 't i Ve y f . . r C. i M:..,a-mcC-cu(: La '-qe t''..1... q eni-ra :1.i. z l f L owsh i.:et :1.I U. t't ,at 'In -t*i w ; a (:J;';.) 6;; C _!i' 'i h W ' : *fJ !i U:LreC

. (naot i .-lc:I ci hdere) - el ii a i.aJ;h::?W ehal ar+7 si; tab:l e. (not included Costs

7stimated mine capital and operating costs for the three proposed production Levels are described in table 2 and processing capital and operating costs are described in table 3. rABLE 2.-- Wollastonite - Estimated capital and operating costs, 3pen pit mining model

CAPITAL COSTS

220 440 1100 rten st/day st/dav st/day :apital Costs ($ x 1000) Exploration $ 84 $ 168 $ 280 Infrastructure (roads) 116 174 290 Permitting 202 250 429 Development 200 200 282 Mine Equipment 1,189 1,371 2,564 Installation/facilities 959 1,231 1,993 _'king capital 165 243 485 Ii ;amital total $ 2915 $ 3.637 $ 6323

OPERATING COSTS

220 440 1100 [tem st/day st/day st/day )perating costs ($/day) Labor $ 1,375 $ 1,787 $ 3,334 Steel (drill bits/rods) 243 431 631 Fuel 241 344 751 Explosives 247 463 1,086 Equipment repair parts 137 227 536 Lube 104 129 316 Miscellaneous 116 194 412 Mine Operatina total $ 2.543 S 3.744 $ 7,456

ii?' TABLE 3.-- Wollastonite Estimated capital and operating costs, processing model

CAPITAL COSTS

220 440 1100 Item st/day st/day st/day Capital Costs ( x 1000) Permitting S 151 $ 195 S 394 Water system 273 352 709 Equipment 1,515 1,954 3,941 Installation, facilities 1,968 2,540 5,125 WorkinQ capital 204 307 564 Kill Capital Total $ 4,111 $ 5,348 $10,733

OPERATING COSTS

220 440 1100 Item st/day st/day st/day Operating costs (/day) Labor $ 1,841 $ 2,338 $ 3,793 er 140 280 700 X er 366 522 992 'ragents 80 159 397 Steel 67 135 336 Fuel, natural gas, lube 87 151 321 Multipurpose bags 139 279 697 Equipment parts 988 1,512 2,796 Mill Operating Total $ 3,708 $ 5,376 $10,032 Product transport to Barstow 1,759 3.518 8,974 Total mill and transport $ 5,467 $ 8,894 $19,006 2. 5 Re erences

Except wher'e otherwise noted, references l.isted below are available at larger public, geologic, or technical libraries. Photocopies of USGS open-file reports my be obtained for a fee through the Open--File Services Section, ranch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey, ox 25425, Denver, CO 80225. Doctoral dissertations may be otained through University Microfilms, Inc., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.

1. Code of Federal RegulationS, 10 CFR Section 60.15(d)(1-4).

2. Levinson, A. A. introduction to Exploration Geochem istry. Wilmette, IL: Applied Publishing Ltd, 1974.

3. Bergi, A. W. and F. V. Carrillo. MILS: The Mineral Industry L ocat i ny tem of the Federal Bureau of 11ines. U.S. ulines IC 881.5, 1980.

4. Calkins, J. L., E. K. Keefer, R. A. Ofsharik, G. T. Mason, P. Tracy, and M. Alkins. Descript ion of CRIB the GIPSY Retrieval 11c h anism a the Interface to the General Electric Mark III Service. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 755-AK, 1978.

5. Babcock, J. W. Introduction to OreDeposit Modeling. Mine Engineering, Dec. 1984, pp. 1631-36.

6. Singer, D. A. Mineral Resource Assessm nents of Larie Reqions: Now ancl in the Future. United States-Japan Joint Semninar on Resources in the 1990's, Japan Geol. Srv., ed. Tokyo: Earth Resources Satellite Data Analysis Center, 1984, pp. 32-40.

7. Cox, D. P. and D. A. Singer (eds). eposit Mineralodels. USGS Bull. 193, 1986.

8. U. S. J)epartiment of Energry E nvironmental Asnessmn Y ca iOUI-itaiin Site . Nl!e vada Research and Devel opment re a, _ .' I)OE/BW-f0073, 1986.

9. U. S.. Department of Energy. Cons^ultation Draft. Site C(harterizatio.- Plar Lotain 5ite, Nevada Research and .)(-.ve 1l.,orment Area. Nevada. DOE/RW--01:GO, January, 1988. .

O. L). S. Department o Enerry. Site C'arcateri zation Pln, Yucca

Mlountain Sit(.N N vada Researchsapment andanc Dv 1 A- e a I)OE/RW't-1?I 6@ D!.t,ec, rbe r 19r 8.

.'. i. " U . S:> i"e lp. a r IJ'tm,, e *'n'lt; of' Enerqy T zt''t :i II a .' L.. i. t I ). r._ .. 3(c -cio n i.;n '.Site CYharaer' ri z ation Pla, Ycca 'iou1tZa:i.Tn Site, evada

R'e:;earschl and Development Area, Nevada. V l. ., :ar-t; C hapt er 1

(3eo1 o:1 7 3. '31.8.Q3I.,J p . 1- Jirou t_ c :li . -- 7'819. 12. Sinnock, S. GeoloEy of the Nevada Tet,. ,t Site and Nearby Ar-e.a.,s, Southern Nevada.. SAND82--2207., Sandia 'National I...aborat ories Albuquerque, 11MN, 1982. 13. U. S. Departm^ent of Enerriy.. Stratirp'hy,, and Litholo.g. Section in Site Characterization Plan, Yucc-a Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada. Vol.. 1, Part A, Chapter 1, Geology, 1988, pp. -l..

14. Eath, G. D. and C. E. Jahren. Inter re tations of .aii, ne t.c Anomalies at a otential Repository Site Located in the Yucca ountain rea. Nevada Test Site.. USGS Open -File Rept. P3 377, 1984..

15. Robinson, G. D. Structure of the Pre--Cenozoic Rocks in the iciniY of,,_,,Yucca ou nt a in,_ Nye Co.nty Nevada---A P otential Nuclear-Waste Disposal Site.. USGS Bull.. 1647, 1985.

16. Scott, R. D. Extentiona)l Tectonics at Yucca NounItainI Southern Nevada. P aper in Geol. Soc.. Amer., Abstracts with Programs, 1986, Rocky lountain Section, Flagstaff, AZ, Apr. 3-11ay 2, 1986, v. 18, No. , 1986, p. 411.

17. Odt, D.A. Geolo y and Geoche m istry of the Ster linti Gold DeposlteNounty, Nevada. MSc. thesis, Univ. Nevada, Reno, NV, 1983.

18. Chamberlain, A. K. Fallout from) Yucca Mountain. Geotimes, March, 1989, pp. 3-4.

19. U.S. Department of the Interior. Site Characterization Plan1 Yucca Mountain Site. Nevada esearch and Development Area. Nevada. Vol. 1, Part A, Chapter 1, Geolorly, 1988, pp. 1-84 through 1-88.

2fd. Carr, W. J., F. ITI. Peyeros, Jr.., and P. P . Orkild.. Stratir ~a~hic and Volcano-Trctonic Relations of Crater lat Tff and oe Older Volcanic Unit-; ye Coutty...evaa. USGS rof. ape-r .323, 198.

21. Beeier., . R. Hot--oo_ '-IlecioLfs etal. Depo;i-.t s VFaoer in iGeolotilic C"racteritics of

Sediment- and Vol cani c--ot;ed ) j o);(em :i. nated Col c:1 DepocJsits-. Searc fo a Occu---rence hTlodcl', E !,J Toolf.er -d. USC;.3, Pu 1 1C,4C'. 1'985, pp. 47-54.

22..o} AverP itt, P.. .ps1.' ; 1 v Depo.i ts F t! Kc x v ..I Di:t t

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2;iLL'. *: IG.!t 3... G 'f 21-;C! iUi: J.l.|...... C. DL!*...... : G. T ' CJ P.. l! . iC,

III oD -ir i:j if a I.-) 1 . 3 , . N' .i'.

Z4 . '~~~~T it n~ g 1.. t J ''.!'V...... B.,, r:'15 ...... :',G!..:!,,Ie,:prj:e L dc...G :.I. C...... s t of" !Round:e~

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133. U.S. Breau of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey. E-i:nq_ples of a Resource/Reserve Classification for Minerals. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 831, 1980.

134. . Sedimentary Phosphate Resource Classification Sstem of the U.S. Bureau of Mines and the U.S. Geolonical Survey. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 882, 1982.

135. _ . Coal Resource Classification System of the U.S. Bureau of Mines and the U.. S. Geolonical Survey. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 1450-B, 1976.

136. Popoff, C. C. Computina Reserves, of Mineral Depos.its. Principles and Conventional Methods. U.S. BuMines IC 8283, 1966.

137. Izakson, S. S. Metodika Podscheta Za xsov Uol' nykh Mestorozhd eniy (Methods of Computing Reserves for Coal Deposits). Gosportelkhizdat (State Scientific and Technical Publishers for Mining Literature), Moscow, U.S.S.R. , 1960.

138. Jackson, C. F., and J. B. Knaebel. SCanpl jinr and stir :atior of Ore Deposts, U.S. Eullines Bull.. 3, 1932..

139. Prokof'yev, A. V. PrakPtiches.k iYe MYeto-dy Pods-cheteth .Zasov Rudnyk.hL Mestoro zhdeniy (Practical Methods for Computing Reservc-. of Ore Deposits). Gosqrteffhizdat (State Scientific and Technical Publishers fr 1i.ninq Literature), Moscow, U.S.S.R. 1953.

140. Smirnov, V. I , A.. V. P-rokof'yev, and thers. Pods'chet Z.<.P.~V Jv S t ro zhd en.ii E o e ny h st at? rjxrv!1 ( e--rve Con)putat ions; ...... :.- ...... ~...... of li neral I)e -posits) .: ( 'tatc- Sc:ient :i.fi: anci't:;n:c!rtekhi.zciat Technic.l. Publishe-ers fo;r Min:i.n L.terature) l!r.qc:ow, U.', S R. 1. 96 .

141. U.. S. totiic Ener x Commrission. 1! a i a-. 0r. e R e e rvi . . ... Procedures. 195..

142. Forrester, J.. D. Princip 1 es of Field and MIinin _ Geol ofly New York:. John Wiley n.d Sons, Inc. 1946.

143. Rickard, T. A, The SamDlinri and Estimation of Oe in a Mine. New York: En.. and Min. Jour. , 1905.

144. Duda, R. 0., J. G. Gaschniq, and P. E. Hrt. Model Desiqn in the PROSPECTOR CnSUltaint System for Mineral Exploration. Expert Systems in the Microelectronic Age, D. Michie, ed. Univ. of Edinburg Press, 1979, pp. 153--67.

145. Duda, R. ., P. E. Hart, P. Barrett, J. G.. G3aschniq, I. Konolige, R. Reboh, and J. Slocum. D eve1opne.Fntof te PROSPECTOR Consultant Sytse for MineraL__Exploratio-i-i. Final. Report, SRI Projects 5821 and 6415, Stanford Research Institute International, Menlo Park, CA, 1978.

146. Duda, R. ., P-:. E. art, and N. J.. ilsson. SUbje~tive DayeianMthd_.__ Metod forRule-Based Inference ______ystem _____. sk. ... _Amer. ___ Feder. of Inform. Process. Soc. Conf. Proc., v. 45. Montvale, NJ: AFIPIS Press, 1976, pp. 1075--82.

147. Duda, R. 0., P. E. Hart, N. J. Nilsson, R. Reboh, R. Slocum, and G. L. Sutherland. Development of a Cormp-teL Be Consultant for Mineral _Exploration. Annual Report, SRI Projects 5821 and 64l5, Stanford Research Institute International, Menlo Park, CA, 1.977.

148. Gaschnig, J. Dev e 1 p mnt of Uranium Exl3oation Models for the PROSPECTOR ConsuFtantysten. Final Report, SRI roject 7856, Stanford Research Institute International, Menlo Park, CA, 10.0

149. White, L. P., E. A. White, and J. Dillon. A n E co nomic Evaluation Of Und iscovered Mjnfral ReC)sources MethodoloEy. ApplZicatio n. and Appraisal ~Results.. Draft opy available for inspection at Western Fie! Orerati ons .enter. . S. Ltreau of' lines, l-..1 .6f.3 3r d nve Sp ok re., Wf .0. ,.2

150. U.S. f1U-NeCLL Of 1:i nec, 1tkUOfreau o l ines Cost Eti.v.,-ti nri I.

51';-l."Curn~Ln ins, AA. .. a d T. . Giv. cSo c i c t; y of . .in.in E...i.er'; tIi.n J. 1i E. inmo teFn; r i Iaid boo. ew YoC r I 5I L e t i -I o F {4 T,L .! 197

...... <:; ...... : ...... J...... Y ; t e ; eD: )!- .; .1 : 3;; . :

E . n e e. r. .:.'.n !.5., .i.n .Cl_ a. ! t a . i., ' (: .. .. '. t:; ' '- I. . e y a r 'a ., 1. '75.

:15 . H3u-1 '. t r : i. 1. c ',. (Aec .. ) .. ; e. rn: ; n' ,';'I.r: . !' ;'.'d:.a (: .2. :: 1 l, -Id hoo ...... - ...... I 1. - - .. . -_.. .I. ... View V'(.q.rrsk SIE section AIIEIEy tR.

154. Peele, R. and J. A. Church (eds.) Minin Eineer's Hand book. Vol. I and 2. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1941.

155. Caterpillar Tractor Co, Cater.p ill ar Performance Handbook. 15th ed. Peoria, IL: Caterpillar Tractor Co., 1984.

1."56. Pfleider, E. P (ed.). Surface Mi niin. New York: SME section AIME, 1973.

157. Church, H. K. Excavation land book. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1981.

158. Crawford, E. and W. A. !Austrulid. Qpen Pit Mine P1anning and De~sjjn. INew York: SE section AIME, 1979.

159. Griffith, S. V. Alluvi a1 Prosectinq and Mini nyE. London: Pergamon Press, 1960.

:L60. Stebbins, S. A. Cost Estimatin -lHandbook for Small Placer Mines. U.S. LuMines IC 9170, 1987.

161. Currie, J. M. Unit QOerations in Mineral Processing. B.C. Inst. of Tech., Burnaby, B.C., Canada, 1973.

162. Gilchrist, J. D. Extraction Metallurgy. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 1969.

163. Heady, H. H. and K. G. Broadhead. Assaying Ores Concentrates. and Bullion. U.S. Buhlines IC 8714, 1976.

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166.r ichardson Enqineering Services. Process Plant Construction E-" tai. t. i tn. ta( n (AIr ( S, V ol,.-4,. San Marcos, C: Richardson Eng. f. eviie;c C..) .,,.L

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173.. Stermole, F J. Software for Economic Evaluation (SEE). Golden, CO: Inve s tment Evaluations Corp. 198 ..

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This report was pepared to help the NRC provide guidance to DOE. on accepted methodoloqies for assessing natural resources as required by 10 CFR Fart 60. It is qenerally applicable to the area on and around Ycca MoUuntain, Nye County, evada and applies to all metals, nonmetals and mineral brines currently recoverable or that may become recoverable in the future as the result of likely advances in technology.

ReSource assessments are andated by 10 CFR Section 60. 21 (c) (13) to accompany repository license applications submitted to NRC. The goal of resource assessment at Yucca VMountain is to ensure that the likelihood of mineral extraction is considered when evaluatinq post--closure human activity that may compromise the ability of the proposed high-level waste repository to isolate radionuclides from the accessible environment. This goal is partially achieved by identifying and evaluating those locations within the geologic repository operations area or adjacent controlled area that ay have resource potential

The resource assessment process is a three-step, logical sequence of events in which potential resources are identified, quantified and qualified (tonnage and grade estimates), and evaluated (gross and net value estimates).

Resource identification involves extensive literature and database -research, resource identification, deposit modeling, field investigations, and eomathematical studies. Information ained through such r esearch ay identify areas that in the past have been the objects of exploratory drilling or resource extraction, as required by 1 CFR Section 60.122(c). Further, deposit modeling and geomathematical studies may alert researchers involved in site characterization activities other than resource assessment to possible resource indicators.

Accepted geological, rleochemical, and geophysical resource ilenti fication -ethods th at may bc elmpIoycect d turing site characterization include (but are not limited to): neological Mappi nt and samplingr, soil. and water a ayses anc; seismiic. magnetic, CeleCtrical. ai-Id ravity surveys-:.

Geomathematical ethods of resource assessmnent a llow estimates to be niade of an area' resockt.-o pot-ential at varying levelc cl certainty, without extensive exploratory drillintj and concoiitant e x peldi tu re tihmP,.f e f f ort, and f und s 7.Two meth ods, s i n p 3ce s ubjecti ve aned comp lex su b jecti ye., ancd the advant;a ge: c. sd vant a * arnd L-,certai-nties assoc2i.ated .w . t1: t;-ei r .,;e, ar e consi..er-ec I ' ray be tha-t nlo ne f te - ;t et odolC: q;ji :?. (includ i.ir- s;beet:ve methods) can ade:uzc.ately a ddr etis tn e uniqeo re--sou~ttrc~s as s;-smnt:s probb1 ere ecounter ed at Y a I'1cut, a i n It will be necsessar t xpr;nd the timne avd fund- neceisary to develop a res orce assessment pro igram that s peci Fica.ly add rc.?sses the re qui remenrtt s (:f 10 CFV 3ectio n E0. 21 1.1) B Quantification and qualification of existinrl resources encountered during site characterization, as well a of undiscovered resources thought to exist in or near the proposed HLW repository, are required. Tonnage and grade estimates may be made by the employment of one or ore eomathematical resource assessment methods. These methods, by nature, contain significant uncertainties. The use of eomathematical resource assessment methods largely stems from the regulatory restrictions that have been placed on more rel iable (and verifiable) methods that involve borehole dril .ing or other piercement procedures.

Gross and net resource value estimates (resource evaluaticon), as required by 10 CFR Section 60.21 (c) (13), a-re accomplished by using one or more of the many ethods, systems, models, and procedures in common use by OM and the private sector. In addition to gross and net value, these methodologies provide for estimating capital and operating costs, extraction systems design, and environmental, ancillary and infrastructural requirements.

The primary purpose of resource assessment at Yucca Mountain is to identify those potentially adverse conditions listed in 10 CFR Section 60.122(c) (17-19). This can be accomplished by application of methods discussed and/or re ferenced here.

/31f 4. ACRONYMS AD INITIALISMS

AI artificial intelligence AIME American Institute of ining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers BLM Bureau of Land Managemient BOMI Bureau of Mines CES Bureau of Mines' Cost Estimation System CIM Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy CNWRA Center for Nuclear Waste Regulatory Analyses CRIB Computerized Resource Information Bank DCFROR discounted cash flow rate of return DMEA Defense inerals Exploration Administration DOC (U.S.) Department of Commerce DOD (U.S.) Department of Defense DOE (U.S.) Department of Energy DOL (U.S.) Department of Labor DST drill stem test EA Environmental Assessment ElIS Environmental Impact Statement ERTS environmental resources technology satellite GROA geological repository operations area GSA Geological Society of America HLW high-level waste IRS (U.S.) Internal Revenue Service LC Library of Congress MAS Minerals Availability System MILS Mineral Industry Location System MLA Mineral Land Assessment MDRS Mineral Resources Data System MSHA Mine Safety and Health Administration NA National Archives NRC (U.S.) Nuclear Regulatory Commission NWPA Nuclear Waste Policy Act OSM Office of Surface Mining SEE Software for Economic Evaluation SPOT Systeme Probatoire cd'Observation d la Terre USFS U.S. Forest Service USGS U.S. Geological Survey 5. GLOSSARY accessible environment -- includes the atmosphere, land surfaces, surface waters, oceans, and parts of the lithosphere containing ground water that are more than 10 kilometers (6.7 miles) in any direction from the edge of the original location of the radioactive wastes in a disposal system adit -- a horizontal or nearly horizontal passage driven from the surface for the purpose of resource exploration, working, or dewatering of a ine aeromanietic survey (aeronaqnetic__prospecting) -- a technique of resource exploration using an aerial magnetometer. agglomerate -- contemporaneous pyroclastic rock containing a predominance of 'rounded or subangular fragments greater than 32 mm in diameter. alteration -- change in the mineralogical composition of a rock, typically brought about by the action of hydrothermal solutions. Also applies to secondary (supergene) changes in rocks or minerals. an Pous -- having no form; applied to rocks and minerals having no de`fin'ite crystalline structure. analogy -- inference that if two or more aspects agree with another in some respects, they will probably agree in others. anastomosing -- having a netlike or braided appearance, as in an anastomosing stream. andesitic tuff -- a rock composed of andesite fragments, generally smaller than 4 mm in diameter.

anomaly -- a deviation from uniformity; a local feature distinguishable in a geophysical, geochemical, or geobotanical measurement over a larger area; a feature considered capable of being associated with economically valuable iydrocarbon or mineral resources.

Anoxic --- containing no oxygen. apical zone -- zone surrounding the apex of a ineral deposit, intrusion, Itc.

rEIentia ttrahedrite -- a silver-bearing, copper-antimony sulfide mineral.

,rii 'lic alteration -- alteration characterized by the presence of clay 1.lsi tsh-f low tuffs -- a pyroclastic volcanic rock composed of welded or non- jelded shards of glass and rock formed as the result f a nuee arcdente V'glowing avalanche"). ery1Lian tactites -- /3G bioqgeochemical l(rospectinl. -- the chemical analysis of plants or animals as a resource exploration method. bimodal volcanism -- bulk sample -- large samples of a few hundredweight or more taken at regular but widely spaced intervals. caldera -- caldera complexes -- channel sample -- material from a level groove cut across an exposure in order to obtain a true cross-section of mineralized material exposed. chip sample -- a regular series of ore chips or rock chips taken either in a continuous line across an exposure or at uniformly spaced intervals. collar -- (1) the mouth or opening of a borehole or shaft. (2) Surface area at the top of a shaft; the area is usually reinforced with concrete. co folled area (as used by NRC) -- a surface location extending horizontally n( re than 10 kilometers (6.7 miles) in any direction from the edge of the di rbed rock zone and the underlying subsurface, which area has been committed to use as a geologic repository and from which incompatible activities would be restricted following permanent closure (NRC, 1981). The outer edge of the controlled area marks the inner edge of the accessible L-nvironment. zore drill -- a mechanism designed to rotate and cause an annular-shaped rock cutting bit to penetrate rock formations, produce cylindrical cores of the formations penetrated, and lift such cores to the surface, where they nay be collected and examined.

:ross--section -- a profile portraying an interpretation of a vertical section of the earth explored by geophysical and/or geological methods.

7rystalline rock -- an inexact but convenient term designating an igneous 3r metamorphic rock, as opposed to a sedimentary rock. Such rock consists almost wholly of mineral crystals or fragments of crystals.

Jemonstrated resoirce -- a term for the sum of easured plus indicated.

1ensity qo -- a gamma-gamma log used to indicate the varying bulk densities )f rocks penetrated in drilling by recording the amount of back-scattering if gamma rays.

Ic It -- used in reference to the physical occurrence of a resource ad Lnt-rdes metallic and nonmetallic ore bodies, peat bogs, and coal beds. leppsit model -- a cn(:ept or an analog that represents in text, tables, xnd diagrams the essential characteristics or attributes of a deposit.

co nom i c(as ._____...... _..pe-rta...... ins... to resources)- this term implies that profitable /2R > Extraction or production under defined investment assumptions has been Established, analytically demonstrated, or assumed with reasonable certainty.

?1ectromatinetic methods -- a group of electrical exploration methods in ihich one determines the magnetic field that is associated with the Electrical current through the ground. empirical deposit model -- a geologic deposit model based on known resource leposits or occurrences, containing data but no interpretation. exploitation -- the process of winning or producing from the earth the oil, Was, minerals, or rocks that have been found as the result of exploration; the extraction and utilization of ore. exploration -- the search for naturally occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous iaterial on or in the earth's crust; also called "prospecting."

Fuel resource -- oil, gas, coal (including lignite and peat), or uranium resources. jenetic deposit model -- an explanation of an analysis that divides an ore Jer it or other resource occurrence into its primary genetic components and x. .ns their interactions; an expansion of the straight line data listing )f\ rfe empirical models jeohxe ical survey -- a survey involving the chemical analysis of ;ystematically collected samples of rock, soil, plants, fish, or water.

geophysical log -- a graphic record of measured or computed geophysical lata. Types of geophysical logs include, among others, sonic, density, iatural gamma, neutron, and porosity logs. eophysical survey -- the use of one or more geophysical techniques such ts earth currents, electrical, gravity, magnetic, and seismic methods to lather information on subsurface geology.

Leotechnics -- the engineering behavior of all cuttings and slopes in the Iround; term is gradually replacing "soil echanics."

4avity _srtev.y -- the systematic easurement of the earth's gravitational ield in a specified area. round nla~g.Ic survey -- a determination of the magnetic field at the ~urface of the earth by means of ground-based instruments. ost rock --- (1) the edium within which radioactive waste is emplaced for I is sal. (2) Sometimes used as the particular horizon in which the waste s5. laced in a repository. (3) Major constituent geologic formation in , '-_

ypothetical resources -- undiscovered resources that are similar to .nown mineral bodies and that may be -reasonably expected to exist in the lame producini district or region under analogous gEeologic conditions If Exploration confirms their existence and reveals enough information about 17 o their quality, grade, and quantity, they will be reclassified as identified resources . identified resources -- resources whose location, grade, quality, and quantity are known or estimated froni specific geologic evidence. Identified resources include economic, marginally economic, and subeconomic components. To reflect varying degrees of geologic certainty, these economic divisions can be subdivided into measured, indicated, and inferred. indicated resources -- quantity and grade and/or quality are computed from information similar to that used for measured resources, but the sites for inspection, sampling, and measurement are farther apart or are otherwise less adequately spaced. The degree of assurance, although lower than that for measured resources, is high enough to assume continuity between points of observation. inferred reserve base -- the in-place part of an identified resource from which inferred reserves are estimated. Quantitative estimates are based largely on knowledge of the geologic character of a deposit for which there may be no samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity beyond the reserve base, for which there is geologic evidence. ix rd resources -- estimates are based on an assumed continuity beyond me's(tred and/or indicated resources, for which there is geologic evidence. Inferred resources may or may not be supported by samples or measurements. narginal reserve -- that part of the reserve base which, at the time of determination, borders on being economically producible. Its essential characteristic is economic uncertainty. Included are resources that would be producible, given postulated changes in economic or technologic factors. measured resource -- quantity is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, or drill holes; grade and/or quality are computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are spaced so closely and the geologic character is so well defined that size, shape, depth, and mineral content of the resource are well established. methodoloy -- a body of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline; a particular procedure or set of procedures. ore -- a mineral of sufficient value as to quanti ty and quality that can be mined at a profit. ore controls -- mechanism(s) that determines or controls the physical deposition or emplacement of ore bodies..

.t L rf1_e-.ource --- the quantity of a resource before produc.,tion.

iercemLent ethodi (exploration geology) (1) resource explaoration methocds including borehole drilling, deep pits or tenches, shaft sinking, or driving test adits, declines, etc. (2) any sbsurfface exploration method that may compromise the inte rity of a geologic HLIW epos.itory. ppm -- parts per million (grams per metric ton). resources (as used here)-- a collective term for all metallic and nonmetallic minerals and ores; fuels, including peat, lignite, and coal. Ground or surface water in the usual sense (i.e., potable, agricultural, or industrial water at ambient temperature at relatively shallow depths), is excluded as a resource. However, ground water in the form of mineral brines, or even waters of relatively low salinity, are included as resources if at depths generally below those at which potable ground water is extracted, and if they are potentially valuable for their dissolved mineral content. "Natural resources" is used in the context of 10 CFR Part 60 and is synonymous with resources." reserve base -- that part of an identified resource that meets specified minimum physical and chemical criteria related to current mining and production practices, including those for grade, quality, thickness, and depth. The reserve base is the in-place demonstrated (measured plus indicated) resource from which reserves are estimated. It may encompass those parts of the resources that have a reasonable potential for becoming economically available within planning horizons beyond those that assume proven technology and current economics. The reserve base includes those re rces that are currently economic (reserves), marginally economic (K, inal reserves), and some of those that are currently subeconomic (s@EUeconomic resources). The term "geologic reserve" has been applied by others generally to the reserve-base category, but it also may include the inferred-reserve base category; it is not a part of this classification system. reserves -- that part of the reserve base that could be economically extracted or produced at the time of determination. The term "reserves" need not signify that extraction facilities are in place and operative. Reserves include only recoverable materials; thus, terms such as "extractable reserves" and "recoverable reserves" are redundant and are not a part of this classification system. restricted resources/reserves -- that part of any resource/reserve category that is restricted from extraction by laws or regulations. For example, restricted reserves meet all the requirements of reserves except that they are restricted from extraction by laws or regulations. site characterization (as definedby 16 CFR Section 60.2) -- the program of exploration and research, both in the laboratory and in the field, undertaken to establish the geologic conditions and the ranges of those parameters of . particular site relevant to the procedures in 1 CFR Part 60. Site :haracterization includes borings, surface excavations, excavation of Exploratory shafts, limited lateral excavations and borings, and in situ be ng at depth needed to determine the suitability of the site for a Ei tic repository, but does not include preliminary borings and geophysical be nq needed to decide whether site characterization should be undertaken.

:fpeculative resources --- undiscovered resources that may occur either in *tnown types of deposits in favorable geologic settings where mineral Jiscoveries have ot been made, or in types of deposits as yet unrecognized For their economic potential. If exploration confirms their existence and I,_ " reveals enough information about their quality, grade, and quantity, they will be reclassified as identified resources. subeconomic resources -- the part of identified resources that does not meet the economic criteria of reserves and marginal reserves. undiscovered resources -- resources, the existence of which are only postulated, comprising deposits that are separate from identified resources. Undiscovered resources may be postulated in deposits of such grade and physical location as to render them economic, marginally economic, or subeconomic. To reflect varying degrees of geologic certainty, undiscovered resources may be divided into two parts: hypothetical and speculative. Iare- , V. Appendix A. Locality Abbreviations

ASTR Austria AUQL Australia, Queensland AUTS Australia, Tasmania BLVA Bolivia CILE Chile CINA China CNBC Canada, British Columbia GRMY West Germany ITLY Italy JAPN Japan MXCO Mexico THLD Thailand USAR US, Arkansas USAZ US, Arizona USCA US, California USCO US, Colorado USID US, Idaho USMT US, Montana USNM US, New Mexico USNV US, Nevada USPA US, Pennsylvania USUT US, Utah APPENDIX B

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY--CASE HISTORIES AND PAPERS PERTAINING TO RESOURCE DISCOVERIES IN WHICH GEOCHEMICAL AND/OR GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION METHODS PLAYED A MAJOR ROLE

References listed below cite instances in which geochemical and/or geophysical methods were extensively employed in the discovery of a mineral deposit. The level of detail in the references ranges from complete prospecting case histories to a passing statement of fact.

3eochemical methods

1. Archer, A. R. and C. A. Mann. Casino. Yukon--A Geochemical Discovery Df an UnQlaciated Arizona-Type Porphyry. Canada. Inst. Min. and Metall. Spec. v. 11, 1971, pp. 67-77. *** Cu-Mo porphyry deposit discovered primarily by the use of stream-sediment and soil geochemical techniques.

2. Brooks, R. R. Geobotany and Bioaeochemistrv. New York: Harper and RQ 1972, pp. 190-206. ** Cu-Mo deposit in New Zealand delineated by ge,".mistry and extended by biogeochemistry.

3. . Biological Methods of Prospecting for Minerals. New York: John #iley and Sons, 1983, pp. 93-97. **** Geologists in Finland use dogs to locate Cu-Ni ore bodies. References to other geochemical successes are found Lhroughout the text and in the bibliography.

4. Diehl, P., and H. Kern. Geology. Mineralogy, and Geochemistry of Some ;arbonate-Hosted Lead-Zinc Deposits in Kanchanabari Province. Western Thailand. Econ. Geol. and Bull. Soc. Econ. Geol., v. 76, No. 8, 1981, pp. 2128-2146. **** Geochemical soil sampling, geological mapping, and Irilling delineate exploration targets. One target, Song Tho North, 3ommenced underground operations in the fall of 1976.

5. Economic Geology. Ore Deposits in Finland. Norway. and Sweden--A Review. Econ. Geol. and Bull. Soc. Econ. Geol., v. 74, No. 5, 1979, p. 976, fig. 1. **** Vuones Copper Mine (Finland) discovered by lithogeochemical (bedrock) surveys.

6. Mining Magazine (London). Viscaria--A New Copper Mine in Northern Sweden. Min. Mag., October, 1983, pp. 226-233. **** Although details are Lacking, it appears that the Viscaria Cu-Zn ore body was first identified on .he basis of the existence of a plant, Viscaria Alpina that has a high affinity for copper. See Brooks (1983, No. 3 above, pp. 41 and 251) for Eur _.r discussions on Viscaria Alpina as a nickel as well as a copper Ln tor plant. ieochemical methods, Cont.

7. Muller, D. W., and P. R. Donovan. Stream-Sediment Reconnaissance for zinc Silicate (Willemite) in the Flinders Ranges, Southern Australia. Canada. Inst. Min. and Metall. Spec. v. 11, 1971, pp. 31-234. 11qT& -

Stream-sediment sampling led to the discovery of two willemite ore bodies.

8. Rodriguez, S. E. Geochemical Investigations for Base Metals and Silver in the Coast Geosyncline. Venezuela. Canada. Inst. Kin. and etall. Spec. v. 11, 1971, pp. 237-246. **** Stream-sediment sampling program led to the discovery of two base metal/silver zones.

9. Rugman, G. M. Perseverance Mine--A Prospecting Case History. Mining Magazine (London), May, 1982, pp. 381-391. **** The Perseverance Mine (Zimbabwe) was discovered exclusively by geochemical exploration methods.

10. Shannon, S. S., Jr. Evaluation of Copper and Molybdenum Geochemical Anomalies at the Cumo Prospect, Boise County, Idaho. Canada. Inst. Min. and Metall. Spec. v. 11, 1971, pp. 247-250. *** Limonitic discoloration found during air reconnaissance was explored using soil sampling methods; anomalous Cu-Mo led to discovery of Cumo Prospect.

11. Sinclair, W. D., R. J. Cathro, and E. M. Jansen. The Cash Porphyry Copper-Molybdenum Deposit, Dawson Range. Yukon Territory. CIN Bull., v. 74, No. 833, 1981, pp. 67-76. **** One of the largest Cu-Mo porphyries in the Yukon was discovered using a combination of soil sampling and analysis of ro fragments collected from small test pits.

1~ Skillings Mining Review. MicroMin Announces Highlights of 1987 Exploration Program. Skillings Min. Rev., Feb. 20, 1988, p. 13. **** Stream-sediment and bedrock sampling led to discovery of strong, consistent gold anomaly on the Pacific island of Yap (Micronesia).

13. Stevens, D. N., G. E. Rouse, and R. H. De Voto. Radon-222 in Soil Gas: Three Uranium Case Histories in the Western United States. Canada. Inst. Min. and etall. Spec. v. 11, 1971, pp. 258-264. **** Describes one success and two failures using radon-in-soil-gas surveys.

Geophysical methods

14. Brock, J. S. Geophysical Exploration Leading to the Discovery of the Faro Deposit. CIM Bull., v. 66, No. 738, 1973, pp. 73-116. *** Airborne and ground geophysical methods (magnetic, electromagnetic, gravimetric) followed by rotary and diamond core drilling were used to discover and delineate the 63 million metric ton Faro Pb-Zn ore body.

15. Donaldson, M. J. and G. T. Bromley. The Honeymoon Well Nickel Sulfide Deposits. Western Australia. Econ. Geol. and Bull. Soc. Econ. Geol., v. 76, No. 6, 1981, pp. 1550-1564. *** Detailed ground magnetic survey followed by reverse-circulation rotary drilling, diamond drilling, and bedrock geochemistry delineated 2 major Ni-Fe sulfide zones.

Ge L iysical methods, Cont.

16. Engineering and Mining Journal. Muscocho Explored Grenville Gneiss, Found Gold Near Quebec City. E & M J, Exploration Roundup, Apr., 1982, pp. 29-31. ** VLF and EM used to locate anomaly. Subsequent drilling delineated ore body consisting of 2 million metric tons at 0.1 oz Au/mt. /.&"I 17. . O'okiep Copper Company Exploration Department Uses Downhole and )ther Geophysics. E & M J Exploration Roundup, Feb., 1983, pp. 23-25. *** ,kirborne magnetic, surface magnetic and gravity, surface IP and EM, and lownhole IP and magnetic methods used to locate new ore bodies in O'okiep Copper District, South Africa.

18. . Geophysics Favored by French Comparison of Regional Methods. & J, Exploration Roundup, June, 1983, pp. 23-25. Variety of airborne and surface geophysical methods employed to locate the Rouez ku-Ag-Cu-Pb-Zn anomaly northwest of Le Mans, France.

19. Ewers, G. R., J. Ferguson, and T. H. Donnelly. The Nabarlek Uranium Deposit, Northern Territory, Australia--Some Petrologic and Geochemical Constraints on Genesis. Econ. Geol. and Bull. Soc. Econ. Geol., v. 78, No. 3, 1983, pp. 823-837. **** Airborne gamma-ray spectrometry survey located iranium anomaly; deposit subsequently confirmed by ground survey and diamond Irilling.

20. Harvey, J. D., and J. B. Hinzer. Geology of the Lyon Lake Deposits, ioranda Mines Limited, Sturgeon Lake. Ontario. CIM Bull., v. 74, No. 833, 19 pp. 77-83. **a* Three ore zones discovered and delineated by airborne n&. tic surveys, ground geophysical surveys (VLF, EM, and gravity), and iiationd core drilling.

21. Lundberg, B., and J. A. T. Smellie. Painirova and ertainen Iron Ores: rwo Deposits of the Kiruna Iron Ore Type in Northern Sweden. Econ. Geol. and 3ull. Soc. Econ. Geol., v. 74, No. 5, 1979, pp. 1131-1152. .... These leposits were discovered in 1897 by the use of a dip needle.

22. Matthews, P. F. P. Tin Mineralisation in Central Goias, Brazil. lining Magazine (London), June, 1982, pp. 461-467. .... Airborne radiometric surveys followed up by ground geophysical surveys are credited for the discovery of the Novo Roma tin deposits.

22. Mining Magazine (London). Rautuvaara and Hannukainen Mines. Min. lag., Aug., 1982, pp. 101-111. ache The Rautuvaara ore body (magnetite) ias located by airborne magnetic surveys and examined in detail by surface nagnetic methods and diamond drilling.

23. . Polaris Mine. Min. ag., Sept., 1982, pp. 180-193. .... Ore Body discovered in 1970 by gravity survey followed by diamond drilling.

24. . Nalanjkhand Copper Project. Min. ag., Nov., 1983, up. 234-253. ... * Resistivity surveys followed up by unspecified Geophysical methods and diamond drilling led to the discovery of the deposit.

;e pY'sical methods, Cont.

25. Mining Magazine (London). The Elura Mine New South Wales. Min. Mag., )ec., 1983, pp. 436-443. ** Airborne magnetics followed up by unspecified [round work and diamond drilling is credited for the discovery of the Elura 'n-Pb-Ag deposit. 26. Orajaka, I. P., B. C. E. Egboka, and E. A. Emenike. Geoelectric Exploration for Lead-Zinc Sulphide Deposits in Nigeria. Mining Magazine (London), Jan. 1988, pp. 38-41. **** Use of self-potential (SP) method to outline Pb/Zn sulfide ore bodies.

27. Roberts, D. E., and G. R. T. Hudson. The Olympic Dam Copper-Uranium-Gold Deposit. Roxby Downs. South Australia. Econ. Geol. and Bull. Soc. Econ. Geol., v. 78, No. 5, 1983, pp. 799-822. *{* Anomalies detected by gravity and magnetic surveys were further tested and drilled leading to the discovery of the Olympic Dam deposit.

Combined eochemical and geophysical methods

28. Engineering and Mining Journal. Midway and Pinson Discoveries Reviewed at PDA March Meeting. E & M J Exploration Roundup, May, 1982, pp. 29-31. .*h* Airborne EM and magnetic methods, surface EM and gravity methods and geochemical soil sampling led to discovery of Midway Pb-Zn-Ag ore body.

29. Huhtala, T. The Geology and Zinc-Copper Deposits of the Phasalmi- Piela vesi District, Finland. Econ. Geol. and Bull. Soc. Econ. Geol., v. 74, Nc I, 1979, pp. 1069-1083. **** Several deposits are described in which a' me and ground geophysical methods and various geochemical methods were u8e in discovery.

30. Lowe, N. T., R. G. Raney, and J. R. Norberg. Principal Deposits of Strategic and Critical Minerals in Nevada. U.S. BuMines IC 9035, 1985, pp. 66-184. *** The following deposits were discovered by use of geochemical and/or geophysical methods and subsequent drilling:

1. Ann Mason--Cu, p. 68 11. Manhattan--Au, p. 131 2. B & C Springs--Mo, p. 74 12. Mt. Hope--Mo, p. 138 3. Bald Mt.--Au, p. 75 13. Northumberland--Au, p. 143 4. Battle Mt. Copper Canyon--Au, p. 78 14. Piute--Fe, p. 150 5. Bootstrap--Au, p. 85 15. Preble--Au, p. 151 6. Borealis--Au, p. 86 16. Pumpkin Hollow--Fe, p. 153 7. Calico Hills--Fe, p. 94 17. Rain--Au, p. 155 8. Carlin--Au, p. 96 18. Relief Canyon--Au, p. 157 9. Dee--Au, p. 101 19. Tonkin Springs--Au. p. 174 10. Enfield Bell--Au, p. 107 20. Windfall--Au, p. 183

31. Hawkes, H. E. and J. S. Webb. "Case Histories of Integrated Exploration Programs." Chapter in Geochemistry in Mineral Exploration. New York: Harper and Row, 1962, pp. 331-347. **** Three case histories in which geochemical, geophysical, and geological methods were integrated leading to the discovery and delineation of mineral deposits.

ed geochemical and geophysical methods, Cont.

32. Reid, K. 0., and M. D. Meares. Exploration for Volcanic-Hosted Sulfide Deposits in Western Tasmania. Econ. Geol. and Bull. Soc. Econ. Geol., v. 76, No. 2, 1981, pp. 350-364. **** Application of geophysical and geochemical exploration methods led to the discovery of the ue River massive sulfide deposit. / -

APPENDIX C NOT INCLUDED AS IT IS UNDER DEVELOPMENT. : BIBI ...I 0j(3 1:'- (:1 l:"H '

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