AIDS and Mission

Adopt-a-People. It is difficult to sustain a mis- birth has declined—to 37 years in Uganda, for sion focus on the billions of people in the world example, the lowest global life expectancy. By or even on the multitudes of languages and cul- 2010 a decline of 25 years in life expectancy is tures in a given country. Adopt-a-people is a mis- predicted for a number of African and Asian sion mobilization strategy that helps Christians countries. In Zimbabwe it could reduce life ex- get connected with a specific group of people pectancy from 70 to 40 years in the next 15 who are in spiritual need. It focuses on the goal years. Sub-saharan Africa, with less than 10 per- of discipling a particular people group (see Peo- cent of the world’s population, has 70 percent of ples, People Groups), and sees the sending of the world’s population infected with HIV. missionaries as one of the important means to Asia, the world’s most populous region, is fulfill that goal. poised as the next epicenter of the epidemic. Ini- Adopt-a-people was conceptualized to help tially spread in the region primarily by drug in- congregations focus on a specific aspect of the jection and men having sex with men, heterosex- Great Commission. It facilitates the visualization ual transmission is now the primary cause of of the real needs of other people groups, enables infection. It is expected that child mortality in the realization of tangible accomplishments, de- Thailand, where the sex-tourism industry has fu- velops and sustains involvement, and encourages eled the epidemic, will triple in the next 15 years more meaningful and focused prayer. A people without a sharp decline in the rate of HIV infec- group focus helps Christians to maintain an em- tion. Latin America and the Caribbean, with 8.4 phasis on the goal of reaching a people group percent of the world’s population, have 11.5 per- and then discipling Christians from within that cent of the HIV infection. Primarily a homosex- people. Churches in the people group are also ual and bisexual epidemic initially, heterosexual helped to evangelize their own people and even- contact is becoming the primary mode of trans- tually to send out their own missionaries. mission, with needle sharing also being com- Adopt-a-people does not mean that a church mon. or mission organization is adopting a group into Of the 8,500 new cases of HIV infection which their own organization or that no other churches occur daily, 90 percent are in the developing or groups can work with that particular people. world. Much of Eastern Europe and most coun- Rather, the goal of adopt-a-people is to be used tries in the former Soviet Union, relatively free of by God to see a people adopted into his heavenly AIDS prior to the political shifts of the late family. Thus, the implementation of the adopt-a- 1980s, are in the earlier stages of the epidemic, people concept requires maintaining a commit- as are Bangladesh, the Philippines, parts of ment until the Great Commission is fulfilled in China, and India. the targeted group. In pragmatic terms, the min- Key Issues. The economic and social impact imal involvement for a church (or fellowship) of AIDS in the developing world is profound be- using the adopt-a-people idea is to provide in- cause it characteristically affects adults during formed, dedicated prayer for the targeted people the most economically productive ages of 15 to group. Other levels of involvement range from 25. A Kenyan study estimated labor costs for logistical or research help to financial support to some businesses could increase by 23 percent short-term projects among the targeted people due to absenteeism, the cost of training new group and even the commissioning and support workers, death benefits, and health care costs by of long-term missionaries from the adopting or- the year 2005. Service agencies strain to meet de- ganization. mands created by the epidemic, and extended Terry J. Riley family systems stagger under the burden of in- Bibliography. IJFM 12:1 (January–March 1995). creased dependents and decreasing numbers of providers. In heavily affected areas of Asia and Africa 30 to 50 percent of household income is AIDS and Mission. A Global Overview. AIDS (ac- devoted to care of family members with AIDS quired immune-deficiency syndrome), as a and funeral expenses may cost a year’s income. global pandemic, has provided a unique chal- Populations with behaviors that put them at lenge and opportunity to the church: a challenge high risk for HIV infection include prostitutes to deal with life’s most fundamental moral and and their clients, prisoners, long-distance truck- ethical issues, and an opportunity for service to ers, homosexual and bisexual men, soldiers, po- those in need. lice officers, and migrant workers. Sexual trans- Appearing in the late 1970s, AIDS is currently mission of the virus is more efficient from men one of the most critical health problems in the to women than from women to men. Women world. By 2020 there will be an estimated 55 mil- also have higher levels of undiagnosed sexually lion cases of HIV (human immunodeficiency transmitted diseases. Worldwide, these two fac- virus) infection. In African countries with ad- tors mean that women are becoming infected at vanced HIV/AIDS epidemics life expectancy at faster rates than men. 1 Alienation

Wealthy countries have access to the antiretro- Youth at the Crossroads has developed Life at virals and other drugs that prolong the lives of the Crossroads, a substantial educational curric- HIV-positive individuals. Worldwide 90 percent ulum program that addresses AIDS from a posi- of those infected are not aware of their infection, tive biblical viewpoint. due to lack of access to costly AIDS tests. The Agencies promoting networking among the rise of tuberculosis (TB) rates is directly cor- many Christian AIDS initiatives, often modest related to HIV prevalence and inversely cor- programs linked to a local church or as related with the quality of TB programs. free-standing grass-roots organizations, have Responding to the AIDS Pandemic: Interna- been particularly valuable in strengthening the tional Agencies, Governments, Nongovernment global response of churches. AIDS Intercessors, Organizations (NGOs), and Churches. The for example, provides a monthly prayer diary World Health Organization’s Global Program on with updates on the AIDS programs of more AIDS, under the dynamic leadership of Jonathan than forty Christian groups. Others agencies Mann, initiated a global response to HIV/AIDS have multiple affiliates. AIDS Care Education during the first decade of the epidemic. Subse- and Training (ACET), based in London and quently, UNAIDS has been the United Nation’s started by Patrick Dixon, has prevention and agency coordinating the global response. Minis- care programs in Romania, Thailand, Tanzania, tries of Health throughout the world, often deal- Uganda, and throughout the United Kingdom. ing with multiple discreet epidemics in their HIV/AIDS has unquestionably provided the countries, have become deeply involved in re- church with one of its greatest challenges and sponses to AIDS as their populations have been most significant opportunities for ministry—and affected by the epidemic. USAID (United States the church is responding. Agency for International Development) has pro- Evvy Campbell vided strategic leadership and significant fund- ing through AIDSCAP (AIDS Control and Pre- Bibliography. G. Capdevila, Inter Press Service En­ vention Project). NGOs have also played a glish News Wire, Nov. 28, 1997; P. Dixon, The Truth About AIDS; D. Dortzbach, AIDS in Kenya: The crucial role in responding to AIDS. MAP Interna- Church’s Challenge; H. Dunphy, The Columbian, Nov. 3, tional, a Christian NGO working to build the ca- 1997, A-2; D. E. Fountain, Care of Persons with AIDS in pacity of churches in East and southern Africa, a Christian Hospital; E. B. Marks, Jr., Life at the Cross partnered with the Association of Evangelicals in Roads: An Educational Curriculum Program from Youth Africa and the Evangelical Association of Uganda at the Crossroads. in 1994 to bring 150 participants from 28 coun- tries for the All Africa AIDS and the Church Con- sultation, held in Kampala, Uganda. A powerful Alienation. Alienation describes the sense of declaration to the church resulted from the con- deprivation and marginalization of persons who ference, urging that AIDS issues become a prior- perceive that their once-fulfilled lives, or the lives ity on the agenda of the church. Local initiatives, to which they aspired, have lost their sense or such as the Kenya Christian AIDS Network possibility of personal fulfillment and satisfac- (Kenyan CAN or KCAN), with more than 30 tion. Alienation may be attributed to a loss of branches meeting regularly, sprang up within norms, values, and a reassuring worldview, often two years after the conference. brought about by abrupt change. This state cor- A number of Christian AIDS programs are responds to the condition denoted by the term linked to mission hospitals. Under the leadership Anomie. But alienation may also be linked to of Major Ruth Schoch, a Swiss Salvation Army other disadvantages, including discrimination, office nurse and midwife who had already served exclusion, dislocation, the ravages of war and twenty years in the Republic of Zambia, a Beth- other human conflict, changes in technological any Ward for the terminally ill was established in and social organization, and oppressive political 1987 and a significant community-based initia- systems—which refer not just to subjective states tive addressing AIDS was initiated at the Salva- but to concrete conditions. The concept of alien- tion Army’s Chikankata Hospital. Similarly, the ation derives from related theological and philo- Vanga Evangelical Hospital—a 400-bed hospital sophical terms used from the times of Plotinus with eight full-time physicians under the admin- and Augustine to those of Hegel (“alienated istration of the Baptist Community of Western spirit”), Feuerbach (“Man’s alienation from his Zaire—offers whole-person care, including coun- own material nature”), and Marx (“alienation seling, prayer, and group meetings, to those with labor”). HIV/AIDS through an HIV care program. In Ni- In each case these terms carry the sense of es- geria the SIM AIDS Project (SIM International) trangement and incompleteness resulting from is helping Christians know how to minister to one’s separation from elements essential to per- those affected by AIDS and is developing biblical sonal realization. The cure is implied in the diag- teachings on sexuality, marital relationships, and nosis: Hegel thought in terms of alienation from being made in God’s image. Campus Crusade’s God, but saw religious forms and organization 2 Belief Systems as themselves inhibiting spiritual wholeness; In terms of the global long-term missions force, Feuerbach sought to restore humans to their one missionary in twenty (5.l% of the mission rightful place in the material world; and Marx force) leaves the field yearly. Of these, 71% de- identified alienation primarily as social injustice. part for preventable reasons. In other words, if While evangelical use of the term “alienation” we establish a global missionary force of may be invested with these precedents, evangeli- 140,000, 5.1% overall annual attrition would be cals generally apply alienation in the theological 7,140 people, and 71% of that figure suggests sense of viewing human sin (alienation from that 5,070 missionaries are returning home for God) and redemption (reconciliation with God) what is called “preventable attrition.” as being the cause and antidote for all other There are at least four perspectives regarding human ills. People who respond to the gospel are the causes of any specific case of attrition: (1) primarily those who in some sense feel alien- the reasons agency and church leaders believe ated—unfulfilled or dissatisfied. Evangelicalism they have heard and understood; (2) the re- at its roots is a promise of wholeness, Liberation corded reasons in agency files; (3) the reasons from the bondage of sin, restitution to a commu- missionaries hold in private or may share with nity of transformed (born-again) believers, and closest friends; and (4) the reasons one can live an eschatological assurance of ultimate salva- with in public knowledge. The true human pic- tion. ture is always complex and no single perspective Doug Petersen will be totally accurate. Recent studies suggest that preventable attri- Bibliography. D. Lyon, Karl Marx: An Assessment of tion may be reduced by more and/or better His Life and Thought; J. Míguez-Bonino, Toward a Christian Political Ethic; D. Petersen, Not by Might Nor (a) initial screening and selection procedures, by Power: A Pentecostal Theology of Social Concern. (b) appropriate pre-field equipping/training for the task, and/or (c) field-based strategizing, shep- herding, and supervising. Inadequate attention Attrition. Departure from field service by mis- in any of these areas may result in unwanted at- sionaries, regardless of the cause. There are two trition or, worse, the case of missionaries who general categories. Unpreventable attrition should go home, for their own good and the (understandable or acceptable) includes retire- good of the ministry, but do not. ment, completion of a contract, medical leave, or Reducing attrition engages seven strategic a legitimate call to another place or ministry. missions stakeholders: missionaries (current, Preventable attrition occurs “when missionaries, previous, future); missions mobilizers (the prime because of mismanagement, unrealistic expec­ motivators); church leaders (pastors and com- tations, systemic abuse, personal failure, or mittees); missionary trainers (regardless of type, other personal reasons, leave the field before the size, or level of equipping program); mission mission or church feels that they should. In so sending bodies (churches and agencies); national doing, missionaries may reflect negatively on receiving churches (where they exist); and mem- themselves, but of greater concern is the nega- ber care providers (pastors, medical and mental tive impact on the specific mission structure and health personnel). While attrition cannot be to- the cause of world missions” (Taylor, 1997, 18). tally eliminated, it can be significantly Attrition has been a critical issue facing the ­diminished. church through its history. In the New Testa- William David Taylor ment, Stephen is martyred, John Mark abandons Bibliography. W. D. Taylor, Too Valuable to Lose: Ex­ the apostolic team but is later restored to minis- ploring the Causes and Cures of Missionary Attrition. try through Barnabas, and Demas apparently leaves for good without known restoration. Throughout mission history, attrition has been Belief Systems. Belief systems are thought of in evident, reflecting the high cost of “sending mis- at least two different ways in missiological litera- sion,” whether through sickness, change of ture. First, as a level of mental construction they heart, inability to sustain cross-cultural ministry, are understood to determine the legitimacy of or death on the field. questions, generate conceptual problems, and Facing the contemporary attrition challenges, perform a constraining, heuristic, and justifica- the World Evangelical Fellowship Missions tory role. Second, and more commonly, systems Commission carried out during 1995–97 a of belief are understood as an integral part of 14-nation­ study of attrition in 6 Old Sending worldview. In this latter case, the study of reli­ Countries (OSC) and 8 New Sending Countries gious belief systems has generated considerable (NSC). This study generated significant data on interest among field missionaries. attrition in 454 agencies (and some mis- Anthropologists have described two types of sion-sending churches) with some 23,000 long- beliefs: instrumental beliefs, which are related to term missionaries (one-sixth of the global mis- the concrete tasks necessary for survival, and sionary force, according to Patrick Johnstone). transcendental beliefs, which involve states and 3 Burnout elements of existence that cannot be learned di- tions, and issues of self-esteem may be more im- rectly from human experience. These categories portant burnout issues for longer-term veterans. are useful, but as yet anthropologists have not Unfortunately, all these challenges are often been able to agree on the meaning of some of the compounded by a lack of pastoral care or by most basic concepts they use to investigate tran- mission administrators insensitive to the psycho- scendental belief systems—concepts such as reli- logical pressures their missionaries face. Reli- gion, the supernatural, magic, and witchcraft. able figures are hard to come by, but some esti- Even though the transcendental-instrumental mate that between 20 percent and 50 percent of dichotomy seems to be derived more from the new missionaries fail to return for a second perspective of Western anthropologists than term. This attrition is seldom the result of theo- from categorical differences and distinctions logical difficulties or problems in communicat- made by people in actual cultural contexts, eth- ing the gospel. It is almost always attributable, at nographic data have been useful in the study of least in part, to an inability to adapt to the kinds religious belief systems in many societies. of issues that lead to burnout. Culture provides learned categories, called Increasingly, mission agencies are seeking cognitive categories, used to sort out percep- ways to address the causes of burnout before tions. Culturally molded cognition enables they occur. Training seminars, mentoring pro- human beings to apprehend order in the “world” grams, team-building efforts, pastoral care min- of their existence. Thus, in the Worldview of a istries, and more flexible schedules have all society, culture furnishes people with beliefs re- proven helpful. But the rigors of missionary life, garding the universe and a belief system through particularly among some of the least reached which they give meanings to their experiences. peoples of the world, are still significant. And the Belief systems deal with very particular and de- limitations of human and material resources tailed items in the worldview of people in a given available to the worldwide missionary enterprise society. Religious belief systems deal with spe- would seem to suggest that the issue of burnout cific beliefs about meaning and destiny of life. will not soon pass from the scene. People in various cultures accept the respective Gary R. Corwin symbolic interpretations of reality because of the Bibliography. M. F. Foyle, Overcoming Missionary authority of the supernatural being(s) or powers Stress; M. Jones, Psychology of Missionary Adjustment; involved. A belief system tends to make explicit K. O’Donnell, ed., Missionary Care: Counting the Cost the implicit assumptions of the worldview in for World Evangelization; E. Schubert, What Missionar­ which they are found and in which they func- ies Need to Know about Burnout and Depression. tion, and to apply these assumptions to behavior. Each society, then, has a more or less system- Church and State. The expression “church and atically structured religious belief system that state” refers to the relationship between two sets can be studied and learned. Myths and Rituals of authority structures that have shaped human have been key areas of culture studied by anthro- existence. The concern of the state is temporal pologists, and such data have done much to en- life whereas the church’s concern is spiritual life. hance missiological understanding of the deep The question as to what is the most desirable re- structures of religious belief systems in various lationship between the two has been a persistent cultures. theme throughout history. The following discus- Norman E. Allison sion will present an overview of these historic Bibliography. C. Geertz, Reader in Comparative Reli­ tensions and their influence on the expansion of gion: An Anthropological Approach; P. G. Hiebert, An­ Christianity. thropological Reflections on Missiological Issues; D. E. In Matthew 22:21 Jesus taught that the two Hunter and P. Whitten, The Study of Anthropology. structures are separate. The statement “render therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s and to God the things that are God’s” distin- Burnout. The state of emotional, physical, and/ guishes the responsibilities between church and or spiritual exhaustion that makes the mission- state, but does not detail the obligations. Paul ary unable to carry out his or her work. While it followed with instructions to Christians to “be is not normally terminal in life-and-death terms, subject to the governing authorities” (Rom. 13:1) it is often fatal to missionary effectiveness. unless the submission contradicted the Scrip- Potential causes of burnout are many, but tures (Acts 5:29). The Pax Romana of the Roman overwork, undersupport, and prolonged expo- Empire with its peace and ease of travel together sure to the pressures of living and working cross-­ with Alexander’s legacy of the Koine Greek lan- culturally are three of the most important. guage allowed the gospel to spread quickly over Learning the language and becoming bicultural large areas. Formal missionary bands sponta- can be particularly stressful to newcomers; living neously spread the faith into Asia Minor, Meso- in the public view, facing unfulfilled expecta- potamia, India, Armenia, Rome, Gaul, Britain, 4 Church and State and North Africa. These advances were met by 1075 Pope Gregory VII decreed that he had the local and sporadic persecution by Decian (249– divine power to depose Emperor Henry, thus de- 251), Valerian (257), and Diocletian (303), who claring that secular authorities had no jurisdic- saw the church as politically subversive. tion to appoint ecclesiastical positions. Although It was not until Christianity became a state re- a compromise came in 1122, the issue faded only ligion in the fourth century that scholars began with the gradual dominance of the papacy. By to grapple with a clearer definition of the rela- the end of the reign of Pope Innocent III (1198– tionship between church and state. In 313 Chris- 1216) the issue had arrived at a solution—royal tianity became an officially recognized religion power was under submission to the authority of and Emperor Constantine became responsible the church. The thirteenth century saw papal for directing the church. The temptation for the power in supreme control over the state, but this church was to lose evangelistic fervor and con- was to change soon as the European monarchs form to culture rather than continuing to pene- strengthened their national supremacy. trate culture. In 330 with the division of the em- The Reformation brought fresh challenge to pire into East and West came also two different the authority of the papacy both spiritually and approaches to church–state relations. In the Byz- politically, and further diminished the church’s antine Empire the secular ruler held absolute au- control. Martin Luther did not consider ecclesi- thority over both the church and the state astical administration important, so many of the whereas in the Western Empire the church had Lutheran states had rulers that controlled the more freedom to direct its own affairs. By the church. John Calvin clearly differentiated be- fifth century the Roman popes took responsibil- tween church and state by declaring that govern- ity for civil justice and military matters. ments were to protect the church and manage During the Dark Ages the idea of a society with society by following biblical principles. On the two realms of responsibility, one over spiritual other hand, the Anabaptists believed that Scrip- and the other over temporal matters, became ture indicated the need for a complete separa- clearer. God ordained the state to strengthen and tion of church and state, and subsequently suf- propagate the faith, and to protect the church fered intense persecution. They believed that against heretics. However, the tension over su- secular government had no authority over the premacy was always a struggle. It was during religious beliefs of people and therefore the this time that monasticism responded to the in- church had no right to claim financial assistance creasing institutionalization and nominalism of from the state. Their political views influenced the church. By secluding themselves for prayer other related movements in the seventeenth and and devotion lay people sought life consistent eighteenth centuries, such as the Baptists and with the gospel. Committed communities formed Quakers. and unintentionally produced the majority of During the Enlightenment of the eighteenth missionaries for the next thousand years (see century John Locke and others propagated the Monastic Movement). Monks like Benedict of concept that secular government was a matter Nursia preserved ancient learning and raised the for society rather than God. Thus the institu- level of civilization and Christian understanding tional church gradually became dominated by in Western Europe. Beginning as peripheral re- rising national powers and lost much of its voice newal movements many of these monastic or- in political affairs. In the United States the ders eventually became centers of power and lost founding government separated church and state sight of their original vision. Alongside the West- to protect Religious Freedom from state inter- ern monastics were the Celtic missionaries. Per- vention and to protect the state from the domi- sons like Patrick, Columba, Columbanus, Willi- nance of the church. Religion was a private mat- brord, and Boniface evangelized Ireland, Great ter between an individual and God, yet religion Britain, and much of northwestern Europe and remained a part of national life. This strict sepa- established important centers of biblical learn- ration of the two institutions was the commonly ing. These two great missionary movements held view among Western nations of the nine- were largely independent of both the institu- teenth century. tional church and government. From the beginning of this century Western After the sixth century the popes increased countries have experienced increased social their power in both the spiritual and temporal pressure to exclude anything religious from na- spheres. Then in 800 Pope Leo III crowned Char- tional life. They have secularized governments lemagne as emperor and the event revived the that want to severely restrict the influence of re- centuries-old debate between church and state. ligion on political affairs. The influx of diverse Did the emperors receive their crowns from the ethnic and religious groups together with the papacy, or was it the emperors who approved the erosion of Judeo-Christian values has amplified election of the popes? this call for a secularized society. On the other By the eleventh century the confrontation be- hand, most of the non-Western nations have not tween the two structures reached a zenith. In had to struggle with the theory of separation of 5 Commitment church and state. For instance, Islam, Hinduism, life, one step at a time, like Barnabas. For both, and other religions dominate many nations however, there comes a time when a verdict must which desire to protect their faith from secular be rendered: Do I obey God’s call to missionary contamination. vocation? To say “yes” at that point is commit- For modern missions the answer as to what is ment. And such commitment is essential when the most desirable relationship between church the missionary hits the tough times, for only the and state may be glimpsed in church history. The one who is confident of God’s call will stick it institutional church has always had struggles be- out. tween itself and the state. Nonetheless, there is Because we live in an era when commitment the government of God and then that of the state to anything or anyone is not considered worthy and the church. How that triad of tension plays of an independent person in control of his or her out in life is sometimes difficult to determine own destiny, bent on finding personal fulfill- and will vary depending on the historical and ment, the ancient call to commitment may be cultural context. However, the growth of the more difficult to accept than in earlier days. Per- Kingdom of God over the ages has largely been haps that is why the volunteers are so few and achieved through a remnant of believers on the the dropouts so many. But God still expects com- periphery of power regardless of their political mitment, unconditional and irrevocable, both or ecclesiastical status. It is in this position of for the one whom he would call to special mis- faithfulness and obedience to the Lord of the sionary service and for every true disciple. church that future missionary endeavors will Robertson McQuilkin continue to see the expansion of Christianity. Robert Gallagher Contextualization. The term “contextualiza- Bibliography. S. Escobar and J. Driver, Christian tion” first appeared in 1972 in a publication of Mission and Social Justice; E. L. Frizen and W. T. Cog- gins, Christ and Caesar in Christian Missions; K. S. La- the Theological Education Fund entitled Minis­ tourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 try in Context. This document laid out the princi- vols.; S. Neill, Colonialism and Christian Missions; ples which would govern the distribution of P. Niles, Resisting the Threats to Life; L. Pfeffer, Church, funds for the Third Mandate of the TEF. The State and Freedom; L. Pfeffer, God, Caesar and the Con­ scholarships were awarded for the graduate edu- stitution; A. P. Stokes, Church and State in the United cation of scholars in the international church. States, 3 vols.; D. Tutu, Crying in the Wilderness; J. E. Contextualization was described as “the capacity Wood, Religion and the State; A. J. Van der Bent, Be­ to respond meaningfully to the gospel within the tween Christ and Caesar; M. A. C. Warren, The Func­ tions of a National Church. framework of one’s own situation.” A precedent for the new term, “contextual theology,” resulted from a consultation held in Bossey, Switzerland, Commitment. Commitment, when used in the in August 1971. The Ecumenical Institute of the context of missions, evokes a picture of the last World Council of Churches had sponsored that session of a missions conference in which some- earlier discussion under the theme “Dogmatic or one responds to the call for missionary volun- Contextual Theology.” teers. But biblical commitment is much broader The lament behind the Third Mandate of the and deeper than that. It is the mark of every true TEF was that “both the approach and content of disciple: unconditional commitment to the lord- theological reflection tend to move within the ship of Jesus Christ. That means all of life—voca- framework of Western questions and cultural tion, possessions, relationships, talk, play—is presuppositions, failing to vigorously address the fully at God’s disposal. And since God loves the gospel of Jesus Christ to the particular situa- world, the true disciple will too. So every mem- tion.” Further, it was declared that “Contextual- ber of the body is supposed to be a world Chris- ization is not simply a fad or catch-word but a tian. If not, someone is in rebellion or ignorant. theological necessity demanded by the incarna- But biblical commitment is not just passive—it is tional nature of the Word.” proactive, an eager listening for God’s call, a While the document had a limited purpose, searching for God’s will, an involvement in God’s the implications coming from it resulted in a cause of world evangelism whatever the location movement which has had an impact on the the- or vocation. ory and practice of mission. The contextualiza- The response at the end of the missions con- tion concept was a timely innovation. New na- ference, though, is also commitment. It is a tions were struggling for their own life. The choice to obey God’s call to a very special voca- mission enterprise needed new symbols to mark tion that is at the cutting edge of God’s purposes a needed separation from the colonialistic, West- for world redemption. For some this call is an ern-dominated past (see Colonialism). extraordinary revelation of God’s will like Paul There is no single or broadly accepted defini- on the road to Damascus. For others it is the cul- tion of contextualization. The goal of contextual- mination of following God’s ordinary leading in ization perhaps best defines what it is. That goal 6 Contextualization is to enable, insofar as it is humanly possible, an older concept of indigenization should not be understanding of what it means that Jesus changed but, rather, broadened to cover more Christ, the Word, is authentically experienced in adequately the field of theology. each and every human situation. Contextualiza- In addition to giving greater attention to the tion means that the Word must dwell among all deeper levels of culture, the new term “contextu- families of humankind today as truly as Jesus alization” became distinguished from indigeni- lived among his own kin. The gospel is Good zation in other ways. Indigenization always im- News when it provides answers for a particular plied a comparison with the West, whereas people living in a particular place at a particular contextualization focuses on the resources avail- time. This means the Worldview of that people able from within the context itself. Indigeniza- provides a framework for communication, the tion was static while contextualization is dy- questions and needs of that people are a guide to namic, as a still photograph might be compared the emphasis of the message, and the cultural to a motion picture. The older indigenization gifts of that people become the medium of ex- was more isolated while contextualization, pression. though locally constructed, interacts with global Contextualization in mission is the effort made realities. by a particular church to experience the gospel The fact that the early documents about con- for its own life in light of the Word of God. In the textualization were formulated in offices related process of contextualization the church, through to the World Council of Churches also made the the Holy Spirit, continually challenges, incorpo- concept difficult to accept in the nonconciliar rates, and transforms elements of the culture in circles. The heavy emphasis on justice and social order to bring them under the lordship of Christ. development left little, it seemed, for evangelism As believers in a particular place reflect upon the and conversion. Scholars in Latin America were Word through their own thoughts, employing among the earliest to write about what they saw their own cultural gifts, they are better able to as an appropriate theology for their context. The understand the gospel as incarnation. direction this new theology took alarmed many The term “contextualization” is most com- evangelicals. monly associated with theology, yet given the Liberation Theology became almost as a above definition, it is proper to speak of contex- household word in the 1970s and 1980s. Evan- tualization in a variety of ways encompassing all gelicals felt it demonstrated an inadequate use of the dimensions of religious life. For example, the Bible and relied too heavily on a Marxist ori- church architecture, worship, preaching, sys- entation. This was difficult for North American tems of church governance, symbols, and rituals conservatives to accept. Even before his book, are all areas where the contextualization princi- Ministry in Context, Gustavo Gutiérrez had al- ple applies. Context, on which the term is based, ready written his Theology of Liberation (1971). is not narrowly understood as the artifacts and Soon afterward J. Miguez Bonino followed with customs of culture only, but embraces the differ- Doing Theology in a Revolutionary Situation ences of human realities and experience. These (1978). These major innovations opened up fur- differences are related to cultural histories, soci- ther thinking on contextualization. They fol- etal situations, economics, politics, and ideolo- lowed closely the volatile 1960s in the United gies. In this sense contextualization applies as States. Ideas about contextualization in the much to the church “at home,” with all its varia- United States first became associated with the tions, as it does to the church “overseas.” controversial issues raised by the Vietnam War In mission practice the more visible aspects of and American racism. “Black Power,” as advo- contextualization were closely related to older cated by James Cone (1969), had become a pop- terms such as Accommodation, Adaption, Incul- ular application of what contextualization is. turation, and Indigenization. Issues such as Because of this ferment Hermeneutics quickly forms of communication, language, music, styles became the central point of contention among of dress, and so on had long been associated evangelicals. The question was asked whether with the so-called three-self missionary philoso- truth is derived primarily from human experi- phy which was built around the principle of in- ence or from Revelation. At first there was little digenization. Indigeneity often was understood consensus among evangelicals about the role of as “nativization,” in that the visible cultural Culture and social issues, especially in theology. forms of a given people would be used in ex- The contextualization debate made serious new pressing Christianity. In going beyond these thinking possible, especially with regard to cul- more superficial expressions, the new term “con- ture and the way in which it connects to the bib- textualization” tended to raise the fear of Syn- lical record. cretism. This would mean the “old religion” Throughout the 1970s the writing and discus- would become mixed in with the new biblical sion on contextualization began to clarify direc- faith and that culture would have more authority tions that evangelicals should take. A Laus- than revelation. Some felt, therefore, that the anne-sponsored gathering at Willowbank 7 Contextualization

(Bermuda) in 1978 adopted the theme “Gospel veal the past as well as studying “signs” that indi- and Culture.” The conference took seriously the cate how the culture is changing. These realities role of the cultural context of the believer as well are compared with church tradition in a process as the biblical text in defining evangelization and of “opening up” both the local culture and Chris- church development. The late 1970s also saw the tian practice. To master the complicated method rise (and demise) of the quarterly, The Gospel in would tend to separate an indigenous researcher Context. The journal’s brief life demonstrated from the people and the context. how creative and stimulating worldwide contex- Synthetic model: Synthesis involves bringing tualization could be. together four components: the gospel, Christian The decade of the 1970s also brought remark- tradition, culture, and social change. These ele- able progress in finding ways to carry out con- ments are discussed together using insights of- textualization. Each of the ways, or “models,” as fered by the local people. Also there must be a they are called, carries certain epistemological recognition of sharing insights with “outsiders.” assumptions, as well as philosophical ideas Each contributes to the other, while each main- about truth. While the models each have their tains its own distinctives. The openness and le- differences, they also have several features that gitimacy given to all views would tend toward they share in common. Some are more centered ambiguity and a kind of universalism. on human experience while others show a Transcendental model: This model does not greater dependence on widely accepted teach- concentrate on the impersonal aspect of theol- ings of the church and the Bible. Thus, the as- ogy, that is, to prove something “out there,” but sumptions undergirding some of these models is primarily concerned with what any truth make them less acceptable to evangelicals. Varia- means to the subject and to members of the sub- tions exist within a given model and certain fea- ject’s community. Likewise revelation is under- tures of more than one model may be combined. stood as the active perception or encounter with A brief review of the models will show how di- God’s truth. Much criticism can be raised. How verse the approaches to contextualization are. can one be an authentic believer without objec- Adaptation model: One of the earliest ap- tive context and why is such Western sophistica- proaches was to make historical-theological con- tion necessary? cepts fit into each cultural situation. Traditional Translation model: Based on translation sci- Western ideas are the norm. These are brought ence, the nearest possible meanings of the origi- to the local culture. What is irrelevant may be set nal text are sought out in the receiving culture. aside and what must be modified can be Exact forms may not be possible, but expres- changed. The faulty assumption here is that sions and forms that are equivalent are intro- there is one philosophical framework within which all cultures can communicate, assuming duced. Attempts were made to identify the “ker- that other forms of knowledge are not legitimate. nel” or core of the gospel which then would Anthropological model: The beginning point apply to all cultures. The problem of subjectivity is to study the people concerned. The key to in selecting forms is a risk, as is separating the communication and pathways to the human Word from what is culturally negotiable. heart and spirit lies in the culture. The assump- In contextualization, evangelicals have a valu- tion is that people know best their own culture; able tool with which to work out the meanings of worldview themes, symbols, myths are reposito- Scripture in the varieties of mission contexts and ries of truth for all people. While this is true, un- in conversations with the churches of the Two- less discernment about a culture is brought to Thirds World. A built-in risk of contextualization the Word for affirmation or judgment the con- is that the human situation and the culture of textualization exercise can become distorted and peoples so dominate the inquiry that God’s reve- misleading. lation through the Bible will be diminished. To Critical model: The critical aspect of this ap- be aware of this danger is a necessary step in proach centers on how features of traditional avoiding it. Contextualization cannot take place culture—rituals, songs, stories, customs, music— unless Scripture is read and obeyed by believers. are brought under the scrutiny of biblical teach- This means that believers will study the Scrip- ing. Here the culture and the Scriptures are eval- tures carefully and respond to their cultural con- uated concurrently in the search for new ways to cerns in light of what is in the biblical text. Cul- express belief and practice. One must ask who ture is subject to the God of culture. Culture is will carry out the process, and how accurate are important to God and for all its good and bad the meanings derived from both customs and the factors, culture is the framework within which Scripture. God works out God’s purposes. Some indications Semiotic model: Semiotics is the science of of the gospel’s presence in the soil may be evi- “reading a culture” through “signs” (see Symbol, dent, but Scripture is something that is outside Symbolism). This comprehensive view of culture and must be brought into the cultural setting to interprets symbols, myths, and the like that re- more fully understand what God is doing in cul- 8 Cross-Cultural Ministry ture, and to find parallels between the culture At the end of the colonial era, the Western mis- and the Bible. sionary’s role grew dubious in the minds of many The strength of contextualization is that if national leaders. Where a sizable or influential properly carried out, it brings ordinary Christian Christian presence had developed, there usually believers into what is often called the theological were provisions made by the emerging regimes process. Contextualization is not primarily the for continuation of Western missionary pres- work of professionals, though they are needed. It ence. Where a weak Christian church existed, is making the gospel real to the untrained lay leaders of dominant religious groups influenced person and the rank-and-file believer. They are the fledgling regimes to restrict Christianity’s the people who know what biblical faith must do growth and development, particularly by dimin- if it is to meet everyday problems. The term “in- ishing its foreign sustenance. A simple way to carnational theology” is another way of speaking enact such restrictions was to deny visas and res- about contextualization (see Incarnational Mis- idence permits to those foreigners known to sion). This means that Christian truth is to be work with Christian elements in the country. understood by Christians in the pews and on the Creative strategic initiatives, like the Nonresi- streets. The objective of contextualization is to dential Missionary model, now enable Christian bring data from the whole of life to real people missions and missionaries to penetrate existing and to search the Scriptures for a meaningful ap- barriers in the traditional homelands of antago- plication of the Word which “dwelt among us” nistic blocs of Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, tribal, (John 1:14). The missiological significance for and more recently communist people groups lo- contextualization is that all nations must under- cated within the political boundaries of coun- stand the Word as clearly and as accurately as tries resistant to Christian influence. did Jesus’ own people in his day. Keith E. Eitel Dean Gilliland Bibliography. D. B. Barrett and T. M. Johnston. Our Globe and How to Reach It: Seeing the World Evange­ Bibliography. S. B. Bevans, Models of Contextual lized by a.d. 2000 and Beyond; V. D. Garrison, The Non­ Theology; D. S. Gilliland, The Word Among Us: Contex­ residential Missionary: A New Strategy and the People It tualizing Theology for Mission Today; D. J. Hesselgrave Serves; idem, IJFM 9 (1992): 67–69. and E. Rommen, Contextualization: Meaning and Meth­ ods; W. A. Dyrness, Learning About Theology from the Third World; R. J. Schreiter, Constructing Local Theolo­ Cross-Cultural Ministry. The theological basis gies. for cross-cultural ministry lies in its examples within both Old and New Testaments, coupled with the universal nature of the Christian faith Creative Access Countries. Sovereign govern- and the Lord’s Commission to “disciple the na- ments, regimes, or territories that deny, or se- tions.” It may be further argued that the incarna- verely limit, long-term presence for foreigners tion of Christ demands that we take culture seri- engaging in Christian missionary or evangelistic ously in ministry, because it is in the realities of activities. Such countries have one or more large the cultural context that the gospel is manifested population segments that are historically resis- (see Incarnational Mission). Thus Gitari has tant to Christianity. Laws restraining Christian written, “Jesus did not become a Jew as a conve- activities reflect the controlling influence of nient illustration of general truths. He came into religio­social groups antagonistic to Christianity. real problems, debates, issues struggles and con- Especially suspect are Christian endeavors done flicts which concerned the Jewish people.” The with or by foreign mission agencies. The socio- gospel requires specific cultural contexts in logical causes for such restrictive measures are which to be manifested. numerous. Yet perceived threats to historic reli- The missionary expansion of the church from gious practices, distinct ethnic identities, or na- its earliest days is evidence of the seriousness tionalistic reactions to Western colonial en- with which Christians have grasped and imple- croachments help explain some of the mented cross-cultural ministry. In recent times prohibitions. the Social Sciences have contributed to the con- At the dawn of the modern missions era, there scious acknowledgment of the importance of were few restrictions on missionary activities. culture in relation to this missionary endeavor. Those that existed were usually because of Euro- Eugene A. Nida’s Customs and Cultures stated pean rivalries rather than indigenous religious that “Good missionaries have always been good conflicts. Missionaries were often the first West- ‘anthropologists’ . . . on the other hand, some erners in what are now Third World countries or missionaries have been only ‘children of their they entered later under the auspices of colonial generation’ and have carried to the field a dis- governments. Since the end of World War II, torted view of race and progress, culture and civ- Western colonial rule has given way to rising na- ilization, Christian and non-Christian ways of tionalistic movements. life.” 9 Culture

The context for much nineteenth-century Prot- forms and practices of a culturally relevant estant missions was that of European colonial “Muslim-convert church.” Others have argued expansion and this resulted in examples of the that the creation of separate convert churches export of European culture and expressions of and the Christianization of Muslim devotional Christianity alongside the gospel (see Colonial- means in “Jesus Mosques” (such as the position ism). The twentieth century witnessed first the of prayer or putting the Bible on a special stand) increasing American missionary endeavor and fall short of the requirements for Christian unity the rise of Two-Thirds World missions (see in Muslim lands where historic Christian com- Non-Western Mission Boards and Societies). As munities exist. This debate is a reminder that a result of the internationalizing of missions and Christian mission needs to be sensitive to a the Globalization of communications (with its broader range of issues than the culture of the own consequences in terms of cultural change), unevangelized. the issues of Culture and mission are today even Patrick Sookhdeo more complex. Complementing the recognition of the importance of culture in missionary com- Bibliography. D. Gitari, Proclaiming Christ in Christ’s Way—Studies in Integral Evangelism, pp. 101– munication has been an examination of culture 21; C. H. Kraft, Christianity in Culture; Lausanne Com- itself from a Christian and biblical perspective. mittee for World Evangelisation, The Lausanne Cove­ In the New Testament we find that Paul’s willing- nant—An Exposition and Commentary by John Stott. ness to lay aside personal freedoms and status idem, The Willowbank Report—Gospel and Culture; for the sake of the gospel (1 Cor. 8:9–13; 9:22; H. Niebuhr, Christ and Culture; E. A. Nida, Customs Phil. 3:8) illustrate the primacy of the gospel and Cultures; P. Parshall, New Paths in Muslim Evange­ over the messenger’s attitudes and behavior. lism. Bishop Stephen Neill has asserted that there are some customs which the gospel cannot toler- ate, there are some customs which can be toler- Culture. The word “culture” may point to many ated for the time being, and there are customs things—the habits of the social elite; disciplined which are fully acceptable to the gospel. The tastes expressed in the arts, literature, and enter- Lausanne Covenant affirmed that “Culture must tainment; particular stages of historical and always be tested and judged by Scripture. Be- human development. We use the term “culture” cause man is God’s creature, some of his culture to refer to the common ideas, feelings, and val- is rich in beauty and goodness. Because he is ues that guide community and personal behav- fallen, all of it is tainted with sin and some of it ior, that organize and regulate what the group is demonic.” Bishop David Gitari has welcomed thinks, feels, and does about God, the world, and this emphasis that “all cultures must always be humanity. It explains why the Sawi people of tested by the scriptures.” Irian Jaya regard betrayal as a virtue, while the The relativization of the cultural expressions American sees it as a vice. It undergirds the Ko- of the Christian faith has resulted in the popular rean horror at the idea of Westerners’ placing acceptance within missions of the concept of their elderly parents in retirement homes, and Contextualization, which aims to be faithful to Western horror at the idea of the Korean venera- Scripture and relevant to culture. Such an ap- tion of their ancestors. It is the climate of opin- proach intends to apply the absolutes to which ion that encourages an Eskimo to share his wife Scripture refers within a plurality of culturally with a guest and hides the wife of an Iranian appropriate forms. However, disquiet at the fundamentalist Muslim in a body-length veil. prominence currently given to contextualization The closest New Testament approximation for in missiology was expressed by Christians with a culture is kosmos (world), but only when it refers Reformed perspective at a Caucus on Mission to to language-bound, organized human life (1 Cor. Muslims held at Four Brooks Conference Centre 14:10) or the sin-contaminated system of values, in 1985. traditions, and social structures of which we are The practical expression of the Christian faith a part (John 17:11). in a culture is a pioneer venture which is liable Cultures are patterns shared by, and acquired to the criticism that the true nature of the gospel in, a social group. Large enough to contain sub- may become distorted by Syncretism or compro- cultures within itself, a culture is shared by the mise. In the West there has been a debate be- society, the particular aggregate of persons who tween evangelicals and liberal Christians over participate in it. In that social group we learn how best to represent Christianity within a mod- and live out our values. ern scientific culture. In the Muslim world, Phil The social and kinship connections that shape Parshall’s New Paths in Muslim Evangelism laid a group of people vary from culture to culture. out the contextualization of Christian mission Americans in general promote strong individual- among Muslims (see Muslim Mission Work). ism and nuclear families, usually limited tightly This not only covered issues of Communication, to grandparents, parents, and children. Individ- “theological bridges to salvation,” but also the ual initiative and decision making are encour- 10 Culture aged by the belief in individual progress. By sonal, and intimate zones. For an American, the comparison, Asians and Africans as a rule define personal zone extends from one foot to three feet personal identity in terms of the family, clan, or away, the intimate zone from physical contact to kinship group. Families are extended units with a foot away. For Latin Americans the zones are wide connections. And decision making is a so- smaller. Thus when an Anglo engages a Latino in cial, multipersonal choice reflecting those con- casual conversation, the Latino perceives the nections: “We think, therefore I am.” Anglo as distant and cold. Why? What for the Cultures are not haphazard collections of iso- Anglo is the social zone is for the Latino the pub- lated themes. They are integrated, holistic pat- lic zone. terns structured around the meeting of basic Affective and evaluative dimensions also differ human needs. Their all-embracing nature, in from culture to culture. Beauty in the eye of a fact, is the assumption behind the divine calling Japanese beholder is a garden of flowers and to humankind to image God’s creative work by empty space carefully planned and arranged to taking up our own creative cultural work in the heighten the deliberative experience. To the world (Gen. 1:28–30; see Cultural Mandate). Westerner a garden’s beauty is found in floral Eating and drinking and whatever cultural activ- profusion and variety. ities we engage in (1 Cor. 10:31)—all show the Whom can we marry? In the West that is an mark of interrelationship as God’s property and individual decision; in clan-oriented societies the ours (1 Cor. 3:21b–23). Thus the Dogon people of kinship group or the family decides. Among the central Mali build their homes, cultivate their Dogon a man’s wife should be chosen from land, and plan their villages in the shape of an among the daughters of a maternal uncle; the oval egg. This represents their creation myth of girl becomes a symbolic substitute for her hus- the great placenta from which emerged all space, band’s mother, a reenactment of mythical incest all living beings, and everything in the world. found in the Dogon account of the creation of Among the ancient Chinese the cosmic pattern the universe. Among the kings of Hawaii and the of balance and harmony, the yin and the yang, pharaohs of Egypt, brother-sister marriage was was to be re-created again and again in daily de- practiced to preserve lineal purity and family in- cisions. The yin was negative, passive, weak, and heritance. destructive. The yang was positive, active, The Levels of Cultures. Cultures are also mul- strong, and constructive. Individuality came tilayered models of reality. Like a spiral, they from these opposites. The yin was female, move from the surface level of what we call cus- mother, soft, dark; the yang was male, father, toms through the cognitive, affective, and evalu- hard, bright. The decisions where to live and ative dimensions to the deep level of Worldview. where to be buried were made by choosing a site in harmony with these opposites. To illustrate, the Confucian ethic of moral eti- The anthropological theory of functionalism quette consists largely in making sure that rela- underlined this holism; subsequent studies, how- tionships properly reflect the hierarchical scale. ever, have introduced modifications. Functional- In China and Korea, where cultural backgrounds ism tended to assume that cultures were fully are shaped deeply by the Confucian ethic, the integrated and coherent bounded sets. Later idea of Li (righteousness) makes specific de- scholarship, wary of the static coloring, admits mands at different cultural levels: different forms that this is only more or less so. Cultures are nei- of speech in addressing people on different levels ther aggregates of accumulated traits nor seam- of the social scale; ritual practices; rules of pro- less garments. There is a dynamic to human cul- priety; observance of sharply defined under- tures that makes full integration incomplete; standings of the relationships of king to subject, gaps and inconsistencies provide opportunities older brother to younger brother, husband to for change and modification, some rapid and wife, father to son. And linking all these together some slow. is the religious perception of their specific The Dimensions of Culture. All cultures places, in the Tao (the Way, the rule of heaven). shape their models of reality around three di- In this process, cultural forms (e.g., language, mensions: the cognitive (What do we know?); the gestures, relationships, money, clothing) are in- affective (What do we feel?); the evaluative vested with symbolic meanings conventionally (Where are our values and allegiances?). The accepted by the community. They interpret the cognitive dimension varies from culture to cul- forms and stamp them with meaning and value ture. Take, for example, the view of time. In the (see Symbol, Symbolism). Each cultural form, West time is a linear unity of past, present, and ambivalent by itself, thus becomes a hermeneuti- infinite future; in Africa time is basically a cal carrier of values, attitudes, and connotations. two-dimensional phenomenon, with a long past, Clothing can indicate social status, occupation, a present, and an immediate future. Similarly, level of education, ritual participation. Foot cultures differ in their conceptions of space, that washing in ancient Hebrew culture became an is what they consider to be public, social, per- expression of hospitality (Luke 7:44). In Chris- 11 Cultural Learning tian ritual it became a symbol of humble service plains how and why things came to be as they (John 13:4–5). are, and how and why they continue or change; This symbolic arbitrariness can either help or (2) it validates the basic institutions, values, and hinder communication between persons and goals of a society; (3) it provides psychological groups. Jesus’ reproof of hypocrites as a genera- reinforcement for the group; (4) it integrates the tion of vipers (Luke 3:7) would be a great com- society, systematizing and ordering the culture’s pliment to the Balinese, who regard the viper as perceptions of reality into an overall design; (5) a sacred animal of paradise. On the other hand, it provides, within its conservatism, opportuni- his rebuke of the cunning Herod as that fox ties for perceptual shifts and alterations in con- (Luke 13:32) would make good sense to the same ceptual structuring. This fifth characteristic of Balinese, in whose fables the jackal plays a worldview, that is, susceptibility to change, treacherous part. The Korean concept of Li opens the door for the transforming leaven of the (righteousness) can be a point of contact with gospel. The coming of Christ as both Savior and the Bible, but also a point of confusion, as the judge takes every thought captive (2 Cor. 10:5). Confucian focus on works confronts the Pauline When that divine work is initiated, people, under focus on grace. the impulse of the Spirit, begin to change their At the core of all cultures is the deep level worldview and, as a result, their culture. where worldviews, the prescientific factories and In the language of Cultural Anthropology, bank vaults of presuppositions, are generated the change wrought by the gospel is a threefold and stored. Here the human heart (Prov. 4:23; process: reevaluation (a change of allegiance), Jer. 29:13; Matt. 12:34), the place where our most reinterpretation (a change of evaluative princi- basic commitments exist, responds to those di- ples), and rehabituation (a series of changes in vine constants or universals that are reshaped by behavior). With regard to the change in the indi- every culture (Rom. 2:14–15). Twisted by the im- vidual, the Bible speaks of repentance (Luke pact of sin and shaped by time and history, those 5:32) and conversion (Acts 26:20). With regard to internalizations produce cultures that both obey the wider social world, it speaks of the new cre- and pervert God’s demands (Rom. 1:18–27). In ation (2 Cor. 5:17); the age to come, which has some cultures, for example, murder is con- already begun in this present age (Eph. 1:21); demned, but becomes an act of bravery when the and the eschatological renewal of all things person killed belongs to a different social group. (Matt. 19:28), the beginnings of which we taste Other peoples view theft as wrong, but only now in changed behavior (Titus 3:5). when it involves the stealing of public property. Peripheral changes run the risk of encouraging Thus Native Americans, who see the land as a Cultural Conversion rather than conversion to common possession of all, as the mother of all Christ. The goal of missions must be larger, to life, view the white intruders with their assump- bring our cultures into conformity to the King- tion of private ownership as thieves. When the dom of God and its fullness. The whole of cul- Masai of Africa steal cattle, they do not regard tural life ought to be subjected to the royal au- the act as theft, for they see all cattle as their nat- thority of him who has redeemed us by his blood ural possession by way of gift from God. (Matt. 28:18–20). Besides reflecting and reshaping God’s de- Harvie M. Conn mands, cultures are also the means of God’s common grace. Through his providential control Bibliography. E. Hall, Silent Language; P. Hiebert, God uses the shaping of human cultures to check Anthropological Insights for Missionaries; C. Kraft, the rampant violence of evil and preserve human Christianity in Culture; S. Lingenfelter, Transforming continuity. They provide guidelines to restrain Culture: A Challenge for Christian Mission; J. Loewen, Culture and Human Values; L. Luzbetak, The Church our worst impulses, sanctions of Shame or Guilt and Cultures: New Perspectives in Missiological Anthro­ to keep us in line. Cultures and worldviews, then, pology; E. Nida, Customs, Culture, and Christianity; are not simply neutral road maps. Created by B. Ray, African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, and Commu­ those who bear the Image of God (Gen. 1:27–28), nity; J. Stott and R. Coote, eds., Down to Earth: Studies they display, to greater or lesser degree, both the in Christianity and Culture. wisdom of God and the flaws of sin. Religion, given this understanding, cannot be, as functionalism argues, simply one of many Cultural Learning. The intercultural worker human needs demanding satisfaction. As the who desires to become competent in the culture human response to the revelation of God, it per- of ministry must commit to intentional activities meates the whole of life. It is the core in the and to a lifestyle that results in cultural learning structuring of culture, the integrating and radi- (see also Intercultural Competency). The best cal response of humanity to the revelation of time to engage in intentional cultural learning is God. Life is religion. during the first two years of ministry (see Bond- In the building of culture, worldview or reli- ing). If the intercultural worker establishes good gion is the central controlling factor: (1) it ex- habits of intentional learning, those habits will 12 Cultural Learning carry on throughout the life of one’s ministry and in family and community is crucial to framing make a person much more effective. This brief ministry activities and working in effective rela- essay highlights seven significant steps in the tionships with leaders in the community. Several cultural learning process. Each can be accom- anthropological tools are very helpful in under- plished within the first two years of living and standing the structure of social relations. Making working interculturally. maps and doing a census of a particular section Language Learning. (See Second Language of the community will help one learn who is who Acquisition.) Language learning is essential to in a community and how they are connected (or the whole cultural learning process. Individuals not) to one another. Doing genealogies of se- who choose to minister interculturally and do lected members in the community provides a not learn language will always be excluded from conceptual map of how people think about their a deep understanding of the local culture. While relationships with reference to kinship ties. The some cultural practices can be picked up map and the census become extremely useful to through observation of behaviors, the meaning intercultural workers because it provides for of those practices can only be understood them names and locations of people with whom through the language of the local people. In they are certain to interact during the ministry. many social settings in the world people speak Lingenfelter (1996, 97–143) provides questions more than one language. Intercultural workers on family and community authority that help the may be tempted to learn a national language and researcher understand the structure of authority then presume that this is enough to work among relationships and compare them with one’s home a local people. While the national language is im- culture and commitments. portant, the deeper understanding of a local cul- Childrearing. At first glance intercultural ture requires learning the local language as well. workers might wonder if observing childrearing The best way to learn a local language is to em- practices has any relationship to intercultural ploy a local language speaker who has some ministry. What they fail to realize is that the chil- training in teaching that language and who is dren are the most precious resource in any com- willing to teach on an intensive daily basis for a munity, and that the parents of children invest period of at least six months. If such a person is much time and effort in transmitting their cul- not available, then Brewster and Brewster (1976) tural values and coaching the next generation to have provided a handbook of activities that the become mature and effective adults in the com- learner can use to pick up the local language. munity. Childrearing practices provide direct in- While some people find this method very helpful sight into the deeper values and commitments and easy to use, others find it quite difficult. that are crucial for acceptance and effectiveness Whatever method you choose, learning the local in the wider society. It is helpful for the intercul- language is central to deeper cultural under- tural worker to have intimate relationships with standing. two or three families with children in which they Economic Relations. Since all intercultural may observe and with whom they may dialogue ministry involves working with people, under- about the process of raising children. Because standing the organization of labor, cultural con- children have unique and distinctive personali- ceptions of property, and social expectations for ties, the childrearing process also helps the inter- payment, borrowing, and exchange is essential cultural worker learn how people in the culture to effective ministry activities. These activities deal with distinctive personalities. This can be are best learned by participant observation in the most useful when one engages these distinctive daily economic activities of people, and by inter- personalities as adults. Recording case studies of viewing the people, seeking their explanation of how parents deal with a particular child over a how and why they do what they do. Participant period of time can be a very useful form of ob- observation can be done while learning lan- servation and learning. Interviewing the parents guage. Inquiry into economic activities, which about their intentions in the process can illumi- are daily and ordinary, provides opportunity for nate further cultural values and understanding. developing one’s vocabulary and deepening one’s Spradley (1979) provides very helpful insights on understanding of the daily life of people. Lingen- structuring interviews, and collecting and ana- felter (1996, 43–96) provides a series of research lyzing interview data. questions that are useful in the collection of data Conflict and Conflict Resolution. The care- on property, labor, and exchange, and in the ful study of Conflict is one of the most fruitful analysis and comparison of those data with one’s areas for research on a culture. In situations of home culture. conflict people engage in heated exchanges Social Relations. Every community structures that focus around issues that are of extreme its social relations in accord with principles of importance to them. An effective cultural kinship, marriage, interest, and other kinds of learning program includes the careful record- associations (see Association, Socioanthropol- ing of case studies of conflict, and the inter- ogy of). Understanding the nature of authority viewing of participants in the conflict to under- 13 Ecumenical Movement stand what people are feeling, what they value, tionships and other kinds of intercultural rela- why they are contesting with each other, and tionships. what their hopes are with regard to resolution. Sherwood Lingenfelter In addition, careful analysis of the social pro- Bibliography. E. T. Brewster and E. Brewster, Lan­ cesses that people employ for the resolving of guage Acquisition Made Practical; D. Elmer, Cross-­ conflict is very important. Inevitably each inter- Cultural Conflict; P. G. Hiebert and E. H. Meneses, In­ cultural worker will experience interpersonal carnational Ministry: Planning Churches in Band, conflict with national co-workers. Understand- Tribal, Peasant, and Urban Societies; S. G. Lingenfelter, ing local processes for conflict resolution will en- Agents of Transformation: A Guide for Effective able that person to proceed with wisdom and Cross-Cultural Ministry; M. K. Mayers, Christianity with support in the local cultural setting (see Lin- Confronts Culture; J. P. Spradley, The Ethnographic In­ terview. genfelter, 1996, 144–68, and Elmer). Ideas and Worldview. Because Christian in- tercultural workers are interested in sharing the Ecumenical Movement. The word “ecumeni- gospel with other peoples, they must seek to cal” comes from the New Testament word oikou­ understand the ideas and Worldview of the peo- mene,m which meant either the whole world or the ple with whom they work. These ideas are best Roman Empire. In the fourth century the term understood by careful research in the language, was used to describe the whole church, and re- by recording and studying the stories, and by ob- ferred to those church councils recognized as au- serving and understanding the significant life thoritative by the undivided church. Thus the cycle rituals of the local community. Research on first seven councils, called to resolve doctrinal funerals is probably one of the most profitable issues mainly concerning Christology (see also activities that the intercultural worker can do for Christological Controversies), are called the an understanding of the ideas and deeper values ecumenical councils. They took place before the of the local culture (see also Death Rites). Funer- division of the Eastern and Western churches als engage the widest circle of family and friends and so included all Christians. The final division of any particular individual. At these events peo- of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox ple discuss issues of life and death, and act to- churches in 1054 created the ecumenical prob- gether on the beliefs that they hold with regard lem for all churches, which, up to that point, had to the causes of death and the transition from understood the church as one. life to after life. Other life cycle activities such as The Protestant Reformation exacerbated the marriage, naming, and birth of children provide problem. Even though Luther wished only to re- similar fruitful insights into the belief system of form the Western church with no thought of es- a culture (see Lingenfelter, 1996, 165–205, and tablishing a different church, the sixteenth cen- Elmer 1993). tury saw massive fragmentation of the Body of Application for Ministry. Cultural learning Christ in the West, leaving groups ranging from for its own sake is interesting and helpful, but Roman Catholic to Anglican, Lutheran, Re- formed, and various Anabaptist communities. for the intercultural worker it is important to Despite the ecumenism of Calvin, Bucer, and practice the discipline of application. Each of the others, who longed for the unity of Protestants, areas outlined above provides very useful infor- most were denouncing each other as apostates mation that the intercultural worker may apply by the seventeenth century. to build more effective ministries. However, ap- While it is clear in the New Testament that plication must be learned and practiced. The ap- there is only one church and that the unity of all plication of cultural learning to ministry typi- believers is an objective fact based on the work cally works through analogy. One finds a of Christ, the modern ecumenical movement particular structure of authority and organiza- finds its major biblical basis in John 17, where tion in a community, and thinks about the anal- Jesus prayed that all who believed in him would ogy of that structure to a growing body of believ- be one so that the world might believe. Thus ers. One observes patterns of learning among unity would be linked to mission. And in fact the children and draws analogies to learning among historical roots of ecumenism are found in adults who are involved in community develop- movements of renewal and mission beginning ment or other ministry programs. Learning to with Pietism and Moravianism in the eighteenth think analogically about cultural learning and century (see Moravian Missions). An example ministry is crucial for ministry effectiveness. was the correspondence among Francke, the Lu- Paul Hiebert and Eloise Meneses (1995) provide theran Pietist in Germany; Mather, the Congre- very helpful guidelines for application in the gationalist in New England; Chamberlyne and ministries of church planting. Marvin Mayers Newman, the secretaries of the Society for the (1987) provides valuable insight into the applica- Propagation of Christian Knowledge; Boehm, tion of cultural learning for interpersonal rela- the court chaplain at St. James Chapel; and Zie- 14 Ecumenical Movement genbalg, the Lutheran missionary in India in ence of working and praying together. Many rec- which they sought greater unity in order to carry ognized that their unity was much deeper than out the missionary task. Later, Anglicans cooper- differences in Church Polity or style of worship, ated with Lutherans in the mission in India. And and was based on a common devotion to Christ because of his desire to work for renewal, unity, and his mission. But not all took part. The High and mission together, Zindzendorf would be Church Anglicans at one extreme, and some called an “ecumenical pioneer.” Faith Missions on the other, stayed away. But at The revivals on both sides of the Atlantic this point there was still a broad consensus brought other manifestations of ecumenism. In among the great majority about the nature and North America, George Whitefield, an Angli- purpose of mission. can; Jonathan Edwards, a Congregationalist; and An additional and related factor was the Evan- Gilbert Tennent, a Presbyterian, cooperated in gelical Alliance, formed in 1846. It sought to the first Great Awakening. And in England the unite in fellowship all who believed in the full revival saw cooperation among Anglicans and authority of the Bible, the incarnation, atone- dissenters. Members of different denominations ment, salvation by faith, and the work of the corresponded, encouraged each other, and read Holy Spirit. Its monthly journal, Evangelical each other’s works. Carey would be partly moti- Christendom, brought news of missionary work vated in his missionary vocation through reading all over the world, and was avidly read by mis- David Brainerd and the Moravians. The modern sionaries as well as those at home. This strength- Protestant missionary movement, which ened the vision of missionary cooperation. stemmed from the revivals, saw further steps in Missionary conferences overseas had their cooperation. Most of the early missionaries of counterparts in Europe and North America. In the Anglican Church Missionary Society were 1854 Alexander Duff spoke in New York at a German Lutherans, influenced by pietism. The meeting open to friends of mission from “all London Missionary Society included Congrega- evangelical denominations,” to consider eight tionalists, Presbyterians, and Anglicans, while key questions about world evangelization. Many the British and Foreign Bible Society and the Re- similar meetings were held during the last half of ligious Tract Society found support among all the century in various parts of Europe as well as evangelical groups. In an early and visionary at- the United States. A new and important step was tempt at greater unity, Carey proposed “a general Ecumenical Missionary Conference held in New association of all denominations of Christians, York in 1900. Nearly two hundred thousand peo- from the four quarters of the world,” to be held ple attended its various sessions, and it was in Capetown in 1810 or 1812, “to enter into one opened with an address by President William another’s views.” McKinley. The word “ecumenical” was used in While Carey’s dream would not become a real- its title “because the plan of campaign which it ity until a century later, missionaries of various proposes covers the whole area of the inhabited denominations began to meet in 1825 in Bom- globe.” Thus the original dimension was brought bay to promote Christian fellowship and ex- again to the meaning of the term. Now it re- change ideas. At a similar meeting in 1858 an ferred, not only to the whole church and thus to Anglican stated that while denominational con- unity and cooperation, but to the worldwide troversies may elicit truth in the West, elsewhere scope of the missionary task. they produce nothing but evil, adding his hope Along with the revivals and the missionary that God would produce a church in India differ- movement the nineteenth-century student move- ent in many aspects from those in Europe or ments formed a third stream contributing to the America. Western denominational divisions ecumenical movement. The Intercollegiate seemed to make no sense in Asia or Africa and YMCA existed on 181 campuses by 1884, empha- were often a scandal. They seemed to deny a sizing Bible study, worship, and personal evange- basic aspect of the faith. In December 1862, an- lism. In 1880 the Interseminary Missionary Alli- other conference prefaced its report with the ance was formed by students from thirty-two prayer, “that they all may be one,” and discerned seminaries to encourage focus on the missionary a pattern of “the united action of Christian men task. Through these two organizations mission who pray, confer, and work together, in order to became the primary feature of the student move- advance the interests of their Master’s kingdom.” ment. The Student Volunteer Movement, In the same meeting, Anglicans, Presbyterians, formed in 1886, carried the emphasis further. Methodists, and Baptists took Communion to- Student Christian movements were organized in gether. Similar conferences took place in Japan, a number of countries, and these were brought China, Africa, Latin America, and the Muslim together in the World Student Christian Federa- world. tion in 1895 under the leadership of John R. The most prominent focus in these confer- Mott. Its founders saw the need for greater unity ences was Unity, which was a result of both the at home if their goal of world evangelization was common commitment to mission and the experi- to be realized. In England, for example, it 15 Ecumenical Movement brought together Free Church, Evangelical, and cal liberalism, which seemed to doubt the impor- Anglo Catholic students to promote missionary tance of evangelism and maintained a primary zeal. The Federation sought to promote the spirit focus on social issues, led to a great decrease in of unity for which the Lord longed, and to em- missionary activity by most conciliar churches in phasize the efficacy of prayer, the saving work of Europe and North America. Thus the WCC has Christ, and the “energizing power of the Spirit not succeeded in fulfilling the goal of its early and the Word of God.” proponents, unity so that the world might be- These powerful streams came together in the lieve. Its member churches seem to be playing an Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910. ever decreasing role in world evangelism. This Many of those who planned it came from the can be seen in statistics from the United States. Student Christian movement. A number of them In 1918, 82% of the missionary force came from would become leaders in the formation of the the “mainline” churches, most likely to be mem- World Council of Churches in midcentury. bers of the WCC today. In 1966, only 6% of John R. Mott, the chairman, was the most visible American missionaries served under those leader of the SVM and probably the most im- boards. portant symbol of the growing ecumenical move- Other manifestations of ecumenism are coun- ment. Three topics of the conference were “Car- cils of churches in many countries and mergers rying the Gospel to all the World,” “The Church of various denominational traditions in some na- on the Mission Field,” and “Cooperation and the tions. The United Church of Canada was formed Promotion of Unity.” However, in order to ensure in 1925 by Methodists, Congregationalists, and the participation of the High Church Anglicans some Presbyterians with the hope of more effec- and continental Lutherans, the conference lim- tive outreach in the West. However, the result ited participants to those involved in mission to has been disappointing and decline rather than “non-Christians.” Consequently those involved in growth has been the result. The Church of Christ mission to traditionally Roman Catholic Latin in China was formed in 1927 by Presbyterians, America were excluded. This would create barri- United Brethren, the United Church of Canada, ers between Latin American evangelicals and the and some Baptists and Congregationalists. conciliar ecumenical movement later on. On the Under the communist regime it became the par- other hand, neither Roman Catholics nor Ortho- ent body of the current “Three-Self Church,” dox were invited. sanctioned by the government. The Church of Edinburgh’s most important achievement was South India was formed in 1947 and included the formation, in 1921, of the International Mis- Anglicans, the first time they had been drawn sionary Council (IMC) which promoted interna- into communion with Presbyterians, Methodists, tional missionary cooperation. However, it was and others. In 1941 most Protestants in Japan, also uniquely responsible for the formation of under government pressure, formed the Church the World Council of Churches. It did so by of Christ in Japan, but Anglicans, Lutherans, and bringing the younger churches into the thinking some others withdrew from it after the war. In of the older churches, helping to recognize them 1948 the United Church of Christ in the Philip- as an essential part of the world Christian com- pines was established. It appears that most of munity. Even though the organizers had agreed these united churches, with the exception of the not to discuss matters of theology and polity, Church in China, are not growing as rapidly as some in attendance saw the need to do so and, as many of the newer groups. a result, the Faith and Order Movement was ini- The early ecumenical movement was based on tiated in 1927. The influence of the Student a theological consensus which was solidly evan- Movement and Edinburgh was also important in gelical and breathed missionary passion. To the the formation of the Universal Christian Council extent that agencies lost either or both of these, for Life and Work, established in 1925. Bishop they declined. But after midcentury a new evan- Soder­blom of Sweden who had been influenced gelical ecumenism arose. This is probably the by D. L. Moody and Mott, established the coun- most important manifestation of the ecumenical cil to seek cooperative action on common prob- movement today. In the first half of this century lems. Faith and Order and Life and Work would fundamentalists and evangelicals tended to focus become the parent movements of the World more on the issues which separated them from Council of Churches (WCC), organized in 1948 each other than on their common faith and task. (see Amsterdam Assembly). For the older denom- But in 1966 the Congress on the Church’s inations it has been the primary institutional ex- Worldwide Mission at Wheaton and the World pression of the ecumenical movement. Congress on Evangelism in Berlin began to over- When the IMC became a part of the WCC in come the separatism. Those meetings were suc- 1961 some hoped it would place mission at the ceeded by the International Congress on World heart of the Council. Others feared the move Evangelism, held at Lausanne in 1974. The stat- would result in a decline in mission. The latter ure of Billy Graham helped greatly in bringing proved to be right as a combination of theologi- together men and women from diverse traditions 16 Ethnicity and many nations, while the theological insights characteristics, body shape); cultural identity of John Stott contributed to the formulation of (e.g., language or dialect, religion), or geographic a statement of faith that laid the foundation for a origin. Since the founding of the church, ethnic- more adequate understanding of mission. The ity has been a fundamental reality of missions. formation of the Lausanne Committee on World For example, wherever intercultural evange- Evangelization (LCWE) worked to bring about lists have gone they sought to translate the gos- greater cooperation in the evangelistic task in a pel into the local language. They knew that the number of areas. Those involved included a gospel had to be understood in local terms, they wider spectrum than ever before, ranging from also knew that the gospel had to be lived in the Anglicans to Pentecostals. At the same time the local milieu. Jesus was the model. Even though insights and concerns of Christians from Asia, he was God, he took upon himself a human body Africa, and Latin America contributed to deeper and was shaped in a particular cultural con- understanding of the Gospel and the missionary text—he was a Galilean Jew. That is the way God task by those in the West (see Evangelical Move- enters cultures and saves people. God takes Cul- ment). ture very seriously. So should intercultural evan- The second congress of the LCWE, held in Ma- gelists. The gospel affirms culture in general nila in 1989, was probably the most inclusive terms. As the gospel enters culture as salt and Christian gathering in history up to that time light it actually enhances culture. (see Lausanne Congress II). Four thousand evan- Needed: A Theology of Ethnicity. Missiolo- gelical Christians from 150 countries gathered gists have developed theologies of “ethnic evan- for a week. They included over sixty from the gelism,” but few missiologists are developing a former Soviet Union, while others came from theology of “ethnicity” itself. This task is becom- obscure countries like Chad in Central Africa. ing increasingly urgent because the demands of The goal was that half the delegates come from ethnicity will probably dominate the world’s Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Pentecostals agenda at least in the opening decades of the were included among the speakers. So were new millennium. women. Thus the whole church was represented Lessons might be learned from the history of to an extent not previously seen. The focus re- northern Europe, which was torn apart by ethnic captured the ecumenical ideal: the whole church, struggles for centuries. In the process of time the taking the whole gospel, to the whole world. And problem was sorted out to some degree by sim- while Manila did not contribute the kind of sig- ply drawing national boundaries around ethnic nificant theological reformulation done at Laus- realities—Germany for the Germans, Holland for anne, it seemed to provide additional impetus to the Dutch, France for the French, Italy for the the goals of cooperation in mission. Italians, and so forth. This did not solve all the While the LCWE has been the most visible problems as recent events in the Balkans have symbol of the new evangelical ecumenism, there shown. But it did have a salutary effect of stress- are many others. The AD 2000 Movement, led, ing nation over tribe (ethnic entity). It seemed a not by a European or North American, but by an bit more civil to be a nationalist than a “tribal- Argentine, the Global Consultation on World ist.” But history has shown that the two are es- Evangelization held in Korea (’95) and South Af- rica (’97), the Latin American mission confer- sentially the same. ences (see COMIBAM) held in 1987 and 1997, Ethnicity and the State Today. Several factors and the internationalization of the missionary have served to mitigate the impact of ethnicity movement, are all aspects of ecumenism. While on world history in recent years. First is the phe- there is still much to be done, the evangelical nomenon of Colonialism. By exerting powerful movement is now more genuinely ecumenical influence the colonial powers sought to suppress than ever before, as men and women from many ethnic feelings so that the rule of colonial law races, languages, cultures, and nations seek to could be upheld. Second, strong nations have discover how they can demonstrate our unity in emerged where the aboriginal population was ei- Christ so that the world might believe. ther displaced or suppressed by immigrant peo- Paul E. Pierson ples from a variety of cultures. This was the case in much of South, Central, and North America Bibliography. J. Hoekstra, The World Council of along with Australia and New Zealand. Third, Churches and the Demise of Evangelism; W. R. Hogg, ideological hegemony was exercised by some Ecumenical Foundations; LCWE; The Lausanne Cove- nant; K. S. Latourette, A History of Christianity; S. Neill states such as totalitarian socialism or commu- and R. Rouse, A History of the Ecumenical Movement. nism. In these systems there was simply no op- portunity for authentic ethnic expression. Eth- nicity was treated as a thing of the past or as an Ethnicity. Classification of a person or persons ornament which could be worn on occasion if it into a particular group based on factors such as did not interfere with the march of the totalitar- physical characteristics (e.g., skin color, facial ian state. 17 Ethnocentrism

Two of those factors are almost gone—struc- sions: Race, Ethnicity and Nationalism at the End of the tural colonialism is no more and ideological to- Twentieth Century. talitarianism is in shreds. Under the facades of these two systems ethnicity not only survived but flourished, awaiting the moment when once Ethnocentrism. The term “ethnocentrism” may again ethnicity could be claimed, admired, and simply be defined as the belief that one’s own expressed. That is the case today. Where these people group or cultural ways are superior to two systems reigned, now ethnicity has emerged others. An ethnocentric person generally has an as a major factor. As the breakup of the former attitude/opinion of prejudice (prejudging others Yugoslavia shows, however, this is not always a as inferior). This internal orientation may be positive thing. manifested in individual action or institutional- The Role of Ethnicity in Society. Ethnicity ized policy toward others as in the case of an- has a positive and a negative side. Through ge- ti-Semitism, apartheid, bigotry, fascism, and rac- netics we inherit many things, but we do not in- ism. herit culture; that we learn. Our cultures give us Prejudice or discrimination in a scientific specific ways of viewing the world, as well as sense can be both positive and negative. How- how to interact with other persons, how to sur- ever, in the social sciences, including missiology, vive and prosper. Cultures provide identity and a the terms are generally used with a negative con- place to belong. The process of Enculturation notation. It is necessary to distinguish between which begins at birth provides the individual the two: prejudice is an attitude; discrimination with a way to be human. Alone, newly born is action or social interaction unfavorable to oth- human beings have no hope of survival. Culture ers on the basis of their religious, ethnic, or ra- shapes the person. The formative role of culture cial membership. or ethnicity is profound and pervasive. This is Prejudice is the subjective prejudgment of oth- the positive side. The harmful effects of ethnicity ers to be inferior, whereas ethnocentrism is the appear when ethnocentrism takes the upper subjective presumption that one’s own peo- hand in cases where one group imposes its will ple-group or cultural ways are superior. Bigotry on another or when a group fears this will hap- (i.e., narrow-mindedness or intolerance due to pen. differences between self and others) and racism So much interethnic hostility exists in the (i.e., the presumed cultural superiority or inferi- world today that the word itself has begun to ority as caused by genetically inherited physical take on a negative meaning. This bodes ill for the characteristics such as facial feature, skin color, opening decades of the twentieth century be- etc.) are two general forms of prejudice. cause ethnicity is on the rise. Institutionalized manifestation of ethnocen- The Gospel and Ethnicity. The gospel is very trism and prejudice can be found in specific clear with regard to ethnicity. The Kingdom of cases historically. Fascism (i.e., authoritarian na- God is not a new “generic” culture, but a family tionalism) of Benito Mussolini, which emerged which includes people from a great variety of in the 1920s in Italy, and Adolf Hitler’s control of cultures. The unity of the Christian church has Germany in the 1930s are cases in point. Hitler’s nothing to do with culture, yet it affirms all cul- belief in the superiority and purity of his own tures. Believers are “one” because they love the kind gave impetus to anti-Semitic measures that same Lord and are redeemed by the one Lamb of led to the holocaust of the Jews. The black and God. Their unity is the result of the love which white racial conflicts in the United States and they receive as a fruit of the Holy Spirit. In the South Africa are examples of institutionalized Body no one culture dominates nor dictates to manifestation of ethnocentrism and prejudice. another. Everyone stands humbly before God, in Ethnocentrism is Contrabiblical to Mission. their culture but not of that culture. The culmi- Mission is the divine design of bringing spiritual nation of world history will be when the follow- blessings to all nations, reflected in God’s cove- ers of Christ will join the multiethnic choir—out nant with Abraham (Gen. 12) and Christ’s Great of every tribe and nation and tongue, praising Commission to bring the gospel to all nations. God forever and ever (Rev. 7). God’s desire is that none should perish but all Donald R. Jacobs should come to repentance (2 Peter 3:9). Bibliography. J. Hutchinson and A. D. Smith, eds., Ethnocentric pride of many Jews prevented Ethnicity; D. Kecmamovic, The Mass Psychology of Eth­ them from performing their duties as God’s nonationalism; M. E. Marty and R. S. Appleby, eds., choice instruments of grace to the nations (Rom. Religion, Ethnicity, and Self Identify: Nations in Tur­ 7–9). The apostles had difficulty in following the moil; D. McGavran, Understanding Church Growth; D. P. Moynihan, Pandemonium, Ethnicity in Interna­ resurrected Christ’s command to bear witness to tional Politics; W. Pfaff, The Wrath of Nations; L. O. the nations (Acts 1:9) Even during persecution Sanneh, Translating the Message: The Missionary Im­ they persisted in evangelizing only their own pact on Culture; W. A. Van Horne, ed., Global Convul­ kind (Acts 11:19). 18 Fundamentalisms

The detailed description of the Holy Spirit’s di- Bible books for translation. In a similar manner, recting Peter toward the Roman official Corne- cross-cultural church planters may disregard the lius in Acts 10 is very telling regarding ethnocen- cultural context of the target ethnic groups and trism and mission. The Holy Spirit prepared persist in imposing their own Christian tradition Peter personally by leading him to lodge at Si- on new converts in terms of worship and preach- mon’s house (cf. the Jewish ceremonial law of ing style, discipleship programs, and church pol- Lev. 11) prior to giving visions and directions to icy. both Peter and Cornelius. Later Peter came to a At a personal level, missionaries may not be new understanding: “I now realize how true it is completely free from ethnocentrism in their atti- that God does not show favoritism and accepts tude, etiquette, and action. All missionaries must men from every nation” (Acts 19:34–35). When be willing to ask themselves on a regular basis if witnessing the “Gentile pentecost,” the Jewish they are displaying ethnocentric attitudes in Christians “were astonished that the gift of the what they communicate by the very way they Holy Spirit had been poured out even on the live. Gentiles” (10:44–45). Enoch Wan Ethnocentrism is Counterproductive in Mis- sions. “Missions” are the ways and means Bibliography. W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice; J. D. Dovidio and S. L. Gaertner, Prejudice, Discrimina­ whereby the Christian church fulfills its mission tion, and Racism; P. Jackson, ed., Race and Racism: Es­ of world evangelization. Intercultural Commu- says in Social Geography; D. Kitagawa, Race Relations nication, Cross-Cultural Ministry, and Church and Christian Mission; R. A. LeVine and D. T. Camp- Planting are parts of the process of world evan- bell, Ethnocentrism: Theories of Conflict, Ethnic Atti­ gelization. At any of these points ethnocentrism tudes, and Group Behavior; V. Reynolds, et al., eds., The can curtail or cripple efforts in missions. Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism. Persons with an ethnocentric orientation have difficulty developing a genuine social relation- ship with members outside their group. While Fundamentalisms. Certain dynamic and popu- we must recognize that no one is entirely with- lar religious movements that have been a signifi- out prejudice or ethnocentrism of some kind, cant feature within World Religions during the ethnocentrism in the Christian inhibits obedi- twentieth century. Part of their power and appeal ence to the Great Commandment (“love your lies in their claim to rediscover religious authen- neighbor as yourself”) and the Great Commis- ticity and divine purpose amidst the confusions sion. Ethnocentrism is a significant obstacle to of modern life by attempting a retrieval of the missionaries serving as messengers of the “gos- original doctrines and practices of their particu- pel of reconciliation” (2 Cor. 5). lar religion. Such fundamentals in an unchanged The ethnocentric Western Christian has the form are regarded as being the answer to the tendency to presuppose a “guilt feeling” in the needs of humankind in every age and context. audience in talking about justification, atone- Despite this focus on the past, fundamentalism ment, and so on. People from a shame culture is itself a product of the modern era. The history (see Shame; avoid embarrassment and “losing of the particular religion is seen as a record of face” at all cost and acquire honor and “save general decline and compromise. The fundamen- face” by all means) may be more ready to appre- talist response to Modernity stands as an alter- ciate and accept Christ as the “Mediator, Shame- native to the liberal approach, which sees the bearer, Reconcilor” (Rom. 5; 2 Cor. 5; Eph. 2; history of religion as progress and is willing to Heb. 9; etc.). review religious doctrine in the light of modern Some Western Christians are predisposed to knowledge as a means of achieving contempo- the use of informational/impersonal evangelistic rary relevance. means of the technological society as compared The origins of the term “fundamentalism” in to oral and mostly relational cultures of the tar- Christian circles are usually associated with the get group. The understanding of “limited cul- publication of a series of tracts entitled The Fun­ tural relativism” (viewing cultural ways as rela- damentals (1909–15), which defended certain te- tive, an antidote to “ethnocentrism”) will enable nets of biblical orthodoxy as literally true. These Christians to adapt to new cultural contexts with included creation in six days, the virgin birth, the the relevant gospel message and flexible evange- physical resurrection and bodily return of Christ. listic methods. The fundamentalists affirmed the inerrancy of Ethnocentrism Still Inhibits Missions. Mar- Scripture (including its descriptions of supernat- tin Luther despised the Book of James as “the ural events) in contrast to the more liberal ap- straw epistle” and preferred Romans and Gala- proach to the Bible, which was based on histori- tians. This is a historical example showing the cal and source criticism and scientific opinion. power of prejudice. His pattern of preferential In the United States the fundamentalists be- treatment of different books of the Bible can still came associated with revivalist movements and be found in modern missions in prioritizing dispensationalism. Some fundamentalists in 19 Globalization their opposition to modernity separated from de- deeds among all peoples” (Ps. 96:3). The cove- nominations that included modernists, while nant community was open not just to Jews but others (including Carl Henry) led the way for the to all who would follow Yahweh, such as Ruth of evangelicals, Bible-believing Christians within Moab. God’s grace and compassion reached even many traditions who were more open to a cul- the wicked people of Nineveh through Jonah and tural engagement with modernity. Naaman the Syrian. The Servant of the Lord, Fundamentalist tendencies may be detected in fully realized in Christ, was to be “a light for the other world religions (e.g., within Hinduism in Gentiles, that you may bring my salvation to the the nationalist political forms of Shiv Sena and ends of the earth” (Isa. 49:6). the Bharatiya Janata Party). However, the word In the New Testament, Jesus Christ told the “fundamentalism” has been more popularly as- disciples, “And this gospel of the kingdom will be sociated with certain modern reform movements preached in the whole world as a testimony to all within Islam, although Muslim fundamentalists nations, and then the end will come” (Matt. themselves prefer to be described as Islamists 24:14). After the resurrection, he commissioned rather than fundamentalists. It may be argued them to reach beyond the Jews and “go and that the origins of the present fundamentalist make disciples of all nations” (Matt. 28:19). Just movements in Islam can be traced back to the before his ascension the Lord told them, “But Wahhabi movement in Arabia, the Ikwan al Mus­ you will receive power when the Holy Spirit limun in Egypt and Syria, and the Jama’at-i-­ comes on you; and you will be my witnesses in Islami in India and Pakistan. These drew in part Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to from existing thought within Islam (e.g., from the ends of the earth” (Acts 1:8). Acts chronicles Ibn Taymiyah, d. 1328) and articulated a power- the beginning of this expansion. The Bible as- ful message of religion, patriotism, and revolu- sures us that at the end of history there will be “a tion. In the context of the decline of Islam (asso- great multitude that no one could count, from ciated in part with the Western colonial era) they every nation, tribe, people and language, stand- advocated a return to the roots of the faith. What ing before the throne and in front of the Lamb” was needed was not less Islam or adulterated (Rev. 7:9). Islam, but original and genuine Islam. The vital- Globalization of the Church. Christianity has ity of the fundamentalist agenda continued in advanced unevenly around the globe during the postcolonial era in opposition both to West- most of its first twenty centuries, with the ern interference and to the secularized rulers in church often slow to remember its evangelistic independent Muslim nations who misjudged the mandate. Despite occasional periods of persecu- religious sentiments of the masses. tion, until a.d. 313, when Constantine issued the The central question is whether traditional Is- Edict of Milan, the church exploded across the lamic institutions and law are now outdated and Roman Empire. For the next three centuries, the need to be modernized. Islamic fundamentalists Christian faith continued to spread via monks believe that the relevance of the traditional and bishops into Ethiopia, India, Ireland, Brit- sources of Muslim faith and practice was not ain, and along the trade routes toward Central limited to seventh-century Arabia, but that in Asia. their original form they are still suited to the The coming of Islam brought a series of rever- modern era. Thus fundamentalists call for the sals. Lost to the Muslim invaders were the holy implementation of Islamic law (shari’a) in such lands, North Africa, Asia Minor, and Persia. The detail as the veiling of women, the prohibition of church, however, continued to spread across Eu- banking interest, certain forms of criminal pun- rope, to what are now Belgium, Germany, and ishment, and the execution of apostates. the Netherlands. Russia also became Christian- Patrick Sookhdeo ized. Nestorian Christianity made its way into China but did not last. Later, the Dominicans, Bibliography. M. A. Noll, Between Faith and Criti­ Franciscans, and Jesuits brought Christianity cism; H. Küng and J. Moltmann, Fundamentalism as into Central Asia, China, Africa, and Latin Amer- an Ecumenical Challenge; M. E. Marty and R. S. Ap- pleby, eds., Fundamentalism Project Series; M. Na- ica. zir-Ali, Islam: A Christian Perspective; W. M. Watt, Is­ Protestants, inspired by the example of David lamic Fundamentalism and Modernity. Brainerd among the Indians of the New World and the Moravians of Germany, began to remem- ber their missionary responsibilities. But not Globalization. In the Bible God anticipated and until 1792, with the spark provided by William commanded the globalization, or worldwide Carey, did the Protestant Church begin large- spread, of biblical faith. In the Old Testament, scale outreach to other lands. The 1800s, some- God blessed Abraham and promised that “all times called the Great Century of Missions, saw peoples on earth will be blessed through you” the proliferation of missionary societies, aided (Gen. 12:3). The people of God were told to “De- by the expansion of the great colonial powers clare his glory among the nations, his marvelous into India, China, and Africa. 20 The Gospel and Culture

The advance of the gospel has been remark- non-Westerners in order to keep them in their able in the twentieth century, particularly the lat- assignments. ter half. In 1960, an estimated 58 percent of the Most of the discussion about the relationship world’s Christians were Westerners; in 1990, only of Western and non-Western missions focuses on 38 percent were. Latin America’s evangelical discarding old roles and developing partnerships presence exploded from a mere 50,000 in 1900 to in the common task of world evangelization. 40 million in 1990. Today, with about one-third While Partnership most often refers to Western of the earth’s approximately 6 billion people, missionaries and non-Western “nationals” work- Christianity is present in every nation-state. ing one on one as equals, it can have a more Most of the growth has come in the former “mis- structural meaning for missionary organizations. sion fields” of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Agencies that cross ethnic or national lines to From 1960 to 1990, the number of evangelicals work together are said to be internationalized. in the West grew from 57.7 million to 95.9 mil- Four types of internationalized organizations lion, while evangelicals outside the West multi- have been identified: cooperative (through infor- plied from 29 million to 208 million. About three mal sharing, such as the Missions Advanced Re- in four of the world’s evangelicals are non-West- search and Communication Center), task-ori- erners. However, despite this growth, many peo- ented partnerships (spearheaded by groups such ple in the world’s vast Muslim, Hindu, and secu- as Gospel for Asia and Interdev that bring sev- larized blocs remain relatively untouched by the eral organizations together), international agen- gospel. cies (such as WEC International and the Soci- Globalization of the Missionary Task. As ety for International Ministries, which operate Christians in the former missionary “receiving” in many nations or have multinational leader- countries have realized their responsibilities to ship), and international movements in pursuit of be “senders,” the globalization of the missionary a common goal or strategy. The AD 2000 and Be- enterprise has begun to track the globalization of yond Movement, with its emphasis on “un- the church. The number of Protestant missionar- reached peoples,” is an example of the latter. ies from the United States and Canada has de- Such movements are effectively reaching across clined, from 50,500 in 1988 to 41,142 in 1992, national, denominational, and ethnic boundaries according to the fifteenth edition of Mission and presenting a clearer picture of the globaliza- Handbook. South Korea and India each boast tion of missions at the dawn of the twenty-first century. 4,000 missionaries, and their numbers continue to grow. Nigeria’s Evangelical Missionary Society Stanley M. Guthrie sends about 950. While the precise figures are in Bibliography. D. Hicks, Globalizing Missions; dispute, the numbers of non-Western missionar- L. Pate, From Every People; J. A. Siewert and J. A. Ken- ies are certainly growing substantially faster yon, eds., Mission Handbook; W. D. Taylor, ed., Interna­ than their Western counterparts (see Non-West- tionalizing Missionary Training; R. D. Winter and S. C. Hawthorne, eds., PWCM; J. D. Woodbridge, ed., AFC. ern Mission Boards and Agencies). Some ex- perts believe that Western missionaries will be numerically eclipsed by the turn of the century. The Gospel and Culture. The Gospel is God’s With the shifting balance of missions power gift to humankind. Culture is a human creation. have come calls for Western churches to stop However, the gospel is expressed within culture sending missionaries and instead—or predomi- and communicated through culture. “The Word nantly—send money to support “native mission- became flesh [incarnation] and made his dwell- aries” (see Foreign Financing of Indigenous ing among us [enculturation]” (John 1:14a). Workers). These are said to be cheaper and We create cultures because humans are cre- more effective than Westerners. Such calls have ated in God’s image (Gen. 1:26–31) (see Image of been especially attractive to Western Christians, God). God creates; humans make artifacts. God who find themselves increasingly inward-looking speaks; humans develop languages. God is a cov- and financially pressured. While applauding the enant being; humans create social institutions. energy, vision, and commitment of the younger God is righteous; humans develop systems of missionary movement, missions experts caution morés. Religion develops out of human yearning against idealizing the non-Westerners as without for a relationship with the other dimensions of problems. They acknowledge weaknesses in the existence. Artifacts, languages, social institu- non-Western sending, training, and shepherding tions, morés, and religion are some dimensions bases as well as dangers in sending money of human culture. only—both for recipients and for senders. Cultures are organized. Like an artichoke, cul- Non-Western churches and mission agencies are tures have a core with layers encircling that core. sometimes better at sending people out than The Worldview is the cultural core—the under- keeping them there, they say. Much effort is standing of the meaning of the universe and the being expended to shore up the training of person’s place within the universe. Moving out- 21 Great Commission ward from the core other layers include power, blesses, and those dimensions that the gospel values, practices, and artifacts. The core funda- critiques and transforms. Acts 15 describes a mentally informs each of the other layers. conference in Jerusalem that convened to ad- All cultures possess indications of truth and dress such issues. Persons representing Jewish graciousness. For example, most African Tradi- and Greek cultures participated. They heard ac- tional Religions assumed some form of life after counts of what the Holy Spirit was doing in death; there was a hint of gospel-like truth in transforming lives, they searched the Scriptures that perception. Children were valued; the for guidance, they listened to the counsel of the mother carried the newborn baby on her back Holy Spirit, and in counsel together they bound for many months. Children grew up secure. Such some practices and loosened others. indications of image-of-God-like truth and good- This remarkable Jerusalem council affirmed ness are present in all cultures (Rom. 1:20; 10:8; salvation in Jesus Christ as the center of the Acts 17:22–23, 28). church’s faith in every culture, but also freed the All cultures also possess the imprint of evil and church to embrace cultural diversity. Conse- distortions of truth (Rom. 1:18–32). When Adam quently the global church can celebrate astonish- and Eve turned away from God, they did so be- ing cultural diversity while enjoying unity in cause they wanted to “be like God” (Gen. 3:1– Christ. 11). This declaration of independence from our The gospel is always clothed within the idioms Creator is universal. We ourselves and our cul- of culture. That is the nature of the Bible and the tures become our ultimate loyalty, rather than church. Consequently, Christian missionaries our Creator. Consequently, the gods we worship carry both their culture and the gospel with become the psychoprojection of our cultures. In them when they move from one culture to an- various ways religions everywhere are inclined to other. However, whenever a people receive Jesus become the mirror image of respective cultures; Christ, they are empowered and freed by the the gods of culture rarely call people to repent Holy Spirit and the Scriptures to evaluate and (Jer. 10:1–16). critique both their own culture and that of the The Bible pronounces the gods of culture as missionary. The presence of Jesus Christ within false. It is for this reason that repentance is the any culture is life-giving empowerment (John essential response of all who embrace biblical 8:31–36). faith. God the Creator confronts the gods of cul- David W. Shenk ture. God calls people to repent, to turn away from the gods of culture they have created and Bibliography. P. Hiebert, Anthropological Insights worship rather the God who has created them for Missionaries; T. Hopler, A World of Difference; C. H. Kraft, Christianity and Culture; E. A. Nida and W. D. (Exod. 20:3). Reyburn, Meaning Across Cultures; D. Richardson, Jesus Christ is the supreme clarification event. Eternity in Their Hearts; L. Sanneh, Translating the Mes­ As “God With Us,” he entered and lived within a sage: The Missionary Impact on Culture; D. W. Shenk, particular culture with relevant, disturbing, revo- Global Gods, Exploring the Role of Religions in Modern lutionary, life-giving power. Jesus is unprece- Societies. dented. No human culture, religion, philosophy, or speculation ever imagined the possibility of Jesus Christ (Matt. 16:13–18). Jesus is the gospel. Great Commission. The term “Great Commis- He is God’s salvation gift to humanity (John sion” is commonly assigned to Christ’s command 3:16), and transformation gift to culture (Matt. to his disciples as found in Matthew 28:18–20, 13:33). Mark 16:15–16, Luke 24:46–49, John 20:21, and Through the Holy Spirit, Jesus Christ seeks to Acts 1:8. It is sometimes referred to as the “Evan- make his home within the worldview and power gelistic Mandate” and distinguished from the centers of every culture (Matt. 5, 6, 7, 24:14). “Cultural” and/or “Social Mandate” found in Missiologists refer to this as Contextualization. Genesis 1:28–30 and Genesis 9:1–7 (see Cultural The gospel should become relevant and revolu- Mandate). The prominence accorded to the tionary good news within every cultural context. Great Commission in the past two hundred years The Dyak of Petussibau in West Kalimantan, is not apparent in previous church history. The who traditionally feared birds as omens of the early church made remarkable progress in gods, can discover that Jesus frees from bondage spreading the faith throughout the Mediterra- to squawking birds. However, a Harvard Univer- nean world by virtue of the witness of dispersed sity astronomer would be quite amused if a Christians and the missionary journeys of the Christian student were to tell him that Christ can apostle Paul and others. However, there is no free him from the fear of squawking crows. The clear indication in the Book of Acts that this ef- cultural contexts in Boston and Petussibau are fort was motivated by explicit appeals to the exceedingly different! Great Commission. Rather, after Pentecost the The church within every society needs to dis- Holy Spirit both motivated and orchestrated the cern the aspects of the culture that the gospel missionary effort in accordance with that Com- 22 Great Commission mission. Similarly, throughout the early centu- Subsequent history has revealed how diverse ries when both the Eastern and especially West- and divisive such interpretations can be. The ern branches of the church were expanding twentieth century gave rise to a number of sig- significantly, the Great Commission as such does nificant points of departure in understanding. not appear to have been a decisive motivating or First, upon a review of history and the biblical defining factor. text, some (e.g., Harry Boer) have concluded In Reformation times concerns and controver- that, in the process of convincing Christians that sies relating to the Great Commission had to do the Great Commission applied to them, propo- with its applicability. In 1537 Pope Paul III em- nents unwittingly contributed to the idea that phasized the importance of the Great Commis- the validity of Christian mission rested primarily sion and said that all people are “capable of re- upon that command. This led to a corresponding ceiving the doctrines of the Faith.” However, neglect of the missionary role of the Holy Spirit sixteenth-century Catholic theology applied the and the missionary thrust of the whole of bibli- text to the Church with its episcopacy, not to the cal revelation. Second, perhaps responding to individual Christians as such. The Reformers the emphasis on the social task of the church in generally taught that the Great Commission was the WCC and especially at the 1968 General As- entrusted to the apostles and that the apostles sembly in Uppsala, some evangelicals (e.g., John fulfilled it by going to the ends of their known Stott) revised their thinking on the Great Com- world. This is not to say that they had no mis- mission and now argue against the generally ac- sionary vision. Hadrian Saravia (1531–1613) and cepted position that the statement in Matthew Justinian von Welz (1621–61) found reason 28:16–20, being the most complete, possesses a enough to write treatises in which they urged certain priority. Their revised position is that the Christians to recognize their responsibility to statement in John 20:21 (“As the Father has sent obey the Great Commission and evangelize the me, so send I you”) takes priority and makes the Lord Jesus’ earthly ministry as outlined in Luke world. Nevertheless, it remained for William 4:18, 19 a model for modern mission. This inter- Carey (1761–1834) to make one of the most compelling cases for the applicability of the pretation opens the way for sociopolitical action as an integral part of biblical mission. Third, Great Commission to all believers. The first sec- many Pentecostals and charismatics have given a tion of his treatise An Inquiry into the Obligations certain priority to the Markan version of the of Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of Great Commission with its emphasis on the the Heathens (published in 1792) made a con- “signs following” conversion and faith—casting certed argument that individual Christians out demons, speaking in new tongues, handling should join together in an effort to take the gos- snakes, drinking poisonous liquids without hurt, pel to the Heathen (at that time the common and healing the sick (Mark 16:17–19). This ap- designation for the unevangelized) in obedience proach is generally dependent upon a consider- to the Great Commission. Some historians have ation of the manuscript evidence relating to the concluded that An Inquiry rivals Luther’s Nine- shorter and longer endings of Mark’s Gospel. ty-five Theses in terms of its influence on church Fourth, some exegetes (e.g., Robert Culver) point history. out that the Matthew 28:18–20 text does not sup- By the middle of the nineteenth century a con- port the commonly understood interpretation sensus on the applicability of the Great Commis- with its overemphasis on “going” into all the sion had emerged but this consensus paved the world in obedience to Christ. Rather, the main way for differences as to its application, particu- verb and imperative is “make disciples.” The larly in America. Not everyone agreed with the other verbs (in English translations) are actually interpretation and approach of A. T. Pierson and participles and take their imperitival force from others who, in the 1880s and 1890s, pressed the the main verb. In descending order of impor- completion of world evangelization by the year tance the verbs are “make disciples,” “teach,” 1900 “in obedience to the Great Commission.” “baptize, and “go.” The text would be better The organizers of the great Edinburgh Confer- translated “Going . . .” or “As you go . . .” and ence of 1910 attempted to avoid controversy con- understanding enhanced by giving more atten- cerning the requirements of the Great Commis- tion to the grammatical construction of the orig- sion and the nature of mission by taking the inal text. Fifth, Donald McGavran held that position that the Great Commission is “intrinsic” there is a clear distinction between disciple-mak- rather than “extrinsic” (James Scherer’s words) ing and teaching in fulfilling the Great Commis- to the church and its missions. In other words, it sion. The former has to do with people of a cul- is not so much an exterior law that sits in judg- ture turning from their old ways, old gods, and ment upon the missionary activities of the old holy books or myths to the missionary’s God, church, but an inner principle of church faith the Bible, and a new way of living. The latter has and life allowing for freedom in the way to do with “perfecting” as many as will take in- churches and missions interpret and carry it out. struction and follow the “new way” more closely. 23 Holism, Biblical

In obeying the Great Commission, “discipling” words of 28:18–20 probably constituted a later new peoples should never be discontinued in an addition to the Gospel of Matthew. In later life effort to “perfect” a few. Though comparatively he found it to be not only a fitting conclusion to few agreed with McGavran early on, in recent that Gospel, but a statement so magnificent that years there has been a somewhat wider accep- it would be difficult to say anything more mean- tance of certain aspects of his thesis. Sixth, ingful and complete in an equal number of Church Growth advocates generally and propo- words (see Bosch, 1991, 56–57). nents of the AD 2000 and Beyond Movement es- David J. Hesselgrave pecially (e.g., Ralph Winter) have placed great Bibliography. D. J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: emphasis on the phrase panta ta ethnem in Mat- Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission; H. R. Boer, Pen­ thew 28:19 and have insisted that this is best un- tecost and Missions; R. D. Culver, A Greater Commis­ derstood as having reference to the various “peo- sion: A Theology for World Missions; D. A. McGavran, ple groups” of the world (see Peoples, People The Bridges of God. Groups). Originally Donald McGavran identified endogamy as a primary characteristic of a “peo- ple group” but subsequently other characteristics Holism, Biblical. Holism is the philosophy that such as a common worldview, religion, ethnicity, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In language, social order, and self-identification reaction, holism, explained biblically, has been have been emphasized. This understanding lends claimed as a unifying concept within the Chris­ itself to a program of world evangelization tian worldview. whereby people groups are identified and The Greek word holos, meaning whole, wholly, “reached” by planting viable, New Testament or complete is used by Matthew (5:29–30), Luke churches that become the primary means of (Acts 3:16), John (9:34), James (1:4), and Paul evangelizing the group socially to the fringes and (1 Thess. 5:23). Jesus (John 7:23) and Peter (Acts temporally into the future. Seventh, in recent 3:16) are quoted using it. The English “wholly” years a growing number of missiologists (e.g., and “holy” (Greek hagios), frequently confused, Trevor McIlwain) have advocated a missionary are not the same, although the latter is impossi- approach that gives more serious attention to the ble without the former. The Hebrew word closest Great Commission requirement to teach all that to holos is possibly shalom. Christ commanded. To many missions people Biblical holism is based on Christ’s lordship this has seemed altogether too encompassing over every part of life—where people who are in and demanding. They have preferred to commu- right relationship with God and one another (re- nicate basic truths about human spiritual need lationship), are responsibly managing the re- and the way in which the Lord Jesus has met sources entrusted by him (stewardship), in ways that need by means of his death and resurrec- that show that those resources belong to God tion. In a way the tension between these two ap- (ownership). proaches reflects a classic missions controversy Sin also affects life holistically: relationships as to whether missionaries should first commu- are broken, stewardship is affected, and God’s nicate truths about the nature of God and his re- ownership is ignored or usurped (Gen. 3:1–10). quirements as revealed in the whole of Scripture Every part of life shows the pain of the fall (Gen. or are better advised to begin with the New Tes- 3:14–24). Redemption is about reversing the ef- tament account of Jesus’ teaching and ministry. fects of the fall; it is multidimensional (Isa. 42:6– What is distinctive about the recent emphasis, 7). however, is that its proponents usually link “all I God called the community of Israel to a sha- [Christ] have commanded” in Matthew 28:20 lom life (Mic. 6:8) that G. E. Wright sees as a with John 5:39 and a chronological teaching of paradigm or model for the holistic kingdom liv- the Bible as redemptive history. ing of the New Testament community. The prom- However one may assess the foregoing (among ises of a redeemed humanity and a new heaven other) responses to the requirements of the and earth (Rom. 8:18–23; Rev. 21:1–5) reflect Great Commission, it seems apparent that, un- God’s desire for the ultimate wholeness in the like the first two hundred years of Protestantism, creation. If God acts holistically from Genesis to during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries Revelation, dare we do less than that? the Great Commission came to play an extremely Mission is then no longer seen in terms of pri- important role in missions and missiology. In orities, but as parts of a whole. “The scope of the fact, the authors of the Frankfurt Declaration gospel is the same as the scope of sin and its ef- of 1970 placed it first in their list of “seven indis- fects. Because sin is holistic, it is imperative that pensable basic elements of mission.” In a way the gospel be holistic” (Athyal). this growing appreciation for the Great Commis- We discover three dimensions of the whole sion was reflected in the changed thinking of gospel: words proclaim the truth of God (the tra- even the early-twentieth-century liberal scholar ditional focus of evangelicals); signs proclaim Adolf von Harnack. At first he concluded that the the power of God (most loved by Pentecostals 24 Holistic Mission and charismatics); and deeds proclaim the love obedient and holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6), living of God (a strength of liberals and social activ- as stewards of the land he gave them (Deut. 4:1– ists). Each is a part of the Good News, but the 8, 32–40), so that in obedience they might “enjoy gospel is not fully proclaimed until all three di- long life” (Deut. 6:1–3). The law prescribed the mensions are experienced and understood; it is theological, social, and economic dimensions of “both the truth and love and the power of God” God’s rule, symbolized by the Hebrew word Sha- (Hathaway). lom (Mal. 2:5). Any of the three dimensions is an appropriate The record of God’s people is one of struggle starting point for mission: word is for those who and failure to maintain their allegiance, resulting need to know, deed is for those who need to in judgment (2 Kings 17:7–20; 2 Chron. 36:15– have, sign is for those who need to experience 19). During this period, the prophets denounced the power of God. Since we live in a world full of Israel for her sins (Isa. 5:1–7; Amos 2:6–16), call- unwanted words, the starting point is often deed ing her to live according to God’s will (Jer. 22:3– or sign. Both deed and sign need explaining; in 5; Hos. 6:6; Mic. 6:8). The failure that resulted in this way the Word that brings faith is received judgment also held the promise that a redeemer (Rom. 10:17). would come who would establish the kingdom There is room for all the gifts of the Spirit in characterized by shalom (Isa. 2:4; 9:6–7; 42:1–4; holistic mission. The best missionary teams are Jer. 31:31–34). groups of diversely gifted people representing Throughout his ministry, Jesus announced the the three dimensions of mission. “The Christian kingdom (Mark 1:15; Luke 16:16). As the fulfill- community is to be a sign of the kingdom in ment of the prophetic hope, Jesus brought sha­ which evangelism, social action and the Spirit lom (Luke 1:32–33, 79; 2:14), which includes rec- are present and inseparably related” (McAlpine). onciliation with God through repentance (Matt. As a result, a new focus is needed in training. 4:16) leading to salvation (John 1:1–18; 3:16) and This focus involves an orientation to kingdom transformed relationships (Matt. 5–7; Luke 6; wholeness, giving as much weight to sign and John 13:34–35). In establishing the kingdom, deed as to Word. Jesus reclaimed that which was lost in the fall Finally, biblical holism in mission is a call to (Matt. 13:31–33) and called his followers to do rehearing Scripture in community, putting pro- the same (John 20:21). The church, as the com- cess before program, people before structure, munity of God’s redeemed people (Matt. 18:20; context before tradition, and having a commit- Rom. 12:5–8; 1 Cor. 12; Eph. 4:1–16; 1 Peter ment to continual learning. Wherever this is hap- 4:10–11), is called to fulfill the mission of Christ pening people are entering the kingdom of in creation (Eph. 1:20–23; 3:10–11). Christ. Holistic mission is the commitment to all that John Steward the church is called to do, which includes the Great Commission (Matt. 28:18–20) and the Bibliography. B. Bradshaw, Bridging the Gap; D. J. Great Commandment (Matt. 22:37–40). Hesselgrave, EMQ 35:3 (1999): 278–84; T. McAlpine, By Word, Work and Wonder; B. Myers, EMQ 35:3 (1999): Critical Issues. Central to the concerns of ho- 285–87; J. Steward, Where God, People and Deeds Con­ listic mission is the relationship between evange- nect. lism and social responsibility. The contemporary concern arose out of the fundamentalist and lib- eral movements of the early twentieth century. Holistic Mission. Holistic mission is concerned The liberal movement moved toward a conciliar with ministry to the whole person through the position with other religions and away from the transforming power of the gospel. While holistic issue of conversion, emphasizing cooperation on mission affirms the functional uniqueness of issues of social concern. In a strong reaction evangelism and social responsibility, it views against the social gospel, evangelical missions them as inseparable from the ministry of the emphasized the Uniqueness of Christ as the kingdom of God. Therefore, holistic mission is only way of salvation and made evangelism the the intentional integration of building the church primary emphasis of the Missionary Task. and transforming society. Evangelical concern over the relationship be- Scriptural Foundation. Holistic mission be- tween evangelism and social concern has con- gins with creation in perfect harmony under the tributed to the multiplication of specialized orga- lordship of God (Gen. 1–2) and humans in rela- nizations. This dichotomy has been reflected in tionship with their Creator as stewards of his the traditional evangelical missions emphases on creation (Gen. 1:27–30). The entry of sin and evangelism and church planting despite their consequent judgment affected every aspect of widespread involvement in education, health, creation (Gen. 3; Rom. 3:23; 6:23), yet God did and development. Growing out of the concerns not abandon humankind but sought to redeem for social needs, evangelical relief and develop- them by calling out a people for himself (Gen. ment organizations have multiplied. Unlike tra- 12:1–3; Exod. 15:2–13). His people were to be an ditional missions, the relief and development 25 Home Missions groups have concentrated on physical and social With the building of tract houses, the phenom- needs, cooperating with other groups in their ef- enon of totally new communities coming into forts (see also Development). being overnight underscored the need for In the past two decades a shift has occurred, churches in such communities. Congregations which is evident by comparing the Lausanne faced the difficult decision whether to stay, Covenant (1974) with the Manila Manifesto move, or help new churches become established. (1989). Both documents focus on evangelism, yet Churches that chose to stay in their old urban the latter emphasizes the issue of the whole gos- communities were forced to operate their pro- pel, demonstrating the wide acceptance of social grams with fewer people and less resources. concern as an integral part of the Good News of Congregations which voted to move lost some of Christ. the faithful and their giving, and had to deal with Current literature is exploring the biblical na- the difficulty of breaking established emotional ture of transformation, the effects of differing ties and setting down roots in a new community. worldviews, and the church’s role in develop- Local churches, denominations, and indepen- ment. The internationalization of missions (see dent organizations began concentrated programs for starting new churches. Unfortunately, these Globalization) and the increased cooperation programs were confined primarily to white, mid- among organizations have functionally expanded dle-class, English-speaking communities. the view of the church’s role in the world and the As home missions took on new life with the necessity for a greater understanding of holistic challenge of starting congregations in the sub- mission. urbs, the downside was that a whole new mis- Douglas McConnell sion field was created in the cities. With so many Bibliography. B. Bradshaw, Bridging the Gap: Evan­ people leaving the urban centers, churches that gelism, Development and Shalom; T. H. McAlpine, By remained dwindled in size until many closed Word, Work and Wonder; J. Matthews, EMQ 35:3 their doors and others became shadows of the (1999): 290–98; D. Miller, EMQ 35:3 (1999): 299–302; past. A. Nichols, ed., The Whole Gospel for the Whole World; Even as the vacuum of evangelical witness in- R. J. Sider, One-sided Christianity? Uniting the Church creased in size, the urban mission field was to Heal a Lost and Broken World; J. Steward, Biblical growing and changing. Houses and apartments Holism: Where God, People and Deeds Connect; T. B. Ya- that previously held one family of five or six peo- mamori, B. Myers, and D. Conner, eds., Serving with ple became home for three or four families with the Poor in Asia: Cases in Holistic Ministry; C. J. H. twenty or more people. The sounds of different Wright, Living as the People of God. languages were heard. Cultural interests and practices changed. Old businesses relocated, Home Missions. The distinction between home with new and different businesses replacing and foreign missions is primarily that of distance them. While new life was burgeoning in the com- and travel. Unfortunately, the distinction too munity, church buildings stood dark and empty. often involved philosophy, qualifications, fi- Other changes in home missions taking place nances, and sense of importance. For these rea- during the postwar era included growing minis- sons, missions in America has had an interesting tries such as college/university, high school, and past and now has a most intriguing future. Christian camping. At the same time, two factors reduced or eliminated many social programs For the first two hundred years, most home which had been part of home missions. These mission activity in the United States was di- were (1) the increasingly stringent governmental rected toward Native Americans and black regulations on such subjects as child care, serv- slaves. In the early 1800s, Bible societies began ing of food, and medical care and (2) govern- printing and distributing tracts in rural and fron- ment programs providing for these same needs. tier regions. Sunday schools and new churches Three major challenges face home missions in were begun in these same rural and frontier the United States for the twenty-first century. areas by both denominational and independent The first is to make the church inclusive. The organizations. Later in that century rescue mis- world has come to our doorstep, with immi- sions, missions for lumberjacks, Jewish mis- grants bringing a great diversity of languages, sions, missions to Catholics, ministry in Appala- cultural, social, and religious practices. In addi- chia, orphanages, hospitals, nursing homes, and tion, many of the poor and disenfranchised of other singly focused missions came on the scene. our society do not feel welcome and in fact are The Great Depression and World War II brought not welcome in many of churches. Congrega- major changes to society in general and to the tions need to break their present comfort zones cause of Christian missions in particular. Follow- to allow the church to be biblically inclusive. ing the war, an explosion of activity on behalf of The second challenge is for the church to be foreign missions and a lesser but significant creative in adopting ways to reach changing thrust for home missions occurred. communities. Gated communities prevent initial 26 Ideologies contacts with people and then control the sale deo-Christian tradition. Therefore in many cul- and use of all property. Churches are seen as out- tures there is no comparable commitment. In a siders and are often not welcome. Self-contained real sense, Christian mission is the parent of the high-rise communities present similar chal- human rights movement. There are several bibli- lenges. Gentrification produces new communi- cal principles that have profoundly influenced ties within cities and is responsible for dramati- Western societies in this context: The Bible cally increased property costs. Where property is teaches that all of humanity is made in God’s difficult to acquire or too expensive, house image; the incarnation and passion of Jesus churches and cell churches may become neces- demonstrate the value of each person to God; sary. In contrast to these growing areas, people God challenges us to work for a society charac- are leaving small towns and rural America, re- terized by righteousness, justice, and peace; he ducing financial support for pastors, programs, commands us to care for the weak and disadvan- and church buildings. Home missions must pro- taged in society; Jesus calls us to love even those mote bivocationalism, multiparish ministries, whom we might consider enemies. sister church support, and other ways to ensure This modern commitment to the dignity of a strong witness in these locations. every human being has influenced the theology The third challenge is for the church to be the and Praxis of mission to a great extent. Many church in an increasingly pagan society. The Christians ask: “Surely loving our fellow human church must minister where society is secular beings involves defending their basic dignity and hostile, local ordinances are restrictive, and under God?” Mission is therefore seen as a par- court decisions are anti-biblical. ticipation in the struggles of life alongside the As a nation with the third largest number of oppressed. If we are distant or afraid, then we non-Christians, with ethnically diverse people, lose the credibility of the gospel message of and a society that is plagued with racism, mate- Jesus, who gave his life for the poor and op- rialism, violence, and abuse, America must be pressed. seen not as a Christian nation but as a major Other Christians believe that this commitment mission field. Never has effective home missions to “rights” is essentially a humanistic endeavor, in the United States been needed more. reflecting a worldview that is at odds with the Jack Estep gospel. People should be giving themselves to God, trusting in his goodness for their lives. Mis- sion is seen therefore to consist in helping people Human Rights. It is commonly accepted in so to trust God that their focus shifts from their modern Western thought that human beings, by daily needs to their eternal destiny. Evangelism, definition, are entitled to basic human rights. with the hope of conversion, is the proper aim of There are several presuppositions in this world- mission, as they see it. view: the inviolability of each person as a person; It would not be an exaggeration to say that a the right to freedom from restrictions of one’s critical issue in modern missiology is precisely rights; the equality of each person in dignity and the dialogue between these two views. law; and the right to participate in decisions that Walter Riggans affect one’s life and livelihood. Bibliography. H. Kung and J. Moltmann, eds., The Though both Luther and Calvin played signifi- Ethics of World Religions and Human Rights; J. Molt- cant parts in the development of the notion of mann, On Human Dignity: Political Theology and Eth­ fundamental dignity and freedom, the contem- ics; Studia Missionalia, Human Rights and Religions. porary commitment to human rights is mostly the result of a momentum that has built up since the seventeenth century, when people became Ideologies. The term “ideology,” derived from sick of the years of religious and ideological in- the Greek idea and logos, literally means “knowl- tolerance that followed the Reformation. edge or science of ideas.” In a general sense ide- People lost respect for any rhetorical authority ology refers to a particular set of ideas or beliefs imposed by those who represented either church that distinguish a given group or perspective. In or state. They began to insist that reason, experi- modern times the term has assumed various pe- ment, and the inherent dignity of the human jorative connotations and is used to refer to a being should be the arbiters of all truth. Between collection of beliefs and values held by a particu- 1689 and 1789 the West saw these presupposi- lar group for certain “hidden” motives or for tions and rationalizations enshrined in national other than purely epistemic reasons. Thus ideol- declarations of human rights in England, the ogies are typically regarded as sets of ideas used U.S., and France. Western culture now seems by particular groups in support of certain eco- fully committed to adopting this overall perspec- nomic, political, or social agendas. With K. Marx tive. and F. Engels the term took on a specific mean- Such a development, however, was only possi- ing, referring to a set of beliefs presented as ob- ble in a culture that had grown out of a Ju- jective whereas in actuality they merely reflect 27 Incarnational Mission the material conditions of society and the inter- view of such attitudes as these, the Christian ests of the ruling classes. Thus the dominant mission may be perceived (and historically this ideas of any era not only reflect the views of the has unfortunately sometimes been the case) as ruling classes but also serve their interests. More an attempt to colonize and subjugate others in recently, the Frankfurt School, associated with the name of a foreign religion. J. Habermas, has developed the notion of ideol- Fascism stands in contrast to liberalism in its ogy as a set of ideas and communicative struc- denial of the value of individual freedom. It is a tures inherently distorted by power relations. system of government in which there is a rigid Some examples of modern ideologies include one-party dictatorship characterized by forcible political liberalism, Marxism, democratic social- suppression of anything that opposes it, such as ism, nationalism, and fascism. Political liberal- unions, other political parties, and minority ism, as found in the writings of Locke, Rousseau, groups. Fascism is closely related to Nazism, but Mill, and Rawls, teaches that personal liberty is a fascism originated in Italy in 1922 and Adolf Hit- fundamental good and that the ideal society is ler later incorporated much of its ideology. These one in which individual liberty will be maxi- forces were defeated in World War II, but some mized. Intrinsic to liberalism is confidence in in- extremist groups that are fascist in nature still dividual autonomy and the right of the individ- exist. Their glorification of war, racist senti- ual to think for himself or herself. This, in turn, ments, and despotic tendencies are in direct con- tends to make the liberal very suspicious of any flict with evangelical Christianity, which is bibli- claims to absolute authority, including any cally required to avoid war if possible, to be claims to religious authority rooted in God and indifferent to race and ethnic origin, and to re- the Bible. Christian mission, which is based on spect incumbent governments regardless of their belief in the authority of Scripture and a divine nature. mandate to make disciples of Jesus Christ of all Conservatism in its purest form is the rejection nations, will characteristically be viewed by lib- of ideology. Whereas ideology is concerned with eralism as a direct threat to individual liberty the rethinking of political and social systems, through the imposition of some divine mandate conservatism (as its name implies) seeks to con- for society. serve or maintain what it regards as good in the Marxism (as developed by Marx, Engels, and past and to uphold tradition. In this sense, bibli- Lenin) is an economic theory advocating the cal, evangelical Christianity is “conservative,” for ownership of all property by the community as a it consists in preserving intact the apostolic mes- whole. Intrinsic to Marxism is confidence in the sage from one generation to another. basic goodness and productivity of human be- If ideologies oppose the Christian mission it is ings as well as a denial of the existence of God. in part because in the past some forms of Chris- Thus Christianity’s belief in human depravity tianity forgot their true mission and took on po- and the sovereignty of God will be met with litical ambitions or at least unwittingly served in staunch resistance, since such religious beliefs aiding political causes by exporting aspects of are perceived to be serving the interests of the foreign cultures. This poses an obstacle that dominant classes by suppressing the lower Chris­tian mission must overcome through disas- classes and obstructing the progress of commu- sociation as it seeks to make disciples of all na- nism. tions. Democratic socialism, although similar to William H. Baker Marxism in some respects, is a theory of what is Bibliography. P. Corbett, Ideologies; G. Graham, Pol­ wrong with society and how these ills can be itics in Its Place; K. Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia: An remedied through production and distribution Introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge; M. Seliger, by society as a whole rather than through private Ideology and Politics. individuals. Contrary to this, the Bible advocates (notwithstanding some misinterpretations of Acts 2) responsible stewardship of property by Incarnational Mission. The dramatic opening the individual. Christianity is perceived as the of John’s Gospel is foundational for under- sponsor of capitalism in spite of the fact that his- standing the meaning and implications of “incar- torically Christianity has existed in virtually all national mission.” “In the beginning was the forms of society and is nonpolitical in its biblical Word,” the apostle wrote, “and the Word was form. with God, and the Word was God. . . . And the Nationalism is the belief that a nation exists Word became flesh and lived among us . . .” (1:1, more in terms of a given group of people than in 14). The fuller context of the passage suggests terms of political boundaries, and that a nation’s that in Jesus, God identified thoroughly with hu- peculiar interests and security are more import- mankind, and that God came in Jesus for the ex- ant than international interests and welfare. The press purpose of disclosing not only God’s love primary virtues thus are patriotism and pride in but also God’s salvific intent for the world (3:16– a given nation’s customs, language, or traits. In 17). 28 Incarnational Mission

However the Gospel writer may have under- To refer to the incarnation as mystery, how- stood the nature of Jesus, the church has stead- ever, is not to suggest that it is “beyond us” or a fastly regarded the incarnation to mean that God kind of theological icon. Quite the contrary. As was “enfleshed” in Jesus. All the Gospels bear Donald Baillie said, the mystery will always be witness to the fact that Jesus was born in a spe- mystery, but the mystery is lessened once we re- cific time and place, into a particular culture, alize that believing in the incarnation means ac- and that he lived, matured, worked, ministered, cepting a paradox “which can to some small and died as a human being. In Jesus—who came measure be understood in the light of the ‘para- to be called “the Christ” or the Messiah—God dox of grace’” (p. 131). For the incarnation was was thereby revealed as love, self-giving love, not and is not primarily a doctrine. It was and is love vulnerable to the exigencies of human life an event. It was a life lived, and it is a life to be including the assault of evil and death. Yet evil lived. “He was made what we are,” declared Ire- was not victorious. It was instead inexorably de- naeus, “that He might make us what He is Him- feated in Christ’s death and resurrection. God self” (Adv. Haer., Bk. v. Pref. cited by Baillie, became a human being to redeem all humankind ibid.). Thus Paul could make the staggering from the destructive power of sin and to recon- claim, “For me to live is Christ” (Phil. 2:21). So cile and transform the whole of creation. committed was the apostle to the Christ who Belief in the incarnation raises profound ques- summoned, transformed, and “missioned” him, tions about the nature of God and about the na- and so determined was Paul to communicate the ture of Jesus Christ. Yet, from the earliest at- same good news Jesus fleshed-out, that he could tempts to grapple with and understand who say, “I have been crucified with Christ, and it is Jesus was, the incarnation—God’s assuming hu- no longer I who live, but it is Christ who lives in manness—has been pivotal in comprehending me” (Gal. 2:19–20). In these words believers find the Christian faith. The earliest church councils the most significant implication of the incarna- discussed, debated, and concluded that the “God tion, namely, that Jesus Christ can be fleshed out was in Christ” affirmation (2 Cor. 5:19) means in the lives of those who follow in Jesus’ steps that Jesus was fully human and fully divine. Ex- (1 Peter 2:21). In essence, therefore, this is the mission of Jesus’ followers, to walk in Jesus’ plications (or the theology) of the incarnation steps. are found not only in Scripture, but also in a suc- Common in Catholic theological tradition is cession of creeds. Three branches of Christianity, the idea that the incarnation of Christ is the link especially the Orthodox, as well as Roman Cath- between God and the institutional church, or, olic and Anglo-Catholic, customarily give more even more specifically, it is the link between God attention and emphasis to the doctrine of the in- and the sacraments by which believers become carnation than do Protestants. In fact, some “partakers of Christ.” It is a short step, therefore, evangelical theologies tend to accentuate the di- from seeing the Sacraments administered by the vinity of Christ so disproportionately that the ul- church as means of grace to regarding the plan­ timate result is a kind of Christological docetism tatio ecclesiae as extending the incarnation. in which the human nature of Jesus is virtually In 1838, with the publication of his Kingdom eliminated or is little more than a facade for his of Christ, British theologian Frederick D. Mau- divinity. Maintaining theological balance has rice went beyond the conventional Anglo-Catho- never been easy, as any comprehensive survey of lic understanding of the incarnation by positing the history of theology reveals. Yet when either specific social and political implications. In a the divinity or the humanity of Jesus is over-em- sense, Maurice anticipated the approach to the phasized, the outcome is a distortion of the na- life of Jesus developed by many liberation theo- ture of Jesus as represented in the New Testa- logians during the last quarter of the twentieth ment. Mainstream Christianity has been century. For in terms of the social and political unwilling to relinquish either the divine or the significance of the incarnation, it has been the human nature of Jesus, though some theologians liberation theologians who expounded the rela- have given more attention to the meaning of the tionship of the incarnation in the world today. incarnation than others. Grassroots believers, Jesus, they underscore, was born in a religio-po- meanwhile, appear to be satisfied to confess that litical context of suffering, oppression, and injus- in Jesus Christ God was uniquely revealed in his- tice. He was counted not among the rich or the tory, and that in Jesus Christ the divine intent for powerful but rather among the common, the humanity was definitively imaged. That there is nondescript folk from the hill country of Galilee. mystery here no one denies. As Archbishop Wil- To inaugurate his mission, nonetheless, Jesus liam Temple put it, anyone who professes to made an astonishing association: “The Spirit of understand the relationship of the divine to the the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed human in Jesus Christ simply demonstrates that me to bring good news to the poor. He has sent he or she has failed to understand the signifi- me to proclaim release to the captives and recov- cance of the incarnation (p. 139). ery of sight to the blind, to let the oppressed go 29 Indigenous Churches free, [and] to proclaim the year of the Lord’s tions of the poor” to whom the gospel is ad- favor” (Luke 4:18–19). dressed (p. 61). His mission, as he described it, was to liberate Nearly a half-century ago one of the most re- the impoverished, the imprisoned, the sightless, spected and effective mission leaders among and the oppressed. As it turned out, it was these Southern Baptists, M. Theron Rankin, then the kinds of people who became Jesus’ principal fol- executive secretary of the Foreign Mission lowers—the poor, the sick, the disabled, the de- Board, envisioned a model of incarnational mis- spised, the marginalized, and the alienated— sion. “If God could have saved the world by re- women, tax collectors, prostitutes, and others moteness,” and achieved the divine purpose whom society scorned. Moreover, it was from while remaining detached from humanity, these that Jesus chose his disciples whom he de- Rankin asked, would there have been the incar- clared were “the salt of the earth” and the “light nation? Then he added, the most effective wit- of the world” (Matt. 5:1: 13, 14). ness the church makes will always be in the lives In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Latin Ameri- of those who in Christ’s name bury themselves in can liberation theologians, following the lead of the lives and struggles of another people, mis- the Second Vatican Council, began asking what sionaries who serve the people, learn to speak the incarnation of Jesus implied in a world beset their language, develop the capacity to feel their with injustice, hatred, poverty, exploitation, pre- hurt and hunger, and “who learn to love them mature death, and hopelessness. Though their personally and individually.” response to the question incited intense debate— Alan Neely and more resistance than support from “official- dom”—the basic question they asked still begs to Bibliography. A. Mortimer, Announcing the Reign of be answered. Jesus, liberation theologians said, God; D. M. Baillie, God Was in Christ; J. J. Bonk, Mis­ sions and Money; J. R. Chandran, Student World 51 indisputably sided with the hurting, exploited, (1958): 334–42; E. Ikenga-Metuh, Mission Studies 6 and abused of his day. This was his mission, and (1989): 5–12; F. D. Maurice, Kingdom of Christ; J. S. anyone who presumes to incarnate Christ’s mis- Pobee, Mission in Christ’s Way; T. M. Rankin, The Com­ sion today will likewise stand with the suffering mission 15 (June 1952): 9; W. Temple, Christus Veritas; peoples of the world whether they are in Amer- W. A. Visser ‘t. Hooft, The Uppsala Report, pp. 317–20. ica, Europe, Asia, or Africa (see Liberation The- ologies). Standing with the poor and oppressed does not mean ignoring or neglecting the mission of Indigenous Churches. The term “indigenous” evangelization, but, as Mortimer Arias notes, comes from biology and indicates a plant or ani- evangelization can never be merely “verbal proc- mal native to an area. Missiologists adopted the lamation.” Authentic evangelization will be also word and used it to refer to churches that reflect “the incarnation of the gospel” in the lives of the cultural distinctives of their ethnolinguistic Christ’s people, Christ’s community (p. 107). group. The missionary effort to establish indige- Reflection on the meaning of “incarnational nous churches is an effort to plant churches that mission” can be found also in the writings of cer- fit naturally into their environment and to avoid tain ecumenical and evangelical theologians. For planting churches that replicate Western pat- J. R. Chandran of India, an incarnational view of terns. mission means Indigenization. For Nigerian Missionary efforts to establish indigenous Emefie Ikenga-Metuh, it means Contextualiza- churches are attempts to do missions as the tion for “God has always been incarnate in apostle Paul did. A brief recital of Paul’s mission- human cultures.” For former World Council of ary methods demonstrates this fact. Paul served Churches general secretary W. Visser ‘t. Hooft, it as an itinerant missionary, never staying more meant a holistic ministry. Other more recent ex- than three years in any city. Paul’s approach to amples are John S. Pobee’s insightful Mission in evangelizing regions was to plant churches in Christ’s Way and Jonathan J. Bonk’s disturbing cities from which the gospel would permeate the Missions and Money. Pobee, an African on loan surrounding areas. He never appealed to the to the World Council of Churches, spells out in churches in Antioch or Jerusalem for funds with detail the dimensions of an incarnational mis- which to support the new churches. Rather, he sion, while Bonk, a former Mennonite mission- expected the churches to support themselves. ary and now associate director of the Overseas Paul appointed and trained elders to lead all the Ministries Study Center in New Haven, Con- churches he planted. He gave the churches over necticut, addresses the crucial issue of mission- to the care of the Holy Spirit, but he also visited ary prosperity, saying that economically affluent them and wrote to them periodically. missionaries can never engage in incarnational Henry Venn (1796–1873) of the Church Mis- mission for what they model is an “inversion of sionary Society and Rufus Anderson (1796– the Incarnation.” Their prosperity makes it im- 1880) of the American Board of Commissioners possible for them to “identify with the life situa- of Foreign Missions first used the term “indige- 30 Indigenous Churches nous church” in the mid-nineteenth century. ciples are these: (1) All permanent teaching must They both wrote about the necessity of planting be intelligible and so easily understood that “three-self” churches—churches that would be those who receive it can retain it, use it, and pass self-supporting, self-governing, and self-propa- it on. (2) All organizations should be set up in a gating (Venn used the term “self-extending”). way that national Christians can maintain them. They exhorted missionaries to establish churches (3) Church finances should be provided and con- that could support themselves, govern them- trolled by the local church members. (4) Chris- selves, and carry out a program of evangelism tians should be taught to provide pastoral care and missions. They cautioned missionaries for each other. (5) Missionaries should give na- about becoming absorbed in pastoring and tional believers the authority to exercise spiritual maintaining churches, insisting that the mission- gifts freely and at once. Allen’s principles have ary’s primary task must be planting new influenced many twentieth-century missiolo- churches that would be “self-reliant” and “purely gists, most prominently Donald McGavran. native.” They instructed their missionaries to Melvin Hodges (1909–86), a missionary and train national pastors and hand the care of the mission administrator with the Assemblies of churches over to them at the earliest opportu- God, wrote The Indigenous Church (1953). nity. Venn coupled the concept of indigenous Widely used in missions courses, this book ex- churches with euthanasia in missions. By eutha- pressed the ideas of Venn, Anderson, Nevius, and nasia he meant that missionaries should plant Allen in an updated, popular format. Hodges ac- churches, train leaders, and then move on to knowledged the difficulty missionaries experi- new, unevangelized regions. Henry Venn believed ence in changing a field from a subsidy approach that missionaries should always be temporary to an indigenous approach. He also emphasized workers, not permanent fixtures. training national workers and giving them re- John L. Nevius (1829–93), a Presbyterian mis- sponsibility for the care of the churches, freeing sionary to China, built on Venn and Anderson’s the missionaries to concentrate on starting new indigenous principles in his classic work, Plant­ churches. ing and Development of Missionary Churches. Ne- In his book, Verdict Theology in Missionary vius developed a set of principles that came to be Theory, Alan Tippett (1911–88) updated the called “The Nevius Plan”: (1) Christians should three-self formula of Henry Venn. Tippett served continue to live in their neighborhoods and pur- on the faculty of the School of World Mission at sue their occupations, being self-supporting and Fuller Seminary and was a member of Donald witnessing to their co-workers and neighbors. (2) McGavran’s inner circle. The writings of Tippett, Missions should only develop programs and in- McGavran, and others show that the Church stitutions that the national church desired and Growth Movement accepted and built on the could support. (3) The national churches should work of the earlier proponents of indigenous call out and support their own pastors. missions. (4) Churches should be built in the native style In Verdict Theology Tippett proposed a sixfold with money and materials given by the church description of an indigenous church: (1) Self-im- members. (5) Intensive biblical and doctrinal in- age. The church sees itself as being independent struction should be provided for church leaders from the mission, serving as Christ’s church in every year. In his writings Nevius criticized the its locality. (2) Self-functioning. The church is heavily subsidized work that most missions car- capable of carrying on all the normal functions ried on in China. Nevius’s principles had little of a church—worship, Christian education, and impact in China, but when the American Presby- so on. (3) Self-determining. This means the terians began their work in Korea, the new mis- church can and does make its own decisions. sionaries invited Nevius to advise them. They The local churches do not depend on the mission adopted his plan and enjoyed great success. to make their decisions for them. Tippett echoes Roland Allen (1868–1947), an Anglican priest, Venn in saying that the mission has to die for the served as a missionary in China with the Society church to be born. (4) Self-supporting. The for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign church carries its own financial burdens and fi- Parts from 1892 until 1904. Like Nevius, he crit- nances its own service projects. (5) Self-propaga- icized the methods employed by most missions tion. The national church sees itself as responsi- in China. He wrote several books, but expressed ble for carrying out the Great Commission. The his philosophy of indigenous missions in Mis­ church gives itself wholeheartedly to evangelism sionary Methods: St. Paul’s or Ours? (1912) and and missions. (6) Self-giving. An indigenous The Spontaneous Expansion of the Church church knows the social needs of its community (1927). and endeavors to minister to those needs. Allen emphasized the role of the Holy Spirit in Tippett summarizes his understanding of the missions and encouraged missionaries to work indigenous church with this definition: “When in itinerant church planting, trusting the Holy the indigenous people of a community think of Spirit to develop the churches. Allen’s main prin- the Lord as their own, not a foreign Christ; when 31 Information Technology they do things as unto the Lord, meeting the cul- In 1960, Joseph E. Grimes used a computer to tural needs around them, worshipping in pat- do language analysis in Bible translation work in terns they understand; when their congregations Mexico. Other mission specialists also used com- function in participation in a body which is puters to analyze sociological and church statis- structurally indigenous; then you have an indige- tics and other data in studying religious move- nous church” (136). ments and church growth trends. David B. In recent years some missiologists have sug- Barrett, a missionary to Kenya doing graduate gested adding a seventh mark to Tippett’s list— studies in New York, used a computer to analyze self-theologizing. They believe a truly indigenous the data he and others had collected on more church will develop its own theology, expressed that six thousand African independent church in culturally appropriate ways. These theologies and renewal movements (see African-Initiated would affirm the central doctrines of the Chris­ Church Movement). Results were used in Bar- tian faith, but they would express them using rett’s 1968 book, Schism and Renewal in Africa. metaphors and concepts that reflect their own Also in 1968, data from the survey of mission unique cultures. agencies in North America were entered into a Missionaries who seek to establish indigenous computer under the direction of Edward R. Day- churches should keep these principles in mind as ton and camera-ready pages generated for the they begin their work: (1) Missionaries should North America Protestant Ministries Overseas Di­ plant churches with the goal in mind. This rectory. means that the desired outcome—an indigenous In 1974, information on unreached peoples church—should influence the methods em- was gathered from seventy-three countries for ployed. (2) There will always be a dynamic ten- the Lausanne Congress on World Evangelism. sion between supracultural doctrines and vari- This was stored on a computer from which an able cultural traits. (3) Church planters should Unreached Peoples Directory was printed and dis- expect the churches to support themselves from tributed to Congress participants as a work-in- the beginning. (4) Bible study groups should be progress to be refined and expanded. Data about encouraged to make basic decisions even before the languages of the world published in the Eth­ they organize as churches. (5) Missionaries nologue by Wycliffe Bible Translators were should encourage new congregations to evange- placed on a computer so subsequent editions lize their communities and seek opportunities to could be more easily updated and analyzed. begin new churches. (6) Missionaries should al- With the proliferation and the growing capac- ways use reproducible methods of evangelism, ity of personal computers and networks, IT sup- teaching, preaching, and leadership. (7) Mission- ported activities in missions have become wide- aries should give priority to developing nationals spread. Bible translators continue to enhance to serve as church leaders. (8) Missionaries specialized software used on portable computers should view themselves as temporary church to speed the work of translation. Electronic mail planters rather than permanent pastors. (9) Mis- is used for instant communication in many parts sionaries should resist the temptation to estab- of the world by missionaries, national workers, lish institutions and wait for the national church mission executives, and those supporting mis- to take the initiative. (10) Missionaries must sionaries. Mission information about unreached allow the national churches to develop theolo- peoples and other aspects of missions is avail- gies and practices that are biblical yet appropri- able on various Internet Web sites. One can link ate in their cultural settings. to many of these from the Global Mapping Inter- John Mark Terry national Web address (www.gmi.org) or the Wheaton College Missions Department address Bibliography. R. Pierce Beaver, ed., To Advance the (www.wheaton.edu/missions). Gospel: Selections from the Writings of Rufus Anderson; The Internet’s electronic mail and conferenc- M. L. Hodges, The Indigenous Church; J. L. Nevius, Planting and Development of Missionary Churches; ing capabilities also provide a way for those con- A. Tippett, Verdict Theology in Missionary Theory; cerned about various people groups to share in- M. Warren, ed., To Apply the Gospel: Selections from the formation and ideas in an open networking Writings of Henry Venn. mode. One of the most popular of these is the Brigada Network (www.brigada.org) with more than six thousand participants receiving the Information Technology. With the dramatic weekly Brigada Today newsletter as well as being growth in the worldwide use of the Internet, involved in related online conferences of their using the tools of information technology (IT) is specific missions interest. routine today. IT here refers to electronic com- The Internet can also expand and extend par- puting and communication systems employing ticipation in mission conferences and other mis- digital technology, which started with the digital sion-related activities. During InterVarsity’s 1996 computer in the late 1940s and developed into Urbana world mission convention for students, computer-based internetworking by the 1970s. background information and daily summaries 32 Marginal, Marginalization appeared on the Web, including audio and video group. This process of reaching unity progresses segments, for those who were not among the through four stages. The first stage is contact, in 19,300 onsite delegates. This has been continued which the minority or possibly immigrant group to help a new generation of students anticipate experiences being truly marginalized and alien the triennial convention in 2000 (www.urbana. and may even experience this initial contact in org). the form of racism. The second stage of the pro- John Siewert cess is competition, in which new or immigrant groups threaten the position of already arrived and more established groups. For example, in Marginal, Marginalization. Marginalization is U.S. history, immigration of Chinese and Irish the process by which individuals and groups laborers in the nineteenth century created com- come to live on the margin of a culture, not fully petition and great animosity between dominant able to participate in its socioeconomic, political, and subordinate groups. The third stage is ac- or religious life, due to cultural, political, reli- commodation, in which education, socialization, gious, or socioeconomic differences. The process and intermarriage tend to soften the sharp lines of marginalization may be the result of historic between dominant and subordinate groups. The injustices that have developed over a protracted fourth and final stage is called total assimilation, period of time. These injustices are usually pro- where it is anticipated that the subordinate duced by a dominant group or ideology that is group will be fully assimilated in the dominant systematically and intentionally exclusive. Medi- group. eval Europe is an example of a time and context Many marginalized groups increasingly reject that manifested marginalization in interwoven the melting pot ideal because the retention of patterns of socioeconomic, political, and reli- one’s cultural heritage becomes limited. Robert gious life. To be outside the dominant group/ide- E. Park’s classic theory on assimilation of the ology was to be systematically excluded from races is being replaced by the belief that eventual any kind of voice or alternative to the place/pur- assimilation of the races and cultures is not pos- pose assigned by the dominant group. sible or even desirable. Assimilation is increas- Seventeenth-century­ England, the entire history ingly viewed as an ideal only for homogenous of Latin America and the Caribbean, colonial national groups (for example, on the European histories on all continents, apartheid in South Continent). The viewpoint of those previously Africa, immigration histories in the United marginalized is now being taken into consider- States, and even the current struggles in the ation and particularly focused around racial and Mexican state of Chiapas all reveal the realities gender categories. In other words, who defines of the intentional marginalization of groups and the “marginal” has great impact on how that individuals. group acts out its understanding. Marginalization is the most negative result Marginalized groups have continually pro- of shifting cultural contexts. The failure of as- duced revolutionary leaders like Karl Marx who similation stimulates the development of mar- proposed explanations of the evil of marginaliza- ginalization. In assimilation the goal is not to tion that incited millions to revolution. Given the maintain an isolated cultural identity, but to debilitating dynamics of the process of marginal- establish and maintain relationship with other ization that have systematically stripped dignity groups. When this course is freely chosen, it from people, it is understandable why violence creates the archetypal “melting pot.” If a dom- has so often been a response. inant group forces assimilation, it is termed a Christian history is replete with examples of “pressure cooker.” Variant forms of marginal- theologians who have addressed the impact of ization include separation. Willful separation marginalization on peoples. Francis of Assisi, from a dominant culture, such as that prac- Martin Luther, and August Francke would be ticed by the Amish or Hutterrites, has gener- representative of such persons. Recent examples ally been respected. However, if separation is would include contextual theologians like Gus- initiated and controlled by a dominant society, tavo Gutiérrez who championed theology from the situation is termed segregation. The results the underside in response to a dominant theolog- of such a cultural dissonance may include an ical perspective that has been perceived to have inferiority complex, ambivalence, moodiness, grown insensitive to the interconnectedness of lack of self-confidence, and disconnectedness. gospel and culture in concrete ways (see Gospel These characteristics can be experienced indi- and Culture). The contextual theologies have vidually or corporately. critiqued the perceived abstract theologies of the The classic definition of marginality maintains West (north) (see Liberation Theologies). The a strict separation between dominant and subor- alternative theological systems have attempted dinate where unity is a goal between the groups to bring dignity to those on the underside (sub- living in a region. The dominant group uses the ordinate groups) by speaking of God’s interac- goal of unity for control of the subordinate tion with humanity in concrete ways such as car- 33 Martyrdom ing for the poor or the overthrow of unjust in reference to the place where God establishes systems. his covenant with his people. Non-Western scholars like Paulo Freire have In the New Testament, the ideas of truth and argued for responding to historical examples of Scripture are integrated into the verb form mar­ marginalization with new models of cultural tureom. Jesus uses it to establish his witness as identity for the “marginalized.” They offer a defi- truth (Matt. 26:65; Mark 14:63; Luke 22:71). nition of marginal that has a new identity. The John the Baptist links Jesus, truth, and Scrip- “new marginal person” overcomes marginality ture. Luke speaks of witness to the whole world without ceasing to be a marginal person. The (Acts 1:8). new marginal person transcends and lives “in The word martyr also extends its meaning to but beyond.” In such a model, the once negative include Christ-like values, such as faithfulness, word becomes a symbol of a creative nexus that truth, witness, and lifestyle. Eventually, even joins diverse and often contradictory worlds to- “death-style” is subsumed. The first Christian-era gether and creates a mosaic rather than a melt- martyr known is Stephen (Acts 7) who, interest- ing pot. Such a reshaping of an understanding of ingly, was put to death by “witnesses” for his wit- marginalization assumes the reality of a pluralis- ness. In Revelation 3:14, the last word is given tic world. If we use the shifting cultural context concerning Jesus Christ who is “the faithful and in the United States as an example of the new true witness.” The word does away with any dis- understanding of “marginal,” we would find that tinction of what a true believer might live and “Anglo-American” does not necessarily mean a die for. Death does not stop the witness given. It white person. True Americans in a pluralistic merely adds an exclamation point of truth, faith- world are more than black, red, brown, or white. fulness, and love for the glory of God. It is the To be American is to be part of a whole as a dis- supreme witnessing act. Neither personal gain tinct, identifiable, indispensable section of a nor personal opinion provides the motive for beautiful mosaic. All Americans bring their eth- such a death. nic backgrounds, whether from the majority or Church Growth and Martyrdom. Tertullian minority perspective, to the whole. Every Ameri- also wrote, “For who, when he sees our obsti- can can be viewed as a marginal person who nacy is not stirred up to find its cause? Who, lives in multiple worlds as a part of a pluralistic when he has inquired, does not then join our society. The new marginality transcends the his- Faith? And who, when he has joined us, does not toric understanding of marginalization as it desire to suffer, that he may gain the whole grace strives to be truly in both or in all worlds as a of God?” Current estimates are that roughly unique entity culturally. 150,000 Christians are martyred each year, down Byron D. Klaus from a peak of 330,000 prior to the demise of communist world powers. Some project that the Bibliography. L. Boff and V. Elizondo, Option for the numbers will increase to 600,000 by a.d. 2025, Poor: Challenge to the Rich Countries; G. Cook, The Ex­ given current trends in human rights abuses and pectation of the Poor; C. Dodd, Dynamics of Intercul­ tural Communication; J. Ellul, Jesus and Marx; J. Y. growth of militant religious systems. Lee, Marginality: The Key to Multicultural Theology; Those inflicting contemporary Christian mar- J. Martin and T. Nakayama, Intercultural Communica­ tyrdom include political regimes with count- tion in Contexts. er-Christian agendas (e.g., official atheistic pow- ers, such as China and the former Soviet Union); sociopolitical regimes enforcing religious restric- Martyrdom. The role of martyrdom in the ex- tions (e.g., Egypt, Sudan); ethnic tribal regimes pansion of the church is the common thread that bent on eliminating minorities (e.g., Sudan, links the church of all ages with its suffering Sav- Rwanda, and Burundi) and religious regimes ior. Tertullian, third-century leader in the church (e.g., Muslim countries in which Sharia is the of- of North Africa, wrote to his Roman governors in ficial legal system). his Apology, “As often as you mow us down, the Conclusion. Martyrdom will continue to be more numerous we become. The blood of the associated with the progress of gospel proclama- Christians is seed.” But martyrdom is not unique tion until the Kingdom of God is established. to Christianity. People have sacrificed their lives Jesus said, “Do not suppose that I have come to throughout the ages for a variety of reasons. To bring peace to the earth. I did not come to bring define the distinctive meaning of Christian mar- peace, but a sword” (Matt. 10:34). The sword tyrdom requires investigation of the Bible and was not to be used by his disciples against oth- church history. ers, but could be expected to be used against Definition. The word martyr is an English them. Paul said, “All this is evidence that God’s word transliterated from its Greek equivalent judgment is right, and as a result you will be (martyrus). It is closely associated with the word counted worthy of the kingdom of God, for witness as used in the Scriptures. The Old Testa- which you are suffering” (2 Thess. 1:5). Finally, ment Hebrew equivalent is moed, which is used as Augustine wrote in City of God: “Despite the 34 Mass Communication fiercest opposition, the terror of the greatest per- sionary organizations which work primarily with secutions, Christians have held with unswerving the printed page include Christian Literature faith to the belief that Christ has risen, that all Crusade, Every Home for Christ, Operation Mo- men will rise in the age to come, and that the bilization, the various Bible Societies, and many body will live forever. And this belief, proclaimed more. Among many recent innovative efforts is without fear, has yielded a harvest throughout Amity Press, set up by the United Bible Societies the world, and all the more when the martyr’s in China with government approval, which has blood was the seed they sowed.” printed over seven million Chinese Bibles and J. Ray Tallman New Testaments. Also, several evangelistic maga- zines such as Step and African Challenge in Africa Bibliography. R. Daniel, This Holy Seed; S. Berg- man, Martyrs: Contemporary Writers on Modern Lives of and Prisma in Mexico are reaching the secular Faith; J. Hefley and M. Hefley, By Their Blood: Christian market. Martyrs of the Twentieth Century; WCE. Desktop publishing and computer typesetting have revolutionized literature production, espe- cially in non-Western alphabets. Mass Communication. It has been said that the Electronic Media. Radio began as “wireless Reformation would have been impossible with- telegraphy” at the turn of the century, with the out Gutenberg’s invention of printing with mov- first commercial audio broadcasts in the U.S. able type, which made literature available to the starting in 1919. Only ten years later, Ruben Lar- common person. The various forms of mass son and Clarence Jones began efforts to use the Media also seem to have been providentially pro- fledgling medium to reach the world with the vided by God for world evangelization, and have gospel (see also Radio Mission Work). Against played a major role in modern missions. the best technical advice at the time, which said Print. The “father of modern missions,” Wil- radio would not work in the mountains or near liam Carey, set the tone with his emphasis on the equator, they were led to locate in Quito, Ec- publication and distribution of the Scriptures uador, where the Voice of the Andes, HCJB, went and other literature. He and his colleagues pro- on the air on Christmas Day, 1931. It became a duced nearly 40 translations of the Bible or por- voice heard literally around the world. Today tions thereof in languages of South Asia, along HCJB and its affiliated stations broadcast in 39 with a great number of tracts and other Chris- languages, reaching Europe and the Far East as tian materials. A fellow member of the “Seramp- well as Latin America. In addition to the out- ore Trio,” William Ward, was an experienced reach within and from Ecuador, World Radio printer and newspaper editor who operated a Missionary Fellowship (WRMF), HCJB’s parent mission press. organization, operates a string of stations along Similarly, other pioneers saw Bible Transla- the Texas border which reach the northern areas tion and literature distribution as a key to reach- of Mexico, one of the few Latin American coun- ing the masses for Christ (see Literacy, Litera- tries that restricts gospel broadcasting. ture Mission Work). Robert Morrison, who A second missionary radio giant began just arrived in Canton, China, in 1807, not only trans- after World War II. John Broger, a former Navy lated the entire Bible into Mandarin, but also officer, and Robert Bowman and William Rob- published the Shorter Catechism and part of the erts, both involved in pioneer radio ministries in Book of Common Prayer, along with a number of the U.S., formed the Far East Broadcasting Com- pamphlets. Two of Morrison’s colleagues were pany (FEBC) in December 1945. Although they printers, and one, William Milne, set up a press had planned to set up a station in China, the in Malacca. Lord directed them to Manila, where DZAS, “The Early efforts to evangelize the Middle East in- Call of the Orient,” began transmitting in 1948. cluded a printing press in Malta, donated in 1822 Today FEBC and its associate organization, by the Old South Church of Boston, to publish FEBA (Far East Broadcasting Associates), oper- tracts and Scriptures for distribution in the re- ate over 30 stations in the Philippines, Saipan, gion. Similar stories could be told of almost South Korea, the Seychelles, and other locations, every place in the world. broadcasting in some 100 languages. By 1921, according to Arthur J. Brown, some Trans World Radio, founded by Dr. Paul Freed, 160 presses run by Protestant missions were grew out of a vision for reaching Spain with the churning out 400 million pages per year. Today gospel via radio. Freed was able to lease a fre- there are major Christian publishing houses in quency in the international city of Tangier, in almost every corner of the globe. Most missions North Africa. The Voice of Tangier went on the and national churches use literature extensively air in 1954 with a 2500-watt war surplus trans- for evangelism as well as education of believers. mitter, broadcasting to Europe. With Morocco’s Books, periodicals, Sunday school materials, independence in 1959, operations were moved to pamphlets, and tracts continue to be published Monte Carlo. Today TWR broadcasts from high- by the millions in hundreds of languages. Mis- power stations in Monaco, Guam, Bonaire, Swa- 35 Mass Communication ziland, Cyprus, Sri Lanka, and Albania, as well lated locations. The estimated total of 1.2 billion as leasing time on commercial stations in vari- receivers means radio has the potential of reach- ous countries. Recording studios all over the ing well over 90 percent of the world’s popula- world provide programming in over 90 lan- tion. The widespread use of radio by the govern- guages. ments of countries like Russia and China for Other major international radio ministries in- internal communications has paved the way for clude ELWA, in Liberia, West Africa, founded in missionary broadcasts to those peoples. 1954 by SIM International; IBRA (Sweden); and Nevertheless, like all media, radio and TV have Voice of Hope in Lebanon. Another high-power their limitations. “Potential audience” is usually international station in Africa, RVOG, the Radio very different from actual listeners. The effective- Voice of the Gospel, operated by the Lutheran ness of short-wave has declined as local stations World Federation, was confiscated by the revolu- become more widespread. Further, atmospheric tionary government of Ethiopia in 1977, after 14 conditions can severely affect propagation, and years of outreach and a $2 million investment. Also in 1977 the government of Burundi closed ever more powerful transmitters are required to Radio Cordac, a joint effort of several missions. keep up with the competition. The recent civil war in Liberia resulted in major Perhaps an even greater challenge is to provide damage to equipment and forced temporary attractive, culturally relevant programming, par- evacuation of ELWA staff. ticularly with television, where dubbed versions In addition to the large international and of U.S. shows have more often than not been the multi-lingual radio ministries, an estimated norm. Keeping the home constituency satisfied 3,200 local stations worldwide are operated by may conflict with ministry effectiveness; witness missions, local churches, or lay Christians. dictation-speed Bible readings for people learn- Thousands of hours of gospel programming also ing English—in the King James Version. go out each week on secular stations. Recent po- Recordings. Gospel Recordings was founded litical changes in both western and eastern Eu- in 1941 by Joy Ridderhof, a former missionary rope have opened new doors for local gospel to Honduras, to let people throughout the world broadcasting in many countries where a few hear God’s Word in their own language. By 1955 years ago it was totally impossible. over one million 78 rpm records have been pro- One new thrust in international radio out- duced. Victrola-type players were simplified to reach is “The World by 2000,” a joint project of the finger-operated, cardboard “Cardtalk” which WRMF/ HCJB, FEBC, TWR, and ELWA, whose required no batteries or repair parts. The vinyl purpose is to provide programming in the lan- record has been largely replaced by cassettes, guage of every major unreached people group. and there are now gospel recordings in over four The initial goal was 144 new languages. Satel- thousand languages. lite networks like the HCJB/TWR ALAS Cassettes are being used in many areas of the (WINGS) make programming available to local Christian and secular stations. If and when di- mission field for both evangelism and teaching, rect satellite broadcasting becomes feasible, particularly in areas of low literacy. Unlike radio, missionary broadcasters will undoubtedly be at the message can be listened to repeatedly and at the forefront. any hour. Rugged, hand-cranked players are Missionary radio pioneer HCJB also built the available for remote areas. first missionary television station (see also Tele- Film. The lantern slides used by missionaries vision Evangelism). The Window of the Andes in the early part of the century were replaced by went on the air in Quito in 1961. Latin America, 16mm films and then video. Moody Science with relatively free access, has seen a prolifera- films and dramatic movies produced by groups tion of Christian TV channels, while in parts of such as Billy Graham have been widely trans- Africa and Europe evangelicals have been able to lated and distributed. There has been some effort get time, sometimes free of charge, on govern- toward culturally relevant productions using ment stations. Organizations like the U.S.-based Third World artists and settings. Cinema vans Christian Broadcasting Network (700 Club) buy draw large open-air crowds in Africa, Latin time on hundreds of TV outlets and cable ser- America, and other parts of the world. Deserving vices worldwide. Evangelists such as Billy Gra- special mention is the Jesus Film, the most ham and Luis Palau have held continent or widely seen movie in cinematic history, which worldwide media crusades; the Graham one- has been dubbed into more than 450 languages hour program, “Starting Over,” aired in April and seen by more than one billion people. 1996, was seen by an estimated 2.5 billion people Steve Sywulka in over 200 countries, using 48 languages. Radio and television are powerful tools which Bibliography. B. Armstrong, The Electric Church; have taken the gospel to hundreds of millions of B. Siedell, Gospel Radio; V. B. Søgaard, Everything You people, many in limited-access countries or iso- Need to Know for a Cassette Ministry. 36 Migration

Member Care in Missions. The concept of care and professional ethics have yet to be devel- member care—that mission members need to be oped, as does the development of training mod- cared for in important ways—has its roots in the els and good training opportunities. More robust New Testament. The Great Commission was research is needed. Also needed is greater inter- given alongside the Great Commandment, with nationalization, developing better and more cul- love for one another being the hallmark of Chris- turally appropriate member care for missionar- tian discipleship (John 13:34–35). Scores of “one ies of the newer sending countries. O’Donnell another” injunctions in the New Testament sum- aptly summed up the standing and significance mon Christians to demonstrate this care for of this young interdisciplinary field when he other believers, including care for missionaries, wrote, “Member care has grown in prominence in many ways. Even Jesus, the missionary proto- and is now generally understood to be a biblical type, indicated that he needed caring compan- responsibility and a central component of mis- ionship when he said, “My soul is overwhelmed sion strategy.” with sorrow to the point of death. Stay here and Jeanne L. Jensma keep watch with me” (Matt. 26:38). And the Bibliography. L. M. Gardner, JTP 15 (1987): 308–14; apostle Paul was fervent in expressing his grati- K. S. O’Donnell, JTP 25 (1997): 143–54; idem, Mission­ tude for having been refreshed by the ministry of ary Care: Counting the Cost for World Evangelization. Onesiphorus (2 Tim. 1:16–18). Today’s missionaries need care as well. The sending church, mission administrators, and Migration. Migration is as old as the departure field colleagues are all responsible to provide of Adam and Eve from the garden (Gen. 3:23– quality care for the missionary—whether at 24). Its uprooting nature drove Cain in fear to home or abroad, frontliner or support staff, adult the security of the city (Gen. 4:13–14, 17) and or child or perhaps even adult MK—from the scattered the builders of Babel’s city and tower missionary family’s first days with the mission (Gen. 11:9). Today, as of old, it has been moti- through retirement or termination of service vated by famine and natural disaster, by the (and sometimes beyond). Often member care search for a better life, and by political conflict specialists are utilized: pastoral counselors or and war. mental health professionals with specialized in- Migration Then and Now. Past or present, terest and experience in caring for missionaries; these migratory movements take many forms, specialists from either inside or outside the mis- some more peaceful in origin. The Berbers of Af- sion. These caregivers target the physical, psy- rica’s past and today’s Fulani demonstrate no­ chological, and spiritual well-being of missionar- madism, a fixed lifestyle of wandering from place ies, seeking to promote overall health and to place. Immigration, a relatively free movement wholeness (and, concomitantly, greater effective- of peoples within and across political boundar- ness in ministry as well). ies, has a long history. With the passage of the Member care generally begins with assessment 1793 Alien Bill in England its formal control was to help missions select, prepare, and place mis- initiated and now has become the rule (Kritz, sionaries with a view toward maximizing the fit Keely, and Tomasi, 1983, xiii). between the missionary and his or her tasks, Out of the displacement of war and sociopolit- team mates, and host culture (see also Field Ad- ical struggle have come the cause/effect patterns justment). Member care goes on to offer prefield of Invasion and Displacement Migration. The and Furlough seminars on topics such as educa- mass intrusions into Israel’s history by conquer- tional options for Missionary Children, stress ing Assyria and Babylonia are good examples. management, Burnout prevention, conflict reso- They were accompanied by deportation, resettle- lution, and coping with transition. Member care ment, and assimilation. Things have not changed includes training missionaries to support one much. World War II saw the displacement of another on the field. Reentry debriefing at the some 40 million people in Europe alone. Since beginning of furlough can help missionaries the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, over 2 mil- make the most of furlough. Reentry seminars for lion people have fled from Southeast Asia. MKs transitioning into college is another facet of But there are new twists also. Ease of travel member care. So is providing on- or off-field has increased international migration. Currently counseling for missionaries for preventive rea- an estimated 125 million people live officially sons or in times of crisis, difficult transitions, or outside the countries of their birth, some perma- burnout. Helping missionaries exit the mission nently, others as a temporary labor force. Migra- with grace is a “must” of caring for the mission- tion in the eighteenth and early nineteenth cen- ary at retirement or service termination. turies flowed from richer countries to poorer Member care is an emerging specialized inter- ones; now the flow is from less developed re- disciplinary field with a constantly expanding gions to more developed ones. There is a grow- network of professionals, organizations, care ing feminization of both international and inter- centers, literature, and research. Standards of nal migration. 37 Missio Dei

However, it is internal migration within the Ecumenicals claim a comprehensive definition Third World countries that has deeply modified of missio Dei: everything God does for the com- past patterns. That migration is from rural to munication of salvation and, in a narrower urban areas, supporting a continuing trend to- sense, everything the church itself is sent to do. ward ever-larger cities. Budgets are swamped by Historically, most evangelicals focused on the human needs and Poverty has become the dom- more immediate purpose of the Triune God in inant social problem. Africa today resembles a the sending of the Son: the task of world evange- “huge refugee camp” (Mieth and Cahill, 1993, lization, the planting of the church among 15). non-Christians, and the nurture of such Mission Response. Migration has been a churches. More recently, many have acknowl- major “bridge of God” for Christianity’s spread in edged the holistic nature of the task, though few the past (Norwood, 1969). “Aliens and strangers give it an eschatological reference (see Holistic in the world” (1 Peter 2:11), Christians have wan- Mission). dered in dispersion “among the nations” (Luke The difference between the two approaches 24:47). Christian immigrants planted the church hinges on how the primary and fundamental at Rome and in Gaul. Wandering monks crossed human problem is defined—whether as a broken Europe and followed the ancient silk route relationship with a transcendent God, or as suf- through Central Asia into China. Even such bru- fering, oppression, and broken human relation- tal invasions as the Crusades and the colonial ships. Views of how the Kingdom of God is to be conquests of Africa, Asia, and Latin America fulfilled now or eschatologically, how wide the opened pilgrim paths for a compromised Christi- scope of human salvation will prove to be, and anity. Christians were part of the transoceanic basic assumptions about the authority and inter- migrations to Australia and North America in pretation of Scripture are also critical (see Bible the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Oppor- and Hermeneutics). tunities for skilled labor abroad today have Missio Dei was first used in a missionary sense opened Creative Access Countries to Tent-Mak- by the German missiologist Karl Hartenstein in ing Missions. 1934. He was motivated by Karl Barth’s empha- Migrants have also been the objects of evange- sis on the actio Dei (“the action of God”), over lism and compassionate service. Christian minis- against the human-centered focus of liberal the- tries like the TEAR Fund, World Vision, and ology at that time; he was also inspired by World Relief have become involved in social Barth’s 1928 lecture on mission, which related it transformation and Development projects for to the Trinity. Hartenstein used the term again in refugees and “children at risk.” Church Planting his “Theological Reflection” on the IMC’s Will- has had its successes among the mainline Chi- ingen Conference (1952), published in the Ger- nese, relocating after 1949 in Taiwan. The man report. Though the documents of the meet- church has not forgotten that the treatment of ing itself grounded mission in the Trinity, it did strangers and aliens is still a criterion of fidelity not use the term missio Dei. Nevertheless, in its to God’s covenant (Exod. 22:21; James 2:14–17). new, trinitarian-mission(ary) sense the phrase In caring for strangers, they care for Jesus (Matt. has been widely used since Georg F. Vicedom’s 25:36, 40). book. Harvie M. Conn Missio Dei came to encapsulate an important change in IMC and WCC thinking, from the Tam- Bibliography. M. Kritz, C. Keely, and S. Tomasi, baram Conference (1938) emphasis on the mis- eds., Global Trends in Migration: Theory and Research on International Population Movements; D. Mieth and sion of the church to the Willingen stress on the L. Cahill, eds., Migrants and Refugees; F. Norwood, mission of God. The latter meeting quite prop- Strangers and Exiles: A History of Religious Exiles, vols. erly recognized that the true source of the 1–2. church’s missionary task lay “in the Triune God Himself.” The roots of the later, social gospel usage of Missio Dei. Latin for “the sending of God,” in the term lay in two things: first of all, Willingen’s the sense of “being sent,” a phrase used in Prot- “A Statement on the Missionary Calling of the estant missiological discussion especially since Church,” which exhibited a common theological the 1950s, often in the English form “the mission mistake. It properly defined the church’s mis- of God.” Originally it was used (from Augustine sionary obligation as “beseeching all men to be on) in Western discussion of the Trinity for the reconciled to God,” and its concluding section “sent-ness of God (the Son)” by the Father (John rightly stressed God’s sovereign rule even in the 3:17; 5:30; 11:42; 17:18). Georg F. Vicedom popu- “war and tumult” of history, the growth of larized the concept for missiology at the CWME human knowledge, and in political and social meeting in Mexico City in 1963, publishing a movements. However, it failed to distinguish this book by this title: The Mission of God: An Intro­ preserving, common-grace exercise of God’s duction to the Theology of Mission. power from his reconciling, special, redemp- 38 Missiology tive-grace exercise in the history of salvation. tions: universal salvation, through the “cosmic Nor did it state the relationship either between Christ”; the church’s election being only for the preserving and redemptive grace, or between this purpose of serving what God was already doing present age and the age to come (see Hope). in the world; the ideas of process theology, Til- The second and not unrelated factor was the lich’s “new being,” and Bultmann’s demytholo- presence of the Dutch missiologist, Johannes C. gizing of the New Testament. Taken together, Hoekendijk. Hoekendijk was zealous to have the these meant that the WCC could not affirm that true arena of God’s saving action be recognized indeed history must come to an end, with as the world of human affairs and the human Christ’s coming, in order to realize the kingdom/ condition, instead of the church. The mission of shalom in its fullness. It lacked (and still lacks) God (what he sent Christ into the world to do) commitment to other vital teachings of the his- was to establish Shalom—“peace, integrity, com- toric Christian faith: the transcendence of God munity, harmony and justice”—or humanization (his distinctness from creation); the reality of an in this world. In other words, the goal was the objective, substitutionary atonement to deal with realization of the kingdom of God on earth. He the fundamental human problem, sin, and its insisted on redefining the church as a function of forgiveness; and the necessity of proclaiming the “apostolate,” that is, the church as an instru- Christ as the only one to whom one must turn ment, of God’s action in this world, a means in for true shalom in this world and the world to his hands, by which he will establish shalom. come. This was the basic concept with which the In WCC circles today some are questioning the phrase missio Dei came to be identified in WCC very usefulness of the term missio Dei, and are circles. seeking a “new link” between mission and At the world conference of the World Student church (Hoedemaker). Evangelicals, on the other Christian Federation in Strasbourg (1960), Hoek- hand, have struggled so far to match the theolog- endijk urged that Christians identify with “man ical depth and sophistication of the WCC. They in the modern world,” that the church become need to show that the church is called not merely “open, mobile groups” (Bassham) to join the to expansion, not to become a mere “collection missio Dei and push for the realization of sha­ of converts” (Hoedemaker). It is “sent” for a lom. faithful ministry of witness summoning the dis- These ideas dominated subsequent WCC re- obedient to turn to God, looking for success only ports: Witness in Six Continents (Mexico City, to the Spirit of God. It must do this from the 1963), World Conference on Church and Society context of its life, where God is truly worshiped, (Geneva, 1966), and especially the Studies in the faithful built up, and compassion demon- Evangelism report, The Church for Others (1967). strated. This whole is the true missio Dei, and These included the radical assertion of the foreshadows the true shalom to be realized in thought-pattern expressed in “God-world- full at the Lord’s return. church.” The latter formula meant that the John A. McIntosh church should act in partnership with the send- ing God, not by world evangelization and church Bibliography. N. Goodall, ed., Missions Under the planting, but by directly promoting political and Cross; Uppsala Report 1968; R. C. Bassham, Mission economic human good. Since shalom is the goal Theology, 1948–1975; E. P. Clowney, The Church; A. F. Glasser and D. G. McGavran, Contemporary Theologies of God’s action in the world, and “the world sets of Mission; L. A. Hoedemaker, IBMR 19:4 (1995): 166– the agenda,” the church must therefore forsake 70; idem, Missiology, pp. 157–71; P. Potter, Life in All Its its existing “heretical structures” and join in Fullness; H. H. Rosin, Missio Dei; J. A. Scherer, The God’s action. Traditional Christian missions were Good News of the Kingdom, pp. 82–88; T. Stransky, therefore merely “transitory forms of obedience DEM, pp. 687–89. to the missio Dei,” and no longer appropriate. The climax of the impact of Hoekendijk’s ver- sion of God’s mission was to be seen at the Up- Missiology. Missiology is the conscious, inten- psala Assembly, in 1968, which fiercely resisted tional, ongoing reflection on the doing of mis- the admission of words on the need to evangelize sion. It includes theory(ies) of mission, the study the non-Christian world. and teaching of mission, as well as the research, Christians certainly ought to join with others writing, and publication of works regarding mis- in the common grace promotion of social justice, sion. Involvement in or the doing of mission, though not as the church, and not exclusively as however, preceded by several centuries the schol­ Christians, but with others (Clowney). Evangeli- arly reflection on mission. Apparently it was the cals have been remiss in not acting strongly or passionate visionary Spanish activist, Raymond broadly enough for social justice in this century. Lull (c. 1235–1315), who first critically reflected But the WCC adopted an almost purely socio-­ on missions, published his thoughts, and pro- political concept of the missio Dei. It did so on posed the establishment of colleges for the lin- the basis of broad, modern theological assump- guistic and theological preparation of missionar- 39 Missiology ies to Muslims and Jews. Though such a school contributed to a slowly changing attitude was established at Majorca in 1276, Lull was un- regarding missions as a scholarly endeavor. successful in persuading Christian princes to es- However, attempts to establish missionary train- tablish similar chairs in the major European uni- ing programs in European or American universi- versities. No complete catalogue of Lull’s ties during the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- voluminous writings exists, but the partial list turies were seldom successful. Two serious contains more than 280 titles. Lull may be con- histories of missions during this period do de- sidered the first missiologist in Christian history. serve mention: Robert Millar’s History of the More than two centuries later the Jesuit mis- Propagation of Christianity and the Overthrow of sionary to Mexico and Peru, José de Acosta Paganism (1723) and Petrus Hofstede’s two-vol- (c. 1539–1600), published his treatise On Procur­ ume work on the history of Christianity in the ing the Salvation of the Indians (1588), a learned Dutch East Indies (1779–80). discussion of missionary theology and methodol- The nineteenth century brought tangible ogy. Another significant missiological work of change. When Princeton Theological Seminary this period was On Procuring the Salvation of All was founded in 1811, it was envisioned not only Men (1613) by Thomas à Jesu (1564–1627). as a means to prepare young men to be pastors, The formal study of missions by Protestants but also as “a nursery for missionaries to the can be traced to the colonial expansion of En­ heathen,” a place where students could receive gland, the Netherlands, and non-Iberian Euro- “appropriate training” to fit them for missionary pean powers. The year Pope Gregory XV created work. The first concrete step to make the study the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda of the of missions an academic requirement, however, Faith, 1622, a small Protestant college for the occurred in 1835 when John Breckenridge training of missionaries for Dutch colonies (1797–1841) was elected professor of pastoral opened as a branch of the University of Leiden. theology and missionary instruction. Though Unfortunately, the college was short-lived. (Five Breckenridge can be regarded as the first Protes- years later the Roman Catholic College of Propa- tant professor of missions, his tenure at Prince- ganda opened in Rome.) With their growing ton was brief, 1836–38, and it would have been awareness of other continents and peoples, a few uneventful except for the fact that the course he European Protestant professors of theology initiated continued as a part of the curriculum began manifesting serious interest in missionary until 1854. questions. Hadrianus Saravia (1531–1613)— F. A. E. Ehrenfeuchter, professor of practical Dutch Reformed pastor-missionary and later theology at Göttingen, was one of the earliest professor, who after a period in England became European Protestants to include the subject of an Anglican—published in 1590 his carefully rea- missions in his lectures in the 1840s and 1850s, soned challenge to the prevailing Protestant view and he is credited with publishing the first thor- that the words of Matthew 28:19–20 were meant oughgoing theory of mission in Protestant his- only for the original apostles. The influence of tory, Die praktische Theologie (1859). Saravia is evident in the inaugural­ lectures of In Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox cir- Gisbertus Voetius (1589–1676) at the University cles J. B. Hirscher (1788–1865) urged that the of Utrecht, lectures he entitled De plantatoribus study of missions be made an integral part of the ecclesiasticus (“On Church Planting”). Several study of pastoral theology, and shortly thereafter other Dutch scholars helped pave the way for N. I. Liminsky (1821–91) published what can be formal missiological studies, such as Justus Heu- regarded as the first scientific analysis of mis- rnius (1587–1651) and Johannes Hoornbeeck sion in the Orthodox Church. (1617–66), the latter a student of Voetius. In 1864 Karl Graul (1814–64), director of the Though a number of missiological works were Leipzig Mission, proposed that missions be ac- published in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- cepted as a legitimate academic discipline in it- turies, no professor of missions was named and self. His memorable lecture, “On the Place and the number of courses in missions was very lim- Significance of the Christian Mission in Scien- ited. This was true in both Europe and North tific Studies of a University Considered as a America until the last half of the nineteenth cen- Whole,” qualified him to teach in the University tury. of Erlangen. Graul’s untimely death prevented The writings, correspondence, and widespread his becoming Europe’s first Protestant professor influence of the German Pietist leaders, August of missions, a distinction that was Alexander Herman Francke (1663–1727) and Philip Jacob Duff’s (1806–78) when in 1867 he was named Spener (1635–1705); the Moravian founder Nico- professor of evangelistic theology at the Univer- laus Ludwig von Zinzendorf (1700–60); the Re- sity of Edinburgh. Duff’s legacy, however, was formed theologian and philosopher Jonathan mixed. The installation of Gustav Warneck Edwards (1703–58); the Baptist missionary Wil- (1834–1919) as professor of the science of mis- liam Carey (1761–1834); and the renowned theo- sions at the University of Halle in 1896 signaled logian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834)— the momentous changes ahead, for by the turn 40 Missiology of the century three other professorships of mis- 1815, as well as the Student Christian Movement sions had been established, and in the decades and the Student Volunteer Movement (1886). preceding and following the World Missionary Both the SCM and the SVM became interna- Conference (Edinburgh 1910), the study of mis- tional organizations, and both contributed to a sions became a part of the curriculum in an in- steady stream of mission books and other educa- creasing number of schools in both Europe and tional material. The SVM helped shape Protes- North America. tant missions from 1890 to 1940, recruited thou- The academic study of missions therefore sands of young people for missionary service, inched its way into university and seminary cur- and was a major influence leading to the pivotal ricula, first as a part of the study of practical the- Edinburgh conference of 1910. ology and/or church history, and later as a sepa- As already implied, much of the scholarly ac- rate department or course of study, partially a tivity in mission resulted directly and indirectly result of the growing interest in the history of from a number of international ecumenical con- religions. By the turn of the century the number ferences on world missions held in New York in of essays, books, and journals dealing with mis- 1954 and 1900, in London in 1878 and 1888, and sion issues had expanded significantly. in Edinburgh in 1910. The preparatory papers During the first three decades of the twentieth and the addresses delivered provided a wealth of century, the number of courses, professors, and material and insight into the thinking and doing chairs of mission increased dramatically, only to of missions. be followed by a leveling off and then a down- The number of annual missions lectureships turn. Since the 1950s the number of universities established in colleges, seminaries, and divinity in Europe and the United States with professor- schools—such as the Student Lectureship on ships in missions has decreased, but the corre- Missions inaugurated in 1891 at Princeton Sem- sponding number of seminaries and other inary—increased steadily in the twentieth cen- schools, professors, and courses in mission-­ tury. More recent are the Scherer Missions Lec- related subjects has increased substantially in tures inaugurated in 1995 at the Lutheran the Americas, Africa, and Asia. School of Theology in Chicago and the Missiol- Roman Catholic missiological studies have fol- ogy Lectures at Fuller Theological Seminary. lowed much of the same path as Protestants During the 1960s some observers were lament- since the time of Hirscher. Yet the number of ing the decrease in books dealing with missions. outstanding missiologists has steadily increased But in the last thirty years the quantity, variety, as can be seen in the life and work of such giants and scope of published works, books as well as as Robert Streit (1875–1930), Josef Schmidlin other materials, have increased and the quality (1876–1944), Wilhelm Schmidt (1868–1954), has improved significantly. Besides denomina- Pierre Charles (1883–1954), John J. Considine tional publications, there are publishing houses (1897–1983), and a host of contemporary schol- that specialize in producing books about mis- ars. sions—Orbis Books and William Carey Press are Not all mission scholars and thinkers, how- examples. Moreover, a number of secular pub- ever, have been professors. Some of the most in- lishing houses such as Harper & Row/Collins, fluential theorists have been administrators, Lippincott, Viking Penguin, Macmillan, T & T such as Henry Venn (1796–1873) and Rufus An- Clark, Steyler Verlag, and E. J. Brill, as well as derson (1796– 1880). Others have been mission- notable university presses such as Harvard, Chi- aries, such as William Taylor (1821–1902), cago, Yale, Illinois, and California are publishing John L. Nevius (1829–93), J. Hudson Taylor works on missions and missionaries. University (1832–1905), Roland Allen (1868–1947), E. publications include not only mission history Stanley Jones (1874–1973), and Hendrick Krae- and biography, but also studies of the role of mer (1888–1965). Some have been missionaries missions and missionaries in anthropology, eco- and later teachers, such as Stephen Neill (1900– nomics, and international relations. 1984) and Donald A. McGavran (1897–1990). Currently, there are scores of Journals of Mis- Only during the last third of his life did Mc- sion and Missiology being published throughout Gavran become the founder, dean, and professor the world. These include The International Bulle­ in the School of World Mission of Fuller Theo- tin of Missionary Research, the Evangelical Mis­ logical Seminary. sions Quarterly, the International Review of Mis­ Scholarship in mission of course involves sion, Missiology, Missionalia (Southern Africa), much more than theories, professorships, and Indian Missiological Review, and the South Pa­ courses in missions. Equally important are the cific Journal of Mission Studies. societies established for the study and support of Though there has been a steady stream of out- missions. Often these have been student-led standing histories of missions, until the last groups such as the Society of Inquiry on the twenty-five years there were hardly any reference Subject of Missions founded in 1811 at Williams works other than Edwin M. Bliss, Encyclopedia College and replicated at Princeton Seminary in of Missions (1891, 1904) and B. L. Goddard, The 41 Mission and Missions

Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Missions ety of Missiology (1973). These societies meet (1967). The publication of the Concise Dictionary regularly and most produce their own journals. of the Christian World Mission (1972) edited by Alan Neely Stephen Neill, Gerald H. Anderson, and John Bibliography. G. H. Anderson, R. T. Coote, N. A. Goodwin, was followed by David Barrett’s World Horner, and J. M. Phillips, Mission Legacies; G. H. An- Christian Encyclopedia (1982), the “A.D. 2000 Se- derson, IBMR 15 (October 1991): 165–72; O. G. Myke- ries” which includes World Class Cities and World bust, The Study of Missions in Theological Education 1 Evangelization (1986), Evangelize! A Historical & 2; A. Neely, Toward the Twenty-first Century in Chris­ Survey of the Concept (1987), and Seven Hundred tian Mission, pp. 269–83; S. Neill, et al., CDCWM; S. L. Plans to Evangelize the World (1988). Gerald An- Peterson, IBMR 15 (October 1991): 155–64; B. R. derson’s comprehensive Biographical Dictionary Pierce, Missiology 4 (1976): 75–87; J. Verkuyl, Contem­ of Christian Missions (1997) will soon be fol- porary Missiology; A. F. Walls, IBMR 15 (October 1991): lowed by this work, The Evangelical Dictionary of 146–55. World Missions. Several centers for mission research are func- tioning, some for decades, such as the Overseas Mission and Missions. Derived from the Latin Ministries Study Center in New Haven, Con- mitto, which in turn is a translation of the Greek necticut. Newer ones include the Mission Ad- apostellom (to send), the term “mission,” as an En- vanced Research Center in Monrovia, California, glish term with no direct biblical equivalent, has the Oxford Center for Mission Studies and the a broad range of acceptable meanings. The Ox­ Center for the Study of Islam and Muslim-Chris- ford Dictionary gives the earliest occurrences of tian Religions, both in England. the English word in 1598. By 1729, use of the Besides the universities and seminaries that word in relation to the church focused on the offer the Ph.D., Th.D., S.T.D., and Ed.D. in mis- Great Commission: “Jesus Christ gave his disci- sion studies, a growing number of institutions ples their mission in these words, ‘Go and teach now have programs leading to a D.Miss. or doc- all nations, & etc.’” (E. Chambers, Cyclopaedia; torate in missiology (see also Doctoral Degrees or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences). in Mission). Moreover, in the past half-century The contemporary secular definition of mis- some twelve hundred doctoral dissertations deal- sion is simply “sending someone forth with a ing with mission questions have been approved specific purpose.” That purpose may be defined by schools in the United States and Canada. broadly (e.g., to represent the interests of the Mention should also be made of the archival sender) or very narrowly (e.g., to hand-deliver a sources available to the serious scholar of mis- message written by the sender). With the broad- sion. Stephen L. Peterson has analyzed those ness of the term, our concept of the mission of available in North America (IBMR 15 [October the church will to a large degree depend on our 1991]: 155–64), and Norman Thomas of the theological orientation rather than an etymolog- United Theological Seminary in Dayton, Ohio, is ical analysis. directing a massive international project on doc- Few would challenge the need for clarity in umentation, archives, and bibliography. Anno- our definition, for, as Dyrness notes: “mission tated bibliographies of no less than 10,000 vol- lies at the core of theology—within the character umes in missiology in all major European and action of God himself. There is an impulse languages published from 1960 to 1990 will be to give and share that springs from the very na- available in printed form and on compact disks. ture of God and that therefore characterized all Clearly the bulk of what is noted here relates his works. So all that theologians call fundamen- principally to what has been and is taking place tal theology is mission theology” (p. 11). At the in the West. But as Christians become more nu- same time, however, the difficulty of defining merous in the Two-Thirds World and as they de- mission cannot be overlooked or minimized. vote more personnel and resources to scholarly “Mission is never something self-evident, and no- endeavors, they will make their own missiologi- where—neither in the practice of mission nor in cal contributions. Mission study centers, for ex- even our best theological reflections on mission, ample, already are functioning in such diverse does it succeed in removing all confusions, mis- countries as Japan, Papua New Guinea, South understandings, enigmas and temptations” Korea, Peru, India, Bolivia, and Brazil. (Bosch, 9). A great deal of the aforementioned activity can Several questions among the many which be traced to the increasing impact of profes- could be asked illuminate the contemporary dis- sional missiological societies such as the Deut- cussion and options: (1) Is mission, most sche Gesellschaft für Missionswissenschaft broadly, the whole scope of God’s intention in (1918), the Association of Professors of Mis- the world or, more narrowly, the God-given Mis- sions (1952), the Evangelical Missiological So- sionary Task of the church? (2) If our focus is on ciety (1972), the International Association for the task of the church, is mission limited to one Mission Studies (1972), and the American Soci- core component of the church’s work or is it ev- 42 Mission and Missions erything that the church does? (3) Is it possible posed any broadening of mission. Ron Sider ar- to determine a focus or priority for mission, and, gued that social transformation is mission. On a if so, what should that be? At least until the IMC pragmatic level, the reality of the disagreement Willingen Conference in 1952, the answers to is seen in the titles used for introductory theol- these questions for evangelicals appeared to be ogy courses taught in 78 North American institu- relatively straight forward. Missions was evange- tions: 31 drop the final “s” (“Theology of Mis- lism and the evidence of successful missions was sion”) and 46 keep it (“Theology of Missions”) the extension of the church through the crossing (Siewert). of cultural, geographic, and linguistic boundar- Multiple conferences organized from within ies. the Evangelical Movement have sought to ad- In this century, however, we have seen several dress the issue of mission and the primacy of developments, most of which were birthed in the evangelism within it. The Congress on the Ecumenical Movement and brought into evan- Church’s Worldwide Mission (Wheaton Con- gelical discussion by people involved in both gress, 1966) was organized to deal with theolog- groups. Two of these developments relate to the ical and practical issues. Affirming the scriptural word mission. First was the recognition that foundation for social justice, the declaration of God’s mission was broader than the activities of the congress still proclaimed the primacy of his Church. Missio Dei, coined as a missiological evangelism. In the same year the World Con- term by Karl Hartenstein in 1934, was used in gress on Evangelism (Berlin Congress 1966) the 1952 Willingen Conference to stress that was also held. Focused primarily on responding mission is God’s not the church’s. Georg Vice- to shifting definitions of evangelism, the integral dom popularized it in the Mexico City Confer- relationship of evangelism and missions was ence (1963) and in his text The Mission of God maintained. In 1970, the Frankfurt Declaration (1965). Missio Dei focuses on everything God on the Fundamental Crisis in Christian Mission does in his task of establishing his kingdom in all was developed in response to ecumenical shifts its fullness in all the world. While it includes in thinking about mission, and it promoted a re- what the church does, it is not limited to that, turn to the classic orientation of mission as the for God works both in and out of the church. presentation of salvation through evangelism. Thus themes such as “Let the world set the Calls for broadening the evangelical perspective agenda” were driven by a recognition that God is came at the Thanksgiving Workshop on Evangel- not limited to his work in and through the icals and Social Concern (Chicago, 1973), which church and that his mission is seen wherever issued the “Chicago Declaration of Evangelical kingdom values (especially justice and mercy) Social Concern.” This was “essentially an affir- are being promoted, fought for, or instituted. mation of God’s total claim on the lives of his The second important development was the people, a confession of failure in demonstrating dropping of the “s” from “missions” to reflect the God’s justice in society, and a call for evangeli- unity of the total biblical task of the church. The cals ‘to demonstrate repentance in a Christian dropping of the final “s” was formalized in ecu- discipleship that confronts the social and politi- menical discussion when the International Re­ cal injustice of our nation’” (Padilla, 242). At the view of Missions became the International Re­ Lausanne Congress on World Evangelism view of Mission in 1970. By 1972, George Peters, (1974), John Stott pointed to the broadening of an evangelical teaching at Dallas Theological the definition of mission and indicated that he Seminary, wrote that mission, in contrast to mis- saw no reason to resist this development. Build- sions, was “a comprehensive term including the ing his paradigm on John’s version of the Great upward, inward and outward ministries of the Commission, he proposed that we see mission as church. It is the church as ‘sent’ (a pilgrim, the church “sent” into the world to serve just as stranger, witness, prophet, servant, as salt, as Jesus served, including Evangelism and Social light, etc.) in this world” (Peters, 11). He main- Responsibility as partners in the missionary tained that missions, on the other hand, is the task. He did not see fulfilling the Great Commis- actual work and the practical realization of the sion as completing the directive of the Great mission of the church. Some evangelicals voiced Commandment, maintaining both as integral to concerns that dropping the “s” might lead to the mission. Lausanne proved to be a critical junc- loss of commitment to, and action for, world ture in this respect. By 1989, in fact, the role of evangelization and church planting. the Lausanne Covenant would be noted in the Evangelical approaches to defining mission official story of Lausanne II as follows: “It is a have not been unified. John Stott allowed the watershed in placing social justice within the broadening of the discussion, as long as evange- purposes of the Church’s mission (Articles 4 and lism was seen as a leading partner in the mis- 5)” (Nichols, 15). sionary task. W. Harold Fuller proposed using Since Lausanne, three streams have solidified mission for our purpose and passion, while min- within evangelicalism. One emphasizes the his- istry refers to all that we do. Arthur Johnston op- toric orientation of mission as evangelism, and 43 Mission Theory carried on in meetings such as the Global Con- sion on the Way: Issues in Mission Theology; G. Vice- sultations on World Evangelization (GCOWE) dom, The Mission of God: An Introduction to a Theology organized in 1989, 1995, and 1997. The focus of of Mission. this stream remains the development of thriving church movements among people groups around the world. Mission Theory. “Mission theory” identifies A second stream, following Stott, focuses on principles which are held to be essential to the integrating a holistic approach to mission, incor- successful practice of mission. Over the years, porating evangelism and issues of social justice the term has been used in an elastic manner to and reconciliation (see Holistic Mission). Con- encompass beliefs, goals, policies, strategies, and sultations such as that in Wheaton in 1983, con- procedures involved in the tasks of mission. vened to discuss the nature of the church, gave Some argue that mission (or missionary) theory voice to this group and “laid a sound theological occupies an intermediate level between theology basis for the mission of the Church, with no di- and policy, because it is shaped not only by theo- chotomy between evangelism and social respon- logical convictions but also by the fruits of actual sibility” (Padilla, 247). experience. In that case, “mission strategy” and The third stream, sometimes referred to as the “mission policy” are viewed as being nearly syn- radical discipleship group, and including evan- onymous. gelicals such as Ron Sider, Rene Padilla, and A comprehensive framework for mission the- Samuel Escobar, considers social justice to be ory has probably never been fully elaborated. In mission just as evangelism is, and does not give the Middle Ages, Franciscan and Dominican priority to either (see also Option for the Poor) . monks thought carefully about how to do mis- Representatives of the three streams have sion effectively, while Roman Catholic thinkers come together from time to time, perhaps most such as José de Acosta (1540–1600) and Tomas à notably at the Consultation on the Relationship Jesu, wrote perceptively in this cross-cultural Between Evangelism and Social Responsibility area in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (CRESR 1982), where the partnership of evange- The Jesuit Acosta produced a monumental mis- lism and social responsibility and the primacy of sion manual in Peru, under the title De Procu­ evangelism were both reaffirmed, though it was randa Indorum Salute (1577), which was trans- noted that “some of us have felt uncomfortable lated as Predicacion del Evangelio en las Indias about this phrase, lest by it we should be break- (“Preaching the Gospel in the Indies”). Vibrant ing the partnership” (LCWE, p. 24). Wheaton ’83 Dutch Protestants, including Hadrianus Saravia gave greater weight to the partnership stream, as (1531–1613) and Justus Heurnius (1587–1651), well as opening discussion on transforming soci- also pondered over the essentials of mission. eties through structural intervention as an ele- However, Protestant mission leaders in the nine- ment of holistic mission. Finally, representatives teenth century did not pay much attention to of all three streams were also present at the Lau- them, if at all. Mission leaders such as the Ser- sanne Congress II on World Evangelism (Ma- ampore Trio drew much more from Moravian nila, 1989). Again, the focus continued to give and German Pietist precedents, from their own weight to the idea of partnership with evange- experience in pre-Victorian India and from the lism being primary. Through the declaration and theological well of Jonathan Edwards (1703–58), subsequent ongoing reflection, the second in developing their mission approach and philos- stream gained prominence in evangelical mis- ophy. sion. During Europe’s Enlightenment era, an En­ The debate continues and consensus over this glishman named William Orme urged (1828) complex issue remains a goal to be reached in that there was a need to develop a theoretical the future rather than a present reality. framework for the mission enterprise. Another A. Scott Moreau contemporary of William Carey, during the open- Bibliography. D. Bosch, Witness to the World: The ing phase of Protestantism’s “modern missionary Christian Mission in Theological Perspective; W. Dyr- movement,” was the German theologian Fried­ ness, Let the Earth Hear His Voice; LCWE, Evangelism rich E. D. Schleiermacher (1768–1834). Partly and Social Responsibility: An Evangelical Covenant; influenced by Moravians and German Pietists, W. H. Fuller, Church in Africa Today and Tomorrow: Schleiermacher viewed the “theory of mission” Proceedings of the A.E.A.M. 4th General Assembly, pp. as part of practical theology. 280–98; A. Johnston, The Battle for World Evangelism; Subsequent pioneers of mission studies in A. Nichols, ed., The Whole Gospel for the Whole World: Germany, such as the Protestant Gustav War- Story of Lausanne II Congress on World Evangelization, neck (1867–1944) and Joseph Schmidlin (1876– Manila 1989; R. C. Padilla, The Best in Theology, 1:239– 52; G. Peters, A Biblical Theology of Missions; D. L. 1944), insisted that a full-blown theory of mis- Robert, IBMR 18 (1994): 146–62; J. Siewert, Directory sion was essential to mission studies; but British of Schools and Professors of Mission, rev. ed.; J. R. W. mission thinkers did not respond to the chal- Stott, Mission in the Modern World; C. Van Engen, Mis­ lenge. As a debtor to the European Enlighten- 44 Mission Theory ment, Schmidlin, the father of Catholic Missiol- two-thirds of the twentieth century. The IRM’s ogy, equated “practical mission theory” rather classification system was set up by J. H. Oldham narrowly with “missiology” in 1925. He modeled in 1912 and it operated until 1963, when its cate- his Catholic mission theory on Gustav Warneck’s gories were radically changed by Lesslie Newbi- Missionslehre and defined “mission theory” com- gin in line with the thinking of the CWME Mex- prehensively as “the scientific investigation and ico City Conference (1963). Until then, the statement of the principles and rules which gov- “Theory and Principles of Missions” had featured ern the work of spreading the faith. As the theory as one of its major classification categories. of the missionary art, it seeks to answer the Thereafter, the term “theory of mission” or “mis- questions as to why, whither, how and by whom sion theory” sank out of view. Only the term mis- missions should be undertaken.” Probably the sion “principles” was retained in the bibliogra- last missiologists to develop distinctively Ger- phy field of mainstream mission. Thus “the man mission theory were Walter Freytag concept of mission theory and what it symbol- (1899– ­1959) and Georg Vicedom (b. 1903). ized” evidently disappeared from general usage During the Victorian period, the key idea in by the mid 1960s. Anglo-American mission theory came to be the In the face of such a trend, serious work has concept of the Indigenous Church. This was de- been done recently in the U.S. to develop a new veloped simultaneously by two remarkable mis- level of scholarly discourse on mission theory. sion statesmen, an American, Rufus Anderson After giving decades of attention to the subject, (1796–1880), and an Englishman, Henry Venn Wilbert R. Shenk, in his presidential address to (1796–1873). the American Society of Missiology in June Anderson decried the popular idea that Chris­ 1995, outlined seven elements necessary for de- tian faith and Christian civilization were insepa- velopment of “a general theory of mission.” He rable. He identified the proper aims of mission argued that “a general conceptual framework” as being the planting of self-governing, self-sup- would have to do the following: porting, and self-propagating churches. In the 1860s, Henry Venn, called for the “the euthana- 1. Situate the mission process historically sia” of missions as the final stage of the mission- and empirically as an inter-cultural to-church process. Since he saw “the raising up movement, including the agents and of a Native Church” as the great object of a mis- agencies, and the host culture and peo- sion, he viewed mission as the scaffolding to be ples. . . . removed once a self-responsible indigenous 2. Identify and critically evaluate the main church had emerged. John L. Nevius (1829–93), model(s) by which mission has been an American Presbyterian missionary to China and may be prosecuted. . . . and Korea, Robert E. Speer (1867–1947) and the 3. Account for the impact of the mission Scot, John Ritchie (1878–1952), did much to fur- on the host culture and the impact of ther general acceptance of “indigenous church the culture on the mission, i.e., as principles” in theory and practice until the reflected in modifications and innova- mid-twentieth century. tions the mission makes in response to Important contributions to the development of the cultural context. missions theorizing have come from the pens of 4. Correlate the development of the mod- missiologists such as Roland Allen (1868–1947), ern world system with the development a vigorous critic of the Anglo-American mission of the mission, especially the impact of system who wrote among other classic works modern communications and the eco- The Spontaneous Expansion of the Church and nomic system. . . . the Causes Which Hinder It (1927, reissued 1960); 5. Trace the influence the various strands William E. Hocking (1873–1966), Re-Thinking of renewal, revival, and revitalization Missions (1932); Hendrik Kraemer (1888–1965), [not all necessarily Christian in nature] The Christian Message in a non-Christian World that touch the churches, often with (1938); J. C. Hoekendijk (1912–75), Kerk en Volk long-range implications. in de Duitse Zendingswetenschap (1967); Don- 6. Maintain a dialectical relationship ald A. McGavran (1897–1990), Understanding between mission praxis and the biblical Church Growth (1969); and Ralph D. Winter theological foundation of mission. . . . (1924– ). 7. Hold in tension local mission and God’s Jongeneel opines that the term “theory of mis- mission to all people so that theory sion(s)” was replaced by the term “theology of geared to the local context will be devel- mission(s),” particularly after the Second World oped that will draw forth the fullness War. This appears to be corroborated by changes and richness of the particular in light of in the classification system of the International God’s ultimate saving purpose . . . Review of Missions [IRM], the premier missio- (1996, 41). logical journal in mission studies during the first 45 Missionary

In light of this, Shenk has distinguished very Missionary. Few terms within the evangelical clearly between the development of “mission the- missiological vocabulary generate more diverse ory,” which must involve deep theological in- definitions. For some, “everybody is a mission- sight, and the business of mission strategizing ary,” but Stephen Neill is right in saying that if (or planning). Vividly aware that “a strategy al- everybody is a missionary, nobody is a mission- ways reflects the culture and historical moment ary. A few argue that a select category of persons in which it is formulated” (1993, 219), he has un- are honored with this title; but still others dis- derscored the “ambivalence” that “has character- card it totally and substitute “apostolic messen- ized discussion of strategy in mission studies.” ger” instead. He reminded Christian thinkers that their best The Biblical Root and Uses. In the New Testa- ment the Greek term apostello (with a related formulations still fall far short of representing m one, pempo) emerges in two major categories: as God’s ways of advancing his kingdom. m a broadly used verb, the sending in one form or Such warning was not intended to deter God’s another and by different senders (132 times), people from exploring the unfathomable pat- and as a more specifically used noun, the apos- terns and dimensions of God’s mission. Rather, it tolic person (80 times). The senders (either verb is a prophetic spur to missiologists to be doubly or noun) include a variety of people (including a alert to the significance of what God is doing in negative one, Herod; Matt. 2:16), God (John the world, and the world church, today. 20:21), Christ (Luke 9:2), the church (Acts 15:27), During the last quarter of the twentieth cen- the Spirit (pempom in Acts 13:4). The sent ones in- tury, major contributors to our understanding of clude the Spirit (1 Peter 1:23), Christ (Matt. the dynamics of effective, cross-cultural Chris- 10:40; John 20:21), the apostles (Mark 3:15; Luke tian witness and service have included the South 6:12–16), other authorized representatives of the African, David J. Bosch (1929–94), especially his churches (2 Cor. 8:23; Phil. 2:25; Rom. 16:7), an- Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theol­ gels (Rev. 1:1), and servants or employees (Acts ogy of Mission (1991); the Puerto Rican, Or- 10:17). The core New Testament meaning clus- lando E. Costas (1924–87), with his Christ Out­ ters around ideas related to sending and or side the Gate: Mission Beyond Christendom crossing lines, to those being sent, the sent (1982); the Gambian, Lamin Sanneh, especially ones—whether messengers or the Twelve, or the his Translating the Message (1989) and Encoun­ others who serve with some kind of apostolic au- thority or function. The New Testament affirms tering the West (1993); and the Scot, Andrew F. that the apostolic messenger (the missionary) be- Walls, a compendium of whose influential writ- comes the person authoritatively sent out by God ings has been published under the title The Mis­ and the church on a special mission with a spe- sionary Movement in Christian History (1996), of cial message, with particular focus on the Gen- which his essay “Missionary Societies and the tiles/nations. Fortunate Subversion of the Church” deserves Other Jewish records show this term (a deriva- special mention. At the end of the twentieth cen- tive of the Hebrew saliah) describing authorized tury, international Christian leaders conse- messengers sent into the diaspora: to collect quently find themselves challenged by new funds for Jewish uses; or taking letters from frameworks from which to address missional sit- Jews or Jewish centers with instructions and uations, under rubrics such as a missiology for warnings, including how to deal with resistance. the West, Contextualization of the gospel, Two- The New Testament adopts some of these ideas, Thirds World missions, mission in the city, and as well as a broader one from Greek culture with reaching the unreached. the concept of divine authorization. It then in- A. Christopher Smith jects new meaning into the missionary apostles (life-long service, Spirit-empowered, with partic- Bibliography. R. Allen, Missionary Methods: St. ular focus on the missionary task) referring to Paul’s or Ours?; G. Anderson et al., eds., Mission Lega­ the original Twelve (plus Paul) as well as other cies; R. P. Beaver, ed., To Advance the Gospel. Selections authorized messengers. This is the core of the from the Writings of Rufus Anderson; J. B. Jongeneel, Philosophy, Science, and Theology of Mission in the 19th Christian apostolic person and function. There is and 20th Centuries, Part I; D. A. McGavran, Under­ no evidence of this office being authoritatively standing Church Growth, rev. ed.; J. L. Nevius, Planting passed on from generation to generation. and Development of Missionary Churches; J. M. Phillips The Term through Church History. Ironically and R. T. Coote, eds., Toward the 21st Century in Chris­ as the Latin language takes over Bible use and tian Mission; W. R. Shenk, IBMR 5:4 (1981): 168–72; church life, its synonym, mitto, becomes the idem, Missiology 24:1 (1996): 31–45; J. Verkuyl, Con­ dominant word. From mitto we derive the En­ temporary Missiology. An Introduction; A. F. Walls, glish word “missionary.” Therefore an “accident” Evangelical Quarterly 60:2 (1988): 141–55; M. Warren, of linguistic history has replaced the original ed., To Apply the Gospel: Selections from the Writings of Greek concept with all of its richness and depth. Henry Venn. In the immediate post-apostolic era, the term 46 Missionary Call, The was used of itinerant ministers, and in that form special servant “ . . . is not a temporary but an was known to Irenaeus and Tertullian. James abiding necessity for the life of the church, pro- Scherer argues that there is no New Testament vided always that the movement of mission is connection that would utilize apostolic concepts multidirectional, all churches both sending and and functions in the corporate life of the receiving.” However, Chew sustains the position churches of that later period. “The functions of that “missionary” is simply a generic term for all the apostolate were merged into the corporate Christians doing everything the church does in ministry of the church.” service to the Kingdom of God. We do a disser- Roman Catholic usage emerged by 596 when vice to the “missionary” by universalizing its use. Gregory the Great sent the Benedictine monk While all believers are witnesses and kingdom Augustine of Canterbury to lead a missionary servants, not all are missionaries. We do not delegation to the British Isles. The Roman glamorize or exalt the missionary, or ascribe Church also used the term in reference to their higher honor in life or greater heavenly reward, orders (as sent ones), starting with the Francis- and neither do we create an artificial office. cans in the thirteenth century, and later other or- This focused conclusion comes from a biblical ders. This was established in 1622 when the Con- theology of vocations (God has given us diverse gregation for the Propagation of the Faith was vocations and all are holy, but not all the same); instituted. Hoffman writes, “According to the a theology of gifts (not all are apostles nor all letters patent it gave to apostolic laborers over- speak in tongues—1 Cor. 12:29) and therefore seas, missionaries were those sent to announce not all Christians are missionaries; and a theol- the Gospel of Jesus Christ, to teach the gentiles ogy of callings (the Triune God sovereignly calls to observe whatever the Roman Catholic Church some to this position and task; see Missionary commands, to propagate the Catholic Faith, and Call). These men and women are cross-cultural to forewarn of the universal judgment.” Today workers who serve within or without their na- Catholics use the terms missionary, missioner, tional boundaries, and they will cross some kind missionate, and mission apostolate in a variety of linguistic, cultural, or geographic barriers as of ways, including “. . . anyone engaged in some authorized sent ones. manner in the establishment of the Church William David Taylor where it had not been established,” as well as teachers, medical personnel, agronomists and Bibliography. D. Müller, NIDNTT; 1:126–35; J. Chew, When You Cross Cultures; T. Hale, On Being a others serving holistically. Within Catholicism Missionary; J. H. Kane, Understanding Christian Mis­ the broadest meaning is now also applied “. . . to sion, 3rd ed.; R. Hoffman, NCE 9:907; G. W. Peters, A all apostolic Christians collaborating with Christ Biblical Theology of Missions; J. A. Scherer, Missionary, in bringing about the total redemption of all Go Home! mankind, and indeed of all created nature . . . in a word, all those engaging in the mission of bringing Christ to all being and all being to Missionary Call, The. All Christians are called Christ.” to the service of the church as witnesses for The Protestant Reformation, partially in reac- Christ in every part of their lives. But the mis- tion to the Roman positions, minimized the term sionary call is more than this. It is a special and and concept of the missionary. It reemerged with unique call to full-time ministry. Simply put, the greater significance within German Pietism at missionary call is the command of God and the Halle, itself a reaction to the Reformation excess. setting apart by the Holy Spirit of an individual Thus the Moravians used the term for their Christian to serve God in a culture, a geographi- broad-spectrum enterprise, and then it was ad- cal location, and, very likely, in a language differ- opted by Carey, Judson, Morrison, and Living- ent than the missionary’s own. The personal rec- stone and their successors. ognition of this call comes with a growing The Term Used Today. We have mentioned the conviction that God has set the recipient apart diverse Catholic uses of this term. In secular cir- for this service. The result of this conviction is an cles the term “mission” still has a variety of uses: intense desire to obey and to go wherever God diplomatic, commercial, or military missions. leads. Some Protestants have argued for their own par- “Missionary call” is an extrabiblical term, yet it ticular coinage applied in the broadest way for refers to a sovereign act of God in the life of a all Christian activity as “mission” and subse- person to bring that person to a point of decision quently all Christians are missionaries. Some to serve God in a missionary capacity. Since the evangelicals use the slogan “everybody is a mis- phrase is not found in the Bible, there has been sionary” to reject an apparent special category, some confusion as to what a missionary call en- but also because they desire to universalize mis- tails. In the history of missions, we observe that sionary responsibility. God’s call of his people to missions is as diverse Singaporean Jim Chew encourages us to sub- as the missionaries themselves. This means that stitute “cross-cultural messenger.” To him, this one cannot generate a checklist which, if com- 47 The Missionary Task pleted, would produce or prove a missionary must also have open hands demonstrated call. However, such a call is based on concrete through an involvement in some kind of work circumstances and experiences such that, after for the Lord. Finally, we should have the attitude identifying the call in one’s own life, one can Isaiah demonstrated in his response to God’s look back and observe God’s sovereign guidance call. “Here am I, send me!” (Isa. 6:8). This shows and control in the process leading to the call and willingness to go anywhere as the Lord com- personal recognition of it. mands. What are proper foundations for receiving a As is clear from the above, there are obvious missionary call? (1) Belief in and commitment to activities that will help prepare Christians for the lordship of Jesus Christ such that it produces God’s call and enable them to move rather than unconditional love for him and obedience to his hesitate when such a call comes. These include: will. (2) A commitment to obey the will of God (1) praying for the lost of the world, for their in our walk with him. It is understood that if we countries, and for the church, the missionaries are not seeking to obey his will in general terms, and the ministries in those countries; (2) giving then he will not reveal his specific will for us, as, to missionaries and to mission programs and for example, in a call to missionary service. (3) ministries; (3) going on short-term ministry op- Openness to the leading of the Holy Spirit. The portunities in a different culture away from the Spirit leads as he wills, according to the unique- security and comfort of home; (4) reading mis- ness of the individual’s gifts and personality. sionary biographies and newsletters and books Each Christian must be sensitive to the leading and journals on missions; (5) serving under the of the Holy Spirit in his or her own life, for the oversight and encouragement of a local body of Spirit leads each person uniquely. (4) Belief in believers who will help in the identification and the Word of God as authoritative and a commit- development of spiritual gifts and ministry skills; ment to obey the principles and guidance laid and (6) gaining broad ministry experience, giv- down in it. (5) An understanding that the Great ing attention to ministry in areas in which God Commission was given by Jesus to all Christians, gives wisdom, fruit, and joy. and therefore each person should be involved in As revealed through many missionary testimo- helping to fulfill this command. God works sov- nies, a person’s missionary call may be im- ereignly in the normal issues and activities of life pressed on the mind and heart as one listens to a to lay these foundations of faith, obedience, and message or a testimony, reads a passage of Scrip- desire. Their reality in a believer’s life is an act of ture, prays for the lost, reads an article or book, God’s sovereign grace. hears of a particular or general need, or is per- Given the foundations for receiving a mission- sonally challenged to go. God is not limited in ary call, there are certain attitudes and activities the means or methods he will use to call his mis- that help prepare one for receiving this call. sionaries to serve him on the mission field. Com- These are normally developed over time as the plementary to this realization must be the recog- Holy Spirit leads the potential missionary to the nition and confirmation of a local body of place in life in which he or she is able to respond believers (Acts 13:2). The church is Christ’s agent positively and maturely to God’s call. on this earth, and he will use the church to con- One significant attitude is a hatred of sin. A firm the call and to send the missionary with the person should strive to mortify sin, to put it to needed support. death in the life, and to bring every thought cap- The proof of the missionary call for any indi- tive to make it obedient to Christ (2 Cor. 10:5). vidual is that God has seen fit to allow the indi- This attitude, with appropriate actions, shows a vidual to serve him on the mission field. There person’s desire to obey God rather than self. Ad- are those who feel that they have received the ditionally, the one called should have open eyes, call but are never able to go. This can be the re- seeing beyond his or her own world of relation- sult of such things as ill health, family obliga- ships and circumstances, seeing the world as tions, or lack of resources. The Lord works his God sees it, lost and without hope. sovereign will to further his kingdom in many There should also be an open heart, a soft ways. Those who are prepared to go but are un- heart for the lost, like God’s heart (John 3:16; able to may serve a vital part of the missionary 2 Peter 3:9). Jesus gave up his life because of endeavor through their work of support and God’s love for the lost (Rom. 5:8), and believers spreading the vision for missions. are to have this same attitude (Phil. 2:5–8). There Thomas L. Austin should be open ears, a sensitive listening to the Bibliography. E. P. Clowney, Called to the Ministry; Holy Spirit. This is developed through careful H. R. Cook, An Introduction to Christian Missions; J. H. listening to the Word of God and obedience to its Kane, Understanding Christian Missions. commands. As God’s commands and guidance from the Word are carefully applied, we become more sensitive to the Spirit’s quiet leading. And The Missionary Task. Defining the missionary so we are able to hear when he calls. Christians task of the church is central to missionary reflec- 48 The Missionary Task tion. But it is more than that. It is also a crucial mission field.” All disciples are sent as missionar- responsibility of the church, for a church unsure ies to their own world. Does it make any differ- or misdirected about its mission can hardly ence to define the missionary task one way or achieve it. And yet rarely in church history has another? Is it helpful to distinguish clearly there been agreement on what the missionary among the tasks of the church? Is it necessary? task of the church is. History would seem to teach that it does indeed Following the early expansion of the Western make a great deal of difference. In fact, failure to church, the Middle Ages saw centuries of intro- focus clearly on the New Testament under- version that all but eliminated missionary activ- standing of missions seems to have always ity, including later, among the reformers. Then marked the beginning of the end of missionary came the Moravians, followed by what has been enterprise. called the Great Century of Mission. Nine- The original, basic missionary task of the teenth-century Protestants in Europe and North church was to send certain evangelistically gifted America gained a new missionary vision and members to places where Christ is not known to were, for the most part, united in what the mis- win people to faith and establish churches. That sionary task was—specifically, they grounded it this is a biblical definition can be demonstrated in the commission Christ gave the first great in two ways: (1) the meaning of the term used missionary, Paul as “Mission to the Gentiles, to for “ missionary” and (2) the example of those whom I now send you, to open their eyes and to who heard Christ’s final instructions. turn them from darkness to light, and from the Apostles. The term “apostle” (literally “one power of Satan to God, that they may receive who is sent”) was used in several different ways forgiveness of sins and an inheritance among in the New Testament (see Apostles). It was used those who are sanctified by faith in me” (Acts in the historic root meaning of any messenger 26:17, 18). The twentieth century was, if any- (John 13:16; Phil. 2:25). But another nuance was thing, an even greater century for missions, but emerging in New Testament times, meaning “one from the start the unity of vision began to disin- sent as an authoritative representative of the tegrate. As the conviction weakened that people sender.” In this meaning it is used supremely of without Christ were lost, the definition of mis- Jesus, sent for our redemption (Heb. 3:1). When sion began to change. “Missions” became “mis- Christ finished his apostleship he passed that sion,” meaning purpose, and the old passion for role on to others, called variously “the disciples” classical evangelistic missions was swallowed up (though the ones highlighted were among hun- by the other good things a church must do. Con- dreds of other disciples), “the twelve” (though sequently, from Europe and mainline churches there were more than twelve, with Matthias, in North America the stream of missionaries Paul, and Jesus’ brother, James, added to the se- began to dry up, until by the end of the century it lect group), and “the Apostles,” those sent with was a mere trickle. divine authority to establish Christ’s church. Upon the gradual withdrawal of traditional Thus the term referred to a unique office, the missionaries nondenominational agencies and founders of the church. But the term was used of newer denominations (like the Assemblies of others, too, people like Barnabas (often included God and the Christian and Missionary Alliance) in the apostolate), Timothy and Silas, Androni- took up the slack for what may be history’s great- cus and Junia (Rom. 16:7), Epaphroditus (Phil. est surge of evangelism, following World War II. 2:25) and, indeed, the whole missionary team How did these forces of the last half of the twen- (1 Thess. 2:6). In this use, “apostle” refers not to tieth century define the task? As the initial evan- an office (the “twelve” founders), but to a role, gelistic thrust into new territories was success- the role of pioneering. Paul describes this role ful, the focus of missionaries typically shifted to clearly when he describes his ambition to pro- serving the new churches in pastoral, educa- claim Christ where he has not yet been named tional, and other helping roles until the de facto (Rom. 15:20; Haldane, Hodge, Murray, and Cal- definition of “missions” became, “sending people vin all clearly identify this apostolic role). “All away from the home church to serve God in who seemed to be called by Christ or the Spirit some capacity elsewhere, especially cross-cultur- to do missionary work would be thought worthy ally.” Thus the popular understanding of “mis- of the title . . .” (Plummer, 84). Lightfoot wrote sions” moved gradually in the same direction as the seminal exposition of this meaning of “apos- the earlier drift, defining missions as “all the tle” in his extensive footnote on Galations 1:27. good things a church does,” as Donald Mc- We call these pioneer church-starting evange- Gavran so aptly put it, but with this spin: all the lists, “missionaries,” from the Latin translation good things a church does away from home. of the Greek apostolos. They are sent by the An even broader definition of “missions” and home church to win people to faith and establish “missionary” began to emerge. In the effort to churches where there are none. get all disciples fully involved in witness, it was This apostolic role continued after the original said that “everyone is either a missionary or a apostles died. Eusebius, writing of the time from 49 The Missionary Task a.d. 100–150 speaks of “numberless apostles” or any doubt as to the implications of this com- “Preaching Evangelists” who were living then. mand, John himself gives a commentary in his He described them: first letter: “As he is, so are we in this world” (1 John 4:17). But demonstrating the love of God They performed the office of Evangelists to (1 John 4:7–17) does not exhaust the evangelistic those who had not yet heard the faith, whilst, assignment. In fact, to live a good life without with a noble ambition to proclaim Christ, they telling how we do it is bad news, not good news. also delivered to them the books of the Holy So the second element in the commission is Gospels. After laying the foundation of the faith proclamation and witness, explaining what one in foreign parts as the particular object of their has experienced personally: “Go into all the mission, and after appointing others as shep- herds of the flocks, and committing to these the world and preach the gospel . . .” (Mark 16:15). care of those that had been recently introduced, This gospel “. . . shall be proclaimed to all na- they went again to other regions and nations, tions . . . and you are witnesses . . .” (Luke 24:47, with the grace and cooperation of God. (Schaff, 48), and “You shall be witnesses to me. . . to the 68) uttermost parts of the world” (Acts 1:8). But on these four occasions Jesus says nothing about Thus, from the beginning, there was a mission- winning to faith and establishing churches. Only ary function distinct from other roles in the once does he do that: “Go therefore and make church. It was distinct from the witnessing disciples of all the nations, baptizing them . . .” responsibility all Christians have, even distinct (Matt. 28:19). He even goes beyond evangelism from that of evangelistically gifted Christians to the final fruit of evangelism: “. . . teaching winning non-Christians who live nearby. These, them to observe all things that I have com- rather, are sent ones, sent to those out of reach manded you . . .” (v. 20). Here the pastoral and of present gospel witness. And their role is dis- teaching role is included! How tragic if obedient tinct also from what other “sent ones” do. children gathered in his family were not the end These are “missionaries” who pastor the young result of the missionary task. church and who assist it in various other ways, In this way, four of the great commissions but they do not have the apostolic function of don’t even extend to winning people to faith— winning to faith and starting churches. Failure just incarnation, proclamation, and witness. The to distinguish this task from other tasks may first step of evangelism, to be sure, but hardly have the appearance of elevating their signifi- the whole of it. And the fifth great commission cance but in historic perspective it only serves goes far beyond the initial task of evangelism, to blur and diminish the original missionary encompassing all the church was meant to be. task of the church. A full team is needed to Thus, Christ is clear enough on the initial stage reach the unreached, of course—those at home and the final stage, but how do we find out what who send and colleagues on the field who he intends for the in between? That is where the reinforce the apostolic thrust in supportive example of the churches’ obedience to that com- ministries. But the original missionary task of mission comes in: The Acts of the Apostles. The the church is fulfilled through pioneer apostol- early history of the church was given, in part, to ic church starting evangelists. The first evi- demonstrate what Christ intended. And the pic- dence for this is the way the term “apostle” was ture emerges clearly and quickly: a select few used in the New Testament and in the years were sent out from home churches to places immediately following. But there is other, even where Christ was not known to win people to stronger evidence. faith and gather them into local congregations. The Acts of the Apostles. One function of the And that is the missionary task of the church. Book of Acts is to demonstrate clearly what the Paul and his missionary band first of all lived au- missionary task of the church is. Christ gave thentic lives, demonstrating the power of the what we call the Great Commission on at least gospel. In that context they immediately and three occasions, probably on four, and perhaps constantly talked about it, explaining the gospel, on five. This, along with the demonstration of urging their hearers to accept it. Thus they won his own resurrection, was the only theme to people to faith and organized churches. Soon the which he returned in his several encounters with responsibility for pastoring and teaching was the disciples in the six weeks before he ascended. turned over to others and, once the missionary Clearly this “sending” was uppermost in his task in that place was completed, the missionary mind. What did he intend that those sent should band pressed on to regions beyond. do? Acts gives the answer of how those who re- We derive our definition of the missionary ceived the commission understood it. Evange- task, then, from the New Testament term used to lism begins with incarnating the transforming define the role, and from the New Testament ex- gospel as we see from the first commissioning on ample of those who fulfilled that role: the mis- the night of the resurrection: “As the Father sent sionary task is to go, sent as representatives of me, so send I you” (John 20:21). If there were the home church, to places where Christ is not 50 Modernity known, winning people to faith and establishing other. Time and space had become instrumental congregations of those new believers. elements to be exploited. Robertson McQuilkin 2. The disembedding of social systems. Moder- nity severed the nexus between social relation- Bibliography. L. W. Caldwell, Sent Out: Reclaiming ships and the context in which they were formed. the Spiritual Gift of Apostleship for Missionaries and Churches Today; C. Clark, ERT 13 (October 1989): 344– Traditionally, relationships were dependent on 82; J. B. Lightfoot, The Epistle of St. Paul to the Gala­ and remained embedded in a particular social tians; A. Plummer, DAC, 1:82–84; P. Schaff, The Oldest matrix. Modernity disembedded social relations Church Manual Called the “Teaching of the Twelve Apos­ from local culture. Various mechanisms facili- tles”; W. Schmithals, The Office of Apostle in the Early tated this process. (a) Money replaced barter as Church. the means of exchange. The modern economy uses money (a symbolic token) to facilitate the exchange of goods and services. The global capi- Modernity. A historical development generally tal market moves vast sums of money electroni- regarded as arising in Europe in the seventeenth cally and instantaneously without any reference century, modernity is also associated with the to relationships or place of origin. (b) Knowledge Enlightenment, which fundamentally altered so- and training have become increasingly special- ciety and economy. The Enlightenment, inspired ized, with each area of specialization controlled by major developments in science and mathe- by experts and a body of knowledge. Expertise is matics, emphasized the positive potential of the court of appeal in problem solving. In mo- human reason and the prospect of open-ended dernity daily life is dependent on vast systems progress if Enlightenment thought were applied based on expert knowledge; health care, electri- in all areas of life. The Enlightenment was im- cal power, transportation, and commerce are all bued with a sense of a universal purpose and independent of social relations. Indeed, disem- mission. bedding is understood as a necessary step in Modernity emphasized the contrast between making the productive process as efficient and traditional society and the emerging new culture. cost-effective as possible. Traditional culture em- By its intensiveness and extensiveness modernity phasizes the role of fortune or fate; modern cul- forcibly displaced traditional culture. Its inten- ture puts a premium on expert knowledge. siveness is seen in the way it penetrated all as- 3. Perpetual reflection and reordering. All hu- pects of human life, while its extensiveness is mans to some extent reflect on their actions; in evident in its spread worldwide. Traditional soci- modernity reflexivity and skepticism are core ety typically focused inward; modernity has been values. In making decisions, traditional culture markedly expansive. prized and drew authority from the past. Moder- In traditional society the production of goods nity insists on gathering feedback from all rele- vant sources in order to determine the most effi- depended largely on animal or human power; cient future course. The past is regarded as a production in modern industrial society is de- drag on progress; innovation is encouraged in pendent on inanimate sources of energy. The order to achieve greater productivity. The ideal is view of products and labor as commodities, the a process of continual critical reflection, evalua- money economy, and urbanization are marks of tion, and reordering. No area or activity is modernity. Modernity also stimulated a range of spared this routine, which actually undermines institutional developments, including today’s na- stability and security, for the process never tion-states and political systems. reaches a stable point. In the modern process, The dynamism and the globalizing thrust of knowledge is always incomplete. The only re- modernity have been fostered by several develop- course is to generate further information. ments that mark the transition from traditional Modernity engendered optimism about the fu- society to modernity: ture. Industrialization and Urbanization pro- 1. The separation of time and space. Each tradi- moted economic growth and created new wealth. tional culture had its own way of measuring Modern societies experienced a rising standard time. Time was defined by the people in a partic- of living. Even though social scientists have con- ular place. The invention of the mechanical clock sistently pointed to certain problems that the changed this. Time could be dealt with indepen- modern system creates, they generally assumed dent of place since the clock made possible a that these negative consequences would, in the universal basis for measurement. (The latter ad- long run, be more than offset by the positive po- dition of international time zones unified the tential. By the mid-twentieth century, however, world further.) In a relatively short period the the problems of modernity were increasingly em- new basis for measuring time was accepted phasized, and pessimism supplanted the earlier worldwide, thereby breaking the traditional con- optimism. Among the causes of this loss of confi- nection between time and space. Each element dence in modern culture are the consumption of could now be dealt with without reference to the nonrenewable sources of energy at an accelerat- 51 Money ing rate; despoliation of the Environment; the during centuries of the slave trade and colonial harnessing of Technology by police states to expansion of the West, and which continues control entire populations; the failure to achieve through multinational corporations and interna- a more equitable distribution of resources tional agencies such as the World Bank and In- among the peoples of the world; the rapid ternational Monetary Fund. These chains also growth in world Population; the rise of Totali- lead to the worship of false gods. In a pastoral tarianism; the violence of two World Wars and message to North American churches, Bishop many regional or local conflicts sustained by the Oscar Romero of El Salvador (1917–80) wrote in industrial-military complex; the rising incidence 1979 that the idolatry of wealth and private of Violence in industrial society; new diseases; property inclines persons toward “having more” the breakdown of social and family structures; and lessens their interest in “being more.” It is and confusion about moral values. this absolutism that supports structural violence The dynamics of modernity have been inher- and oppression of people (Voice of the Voiceless, ently globalizing. At the center of Globalization 173). Elsewhere Romero wrote that the god of is the modern economy. The traditional national money forces us to turn our backs on the God of economy that had systems of exchange with Christianity. As people want the god of money, other national economies has been increasingly many reproach the church and kill movements replaced by the global economy. In the global that try to destroy false idols. economy, manufacturing is a process of assem- The analysis of James and the prophetic warn- bling components from all over the world. The ings of Romero are but two portrayals of how capital markets operate globally through elec- money is a problem to those throughout the tronic hookups. In light of these new conditions, world struggling to incarnate the gospel. Mission the meaning and function of the nation-state are activity cannot take place without money, but being redefined. money poses at least three challenges. First, the In the late twentieth century, growing numbers affluent, including those who live privileged lives of people asserted that modernity was being dis- among the poor, must take into account teach- placed by a new historical epoch, Postmodern- ings of the Bible on the subject of the poor, the ism, which involves a repudiation of certain En- wealthy, and the consequences of acquisitive- lightenment values. Science is no longer ness. Second, Western missionaries have worked regarded as the undisputed authority. Postmod- from positions of power and Missionary Afflu- ern epistemology affirms that all knowing is ence. The relative wealth of Western Christians based on faith. The modern split between public engenders strategies which create dependency and private, objective and subjective, secular and among younger churches and harm the poor. Fi- religious, is increasingly rejected in favor of nally, affluence leads the relatively wealthy wholeness and reconciliation. This changing cli- Christians of the West to aid and abet the pro- mate presents new opportunities for Christian cesses which have plunged poor nations into a witness. The postmodern attitude is more open succession of traumas and may contribute to fu- to the religious dimension than was modernity. ture crises (see also Wealth and Poverty). But a credible witness will begin with respect for Formidable as these challenges might seem, modern people and an ability to narrate the gos- many Christians are attempting to surmount pel in contemporary language. them. The following illustrations are suggestive. Wilbert R. Shenk Individually, Christians coming to grips with the call to follow Jesus are simplifying their lifestyles Bibliography. P. L. Berger, The Sacred Canopy; idem, and counting the benefits of self-denial. Mission Facing Up to Modernity; A. Giddens, The Consequences boards have changed policies relating to how of Modernity; C. E. Gunton, Enlightenment and Alien­ ation; D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity; J. R. missionaries live. Church agencies have sought Middleton and B. J. Walsh, Truth Is Stranger Than It to be more responsible in investment and devel- Used to Be; L. Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Soci­ opment policies. Whether as individuals or cor- ety. porately, many Christians have articulated an understanding of Christian stewardship as ser­ vanthood,­ advocacy for justice, and empower- Money. The fact and scale of Western money ment of the poor. Since the onset of the Two- constitutes a major barrier to cross-cultural Thirds World debt crisis in the early 1980s, many transmission of the gospel, all the more so be- Christians have advocated debt forgiveness for cause chains of affluence may prevent discern- severely poor countries. Many Christian voices ment of their evil effects. For example, a major are calling for a recovery of the Jubilee tradition cause of conflict according to the Epistle of to free the poor from all debt without condition. James is covetousness. Historically, Western There is a growing religious environmental Christian missionary outreach was undertaken movement which articulates the understanding in tandem with an insatiable quest in the West to that the earth has lost the capability of sustain- control global resources, a process which began ing the material prosperity of the West and the 52 Motive, Motivation aspirations of the world’s poor and calls for a Bibliography. G. H. Anderson, Mission Trends, No. new biblical perspective on care of God’s cre- 1, pp. 133–41; idem, DEM, pp. 702–3; E. Castro, IRM, ation. 64:254 (April 1975), pp. 117–217; F. Pagura, Mission Trends, No. 1, pp. 115–16; K. P. Yohannan, Revolution Paul R. Dekar in World Missions. Bibliography. J. J. Bonk, Missions and Money: Afflu­ ence as a Western Missionary Problem; D. J. Hall, The Steward. A Biblical Symbol Come of Age; I. McCrae, Motive, Motivation. One’s motives for seeking Global Economics. Seeking a Christian Ethic; M. Meeks, missionary service must be correct ones. Some God the Economist. The Doctrine of God and Political Christians are fascinated with the romance of Economy; R. Sider, Rich Christians in an Age of Hunger: travel, the idea that missions is the highest form Moving from Affluence to Generosity. of Christian service, the intrigue of another cul- ture, or the desire to do good. These are all inad- equate motives, which pale when compared with Moratorium. Since the mid-nineteenth century, the centrality of biblical motives. a number of international Christian leaders be- The missionary is one who is “sent.” Although came very concerned about paternalistic and au- humans are involved in the process, the mission- thoritarian mission practices and the need for ary must sense that the Holy Spirit is sending new churches in the southern continents to de- him or her. termine their own courses of action. One hun- God’s dealings with Abraham (Gen. 12:2–3) are dred years later, Hendrik Kraemer, Max War- an early biblical indication that God desires to ren, and James A. Scherer argued that mission call, bless, and send his people, so that “all peo- business should not continue “as usual.” Patron- ples on earth will be blessed” through them. This izing missions from the West needed to be dis- is repeatedly indicated to Abraham (Gen. 18:18; mantled in favor of a new order of relationships. 22:16–18), as well as to Isaac (Gen. 26:4) and Reflecting this, Bishop Federico Pagura of Cen- Jacob (Gen. 28:13–14). It is apparent that God tral America wrote a pithy challenge in 1964 en- did not intend Israel to be the sole recipient of titled “Missionary, Go Home . . . Or Stay.” his grace and love. Rather, Israel was to be a After appeals in 1971 from John Gatu of Kenya channel and a conduit through which his love and Emerito Nacpil of the Philippines, a heated could flow “to all nations on earth.” At high mo- debate developed over the need for “mission,” ments in Israel’s history, this focus was renewed but not for Western missionaries. This occurred (1 Kings 8:43; Ps. 96:3). both in print and especially at international con- The five Great Commission passages of the ferences in Bangkok (1973), Lusaka (1974), Lau- New Testament give us strong motivation for sanne (1974), and Nairobi (1975). Calls were is- mission. Even Jesus’ disciples finally caught on. sued by some for a transfer of “the massive Peter, in Acts 3:25, points back to God’s promise expenditure on expatriate personnel in the to Abraham: “Through your offspring all peoples churches in Africa [for example] to programme on earth will be blessed.” Paul echoes the same activities manned by Africans themselves.” thought in Galatians 3:8. It is apparent that In 1974, Gerald h. Anderson argued that God’s plan has always been to wrap his message while there were “situations in which the with- up in his people and then send them to reach drawal of missionaries would be in the best in- others. This is the bedrock motivation for mis- terests of the Christian mission,” such a general sion. We go in obedience to his will. policy for all situations was “neither biblically Another motivation that has propelled Chris- sound nor in the best interests of the churches” tians to missionary service has been the needs of anywhere. Instead, he urged the development of the world. The number of Unreached Peoples is “mutuality in mission.” Similarly, Stephen Neill a stimulus to missionary activity. Other Chris- observed that different churches held rather di- tians have been moved to do missionary work vergent views on the “moratorium” issue, reflect- because of the hunger, sickness, or poverty ing the fact that many of them were at different around the globe. Acts 13:1–4 indicates that lead- stages in life. ership in the church has a role to play (under the During the 1990s, questions were raised in direction of the Holy Spirit) in setting apart per- evangelical circles on questions such as: “Are sons for missionary service. American [or Western] missionaries still needed God’s guidance to individuals in the form of a overseas?” Alternatives have been suggested by Missionary Calling is also a powerful motiva- mission organizations acting on the premise that tion for mission. As he did with Abraham, so twenty-five or more local believers (who are far God still speaks to individuals. The nature of a more effective evangelists than are expatriates) call is the subject of great debate. Certainly we can be supported for the cost of maintaining one may say that such a call varies among people. American missionary overseas (K. P. Yohannan). For some it may come as a thunderclap; for oth- A. Christopher Smith ers, it comes like the gradual dawning of a new 53 Nation, Nation-Building, Nationalism day. However it is defined, most churches and isms solely in terms of a drive toward political mission agencies desire that a person should independence, economic viability, and cultural have a clear sense that God is leading him or her emancipation, this would be to vastly undervalue to apply for missionary service. This motivation both the importance of the desire to establish often is the only anchor that will hold the new personal and national dignity, and the influence missionary steady during the dark testing times of religious beliefs and values. of Culture Shock and other problems on the There are, of course, positive values that are field. bound up with the concept of nationality. The Biblical motives must be central for missions. Bible teaches that God is responsible for the cre- The needs of the world may beckon us, the ro- ation of nations (Acts 17:26), and therefore we mance of other cultures may intrigue us, but in must assume that to some extent it is right to the end the primary motivation for mission must identify with our nationality and to rejoice in it. be because “Christ’s love compels us” (2 Cor. It is also easier for properly appointed leaders to 5:14). govern people who share a common commit- Charles R. Gailey ment to the larger community. Values such as loyalty and self-sacrifice can be nurtured in a na- Bibliography. P. A. Beals, A People For His Name; tion that takes a healthy pride in its history and C. Van Engen, Mission on the Way. identity. Each national group has developed its own culture, and has thereby made a unique contribution to the life and history of humanity. Nation, Nation-Building, Nationalism. A na- Countries such as Poland, the United Kingdom, tion is a significant group of people who are so South Africa, and the United States of America identified with one another in terms of common have also interwoven a deeply felt Christian con- language, ancestry, history, religion, and culture viction with nationalist ideals to produce a pow- that they are recognized by others as a distinct erful, though not unambiguous, sense of mission entity. in the modern world. Nationalism is a term that can simply express All of this can therefore be interpreted as a such a people’s sense of belonging together as a healthy expression of the inherent dignity of nation, with appropriate pride and loyalty to that human culture. If individuals, as neighbors, are nation’s history and culture. More commonly, to love and respect one another, then surely na- however, it is used to refer to the political per- tions should demonstrate the same mutual ac- spective on international relationships and pro- ceptance and encouragement. Many would see it grams that places loyalty to one’s nation as the as a Christian responsibility in the modern world highest of human virtues. It therefore describes to encourage the development of strong and sta- the ideologies that nurture national self-con- ble democratic nations, each fully respecting and sciousness and the desire for national self-deter- supporting the others. Such a democratic nation- mination. alism is held to benefit Christians in a pluralist Although people have always been devoted to world. their native soil and to the traditions of their an- However, nationalism is ambivalent by nature. cestors, it was only in the eighteenth century that It can also lead to self-serving ideologies and an what we now call “nationalism” came to be rec- ambition to marginalize other nations. Nations ognized as a distinct and potent religiopolitical can become so preoccupied with protecting their force with the rise of political units known as own interests that they disregard those of others. “nation-states.” These came to supersede the We should not neglect the words of Machiavelli, church, city, or local lord as the focal points for who epitomized the raising of the state to an end the allegiance of increasing numbers of people. in itself: “Where it is an absolute question of the In other words, nations are really historical phe- welfare of our country, we must admit of no con- nomena, arising out of a particular set of con- siderations of justice or injustice, of mercy or texts, rather than what might be called natural cruelty, of praise or ignominy, but putting all else expressions of human life. The American and aside, must adopt whatever course will save its French Revolutions are often held up as the first existence and preserve its liberty.” Nationalism, significant manifestations of nationalism in the when it reaches this level, leads to xenophobia. Western world, and the nineteenth century is In our time, we have seen many examples of usually referred to as the age of nationalisms in “ethnic cleansing” among peoples whose prime Europe. motive was the creation of a “pure nation.” Of course, similar movements have arisen in All too often, there is a clear relationship be- Africa and Asia throughout the twentieth cen- tween nationalism and racism. The National tury. In its historical context, the rise of African Front of Britain published a book in 1977 in nationalism came as part of a response to Euro- which one of its leaders wrote that “racialism is pean imperialism. However, while it is possible the only scientific and logical basis for national- to analyze the emerging non-Western national- ism. We seek to preserve the identity of the Brit- 54 Nonresidential Missionary ish nation.” Missiologists are deeply concerned restraints on precolonial, indigenous religious about this nationalistic rationalizing of the de- movements. Blocs of Islamic, Hindu, Buddhist, sire to marginalize and dominate others, since and tribal peoples renewed and reasserted them- sin and evil are woven into the fabric of human selves against external religiosocial influences. nature and relationships. Introduction of Marxist ideologies in many Christian countries and their governments countries created an unprecedented set of cir- have not been free from the potent interplay of cumstances that often coerced peoples to resist religion and politics in the temptation to domi- the gospel and to accept, or at least practice, var- nate other peoples, as in, for example, the mar- ious forms of atheism. riage between the interests of Christian missions Identifying the world’s distinct religiosocial and governmental colonialists in the nineteenth groupings of peoples, primarily by linguistic cri- century. teria, has aided researchers in specifying the na- What is more, many Christians would claim, ture of the task remaining for fulfillment of since all people are made in God’s image, the fact Christ’s commission to preach the gospel to all of a common humanity should be more import- the peoples of the world. Technological advances ant than differences based on race or nationality. enable mission strategists to gather data more The Bible is clear that God’s love and commit- effectively, assess the implications of that data ment are given to all people, regardless of na- more precisely, and envision new ways and tionality or any other human distinction, and it means of penetrating resistant blocs of peoples. presents the eschatological context for redeemed In 1986, a team of Southern Baptist Foreign humanity as a united congregation of people of Mission Board researchers coined the term “non- every nation (Rev. 7:9). Every Christian has a residential missionary” to describe a radically double responsibility in terms of his or her call new mission methodology. Nonresidential mis- to mission: as a citizen, to be “the salt of the sionaries function in innovative ways in that earth,” and as an evangelist, to be “the light of they often begin their ministry outside the indig- the world” (Matt. 5:13–16). Our nations and their enous locale of a distinct people group, or desig- governments, like all authorities, are part of nated population segment, that is historically God’s provision for his world (Rom. 13:1–7), but resistant to, or perhaps even left untouched by, they are also accountable to him (Amos 1–2), the gospel. While living outside the target area, and Christians must give absolute loyalty to God they commit themselves to strategic research, (Matt. 4:8–10; Acts 4:18–20; Rev. 13). language learning, and discovery of new avenues Missiology has the task of helping churches for establishing contact with decision makers in- recognize this, and to clearly distinguish be- side the target area. They usually do not rely on tween the desire to obey the Great Commission the resources­ of just one agency or denomina- and the desire to dominate or inappropriately tional sending structure to penetrate their resis- influence others. tant people or population segment. Instead, they Walter Riggans coordinate like interests among various Chris- Bibliography. F. Catherwood, Christian Arena 43 tian entities and orchestrate a collective but fo- (1990); L. Holmes, ed., Church and Nationhood; cused strategy to establish legitimate humanitar- E. Sahliyeh, ed., Religious Resurgence and Politics in ian bases for entry into the targeted area. The Contemporary World; M. H. Tanenbaum and R. J. Once the nonresidential missionary establishes Zwi Werblowski, eds., The Jerusalem Colloquium on a viable foundation for working in the targeted Religion, Peoplehood, Nation and Land; J. Verkuyl, Break Down the Walls. context, the host government may grant a long- term presence. Teams of qualified people able to render and administer humanitarian services in- directly engage in evangelism, discipleship, and Nonresidential Missionary. Strategic mission church planting ventures through the web of so- planners of bygone eras historically tended to cial relationships they are able to establish with neglect the sections of the world that were more individuals from their assigned people group. resistant to the gospel, with a few notable excep- It is at this point that the term “nonresiden- tions. Antagonistic zones have become more im- tial” may lose its meaning because of an indefi- penetrable, especially since the end of World nite presence in the targeted area. Because of War II. A nonresidential missionary, however, this frequent occurrence, some mission agencies has the responsibility of discovering ways to relabel the model to reflect more accurately the identify and evangelize historically resistant and function a nonresidential missionary performs, Unreached People groups, or population seg- namely, the coordination of various strategic ini- ments, with the intent of establishing a viable tiatives among Christians aimed at reaching an movement of Christian churches among them. unreached area or people with the gospel and es- In the wake of the Western colonial era, tablishing a viable Christian presence. emerging national governments dissolved legal Keith E. Eitel 55 Peoples, People Groups

Bibliography. D. B. Barrett and T. M. Johnston, Our ties. These natural units intruded themselves on Globe and How to Reach It: Seeing the World Evange­ the attention of mission strategists. Awareness of lized by AD 2000 and Beyond; V. D. Garrison, The Non­ their reality forced, yet again, a redefinition of residential Missionary: A New Strategy and the People It mission if the church was to express her univer- Serves; idem, IJFM 9 (1992): 67–69; M. S. Philemon, IJFM 8 (1991): 141–46. sal, catholic nature. The simplest and most evi- dent basis was ethnolinguistic. Leslie G. Brierley of WEC began listing Re- Peoples, People Groups. Way of perceiving hu- maining Unevangelized Peoples (RUPs) after manity as being composed of identifiable cul- 1941. Cameron Townsend led the identification tural and/or sociological grouping. Mission is of first Two Thousand Tongues to Go and later, then seen as directed to such groups. Our Lord’s through the Ethnologue (Grimes, 1988) which mandate as recorded in Acts 1:8 made an early now describes about seven thousand language related strategic distinction: “You will be my wit- groups. Donald McGavran, beginning in 1955, nesses, in Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and Sa- called attention in his writings to People Move- maria, and to the ends of the earth.” ments. R. Pierce Beaver chaired a 1972 confer- Later the Constantinian church, challenged ence on “The Gospel and Frontier Peoples.” from the north, sent missionaries to “barbar- MARC listed certain people groups at the World ians.” They in turn carried the gospel into pagan Congress on Evangelism (Berlin Congress northern Europe and transformed other barbar- 1966), and came to advocate the term “Un- ian peoples into the entity that left its stamp on reached” People Groups, first using the term for the definition of missions: Christendom. En the Lausanne Congress on World Evangelism route, mission was defined as directed toward (1974). These were popularized and defined in the “heath men” or “Heathen.” the Unreached Peoples MARC series from 1979 to When the modern missionary movement took 1987. The series included the Lausanne Commit- shape, Europeans became aware, through travel tee for World Evangelization Strategy Working and trade, of the vast reaches of whole “dark Group (SWG) definition of a people group as “a continents” without the gospel. There were the significantly large sociological grouping of peo- civilized inhabitants of Christendom, and there ple who perceive themselves to have a common was the non-Christian world of the colonies. No affinity for one another. . . . From the viewpoint further definition seemed necessary. Later, the of evangelization, this is the largest possible historic flow of colonial contacts caused mission group within which the Gospel can spread with- agencies and denominations to shift focus from out encountering barriers to understanding or the coastal port cities to the interior areas of acceptance.” Although Dayton and Wagner ex- these continents. Hence names like Africa Inland perimented with a definition of unreached as Mission, Sudan Interior Mission, China Inland less than 20 percent Christian, the SWG moved Mission. “Interiors” now defined mission. to define unreached as the absence of a viable The surge of missionary effort subsequent to church capable of carrying on the group’s evan- World War II took place in the context of newly gelization. Ralph Winter espoused the term independent nation-states, fifty-seven formed in “Hidden” or “Frontier” following his definitive Africa in a single decade. Mission agencies re- paper presented at the 1974 Lausanne Confer- sponded by focusing strategy on “national” ence. These semantic differences were resolved boundaries and church bodies within them. at a Chicago airport conference, when the SWG Once a group, recognizable by denominational called together a set of missions leaders who distinctives, was in existence, many agencies and agreed on a definition that would make “fron- strategists declared “mission” to be complete tier” and “hidden” synonyms of the now prevail- within the entire boundaries of these na- ing “unreached,” by which was meant any group tion-states. Blindness to the possibility of mis- that did not contain a contextualized church de- sion on the part of the “Younger” churches took monstrably capable of completing the evangeli- the next step of excluding from view countries zation of the group. Both are to be distinguished from which Westerners were restricted. For a from the less precise “homogeneous unit” popu- significant segment of mission sending, the day larized by the Church Growth Movement. of mission was declared over. Supposed national In practice, several definitional difficulties re- churches existed, while whole segments of na- mained. 1. Was exhaustive and exclusive catego- tions had no church or witness. A new definition rizing possible or necessary? 2. Most of the defi- was needed. nitions remain to this day more serviceable for The often artificial nature of nation-state nonurban, traditional peoples. The intersective boundaries was missed. The consistent national groups so common in sociological and urban experience, especially in Africa, was of near civil analysis are confusing if shoe-horned into a clas- war, as truer identities surfaced and civil wars or sification that seeks to sort each and every in- unifying border strikes sought to reunite peoples habitant of earth into one and only one group. through stronger tribal or ethnolinguistic identi- 3. The difference between evangelized peoples 56 Persecution and unreached people groups seems to be that group. The integrity of each group’s identity re- evangelization focuses on individuals and on ex- quires this of us. While “they” are unreached ternal efforts made by others, while unreached (i.e., no such church exists) the nature of our deals with groups and with outcomes in church obedience calls us to obedient going. Until then, planting. The terms are unfortunately not used “they” are and will remain “unreached people carefully. 4. Macro distinctions are used in at- groups.” tempts to simplify and communicate, but no- Samuel Wilson menclature remains a problem. Various authors Bibliography. B. F. Grimes, ed., Ethnologue; P. John- have suggested solutions, including Wilson and stone and M. Smith, eds., The Unreached Peoples; Schreck: Peoples vs. People Groups (Schreck, H. Schreck and D. Barrett, eds., Clarifying the Task: Un­ 1987); Winter: Macro-, Mega-, and Micro-spheres; reached Peoples. Johnstone: Affinity Blocs and Gateway People Clusters (Johnstone, 1996). The basics of the definition for those who use Persecution. Suffering experienced by those the concept are these: 1. Strategic decision fo- whose opinion or belief is being attacked by an- cuses on groups, not individuals. Strictly speak- other group. For the first Christians who came ing, individuals are not unreached, but unevan- from a Jewish heritage, Suffering and persecu- gelized. 2. The group must be real, not just a tion were both part of their lot. Jews living under conceptual category. 3. Not all groups are of stra- Roman rule could expect to be persecuted if they tegic interest. A group may be too small, that is, chose to follow Jesus (e.g., Matt. 5:10–12; 10:23; not large enough to require that a contextualized Luke 21:12; John 15:20). church become the vehicle of living out Christi- The Jews as a people had been persecuted for anity in sociocultural ways. The group must not centuries prior to Christ’s birth. Christians who be so large as to contain within itself segments came out of Judaism still faced hostility from that constitute barriers to evangelization. 4. The Rome. In addition, at least until a.d. 70, they group is no longer unreached when a viable, con- faced persecution from the Jewish leaders. Such textualized church exists capable of carrying on persecutions often had the opposite of the in- effective witness. Thus, boundary-crossing mis- tended effect. The persecution of the church sion is defined, and not merely the boundary be- after Stephen’s Martyrdom did not stop Christi- tween faith and unbelief. Evangelism is needed anity but spread the gospel beyond the confines after mission is theoretically fulfilled. of Jerusalem (Acts 8:1). Paul’s conversion re- Missiologists, particularly from South Africa, sulted from the Damascus road encounter with have objected to the use of the concepts on the Jesus while he was traveling under Jewish au- grounds that it promotes racist church bodies. thority to persecute the church in Damascus While this danger does exist, partisans respond (Acts 9:1–31). In testimony and correspondence that social divisions will and do already charac- Paul frequently referred to his persecuting work terize branches of the church, and it is better to (Acts 22:4; 26:11; 1 Cor. 15:9; Gal. 1:13; Phil. 3:6; recognize and work against them, much as one 1 Tim. 1:13). James was martyred by Herod, and would not reject the concept of caste or class, when the populace approved he had Peter ar- while still opposing their prejudicial effects (see rested for the same purpose (Acts 12:1–11). also Homogenous Unit Principle). Through God’s intervention, the tables were The church of Jesus Christ is always mission- turned and Herod lost his life, while Peter es- ary. The ways of defining missions sending in caped and was able to continue sharing his faith. terms of units that are the focus of evangelism Jewish persecution of Paul for his evangelistic will continue to evolve. For the moment, real, in- work led to his arrest and eventual transport to termediate groups without a contextualized Rome under guard. In this, however, the Jews church constitute our best working definition. living in Rome as well as Paul’s escorts and his Recently, at least 1,746 large, ethnolinguistic guard detail all had the chance to hear the gospel groups have been identified which are verified as (Acts 28:17–30; Phil. 1:12–14). Persecution, having no church among them capable of an- though violent and intended to shut down the nouncing Christ’s Good News. Many have not a church, often had the opposite effect. single believer. Such groups are truly aliens to The Roman rulers initially tolerated Christians grace. This eternal tragedy is a current and com- as a subsect within Judaism, but Nero’s scape- pelling call for continuing mission. The groups goating of them after the a.d. 64 fire in Rome listed do not include intersective urban groups. started a pattern of persecution which continued The gospel has not been and does not go where a for almost 250 years. With varying intensity, meaningful invitation to follow Christ is not Christians were perceived as a threat to the state. given. Missionaries from both the north and Though not consistently applied throughout the south are necessary in order to bring a commu- Roman Empire, and with periods of hostility fol- nity of faith into existence which can speak the lowed by temporary reprieves, the reality of language and live the Christian life in every Christianity’s illegality as a religion remained 57 Pluralism part of the Christian experience until the Edict of Almost no missiological training in the West Milan (a.d. 313) officially legalized Christianity offered today will help future missionaries train- in the empire. Though two relatively brief peri- ing face persecution, though it appears that ods of persecution followed (under Licinius in house seminaries in China prepare their future 322–23 and Julian in 361–63), official toleration pastors for interrogation. Missionaries, espe- of Christianity across the Roman Empire was as- cially those going into at-risk situations, would sured. benefit from realistic preparation for the possi- Contemporary Situation. While it is true that bilities they may face. In addition, having been Christians have over the course of history perse- trained, they may also be more able to offer both cuted others (e.g., Muslims during the Crusades; preparation and aid to indigenous Christians Jews during the Middle Ages and the modern who suffer because of a choice to follow Christ era), including other Christians (e.g., the Do- in a hostile environment. natists, Anabaptists, Puritans, and Huguenots), A. Scott Moreau by and large it is accurate to say that Christians Bibliography. G. W. Bromiley, ISBE Revised, 3:771– have been the recipients of hostility. Far from 74; W. H. C. Frend, ER 11:247–56; P. Marshall, IBMR being only a thing of the past, persecution today 22:1 (January 1998): 1–8; idem, Their Blood Cries Out; continues to be a reality faced by many Chris- E. M. B. Green, NBD, pp. 913–14; H. Schlossberg, A tians, particularly those in militant religious Fragrance of Oppression; N. Shea, In the Lion’s Den. states. It is estimated that more Christians have lost their lives through persecution in this cen- tury than all other centuries combined, though Pluralism. Christianity exists and has always ex- generally there has been little publicity of this in isted in the context of a plurality of competing the secular press of free countries. David Barrett and contrasting religions, but whereas in the past some Christians had an intellectual knowl- estimates that some 160,000 Christians were edge of those religions and fewer still an experi- martyred in 1996 simply because they were ential encounter with them, today most Chris- Christians. Contemporary researchers have tians have both intellectual and experiential begun to speak out on behalf of the persecuted knowledge at least of the major non-Christian (e.g., Shea and Marshall), noting that the West- religions. This knowledge in turn tends to expel ern church and Western governments have been the merely prejudiced view of other religions as largely silent in the face of an increasingly primitive and ignorant, with their adherents dis- well-documented reality. satisfied with their religions and open to conver- A number of mission organizations have also sion. been founded to investigate, publicize, and advo- The question for mission is twofold: first the cate on behalf of those at risk, including Broth- question of the salvific validity of other religions er’s Keeper, Christian Solidarity International, and second the question of the origins of those International Christian Concern, and Voice of religions. The answer to this second question the Martyrs. Additionally, existing agencies are was in the past simplistic: they came from the incorporating departments which emphasize the devil. Study of the histories of the religions, how- persecuted church, including Christian Life ever, produces a different picture: Gautama in an Commission of the Southern Baptist Conven- earnest search for an explanation of human suf- tion, Open Doors, and World Evangelical Fellow- fering, Muhammad in the cave Hira pondering ship Religious Liberty Commission. The Na- the absurdities of Arab polytheism, even Marx, tional Association of Evangelicals (U.S.) in the Reading Room of the British Museum, re- published a statement of conscience in 1996 re- searching the causes of the miseries of the ‘toil- flecting “deep concern for the religious freedom ing masses’ and some possible solution for them. of fellow believers, as well as people of every There is today a general recognition that reli- faith” and many agencies and churches have gions represent on the one hand a perverse joined the WEF-sponsored International Day of human rejection of revelation (Karl Barth’s ‘prin- Prayer for the Persecuted Church. cipal preoccupation of godless humanity’) and Missionary Implications. With the recent in- on the other hand a search, in the absence of rev- crease in interest in reaching the unreached, per- elation, for some understanding of the apparent secution of missionaries will likely grow rather meaninglessness of the human experience. than shrink in the coming decades, simply be- As to the salvific validity of other religions, cause so many of the unreached live under reli- there has been a spectrum of responses, ranging gious or political ideologies that suppress the from the naive view that ‘sincerity’ in any reli- spread of the Christian message. Additionally, gion is salvific to the denial that ‘religion’ can Christians are often perceived as part of the West play any part at all in the process of salvation. in general, and the official anti-Western tenor in This latter view is made untenable by the pleth- these countries will exacerbate the potential ora of examples of those who have found the problems. Traditional Religions, or Islam or Hinduism 58 Politics gateways to Christian faith. Broadly speaking merely response to command or obligation but four distinct views may be identified. There is is, or at least should be, ontological. The biblical the inclusivist view, that finds salvation some- imperative for mission is, of course, entirely where in each religion, the pluralist view that the clear. If the church is to be properly apostolic it common root to all religions is precisely the salv- must also be praxeologically apostolic, it must ific root, the exclusivist view that salvation is to engage in mission. But to be effective in its be found in Christ alone or, more rigorously, that praxis the church as a whole (not only its mis- salvation depends on an overt acknowledgment sionary representatives) must engage the reli- of Christ as Lord, a view usually associated with gions by which it is confronted with a confident Hendrik Kraemer, and the view that while salva- yet compassionate insistence on Jesus as the tion is necessarily based on Christ’s Passion, an Way, the Truth, and the Life. overt knowledge of Christ is not essential to sal- Peter Cotterell vation. Each view has its own problems: John Hick’s Bibliography. K. Barth, Christianity and Other Reli­ gions, pp. 32–51; D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God; attempts to produce a Copernican Revolution, P. Cotterell, Mission and Meaninglessness; G. D’Costa, replacing Christianity as the center of the uni- Christian Uniqueness Reconsidered: The Myth of a Plu­ verse of religions by God, or the Absolute, or “the ralist Theology of Religions; B. Demarest, General Reve­ Real,” adding epicycles to cycles, has served pri- lation; M. Erickson, How Shall They Be Saved?; P. F. marily to demonstrate the absence of a common Knitter, No Other Name?; J. Sanders, No Other Name. center applicable to all religions, and the inevita- bility in any such exercise of the abandoning of core Christian theology, particularly incarna- Politics. From New Testament times to the pres- tional theology. Karl Rahner’s creation of Anony- ent, the relationship of Christian missions to mous Christianity, which purported salvifically government and politics has been ambivalent. to identify sincere religionists as de facto Chris- On one hand, Jesus, Paul, and Peter all under- tians was crushingly labeled religious imperial- stood the legitimate claims of human govern- ism. As Lesslie Newbigin commented, the ment as an institution ordained by God for the scheme was “vulnerable at many points.” It must restraint of evil and the promotion of good be said, however, that Rahner’s view closely re- (Matt. 22:21; John 19:11; Rom. 13:1–7; 1 Tim. sembles the Constitutive Christocentrism of the 2:1–2; 1 Peter 2:13–17). On the other hand, the Second Vatican Council, with its generally posi- New Testament also affirms that: (1) civil author- tive stance respecting the universe of religions. ity is subordinate to the sovereign God (Matt. However, Roman Catholic thinking has moved 26:51–53; John 18:36); (2) there are times when on, and Pope John Paul II in his 1995 Crossing the claims of the state interfere with the believ- the Threshold of Hope has gone some way toward er’s obedience to God (Acts 4:19 and 5:29); and restoring the 1442 Council of Florence Exclusive (3) government sometimes assumes an idola- Ecclesiocentrism. trous and demonic character, as is evident The traditional evangelical view has its own throughout the Book of Revelation. Christian difficulty. The vast majority of humankind, missionaries in all ages have had to function through no fault of its own, never heard of with an awareness of the biblical tension be- Christ, and appears to be condemned for its sin, tween the positive and negative traits of the po- which (as a consequence of the fall), it could not litical realm. resist and for which it had no remedy. The aca- In the early church, Christian evangelists pri- demic theologian has found this no particular marily faced circumstances where the Roman problem, where the missiologist, with one foot government was hostile and offered extremely firmly in the real world, most especially in the limited possibilities for political engagement. Al- Two-Thirds World, is, perhaps, touched with a though persecution sometimes was sporadic, af- greater compassion. fording Christians the opportunities to utilize But the fourth view also is not without its diffi- some of the benefits of the imperial system to culties, primarily because of the generally nega- spread the gospel, Christianity enjoyed no legal tive soteriological tenor of Bible texts such as standing or protection. In the apostolic era, the Acts 17:24–28 and Romans 1:18–23 which speak apostle Paul did not hesitate to invoke his of General Revelation but apply it as a founda- Roman citizenship when he was mistreated or tion for God’s judgment while not explicitly dis- when his life was in danger (Acts 16:37–39; counting its salvific potential. It has been repeat- 22:25–29; 25:7–12). It is not apparent, however, edly suggested that any relaxing of the that Paul’s example proved to be ultimately help- traditional exclusivist position must inevitably ful for his own cause or for later generations of weaken missionary motivation. To this two re- Christians who fell victim when the Roman state plies must be made. First, that we seek and then intensified its campaigns against the church. The follow biblical theology wherever it may lead us, initial evangelization of the Roman Empire oc- and second, that the Christian mission is not curred apart from any direct support or encour- 59 Population, Population Explosion, Population Planning agement on the part of civil authorities. In fact, iment, especially regarding the separation of Christian refusal to participate in the emperor church and state. Hence the American mission- cult and state sacrifices provoked particularly ag- ary movement developed without the baggage of gressive attempts to exterminate the Christian the older European traditions; most mission movement between 250 and 311, thus highlight- agencies viewed themselves as nonpolitical, a ing an adversarial relationship between church perception that was not shared by European co- and state that places major roadblocks in the lonial authorities who sometimes feared Ameri- path of Christian missionary advance (see also can missionaries as subversives. In addition, the Church/State Relations). American missions enterprise did not entirely Constantine’s ascendancy to the imperial escape the clutches of Manifest Destiny and im- throne in the early fourth century set the stage perialism in the late nineteenth and early twenti- for a whole new pattern of Christian expansion. eth centuries, when missionary leaders often ex- The emperor’s embrace of Christianity and his pressed facile sentiments that joined national granting of favors to the institutional church and evangelical interests. In two notable cases, held enormous implications for missions, which Protestant boards cooperated with the United were reinforced later in the same century when States government in providing educational and Theodosius declared Christianity to be the one social services for Native Americans at home and official state religion. These dramatic shifts cre- Filipinos overseas. ated an alliance of throne and altar where, for In the twentieth century, Christian missions several centuries, Christian missionary outreach encountered new challenges on the political would be significantly undergirded by the carnal front. Rising nationalism in Asia and Africa con- weapons of “Christian” governments. In early tributed to the collapse of colonial empires, medieval western Europe, for example, kings like which finally put to rest the antiquated notion of Charlemagne in Saxon Germany and Olaf Trygg­ government-sponsored mission. At the same vason in Norway employed military force as a time, the emergence of totalitarian governments, tactic in the Christianization of typically unwill- particularly under the banner of communism, ing subjects. Later the Crusades illustrated the once again raised the issues of doing missions in dangers of church-state coalitions aimed at the the context of Persecution. Similar concerns expansion of Christendom, whether directed at have been expressed in response to a resurgent infidel Muslims who were attacked by European Islam, since missionary activity in many Islamic armies seeking to reclaim the Holy Land or at nations is prohibited or severely curtailed. Be- pagan Prussians who were compelled to be bap- yond the problems inherent in relating to hostile tized by the victorious Teutonic Knights. governments, modern missionaries have been The Constantinian-Theodosian model per- involved in many projects in the developing sisted in some form into the Reformation and world that have political implications, including early modern periods. On the Roman Catholic the encouragement of democracy, the operation side, Spain and Portugal built overseas empires of schools and hospitals, and the introduction of with the blessing of Pope Alexander VI, who on social reforms. Further, compelling evidence sug- the eve of the Reformation charged the mon- gests that American missionaries have influ- archs of those countries with the evangelization enced the foreign policy of the United States in of the lands that they conquered, thus creating a the Near East and China; more ominously, some royal patronage system to support Catholic mis- have charged that the Central Intelligence sionary endeavor. For their part, European Prot- Agency has used missionaries in its covert opera- estants almost universally accepted the state tions. Finally, political developments since 1989 church tradition and the territorial conception of in the former Soviet bloc have opened unex- Christendom. These principles informed their pected opportunities for ministry in areas that early, sluggish mission efforts and eventually previously had been closed to missionaries. contributed to the linkage between colonization James A. Patterson and Christianization that characterized the Eu- ropean missionary enterprise in the nineteenth Bibliography. E. L. Frizen, Jr. and W. T. Coggins, Christ and Caesar in Christian Missions; C. W. Forman, and early twentieth centuries (see Colonialism). The common thread that ran through much of Missiology 9 (October 1981): 409–22; J. H. Kane, Missi­ ology 5 (October 1977): 411–26; S. Neill, Colonialism Christian missions from the fourth century on and Christian Missions; B. Stanley, The Bible and the was an ecclesiastical willingness to rely on some Flag: Protestant Missions and British Imperialism in the measure of political assistance for fulfilling the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Great Commission. Although the Constantinian impulse did not die quickly, it was struck a mortal blow by the Population, Population Explosion, Popula- Enlightenment, which encouraged a division of tion Planning. As the world enters the twen- the “religious” and the “secular.” Enlightenment ty-first century its population continues to grow thought influenced the American political exper- at an alarming rate. In 1999, the projected popu- 60 Population, Population Explosion, Population Planning lation of the world reached 6 billion people, with ulation growth to almost zero percent. Mainland the figure estimated to reach 10 billion by 2060. China is also striving vigorously for zero popula- Rapid growth of the world’s population impacts tion growth in spite of the felt hardships it cre- missions in a number of ways. In terms of sheer ates for their people. It has been observed that numbers it means that there are constantly in- regardless of what intellectual leaders may say, creasing numbers of people who have yet to hear many Africans of moderate income desire to the gospel of Jesus Christ. Since the most rapid limit the size of their families because in a rap- population growth tends to occur in some of the idly urbanizing world they no longer have the least evangelized sections of the world, this resources to support large families. means that in spite of encouraging church Ironically, population growth is greatest growth in other sectors the task of world evange- among the poor, who are those least able to sus- lization remains daunting. High birth rates tend tain such growth. One way therefore to slow to fall among those peoples who are also the population growth is to raise living standards for poorest, compounding the problems of poverty, the poor. But this will be difficult, for most poor malnutrition, education, and general quality of people are already living in overcrowded areas life. For example, although the current doubling where there is fierce competition for available time for the world’s population in general is 137 resources. years, the doubling time for the poorer countries of the world is only 33 years (New State of the In 1990 Luis Bush wrote, “More than eight out World Atlas, 1991). Finally, the population explo- of ten of the poorest of the poor . . . live in the sion raises ethical questions about stewardship 10/40 Window” (5). He defined the 10/40 Win- of earth’s natural resources, both in terms of pre- dow as a rectangular block of land from the At- serving the limited resources for future genera- lantic to the Pacific from 10 to 40 degrees north tions and working toward a more equitable dis- of the equator. Inasmuch as most who live in this tribution of the use of existing resources among giant rectangle are Muslim, Hindu, or Buddhist, nations. There are those who say there is no they are also unreached. cause for alarm, for there is plenty of food on If the population explosion is taking place this planet to feed everyone for many years. It is largely among the poor within the 10/40 Win- only a matter of a more equitable distribution of dow, conversion to Christianity may be the only existing food supplies, or of using more fertilizer, viable route to their physical betterment, for it or planting different types of crops, or the like. has been observed time and again that when Projected population data, however, will help people turn to Christ, their standard of living bring reality to the discussion. If the 1999 world tends to rise. And most wealthy nations of the population was 6 billion and people in many na- world today have at least a Christian background tions of Asia and Africa are already suffering although the majority of their citizens may not from either malnutrition or simple starvation, be practicing Christians. how will the world sustain a projected 10 billion The runaway population explosion, therefore, people by the year 2060? If there is a surplus of is added reason for missionary attention to the food in Canada and there is need in India, who 10/40 Window. There is however another impli- will pay to ship food from Canada to India on an cation of this population explosion that the mis- indefinite basis? The economic realities and gi- sionary world has been slower to grasp. As the gantic numbers involved all suggest that there is population explodes, people are pushed off the indeed a crisis, and that it will get worse before farm and to the cities. There is direct correlation it gets better. between the population explosion and the ex- Demographers hope that the rate of growth ploding growth of cities in the non-Western will be slower during the twenty-first century world (see Urbanization). due to greater use of birth control. Continued Attention to the 10/40 Window, therefore, wars and the AIDS epidemic might also slow the growth. But even though it is slowing down, con- should not simply identify the various ethnic tinued growth raises serious questions about the groups so that missionaries and evangelists can quality of life for most people during the twen- be sent to them. It should also identify the vari- ty-first century and the continuing disparity in ous social groups in the giant cities of our world standards of living between the haves and the so that social groups that have been neglected have-nots. may also receive missionary attention. Shanty- Some newspaper reporters and politicians in town dwellers, street children, street vendors, Africa have spoken out against population plan- and the unemployed are all legitimate targets for ning, suggesting that this is merely a Western de- mission effort, as well as wealthy business peo- vice that is being promoted in order to keep Af- ple, government workers, soldiers, professional rica under Western domination. This argument people, and all the social classes between these overlooks the fact that many European nations two extremes. are already setting the pace by holding their pop- Timothy Monsma 61 Postmodernism

Bibliography. E. Bos, M. T. Vu, E. Massiah, and are just a few examples of the reality that has R. A. Bulatao, World Population Projections; 1994–95 stimulated a profound pessimism on the part of Edition; L. Bush, Getting to the Core of the Core: The postmoderns with regard to technology. 10/40 Window; Human Development Report 1994; Pop­ Dangers. Postmodernity has helped us reex- ulation and Development; Implications for the World Bank. amine the world in which we live. Much of the world is simultaneously premodern, modern, and postmodern. Within two generations, societ- Postmodernism. A way of perceiving and ex- ies like those in Korea, Malaysia, Indonesia, and plaining reality shared by thinkers in philosophy Kenya have made significant progress in moving of language and science, sociology, the arts, ar- from being predominantly agricultural and rural chitecture, management theory, and theology to becoming industrial and now service-oriented. that arose in the West during the last half of the The postmodern critique offers us new vistas to twentieth century in reaction to Modernity. At understand how we may evangelize the peoples its most basic, postmodernism involves the reali- of the world, including those living in the West. zation of the ultimate bankruptcy of modern and At the same time, evangelical missiologists premodern approaches to life. must be aware of the dangers that postmoder- Challenges to Modernity. Postmodernity’s cri- nity represents. Postmodernity advocates a de- tique of modernity includes the issues of individ- gree of valuelessness and atomization of persons ualism, rationalism, scientific positivism, and which is antithetical to the gospel. This relates technology. First, postmodernity has been criti- not only to postmodernity’s antifoundationalism, cal of modernity’s love for the autonomous indi- but also offers no solid footing on which to stand vidual. A more collective perspective is especially in seeking to transform a lost and hurting world clear in postmodern philosophy of science, in so loved by God. Second, evangelical missiology which changes in scientific theory, called para- must beware of postmodernity’s elevation of digm shifts, are seen as part of a corporate pro- Relativism as the only acceptable alternative to cess in the discovery and use of new data. rationality. The loss of any concept of truth un- Second, the modern myth of the autonomous dermines the message of the gospel and is unac- individual elevated rationality to a point of near ceptable for evangelical missiology. Third, evan- infallibility. One of postmodernity’s strongest gelical missiology needs to be careful with projects has been to call into question the mod- postmodernity’s rejection of any referential use of ernist dependence on rationality by reconsider- Language. Linguistically, postmodernity discards ing the basic assumptions sustaining modernity’s any sense that language refers to something be- concept of rationality (and therefore of Truth). yond itself and affirms that language itself cre- Postmodern philosophers and sociologists have ates meaning. This leads to meaninglessness and pointed out that knowledge is in part socially ultimately to silence, since we are left with each constructed and draws from the whole person, person’s exclamations of opinion. Such a direc- not only from rational argument. tion is contrary to Christian notions of empathy Third, at the heart of modernity lies a perspec- and understanding. It represents a loss of com- tive of the world that reduces reality and truth to mitment to truth and to the welfare of other that which can be seen, tested, and verified persons, since all opinions are now just individ- through the inductive method of scientific mate- ual pronouncements of the person’s own view- rialism. Postmodernity has asked soul-searching point. Fourth, postmodernity’s rejection of con- questions about the assumptions of scientific cepts of purpose leaves little room for an positivism, demonstrating that such a scientific evangelical to take seriously the metanarrative method tends to see only what it is looking for. of the story of God’s mission that is moving to- Postmoderns want to assign equal validity to ward a final destiny. Instead, postmodernity cre- other sources of knowledge like experience, the ates a troubling paralysis that leaves Christians emotions, the forces of social and personal psy- unable to participate actively in God’s mission chology, and the spirit world. in the future. Fourth, postmodernity has been rethinking the Possible Contributions. In spite of the dan- matter of technology. Clearly one of the most gers, there are ways in which postmodernity can amazing and almost self-justifying aspects of help us. First, postmodernity is helping us see modernity is the technological revolution it has that mission into the next century will be global produced. But modernists have been slow to re- and local rather than national and denomina- flect and evaluate the impact that technology has tional. This is already evident in the rise of the had on matters of value and belief. The reality of mega-churches which are now increasingly in- today’s world has called the entire legitimating volved in world evangelization directly as con- myth of technology into question. A threatened gregations, rather than working through denom- planet, the incurability of the AIDS epidemic, the inational or mission structures. Second, use of technology in waging wars, and a deep postmodernity has reminded us that a biblical fear of the cities that technology has produced gospel is wholistic: the Holy Spirit comes to 62 Promotion of Mission transform all of life and all relationships (see Ho- example, while it takes 1,800 evangelicals in gen- lism, Biblical). The church of the future needs to eral to send one missionary. Probably no more see itself as basically composed of relational net- than 10 percent of evangelical congregations in works of persons and groups rather than hierar- North America have a strong missions promo- chical organizations and structures. Third, post- tion program, such as an annual Church Mis- modernity has offered us a new way to affirm sions Conference. Given this track record, God that the church of Jesus Christ is a corporate seems to have raised up other means of promot- body, not a gathering of isolated, autonomous in- ing his purposes of world evangelism—para- dividuals. Last, postmodernity has offered the church organizations, mission sending agencies, church a new way of understanding and re- conventions, student movements, Bible colleges, sponding to the world of the unseen. Postmod- and, of late, “mobilizers.” ern churches are providing a more realistic as- Of the hundreds of mission sending agencies, sessment of reality that understands that the several have been so successful in recruiting that world we live in includes not only the physical they dwarf the average denominational mission and the seen but the unseen world of spirits, de- boards: Wycliffe Bible Translators (6,000+), mons, ancestors, and spiritual forces (see Pow- Campus Crusade for Christ (15,000+), Youth ers). With a Mission (7,000+), and Operation Mobili- We are concerned about our non-Christian zation (2,000+). All these are specialized: transla- (and post-Christian) world that needs to know tion, campus, or short-term. Conventions in this Jesus Christ as the only Way, the Truth, and the century have been the catalysts for mission pro- Life. We are called to respond to the nihilism, motion, beginning with Edinburgh (1910), con- relativism, pluralism, and the loss of the concept tinuing through the triennial Urbana student of truth and sense of purpose that mark the conventions under InterVarsity Fellowship (1946 foundationless character of postmodern society. and following), advanced by the congresses initi- We want to present an apology of the gospel as ated by Billy Graham (Berlin [1966] and Laus- public truth and to do so in ways that a post- anne [1974]), and culminating in the great con- modern culture will be able to accept. We accept ventions in Korea in the 1980s and 1990s. the challenge to be Christ’s prophets who extend Student movements have energized the mis- the word of hope in the midst of the hoplessness sions movement, beginning with the Student of a postmodern world. Volunteer Movement at the close of the nine- Charles Van Engen teenth century and continuing through the Stu- Bibliography. D. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Para­ dent Foreign Missions Fellowship (initiator of digm Shifts in Theology of Mission; D. Dockery, ed., The Urbana, merged with IVF), and, later in the cen- Challenge of Postmodernism: An Evangelical Engage­ tury, smaller student movements like the Caleb ment, D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Project. Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change; J. Hunter, In the great half century of North American American Evangelicalism: Conservative Religion and the Quandary of Modernity; N. Murphy and J. W. McClen- missions advance following World War II, the don, Jr., Modern Theology 5:3 (April 1989): 191–214; Bible colleges led the way. It was said that 80 J. Roxburgh, Reaching a New Generation: Strategies for percent of American missionaries in that era had Tomorrow’s Church; P. Sampson, V. Samuel and C. Sug- a Bible college background. It is interesting that den, eds., Faith and Modernity; W. Shenk, The Good the decline in missions interest in the churches News of the Kingdom, pp. 192–99; H. A. Snyder, Earth and the decline of the Bible college movement in Currents: The Struggle for the World’s Soul; B. S. Turner, the latter quarter of the twentieth century have Theories of Modernity and Postmodernity; C. Van Engen, paralleled one another. Mission on the Way: Issues in Mission Theology. Since those traditional means of promoting missions have become less effective, a new breed Promotion of Mission. In the New Testament has emerged, as yet unorganized, but who refer we do not see the kind of promotion of the mis- to themselves as “mobilizers.” Advancing sionary enterprise we find today. The command Churches in Missions Commitment (ACMC), The of Christ and the working of the Holy Spirit in U.S. Center for World Missions, one of its many the local congregation were enough to make a spinoffs, the Frontier Missions Movement, and church send and support missionaries—at least the AD 2000 and Beyond movement are repre- in Antioch. Jerusalem, however, needed some sentative. proactive promotion. In the field of publishing there are several The strongest sending bodies among twenti- journals devoted to promoting missions, both eth-century American churches were born as mission agency journals and independent jour- mission sending agencies in the nineteenth cen- nals like Frontiers. Perhaps the most influential tury: the Christian and Missionary Alliance and publication has been Patrick Johnstone’s Opera­ the Southern Baptist Convention. It takes less tion World, a prayer guide with a distribution of than 200 CMAers to send out a missionary, for hundreds of thousands. 63 Race Relations

The mysterious thing about promotion is that deed, some missionary efforts to slaves revolved no matter what we may do, it is God’s sovereign around the text “Slaves, obey your earthly mas- intervention that has been the successful pro- ter” (Eph. 6:5). moter of missions. The surge of World War II In the evangelization of Africa, race relations veterans, who had seen a needy world firsthand, played a crucial role. Early efforts to send black muscled the missions enterprise at midcentury. Americans to Africa combined with efforts to re- Then came the emergence of a powerful Third patriate freed blacks to Africa in colonization ef- World mission initiative and, closing out the cen- forts was resisted by some free blacks who tury, the mighty ingathering in China with no claimed America as their home. In the late nine- missionary assistance at all! God is still sover- teenth century, some missionary agencies de- eign, and the sovereign God’s method is still the clined to send blacks on African missions for church in which his Spirit is free to move. fear of intermarriage with white missionaries. Robertson McQuilkin Others were concerned that blacks’ interpreta- tion of the recent Civil War in the United States as God’s judgment against slavery would be dan- Race Relations. The reality of race and race re- gerous baggage in evangelizing colonized Afri- lations has been central to the missions move- cans. As segregation became part of American ment in the United States from at least the early denominational life, black denominations nineteenth century. The combinations of in- formed their own separate mission agencies and creased scientific interest in race as a category the work of missions became another reflection (as evidenced in books as disparate as David of American segregation. Hume’s Of National Characters in 1748 and The impact of the Civil Rights Movement and Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species in 1859) and the changing patterns in American race relations the growing American dilemma of dealing with affected missions work in bringing more blacks the enslavement of Africans and their descen- into the mainstream of home and foreign mis- dants in this country helped focus the attention sions, and making visible to the larger society of people interested in missions, especially with the steady stream of missionary activity spon- respect to Africans and their descendants in the sored by black churches at home and abroad. Western Hemisphere, on how to—and even Contemporary efforts at racial reconciliation are whether to—evangelize people of other races. building on the work of intergrationists in the Race as an ethnic designation has a rather re- 1950s and 1960s. The reconciliation accords cent history. By the dawn of the nineteenth cen- reached between black and white Pentecostals in tury, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach’s fivefold ty- 1994 as well as ongoing conversations between pology of races—Caucasian, Mongolian, the National Association of Evangelicals and the Ethiopian, African, and Malayan—had not only National Black Evangelical Association reflect gained ascendancy, but also reified racial catego- the churches’ sense that racial reconciliation is a rization into a static, biological system, rather part of kingdom work. Some missions organiza- than a dynamic movement within human his- tions, such as Youth With a Mission, have even tory. If race were to be seen as a static category, incorporated notions of identificational repen- then race mixing could be rightly deemed “un- tance and reconciliation as part of their missions natural” and for Christians “sinful.” Because of strategies, noting the need for contemporary the presence of Africans and their descendants in Christians to confess the sins of their forbears as the Western Hemisphere due to chattel slavery, part of the healing process. these concerns took on special significance for Harold Dean Trulear black-white relations in the United States. Christians engaged these issues in the early Bibliography. G. Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem in American Democracy; T. Sowell, missions movement by (1) evangelizing Africans Race and Culture: A World View; W. Williams, Black and African American slaves as equal members Americans and the Evangelization of Africa: 1877–1900. of the human family; (2) evangelizing Africans and African Americans slaves, but limiting their Christian freedom to the “spiritual realm” and Reached and Unreached Mission Fields. Since denying their full human capacities and rights; the mid-1970s intense debate has raged over (3) ignoring, denying, and even fighting against what a mission field is and what it means for a efforts to Christianize blacks out of a denial of field to be reached. In general, since the Laus- their humanity and even fear of the power of the anne Congress on World Evangelism of 1974, gospel to breed insurrection against the slavoc- the concept of a People Group, defined by com- racy. Of course, some slave missionary efforts mon language and culture, has displaced the reflected a basic compatibility between Christian older idea of a nation-state. There continues to faith and slavery, noting in a threefold defense of be a discussion of whether the people groups to Christian slavery: “Abraham practiced it, Paul be evangelized should be defined more in terms preached it, and Jesus is silent on the issue.” In- of language or dialect (with over 12,000 in the 64 Reconciliation world) or of culture (over 20,000). But leaving the Far East in which the least reached religious some latitude for those definitions, the chief eth- groups are concentrated: Islam, Hinduism, and nolinguistic groups have been identified. Buddhism. These are not only the least reached, But how do we determine when a group has they are the least reachable, the most resistant. been “reached”? In the mid-1980s there were In fact, because of religious, political, and cul- said to be 12,000 unevangelized groups, but by tural barriers, they are also the least accessible 1990 that estimate was reduced to 6,000. With (see Creative Access Countries). the advent of the AD 2000 and Beyond Move- If “Christian” is defined as one who has a per- ment, this was reduced to 2,000, then by 1995, to sonal relationship with God through faith in 1,600. Did the missionary enterprise advance Jesus Christ, and “mission field” is defined as that rapidly? No, the definition of “evangelized” any ethnolinguistic group in which there is no or “reached” changed. Does “evangelized” mean witnessing church movement capable of evange- that every person would hear with under- lizing that group, perhaps half the people groups standing the way to life in Christ as Mark 16:15 of the world have been “reached.” The other half and Acts 1:8 seem to indicate? Or, as the objec- need outside assistance, commonly called mis- tive set by some in recent years, does “evange- sionaries. If those groups with fewer than 10,000 lized” mean that every person would have access were excluded from the tally, then the majority to the gospel? That is, when a church is near of the remaining people groups have been enough or there are radio broadcasts or book reached. If, on the other hand “reached” focuses shops, the Bible has been translated into their on individuals rather than ethnic groups, and language—everyone could hear the gospel if they “access to the gospel” is the criterion, perhaps wanted to. This greatly reduces the number of more than half the individuals of the world have unevangelized people groups. Others opt to been reached. If, however, “reached” means they focus on Matthew 28:18–20 and Luke 24:47–48 have actually heard the gospel with under- and the goal of evangelism is said to be disci- standing, far less than half could be considered pling the “nations” or people groups. But what is reached. it to “disciple”? Some have said that when there The most succinct, reliable, and easily under- is a witnessing church movement, the mission- stood data on the reached or unreached status of ary task is complete. Others point out that a wit- each nation is found in Operation World. The nessing church movement in a tribe of 1,000 most sophisticated composite of the efforts of may mean the group is evangelized or “reached,” the major research groups is found in Status of but what if the group is 40 million in size? So Global Evangelization: Model and Database De­ others add the phrase, “capable of reaching its sign, put out by Southern Baptist Convention, own people.” If there is such a church move- FMB and updated periodically. ment, no more outside help would be needed to Robertson McQuilkin complete the task of evangelism, however de- fined. Still others define a reached people as those which are majority Christian. If Christian Reconciliation. The Christian faith is funda- is used in an evangelical sense, however, no more mentally relational. It affirms that God has acted than a handful of very small ethnic groups could once and for all—decisively—in the life, death, be considered “reached” on that definition. and resurrection of Jesus Christ to bring the cre- This debate is not academic nit-picking; it is ated order back to its original purposes. Pastor very pragmatic, defining the task that remains and homiletician Gardner C. Taylor argued that and targeting those areas in which a church or “the Bible has but one theme, that is, that God mission should invest precious, limited re- gets back what belonged to him in the first sources. The consensus that seems to be emerg- place.” ing at the end of the twentieth century is to have This involves not merely the restoration of per- a scale from “least reached” to “most reached.” sons, the environment, and even the cosmos, but On this basis it can be said that there are at least also the quality of relationships that they enjoyed 1,600 people groups larger than 10,000 in size in at creation—the divine order in the heart of God which there is no witnessing church movement as revealed in the Genesis account of beginnings. capable of reaching its own people. If smaller In the beginning, God enjoyed full fellowship groups are included, the number of unreached with humanity, unmarred by Sin. So too, there escalates to at least 6,000, including many with was harmony and Peace in the relationships be- no gospel witness at all. tween humanity and Creation, and between the The majority of the least reached groups fall first man and woman in the Garden of Eden. within the 10/40 Window, a band of ethnic When sin entered the world, all of these relation- groups stretching east between the 10th and 40th ships were damaged—sin separated humanity degree latitudes (north) from the Atlantic Ocean from a holy God. It also brought alienation be- to Indonesia in the Pacific. This embraces na- tween humanity and the Environment. Finally, it tions in northern Africa, the Middle East, and brought estrangement among people themselves, 65 Reconciliation substituting blame and distrust for mutuality studies. As we have given greater weight to cul- and complementarity (see also Fall of Human- tural contexts and become more clear about im- kind). perialism and power relationships, we have wit- Reconciliation describes the process through nessed the need for a more sophisticated which God works to restore these relationships. conversation about reconciliation across ethnic In the Book of Colossians, it is depicted as a cos- and cultural lines. Indeed, in the United States, mic process through which God in Jesus Christ missions organizations are looking at issues of reconciled “to himself all things, whether on cultural context not merely as a concern in over- earth or in heaven, making peace by the blood of seas missions, but also working on how racial his cross” (1:20). Here God brings nature into and ethnic reconciliation is to be sought within right relationship with himself through Christ, as their own country. well as showing his victory over demonic ‘princi- At one level, the issue is, in the words of theo- palities and powers.’ The souls of sinners are re- logian Miroslav Volf, the “sacralization of cul- claimed as they trust the merits of Christ’s blood. tural identity,” the literal merger of cultural and The apostle Paul also depicts his ministry as a religious commitments that gives people more of ministry of reconciliation. In 2 Corinthians 5:17– a sense of belonging to their cultural group than 19 he affirms that there is new life in Christ, and to Christ. Among racial and ethnic minorities, that this life is “from God, who through Christ oppression can give the sense that loyalty to reconciled us to himself and gave us the ministry one’s Ethnicity is a stronger bond than that to of reconciliation; that is, in Christ God was rec- other believers. And to those in the majority, the onciling the world to himself, not counting their wedding of religion and culture often appears trespasses against them, and entrusting to us the matter of fact, since they are the group in power message of reconciliation.” and lack the critical distancing that comes from He goes on to describe his ministry as that of marginalization (see Marginal, Marginaliza- an Ambassador of God, representing him and tion). pleading with persons on his behalf to be recon- Some suggest that Christian faith is col- ciled to God. In this sense, the missionary enter- or-blind, in that God is “no respecter of persons.” prise is one of representing Christ to a world in Others point to cultural difference as something need of reconciliation to God, not merely the in- to be celebrated—a rich diversity reflecting the culcation of doctrine or the spread of proposi- creative genius of God. Few would opt for a seg- tions. Rather it is the full-fledged acceptance of one’s role as an ambassador for God’s kingdom, regated church which overemphasizes cultural preaching the gospel of reconciliation with or ethnic norms (see also Homogenous Unit God—the invitation to follow Christ as he brings Principle). Indeed, it may be that the ways in all things into subjection to God. Missions at its which Christians engage in the process of inter- core involves the proclamation and demonstra- personal and interethnic reconciliation within tion of the Love of God for his creation, and the the church set an important agenda for world- invitation to respond to his love through accept- wide missions on a planet beset by ongoing eth- ing his Son as Lord and Savior. nic strife. Recent attempts at contextualizing If reconciliation is a cosmic process, then mis- theology, owning up to imperialistic cultural the- sions involves the invitation to participate fully ologies, and the confession of our “ghettoiza- in the whole of the process. That is, the resto- tion” of marginalized ethnic churches (by per- ration of right relationships in the created sons in both the majority and the minority) are order—the environment and surrounding inter- steps in the right directions. planetary and interstellar space—and right rela- More radical ideas such as the recent practice tionships between human beings. of identificational or representational Repen- Paul recognizes this in pointing to the new fel- tance (seeking the forgiveness of entire groups— lowship created between Jew and Gentile in the such as the 1995 Southern Baptist apology for its body of Christ. This reconciliation in Christ he attitudes on race and slavery—are still being de- also calls “peace” (Eph. 2:14). Christ has “broken bated (see also Powers, The). What cannot be down the dividing wall of hostility by abolishing debated is the ongoing work of God in Christ, as in his flesh the law of commandments and ordi- laid out in Scripture, to bring back what be- nances, that he might create in himself one new longed to him in the first place. man in place of the two, so making peace.” (vv. Harold Dean Trulear 14–15) To the Galatians, he wrote that in Christ Bibliography. R. P. Martin, Reconciliation: A Study “there is neither Jew nor Greek . . . slave nor free of Paul’s Theology; L. Sanneh, Religion and the Variety . . . male nor female” (3:28). of Culture: A Study in Origin and Practice; M. Volf, Ex­ These latter passages have assumed great im- clusion and Embrace: A Theological Exploration of Iden­ portance in contemporary conversations con- tity, Otherness, and Reconciliation; R. Washington and cerning missions because of the increased rele- G. Kehrein. Breaking Down Walls: A Model for Reconcil­ vance of cultural Contextualization in missions iation in an Age of Racial Strife. 66 Relativist, Relativism

Refugee Mission Work. Refugees are those who in 1945 to help European refugees after Word are displaced from their natural residence and War II, and is now active in over 70 countries. who fear (for whatever reason) to return. They The World Council of Churches is also active. may be uprooted because of systematic geno- There were ecumenical efforts to help Jews es- cidal campaigns, religious or political persecu- caping Nazi persecution even before the forma- tion, denial of fundamental civil rights, and so tion of the WCC in 1948; at one time refugee on. Refugees often lack the most basic necessi- work was the single largest operation in the ties of food, water, and shelter. Typically defense- WCC, though now the work has been decentral- less, they are at the mercy of those in power over ized among regional (e.g., Action by Churches the territory in which they seek refuge. They Together and Church World Service) and denom- often fear revealing what they have experienced inational (e.g., United Methodist Committee on because of repercussions from those in power. Relief, Church of the Brethren Refugee/Disaster Even mission agencies working among them Services, Presbyterian Disaster Assistance, etc.) may be unable to publicize the stories since they organizations. Refugees International was depend on permission from governments to con- founded in 1979 in response to the Cambodian tinue their work. and Vietnamese refugee plight, and they actively The Old Testament enjoins providing sanctu- promote refugee issues and situations in political ary for outcasts and refugees, including cities of circles in the United States. World Relief, refuge for those who commit accidental man- founded in 1979 as the relief arm of the National slaughter (Num. 35:6–15). Israel became a na- Association of Evangelicals, is now working in tion of refugees because of Israel’s apostasy (as more than 25 cities in the United States helping promised in Deut. 28:63–68). Their repentance, refugees cope with settling and gaining citizen- however, resulted in a promise of being regath- ship. ered and restored (Deut. 30:3–5; Isa. 11:11–12; The total refugee population can fluctuate dra- Jer. 30:12–22). The nations around Israel also matically from year to year; the UN statistics suffered as outcasts (Moab, Isa. 16:3 and Jer. show a decrease from 15.4 million refugees in 30:16). While the New Testament has no direct 1995 to 13.2 million in 1996, primarily because reference to refugees, we do see that Christians of the repatriation of 1.6 million African refu- will be judged in light of our work on behalf of gees. The total number of UN recognized refu- the poor and the oppressed (Matt. 25:31–46), gees, displaced, and at risk for 1996 was 22.7 which certainly includes refugees. million, of which only 11.7 million received as- Prior to the twentieth century, with interna- sistance. Jesus’ emphasis on the response to the tional travel relatively unrestricted, and the right naked, the thirsty, the hungry, the outcast, the of asylum taken for granted, there were generally sick, and the imprisoned (Matt. 25:31–46) still less problems of dislocation. As the twentieth stands as a foundation for our moral obligation century progressed, however, new requirements to participate in meaningful ways in the lives of (e.g., passports, visas, and qualifications for asy- refugees. lum), complicated the problems of repatriation and settlement. Today refugees are often people A. Scott Moreau not only without a home, but like the Palestin- Bibliography. G. Van Hoogevest, DEM, pp. 855–56; ians, they may also be without a country for de- K. Win, Asia Journal of Theology 6:1 (1992): 83–92. cades. In emotional and physical shock at having to leave their homes, refugees often have nothing more than the clothing they wear. Typically by Relativist, Relativism. The term “relativism” is the time they are forced to evacuate they have used in various ways. Descriptively, relativism been witnesses to incredible atrocities commit- merely indicates the fact of diversity. Thus “cul- ted against friends, neighbors, and immediate tural relativism” is sometimes used to mean that family members. Women and children are par- various cultures have different beliefs, practices, ticularly vulnerable and are all too often the fa- and values, the function and significance of vored targets of attack. which must be appreciated from within the Since most displacement presently takes place framework of the culture itself. in third world contexts, those fleeing are typi- In a normative or ideological sense, relativism cally perceived by the countries of asylum as (whether cognitive, cultural, ethical, or religious) bringing unbearable demands on strained econ- maintains that ultimately rationality norms, or omies. Consequently, they may receive little if truth, or criteria for assessing alternative per- any assistance and may even be repelled (e.g., spectives all arise from particular contexts (so- the boat refugees from Cambodia, China, or ciocultural, historical, linguistic, conceptual) Cuba) or forcibly repatriated. and thus are only applicable within those con- Four mission organizations directly working texts. There are no universally valid truths or among and on behalf of refugee populations principles. This clearly conflicts with the Chris- today may be noted. Christian Aid was founded tian gospel, which affirms that there are truths 67 Reverse Culture Shock that hold universally and apply to all people in comfortable ways of life that must be unlearned all cultures. in the home culture. Relativism in some form has always been an The home culture (especially in the urban set- attractive option, especially at times when peo- ting) also changes while the missionary is away. ple are exposed to the great diversity in human Changes may range from the relatively mundane cultures. It is a small and often easy step from (new television shows, new music, new stores) to the observation that people do in fact have dif- deeper innovations (new church worship forms ferent beliefs and values to the conclusion that or even new religions, new expectations of toler- there are no universally valid truths. In the mod- ation, new views on truth). All of these combined ern West, relativism has been encouraged not can make for a bewildering experience for one only by increasing awareness of diversity but who is seeking security in what home was like also by a pervasive skepticism concerning ethics before departure. and religion. Eastern traditions such as Hindu- Reentry shock can be particularly acute for the ism and Buddhism have long emphasized the rel- children of missionaries (see Third Culture Kids ativity and limited nature of human knowledge. and Missionary Children), some of whom may However, ever since the time of Plato it has be entering the parents’ home culture for the been pointed out that relativism is a self-defeat- first time or have no real memories of that cul- ing position. Any statement of relativism, if in- ture. Particular care should be taken to help tended to be more than “relatively true,” implic- them adjust to life in what for them was never itly appeals to the falsity of the central thesis of really home at all. relativism. Furthermore, the price of accepting A. Scott Moreau relativism is not only loss of the right to make Bibliography. C. N. Austin, Cross-Cultural Reentry: A universal truth claims but also forfeiture of the Book of Readings. right to criticize any alternative perspective as false. The challenge for Christian missions is to maintain a proper appreciation for the great di- Revolution. This term is generally associated versity in human cultures while maintaining with movements to overthrow existing govern- truths, expressed in God’s revelation, which are ments through armed action and in that sense it binding on all peoples in all cultures at all times. is used to describe social processes as different as the American, French, and Russian Revolu- Harold A. Netland tions. The term may also be used to describe Bibliography. E. Hatch, Culture and Morality: The transformative processes that deeply affect cul- Relativity of Values in Anthropology; J. Meiland and tural and social structures at their base in a slow M. Krausz, eds., Relativism: Cognitive and Moral; and nonviolent way. The initial stage of Christian R. Trigg, Reason and Commitment; B. R. Wilson, ed., mission as recorded in the New Testament shows Rationality. the transformative power of the gospel that upset existing structures and provoked reactions that ended in riots as in Philippi (Acts 16:11–40) or Reverse Culture Shock. The psychological, Ephesus (Acts 19:23–41). Roman authorities emotional, and even spiritual adjustment of mis- sometimes misjudged Jesus or Paul as political sionaries who return to their home culture after revolutionaries. Mission history at different mo- having adjusted to a new culture. This shock is ments records the revolutionary impact of the parallel to the Culture Shock experienced in ini- gospel, as in the transformation of the Roman tial adjustment to the mission field, but may be Empire in the first two centuries, or the modern- even more difficult because it can hit so unex- ization of some Asian and African societies in pectedly. Also referred to as reentry shock, ad- our century. During the sixteenth century the justment is necessary because both the mission- Iberian Catholic mission in the Americas accom- ary and the home culture have changed while the panied military conquest and the church became missionary was away. In addition, the home cul- a symbol of the establishment and a defender of ture may have been idealized in the missionary’s it against independence revolutions. Mission and mind and no longer fits one’s expectations. empire were not so closely united in the Protes- The changes that have taken place in the mis- tant missions of the nineteenth century, but mis- sionary can be manifold. A major consideration sionaries still tended to support the imperial ad- here is that the nature of friendships and rela- vance of their nation and worked within that tionships varies dramatically from culture to cul- frame (see also Colonialism). It is therefore ture. Missionaries who have crossed that divide understandable that theoreticians and leaders of often find that the way they look at relationships revolutions such as Marx, Engels, or Lenin and has fundamentally shifted, making readjustment their followers, would tend to see revolutionary to their home culture difficult. The missionary movements as necessarily hostile to Christian had to learn a host of new rules in the new cul- mission. During the twentieth century, the revolt ture; though initially strange, they have become of Asian, African, and Latin American peoples 68 Second Language Acquisition against the European and North American colo- in such a way that people heard the message nial powers has been an important element of each in their own language (Acts 2:6–12). self-criticism for missions. Leaders of these revo- God’s eternal plan is that people from all lan- lutions were frequently inspired by Christian guages will worship and serve him (Dan. 7:13– ideas of human dignity learned in missionary 14; Rev. 5:9–10). So, he sends his followers to the schools, but they adopted anti-Christian ideolo- uttermost parts of the earth (Acts 1:8), to evange- gies. The Marxist version of history that usually lize and disciple and teach all the peoples of the describes Christian mission as an ally of colonial earth (Matt. 28: 19–20). This task that he has powers should be matched with a more careful given the church necessitates that we be willing assessment of the liberating impact of mission to reach people of all languages and that we be work, such as that recorded by James Dennis in able to communicate clearly with the people in a his three-volume Christian Mission and Social language they understand in order to disciple Progress. In spite of Western ethnocentrism the and train them. Language learning is clearly part cultural transformation brought by Christian of our mandate. mission and Bible translation might be described Some, however, might assert that only those as revolutionary. However, from the days in people gifted in languages should endeavor the which Luke wrote Acts to the present situation, task of learning another language. Although a it has been necessary to state very clearly that high level of natural ability enables language the kind of deeply transformative social practice learning to be more rapid and easier, lack of and proclamation of the gospel involved in mis- such ease in learning does not render a person ineffective in learning another language. Anyone sion does not imply the use of violent methods who is motivated to learn and who decides to through which revolutionaries expect to change participate with the people of the language and the world. This is a critical point because in submit to change can achieve at least functional some forms of liberation theology a theory of bilingualism given normal aptitude and suffi- “just revolution” was developed adopting the me- cient opportunity. Even a learner with low apti- dieval scholastic arguments in support of a “just tude can achieve a good measure of success in war.” On the other hand, there are presently the normal use of the language provided the per- places where oppressed ethnic minorities have son is well-motivated and has a good opportu- been successfully reached by the gospel and have nity to learn the language (Larson and Smalley, experienced church growth. Such is the case of 1974, 3, 51). Nagaland in India, the Karen and Chin commu- Learners with lower language aptitude need to nities in Myanmar, or the Mayan peoples in Chi- plan to invest greater time, determination, disci- apas, Mexico. The freedom and progress brought pline, and effort in language learning and should by Bible translation and proclamation of the gos- seek optimum opportunity and resources for pel is considered something revolutionary and learning. There are classes and training pro- threatening for the dominant ethnic groups. grams designed to help prepare potential learn- Christian mission walks a rather tight rope in ers for entry into another language and culture. such situations. These pre-field classes may include training in Samuel Escobar language learning strategy and tactics, phonet- Bibliography. J. Dennis, Christian Missions and So­ ics, grammar, use of resources, applied linguis- cial Progress: A Sociological Study of Foreign Missions; tics, linguistic analysis, interpersonal skills, cul- S. Escobar and J. Driver, Christian Mission and Social ture learning skills, and anthropology. While all Transformation; N. Goodall, Christian Mission and So­ learners would benefit from such training, it is cial Ferment; B. Griffiths, ed., Is Revolution Change?; especially helpful for those who face a challeng- J. Míguez Bonino, Toward a Christian Political Ethics; ing situation, whether through lower ability or S. Neill, Colonialism and Christian Missions. lack of resources and programs in the language. One of the key factors in learning a language is the learner’s settled decision that he or she wants Second Language Acquisition. From the time and needs to learn the language. For a mission- that God confounded the languages at Babel ary, this would be predicated upon a prior deci- (Gen. 11:7–9) there has existed the necessity for sion to follow the Lord’s call to a particular peo- people to learn other languages and cultures. Jo- ple and to love the people who speak this seph, for example, learned the language of Egypt language. Effective language learning necessi- so well that when his brothers went to Egypt to tates a decision to learn the language and to in- get grain they did not realize that Joseph could volve oneself with the people of that language. understand them, since he was speaking that Without such a firm decision it becomes easier language fluently and using an interpreter to talk to quit than to persevere in language learning. with them (Gen. 42:23). At the birth of the Willingness to be a learner is a necessary cor- church God demonstrated the importance of lan- ollary for effective language learning. A learner is guage by communicating through the disciples one who recognizes a linguistic or cultural need 69 Secularist, Secularism and is willing to be vulnerable enough to expose to learn as a way of life for the rest of his or her that lack to others and allow others to help one years in the language. learn. One who is a learner is willing to make Elizabeth S. Brewster mistakes and learn from them, willing to reach Bibliography. E. T. Brewster and E. S. Brewster, out to people who are different from oneself, Language Acquisition Made Practical; idem, Bonding willing to step outside one’s own culture and and the Missionary Task; H. D. Brown, Principles of begin to enter another’s world, and willing to Language Learning and Teaching; H. D. Brown, Teach­ persevere in learning. ing by Principles; L. Dickinson, Self-Instruction in Lan­ If the desire is to reach out to people and enter guage Learning; D. L. Gradin, Helping the Missionary into life with them then the learner will make Language Learner Succeed, pp. 51–56; D. N. Larson and W. A. Smalley, Becoming Bilingual, A Guide to Lan­ any life-style changes necessary to facilitate this guage Learning; T. Marshall, The Whole World Guide to involvement. The learner can take the effort to Language Learning; E. A. Nida, Learning a Foreign Lan­ develop friendships with people who speak that guage; H. Purnell, Helping the Missionary Language language and spend time with them in learning Learner Succeed, pp. 105–39; J. Rubin and I. Thomp- activities as well as in relaxed social times, in son, How to be a More Successful Learner, E. W. Ste- order to hear the language, to practice speaking, vick, Success with Foreign Languages: Seven Who and to experience the culture. The learner may Achieved It and What Worked for Them; G. Thomson, Helping the Missionary Language Learner Succeed, pp. choose to live in a neighborhood where the lan- 241–57. guage is spoken so that there will be more oppor- tunity to hear the language, to interact with peo- ple, and to form friendships. For greater and Secularist, Secularism. A secularist is a person more intimate contact with the language and who has been secularized or who embraces secu- culture the learner should consider living for a larism as a Worldview. The term “secular” is period of time with a family who speaks that lan- from the Latin saeculum, meaning “generation” guage. This will maximize involvement in the or “age,” signifying “belonging to this age or the community, increase exposure to the language, world” rather than to a transcendent religious enhance language learning, and give greater in- order. Secularism is a worldview which finds lit- sights into the culture. tle if any place for the supernatural and the tran- In addition to benefiting from contact with the scendent. It is often linked with philosophical community, the learner should take advantage of naturalism, which holds that this world of mat- whatever other learning resources are available. ter and energy is all that exists. Secularism as a In many languages, there are significant re- worldview must be distinguished from Secular- sources in the language such as written materi- ization as an historical process in which reli- als for learners (language text books, grammars, gious beliefs, values, and institutions are increas- dictionaries, books for early readers, language ingly marginalized and lose their plausibility and analyses, dialect surveys), radio and television, power. Secularization may result in the elimina- tape recordings, videos, and computer programs. tion of religion entirely, as in atheistic and ag- Use of these resources will enhance and facilitate nostic societies. Or it may simply transform the learning. nature and place of religion within society, re- Each learner should also seek a learning situa- sulting in “this worldly” secularized forms of re- ligion. Secularization is often linked to modern- tion that corresponds with his or her needs, ization, so that as societies become increasingly strengths, and learning style. In many languages modernized they also tend to become secular- there are excellent language schools, in others ized. there are trained teachers or tutors. The learner In the West secularism has become identified should make appropriate use of this assistance. with movement and ideology of secular human- Lack of a school or program does not render lan- ism. The ideology of secular humanism is ex- guage learning impossible but it does require pressed in the “Secular Humanist Declaration” more creativity and discipline from the language (1981), which affirms ten points: free inquiry, learner. If resources are scarce or unavailable, it separation of church and state, freedom, critical behooves the learner to lean even more heavily intelligence, moral education, religious skepti- on learning through contact with native speakers cism, knowledge through reason, science and in the community. technology, evolution, and education. Underlying Ideally, the language learner should plan on these points is a commitment to an agenda spending a minimum of a year in intense lan- which will reduce the influence of religion in so- guage learning focus with few if any other activi- ciety and elevate the authority of a rationalism ties that would take one away from the language, based upon reason and science. and then spending at least some time daily on As the world increasingly is influenced by language learning for the next several years. The modernization and secularization, missionaries one who has learned how to learn can continue in both the West and non-Western cultures will 70 Shalom need to deal with secularists who have little in- relativizes and marginalizes religion to the ex- terest in religion. Effective ministry will involve tent that it is allowed into the public sphere only not only proclamation of the gospel but also ex- for the purpose of serving the interests of a secu- posing the inadequacies of secularism as a lar society, whether by providing social cohesion world­view. (civil religion in the United States) or adding a William H. Baker splash of color and dignified pageantry (ceremo- nial religion in Europe). There is ambivalence Bibliography. S. Bruce, ed., Religion and Moderniza­ tion: Sociologists and Historians Debate the Seculariza­ toward religion as a source of ethical norms. tion Thesis; P. Sampson et al., eds., Faith and Moder­ Both historically and sociologically, its role is nity; R. Webber, Secular Humanism: Threat and pervasive, and yet in the legislative and judicial Challenge. process arguments based on religious convic- tions are excluded. As to the future impact of secularization on re- Secularization. Secularism represents a philo- ligion, the social scientists of the 1960s were sophical viewpoint that began to germinate with confidently predicting the demise of religion. A the Renaissance and came to full flower during counter-position argued that the process of secu- the Enlightenment. It emphasizes the autonomy larization in fact causes people to starve for the of the individual and the power of human rea- transcendent, and thus it may unwittingly be son, which provided the seed bed for the devel- sowing the seeds for a revival of religion. The opment of the scientific method. It maintains growing attraction of New Age religions, coupled that the only real world is that of sensory experi- with the impressive growth of many Christian ence and regards the universe as a closed system churches that are worship- and experience-ori- in which humankind operates without recourse ented, gives credence to the latter viewpoint. It is to any real or imagined powers outside of itself. further strengthened by the crumbling of the Another ramification is the denial of moral abso- Newtonian worldview in the wake of the findings lutes. of quantum physics regarding the random activ- Based on the assumption that the world has ity of subatomic particles, and the latest theories evolved, secularism represents a significant epis- of astrophysicists regarding the origins of the temological shift away from the classical focus universe. on design and purpose in a divinely created When developing a mission approach to secu- order, to an understanding of the universe as the larized persons, we should bear in mind that product of chance and random relations that many are searching for meaning to life and have trigger chains of cause and effect. With God re- a desire for self-transcendence, even though they moved from the scene, either through the re- may not be able to articulate their deep-seated moteness of Deism or Atheism’s denial of his ex- restlessness. They long for a sense of fulfillment istence, there is no appeal beyond the authority in life and are baffled by the contradictory as- of science. pects of human nature, the inner struggle be- Secularism represents a rival, anthropocentric tween knowing the good and doing the evil, and religion, an absolutizing of what were previously the need to find ways to balance personal free- regarded as penultimate concerns. All religions dom with mutual accountability and social jus- are relativized, the products of particular histor- tice. ical and socioeconomic contexts. They represent Eddie Gibbs the ways in which various cultures have tried to answer ultimate questions and provide ethical Bibliography. P. Berger, The Sacred Canopy; D. G. norms and moral sanctions. Their value is Bloesch, Crumbling Foundations; O. Guinness, The Gravedigger File; L. Newbigin, Foolishness to the judged on their ability to provide coping mecha- Greeks; R. Stark and W. S. Bainbridge, The Future of nisms, and not on their truth claims in regard to Religion: Secularization and Renewal and Cult Forma­ the nature of God and his relationship to the cre- tion. ated order. Secularism the philosophical perspective should be distinguished from secularization the Shalom. Hebrew word meaning wholeness. It is social phenomenon, the process through which translated into English using such terms as com- successive sectors of society and culture are pleteness, soundness, peace, well-being, health, freed from the influence of religious ideas and prosperity, and salvation. It implies a state of institutions. On the positive side, secularization mind that is at peace and satisfied, and social re- has effectively challenged the fatalistic attitudes lationships characterized by harmony and mu- and fear-inducing superstition of prescientific tual support. It is based on three fundamental Worldviews, which discouraged intellectual cre- principles: this world and all in it belongs to ativity and social progress. But negatively it has God; all humans share equally in God’s loving compartmentalized life, leaving it without any concern (God shows no favoritism to some peo- sense of purpose or cohesiveness. Secularization ple or nations); and the reign of God in creation 71 Shalom and in human communities leads to peace, jus- The establishment of shalom is at the heart of tice, and truly fulfilled lives. Shalom is a trans- God’s plan of Salvation. In Christ, God reached cultural and timeless concept, but like other out to save fallen humans and to reconcile them such symbols it finds its expression in the con- to himself. Salvation begins with forgiveness crete situations of real life in real cultures and with God through Christ Jesus, and finds expres- real history. In the Old Testament, the focus is sion in the restoration of human relationships to more on earthly wholeness. In the New Testa- God, and to one another in the church, the body ment, the dimension of eternal life comes into of Christ. Shalom is associated with a peace cov- sharper focus. enant, in which this restoration of relationships One attribute of shalom is agape, the identifi- and righteousness takes place (Num. 25:12; Isa. cation with and unconditional commitment to 54:7–8; Ezek. 34:5). the other (see Love of God). This is not a re- The final and full manifestation of shalom will sponse to the desirable, lovable, or admirable, occur when Christ returns and the kingdom of but to the needy, undesired, unloved, and enemy. God is established over all creation. Then shalom Shalom initiates action, accepts vulnerability, and righteousness will reign in Zion (Isa. 60:17; bears suffering, and always hopes for the best. Ps. 85:8–9), and violence and destruction will The supreme manifestation is Christ’s crucifix- occur no more. Shalom is both a present reality ion. A second attribute is righteousness. In in the life of the believer and the church, but also Scripture, true shalom and righteousness flow a future culmination in which all creation will be from right relationships with God (Isa. 60:17), restored in harmony under the reign of Christ. and reflect his character of righteousness, love, Shalom is of the essence of the Kingdom of justice, peace, and perfection. There can be no God. It symbolizes the presence of God, who shalom while one persists in sin and evil (Isa. works to restore the entire creation to fulfill the 48:18; 54:13), and the renewal of righteousness is purposes for which he created it. In the signs of essential to the restoration of shalom. A third at- this kingdom, such as salvation, reconciliation, tribute is Peace. This is not, as the modern world and healing, people see the presence of God in sees it, simply freedom from feelings of guilt, se- this world, bringing life out of death, love and renity, and peace of mind, nor merely the ab- peace in the midst of hate and violence, and sence of war. It actively seeks harmonious, mutu- meaning to meaninglessness. Nature itself is in- ally edifying relationships in community life. A cluded in God’s salvation, for it will be a part of fourth attribute is the concept of health. Shalom the new heaven and new earth that are essential communicates the sense of human well-being in in God’s work to restore shalom throughout all which physical, emotional, mental, moral, and his creation. spiritual health are inextricably intertwined. Un- Shalom is to characterize the ekklesia, the like the Western Worldview, which differenti- ates between spirit and body, spiritual and mate- Church, the assembly or gathering of God’s peo- rial realities, the Hebrew worldview views ple. It is the test and hallmark of the church’s di- humans as whole beings in which spiritual, vine nature as the outpost of the kingdom now moral, mental, and physical attributes are inex- on earth—the community that emerges when the tricably intertwined. A fifth attribute is koinonia. covenant relationship between God and his peo- Shalom speaks of social fellowship and commu- ple is restored, and that gives expression to the nal harmony among friends, parties, and na- harmony intended by God. This church is not a tions. social institution, although it finds expression in Shalom is an essential part of God’s cosmic social forms. It is the community of the Spirit plan, and is one of the threads running through open to all who turn to God for reconciliation. At Scripture linking cosmic, human, and individual its heart is koinonia, the fellowship and harmony histories into a single, coherent story. It began at that give rise to a new saved and saving commu- Creation, when God saw all he had created and nity based on the covenant of love that binds it was good. Only man by himself was not good people together in mutual submission to one an- (Gen 2:18), because he was not in community. other. It is a new community that breaks down The fall shattered this harmony (see Fall of the walls of language, race, class, gender, and na- Humankind). In the biblical worldview, sin is at tionalism. It is also called to make peace, to seek root the breaking of shalom, the severing of rela- social justice, provision for the needy, including tionships. It began with the break in right rela- widows, orphans, and the poor, and protection of tionships with God when humans put themselves the exploited and oppressed. Above all, it is apos- as the center of their being and worshiped them- tolic, sent into the world with a divine commis- selves. It led to broken human relationships be- sion to proclaim that the rule of God is at hand, tween genders (Gen. 3:15), brothers (Gen. 4:8), that Jesus is Lord, and that people should and human communities (Gen 11:9). The result change their ways and love in the light of the was jealousy, hatred, ethnocentrism, rivalries, in- new reality and form new communities of fol- justice, violence, and war. lowers. 72 Short-term Missions

Shalom is to characterize the life of the indi- youth ministries, camp work, prayer and re- vidual Christian, unlike the West, which sees au- search, and general assistance. tonomous, free individuals as the fundamental Growth. The short-term missions movement units of human reality, and differentiates be- has grown dramatically over the past several de- tween personal and social systems. Scripture cades. Mission agencies, church denominations, sees individuals as fully human only as they are a and parachurch organizations as well as inde- part of communities of shalom, and healing as pendent teams continue to contribute to the rooted in the community. Dan Fountain points large numbers involved in the short-term mis- out that “God’s plan for the world is this: That all sions enterprise. During the late 1990s, more persons everywhere, in every nation, know God’s than thirty thousand individuals joined forces saving health and be delivered from disobedi- each year with career missionaries and nationals ence, disruption, despair, disease and all that to serve in urban centers, towns, and countries would destroy our wholeness.” around the world. This rapid growth is due in Paul G. Hiebert part to modern travel that allows individuals to journey to the remotest areas of the world in a Bibliography. B. Bradshaw, Bridging the Gap: Evan­ relatively short time. There continues to be a de- gelism, Development and Shalom; D. E. Fountain, Health, the Bible, and the Church; S. Hauerwas and sire on the part of those who go to make them- W. H. Williamon, Resident Aliens: Life in the Christian selves available in service without committing Colony; S. N. Kraus, The Community of the Spirit; their entire lives to a missions career. There has C. Van Engen, God’s Missionary People. been an overwhelming acknowledgment of short-term missions in recent years, and, though there is much discussion about the practice, it is Short-term Missions. A term typically used to obvious that short-term missions is a powerful describe missionary service, normally involving and effective force in the modern missions move- cross-cultural immersion, that is intentionally ment. designed to last from a few weeks to less than The Critics. Many have been critical of short- two years. term missions for numerous reasons. One of the Short-term missions finds its roots in the main criticisms focuses on the motivation of Scriptures and, in a broad sense, can be under- those who go. Many career missionaries feel that stood through the words of Jesus in the Great short-term missionaries lack real commitment Commandment (Matt. 22:37–39) and the Great and endurance. Often the national church ques- Commission (Matt. 28:18–20). In a sense Jesus es- tions the presence of the short-term worker in tablishes the guidelines for the early short-term their culture because it appears that the motiva- mission experiences and demonstrates what is at tion of the short-termer is unclear. Some feel the core of short-term missions in the sending that the short-term workers provide a distraction out of the twelve (Matt. 10:1–42) and the seven- for career missionaries. Other concerns focus on ty-two (Luke 10:1–20). He states quite clearly the perception that the results from short-term that those who are sent must love the Lord their ministry are unreliable and there is little lasting God with all their heart, soul, and mind and then fruit produced from the work of the short-term love their neighbor as themselves. From that workers. Many suggest that the financial costs posture, they must recognize that all authority are too high and possibly take money away from has been given to him; therefore, they should go career missionaries. and make disciples of all nations. The Value. Despite the many criticisms, short- Scope. As a modern-day phenomenon, the term missions is moving forward. The short- short-term missions movement has spanned the term missions movement definitely has been a globe and has provided opportunities for thou- key factor in the mobilization of world mission sands of individuals to experience, for a brief globally. The present generation of missionary time, the world of missions. The length of service candidates tends to make their decisions and often varies from a week to several years. Mis- commitments based on the knowledge gained sion agencies, churches, high schools, colleges through firsthand experience. As a result of and universities, parachurch ministries, families, short-term service a world vision can be devel- and individuals are increasingly exploring and oped that in turn affects the mobilization efforts promoting short-term missions. The wide variety of the church at large. In addition, many feel of people taking advantage of these opportuni- that short-term missions provides valuable re- ties include youth, college and university stu- spite for career missionaries, brings a fresh en- dents, single adults, families, and seniors. The thusiasm from the outside, and accomplishes kinds of work that individuals and teams engage practical projects as well as significant ministry. in include, but are not limited to, construction Obviously, many who serve in short-term mis- projects, teaching English, athletics and sports, sions are likely candidates for long-term service, drama and the arts, medical and health care, and in fact, a significant number of career mis- evangelism and discipleship, church planting, sionaries today have had a short-term mission 73 Social Sciences experience. Those who return without making a Drummer; B. Sjogren and B. Sterns, Run with the Vi­ commitment to long-term service are able to im- sion. pact the churches that they are a part of with a global awareness and an expanded vision of God’s work in the world. As a result, the prayer Social Sciences. Specialization and integration in the social sciences are relatively recent devel- efforts and the giving patterns for missions are opments in the larger academic disciplines in enhanced. comparison with studies of the humanities (e.g., Needs. The short-term missions experience is philosophy, literature) and the natural sciences valid, but there are some important components (e.g., physics, chemistry). That they are social ev- that must be put into place to ensure its effec- idences the people component; that they are sci­ tiveness. A careful selection process should be ences shows commitment to certain methodolog- established so that those who are sent know the ical presuppositions across each of the fields. purpose for which they are being sent and are While there are several ways of classifying and willing to go as learners and servants. Clear com- categorizing disciplines in the social sciences, for munication channels should be established with the purposes of this article and in their relation- churches, nationals, and missionaries on the ship to mission and missiology they include An- field in order to clarify expectations. Thorough thropology, Communication, Economics, Educa- preparation for those on the field, as well as the tion, Linguistics, Modernization theory, short-term workers, is essential. A clear under- Politics, Psychology, Religion, Research, and standing developed through training in the areas Sociology. Anthropology is the study of human- of spiritual formation, cultural issues, and inter- kind in individual and multiple cultural contexts; personal dynamics is necessary. Short-term communication, the process of information flow workers should also understand the biblical among people; economics, the realities of ex- basis of their service. Realistic expectations for change and use of exchange instruments in the the short-term worker must be explored. Those world; education, the process of imparting infor- expectations should assume a posture of learn- mation from one generation to the next, usually ing and a desire to serve with the national lead- in formal contexts such as schools; linguistics, ers and career missionaries in a supportive part- the development and use of language; modern- nership. One of the most important dimensions ization, a conglomeration of trends with social of any short-term mission is careful reflection at impact (from Terrorism to Urbanization); poli- the end of the experience. Short-term workers tics, the study of political power within cultures must debrief and process their experience so that and countries; psychology, the study of the men- they can be responsible with what they have tal processes and mechanisms of people; reli- been allowed to experience. This will not only gion, the study of the various ways people ex- enable short-term workers to understand their press their faiths; research, the issues of how to mission experience better, but it will allow them uncover information concerning human societ- to communicate their vision to others. ies (e.g., through Qualitiative Research) and so- Conclusion. The short-term mission move- ciology the study of the way people associate and ment is rooted in the Scriptures and will con- relate to each other. Obviously there are signifi- tinue to be a driving force for the advancement cant areas of overlap among each of these disci- of the global cause of Jesus Christ. Short-term plines (e.g., Anthropology of Religion, History missions must continue to be tied to long-term of Mission, Sociolinguistics, urban anthropol- missions. Partnerships must be forged between ogy, psycholinguistics, and so on). the ones who go, the national hosts, the career Until recently, evangelical Christians in general missionaries, the sending church, and those with were suspicious of the social sciences. This whom the short-term workers serve. Training, stemmed at least in part from an association of preparation, and careful follow-up will be vital these fields of study with sociocultural evolution- elements to the effectiveness of the work. As ists such as Charles Darwin and Herbert Spen- these areas intersect, short-term missions will cer, anti-Christian psychologists such as Sig- fulfill its intended goals and will continue to en- mund Freud, and economic and sociopolitical able people to develop a global missionary vision theorists like Karl Marx. Additionally, many in and make an impact for the cause of Christ. the social science fields treat religion as only one Dennis Massaro aspect of human life, often a peripheral aspect, rather than recognizing it as being at the core of Bibliography. S. Barnes, EMQ 28:4 (1992): 376–81; who we are as people. B. Berry, Mission Today 96 Special Report- Short-Term Missions; idem, The Short Term Mission Handbook; The presumed conflicts between the social sci- S. Hawthorne ed., Stepping Out; J. Nyquist and P. Hie- ences and mission are not unfounded, for most bert, Trinity World Forum, Spring 1995, pp. 1–4; schools of the social sciences rely on nonbiblical L. Pelt, EMQ 28: 4 (1992): 384–88; M. Pocock, EMQ assumptions of knowledge and truth, methodol- 23:2 (1987): 154–60; J. Raymo, Marching to a Different ogy and measures, universe and humanity. Fur- 74 Social Sciences ther, at least in the early developments of the dis- are the social structures and undergirding cul- ciplines, they often exhibited an unreserved tural values that drive people of a given culture? optimism concerning human nature and future How do they see the world and communicate destiny. their thoughts and feelings about their percep- Interaction of the Social Sciences within tions to others? How do people associate with Mission. Following the pattern of formation and each other and what rules govern role and status development of disciplines in the natural sci- in a given society? What social and cultural dy- ences, social scientists began by seeking to estab- namics are involved in religious conversion? lish disciplinary distinctiveness for public recog- How are people motivated, and how do they nition and after a period of formulation, make decisions? What are the means of social flourishing, and full-blown growth, the current change in a culture? What is the impact of ur- trend is interdisciplinary integration instead of banization on traditional religion and World- isolationist specialization. Today social scientists view? Many more such questions could be learn from related disciplines, benefit from re- stated. All focus on the human realities with search done in other fields, borrow and exchange which every culture must grapple. The social sci- methodologies and techniques from one and an- ences help missiologists understand the people other, and are beginning to collaborate in meta­ of a culture and thus assist fostering Shalom in a disciplinary projects. For the past several decades, various disci- given community. plines and products of the social sciences have Theories and insights of the social sciences been accepted and utilized by Christians for mis- can enhance the Christian’s knowledge of how to sion. For example, many missions departments remove barriers and to build bridges in commu- in Bible schools and seminaries have anthropo- nicating the gospel to a given group of people. logically trained faculty and offer courses in mis- Factors of resistance to the gospel, which include sionary anthropology. With increasing regularity, religious background, cultural tradition, lan- missionary candidates are screened by psycho- guage limitations, social structure, and psycho- logical testing prior to their acceptance by the logical orientations, are to be seriously consid- organization and field appointments. Missionar- ered as they impact the missionary task of ies receiving language learning training are ex- sowing the gospel seed. Effective applications of posed to descriptive and applied linguistics. the study of these and other important social is- Many are trained in communication studies to sues should lead to programs and strategies in enhance their ability to share Christ with mission action. In the midst of seeing the impor- non-Christians in culturally relevant ways. tance of the social sciences, however, the mis- The encouraging trend is that many godly sionary cannot lose sight of the fact that ulti- Christian scholars with expertise in the social mately it is God who brings about the growth of science disciplines are working toward integrat- his church. While through history he has chosen ing their academic excellence with Christian to honor careful and prayerful research, thought faith for mission purposes. As a result, and as and planning in outreach ministry, it is still true mentioned above, an increasing number of that he alone draws people to himself and en- Christian workers involved in mission receive ables their response to Christ. basic training in mission-related subjects (e.g., The interdisciplinary use of the social sciences anthropology, linguistics) as part of their minis- in missiology has proven to be helpful and fruit- try preparation. Though missiology has been a ful in the Church Growth Movement, a driving recognized academic discipline in Europe since force behind the use of the Homogenous Unit the turn of this century, the first contemporary Principle, the understanding of ethnolinguistic conservative evangelical institution in North peoples and Mass Movements, the efforts to America to have official degree programs in mis- evangelize the Unreached Peoples, and the siology was the School of World Mission at Fuller Theological Seminary, beginning in Sep- 10/40 Window. tember of 1965. Increasingly higher level aca- The current trend of interdisciplinary integra- demic programs (Ph.D.s in particular) are utiliz- tion in the social sciences provides an excellent ing intercultural studies as their guiding opportunity for Christians to benefit from their orientation, incorporating formal studies in the insights and implementation. The increasing social sciences at the advanced level. number of professionally trained social scientists It is true that Christians are not of the world who are also productive workers for the gospel but are sent to the world to evangelize (John 17). will contribute much to world evangelization, Concerned Christians are utilizing knowledge and missionaries will do well to be trained in the and techniques of several related disciplines in various disciplines of the social sciences in the social sciences (ethnogeography, ethnohis- preparation for the task of calling those who do tory, statistics, communication science, etc.) to not yet know Christ to worship the King of kings. answer the following types of questions: What Enoch Wan 75 Spiritual Warfare

Bibliography. R. G. Clouse, ed., Wealth and Poverty: sovereign God compared to the angels who were Four Christian Views on Economics; J. Engel, Contem­ in rebellion against him. porary Christian Communications: Its Theory and Prac­ This battle is portrayed in the Gospels and in tice; idem, How Can I Get Them to Listen?; K. Franklin, the rest of the New Testament. Paul states clearly Current Concerns of Anthropologists and Missionaries; that “our struggle is . . . against the powers of S. Grunlan, Christian Perspectives on Anthropology; this dark world and against the spiritual forces S. Grunlan and M. Reimer, eds., Christian Perspectives on Sociology; D. J. Hesselgrave, Planting Churches of evil in the heavenly realms” (Eph. 6:12). These Cross-Culturally: A Guide for Homes and Foreign Mis­ are real enemies, and resistance against them sions; idem, Cross-Cultural Counseling; P. G. Hiebert, will involve spiritual warfare. While we are as- Anthropological Insights for Missionaries; idem, Anthro­ sured of victory in the battle, we are never as- pological Reflections on Missiological Issues; P. Hiebert sured that we will not have to fight in the battle. and E. H. Meneses, Incarnational Ministry; The influence of the Enlightenment and later D. Kitagawa, Race Relations and Christian Mission; the evolutionary hypothesis began a process C. Kraft, Christianity in Culture; idem, Communication which has resulted in the secularization of the Theory for Christian Witness; idem, Anthropology for Western worldview. As a result, biblical refer- Christian Witness; A. Tippett, Introduction to Missiol­ ences to the role of spirit beings in the realm of ogy. the created world are often misinterpreted or ig- nored in dealing with the text, and many mis- Spiritual Warfare. Spiritual warfare is the sionaries have gone to the field with a defective Christian encounter with evil supernatural pow- worldview, resulting in serious flaws in their ap- ers led by Satan and his army of fallen angels, proach to animistic belief systems. generally called demons or evil spirits (see At the other end of the spectrum, there is a tendency to overemphasize the role of spirits Demon, Demons). The original battle was be- tween Satan and God, but on the level of the which produces a Christian Syncretism with An- heavenlies, the war has been won decisively by imism. People use the Bible as a good luck charm God (Col. 2:15; 1 John 3:8). On earth the battles to protect one from evil spirits, prescribe certain words or expressions to be used in dealing with continue, but the issue is to determine not who demons, or assume that knowing the name of a will win but whether God’s people will appropri- demon gives more power over it. People coming ate the victory won for them by the cross and the from animistic backgrounds also fall into syncre- resurrection. tism, but that is usually because the Christians The conflict began in the Garden of Eden as who introduce them to Christ do not help them recorded in Genesis 3 and will continue until the understand the Christian worldview as it relates fulfillment of the events predicted in Revelation to issues of spiritual power. 20. Scripture makes it clear that Satan leads the Much of this confusion stems from the fact anti-God and anti-Christian forces as “the prince that Satan’s primary tactic is deception. That of this world” (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11) or “the does not mean that everything a demon says is a god of this world” (2 Cor. 4:4) and as a leader of lie. Deception gains its power by concealing the the fallen angels (Matt. 25:41). It is also clear, lie in surrounding truth. What is needed is dis- however, that although Satan gained some mea- cernment, not simply in responding to what a sure of control through the events in the garden, demon may say but in dealing with the deceiving God retains ultimate sovereignty over his cre- spirits that are constantly trying to confuse our ation. God’s people are assured of victory in the belief system (Rev. 12:9; 1 Tim. 4:1). battle when they engage the enemy on the basis The primary issue in deception is always truth, of faith and obedience—the conditions set by and Satan deceives especially concerning the God in his covenant with Israel and the implica- source of power and of knowledge. God has pro- tions of submitting to God in James 4:7. vided all the power and knowledge we need to Every battle Israel fought in the conquest of live as “more than conquerors” in Christ; but Canaan was won or lost on spiritual consider- ever since the Garden of Eden, Satan has been ations. When Israel obeyed God’s commands and trying to cause us not to trust God to provide the acted on the basis of faith, God gave them vic- power we need and to doubt our ability to know tory no matter what the military situation. The God and to trust the Word of God. battle was ultimately between God and the gods. Satan uses his power to cause us to fear him. While idols are treated in the Old Testament with For Christians to fear Satan they must first contempt as utterly devoid of spiritual power doubt the power and provision of God for victory (Ps. 114:4–8; Isa. 40:18–20; 44:9–20; Jer. 10:3ff.), over Satan. Thus he accomplishes two goals: to the god or spirit behind the idol was treated as cause Christians to doubt God and to gain some real (cf. Deut. 32:17; Ps. 106:37; 1 Cor. 10:18–20). measure of control over them through fear. Yahweh was often compared to the gods (1 Kings But Satan will also seek to entice people—be- 8:23; 1 Chron. 16:25; Pss. 86:8; 96:4; 135:5). That lievers or unbelievers—to take power from him was not a comparison with nothing. It was the rather than from God. He comes as an angel of 76 Strategies in Mission light and makes his power seem desirable. This In missionary ministry this battle may well be brings one into contact with a long list of occult more like a Power Encounter than the battle for practices such as fortune telling, magic, sorcery, the mind which underlies it. Paul says that his and witchcraft. Satan has enough power to pro- call was “to open their eyes, to bring them from duce some striking results— “counterfeit mira- darkness to light, and from the power of Satan to cles, signs and wonders” (2 Thess. 2:10). Some God” (Acts 26:18). Thus evangelism is a kind of people only ask, “Does it work?” rather than “Is power encounter, and converts need to under- it from God; is it true?” Many people end up with stand clearly that they are moving from one a spiritual stronghold in their lives because they realm of spiritual power to another. have fallen for Satan’s deceptive use of power. Often associated with conversion is the de- Ultimately spiritual warfare is the battle for struction of objects used in non-Christian reli- the mind. Satan knows that people will always gious practices. This is a visible renunciation of live what they really believe, even if they do not the old ways and old worldview, but it is also a live what they profess to believe. Since one’s be- challenge to the “gods” behind the objects to de- lief about God is foundational to all other beliefs, fend themselves if they are able. Satan will almost always begin by trying to per- Missionaries may well see overt demonic activ- vert one’s belief about the character of God. It ity (see Possession Phenomena), and they need to happened in Eden. Satan said that God’s state- know how to minister with confidence in such a ment about dying if people ate of the fruit was a situation. Many places have been opened to the lie and that God could therefore not be trusted. gospel through seeing a person set free from evil He also implied that God could not love them spirits. Spiritual practitioners in other religions and withhold that beautiful, desirable fruit from may challenge Christians to demonstrate their them. Once they began to question the integrity power in a variety of ways. The missionary needs of God, they came under Satan’s control. to be prepared to respond appropriately. Ulti- It appears that Satan’s great desire is to be God mately prayer may be the most important (Luke 4:5–7; 2 Thess. 2:3, 4). This is also seen in weapon in the Christian’s arsenal against the the Old Testament in the conflict between God enemy. and the gods. As noted above, the real power be- Timothy M. Warner hind the “gods” in the Old Testament is Satan and his host of evil spirits. This same principle Bibliography. N. Anderson, How to Help Others Find Freedom in Christ; M. Kraft, Understanding Spiritual applies to all religious systems which set forth a Power; A. S. Moreau, The Essentials of Spiritual War­ god other than the Yahweh of Scripture. So the fare; E. Murphy, The Handbook for Spiritual Warfare; battle is still in process. Unfortunately, many T. Warner, Spiritual Warfare. missionaries have failed to help their converts make a thorough worldview change from an ani- mistic view in which the spirit world is manipu- Strategies in Mission. Many people moving out lable to a Christian view in which a sovereign in mission do not seem to think much about God is in control. Not only can God not be ma- strategy. At least the mainstream of missions at nipulated by us, there is absolutely nothing we any given point in history has been what others can do to commend ourselves to God. We are ut- are already doing. The constant element may terly dependent on his grace as a means of deal- have been a desire to share the riches of the gos- ing with our sin and relating to him on a daily pel, but the actual technique at any point has basis. The very definition of sin is dependent on usually been assumed. one’s view of the holiness and sovereignty of One of the first major movements was the phe- God. A low view of sin stems from a low view of nomenon of the highly individual initiatives of God. the Irish peregrini. They set out with the idea of Thus winning in spiritual warfare always monastic centers as a main strategy—the nature needs to begin with a right view of God and with of the movement from which they derived. And a right view of what it means to be a child of it worked. The Benedictine movement gradually God. If we say that we are children of God by took over the Irish centers of biblical study, devo- faith but believe that we have to earn our daily tional life, and evangelistic outreach, adding so standing with God, we become the victims of an many Roman elements of industry and science impossible situation. By grace God makes us that these centers became the nucleus of most of “co-heirs with Christ” (Rom. 8:17)—a standing the major cities of Europe. Whole kingdoms which we could never earn by our own efforts. came into the fold when strategically located Believing that this is indeed our position “in wives influenced their husbands to adopt the Christ” provides the only viable position from faith, often from a variety of motives. Some which to resist the enemy. The battle looks very groups were forced into the faith although con- different from the vantage point of the throne of temporary writings denounced that approach. God than it does from the context of the circum- Some approaches represented Contextualiza- stances of our lives on earth. tion so radical that they would not readily be 77 Strategies in Mission conceived of today yet they went on with clear ary family is less of a threat than a team, which success. Can you imagine the orgy of a Spring often finds it more difficult to get close or much goddess of fertility becoming an Easter sunrise less inside a strange society. service? But it worked. For that matter, can you God often has initiated a breakthrough by mir- imagine the entire Roman Empire deciding to acles and healings, and the very wording of become Christian? That event remarkably bene- Paul’s summary in Acts 26:18–20 would seem to fited the faith in many ways. predict the early possibility of a Power Encoun- Much of the expansion of the faith in Eu- ter in which it is decided once and for all rope—the overall phenomenon of the so-called whether God or Satan has the upper hand within conversion of barbarian Europe—was due to the a given group. But can you plan this out? Turn it prestige of the gospel representing the extension on? And, over the long haul is it proper to expect or renewal of the highly respected Roman civili- that the primary means of fighting rampant dis- zation (minus its legions), much as modern mis- ease, for example, is to appeal to God for mira- sionaries have on their side whatever respect (or cles? Do a thousand mission clinics and hospi- disrespect) people around the world have for the tals have a reason for existence? Are amazing achievements of the West minus its colonial new insights into microbial realities allowing domination. That is, factors that are often un- and insistently requiring new strategies for de- conscious, or not acknowledged, have given a stroying “the works of the devil”? Mercy minis- gust of wind to strategies which might not other- tries may be seen as bait; are they also essential wise have worked as well. to defining the very character of a loving God— But behind what did or did not work lies the and, by contrast, the character of our great question about what it really is to do mission. enemy? Conscious strategy would have to build on basic One of the most pursued strategies has been concepts of what the goal is understood to be. the planting of a string of “missions.” Despite What are we trying to do to people, their fami- grumblings about “the mission station ap- lies, and societies? Is it merely a case of trans- proach” the idea has prevailed of planting a mitting a message of hope and pardon? Do we complete community self-sufficient in food pro- demand that people repent and believe? Is it a duction, education, medicine, and even black- case of bringing about “the obedience of faith” smithing, masonry, and the importation of for- (Rom. 12:5; 16:26)? Is it something else to pray eign building methods, materials, and patterns. that his kingdom come (Matt. 6:10), and to Whether Roman Catholic, Moravian, or Protes- “preach the kingdom” (Acts 28:31)? “As my fa- tant, this strategy has been, rightly or wrongly, ther has sent me, so send I you.” Are those one of the most enduring techniques, especially marching orders? John records “the Son of God in frontier, pioneer, literally dangerous situa- appeared for this purpose, that he might destroy tions, where the “station” is in a certain real the works of the devil.” Have missionaries been sense a fortress. The very opposite, say, that of a doing this? They have fought ignorance, poverty, young, unarmed man going out and handing injustice, disease. Does that in itself clarify a himself over to a tribal society for better or strategy for mission? Somewhat. But missionar- worse and becoming a functional part of that so- ies have also carried disease with them. In North ciety has also worked. Somewhat similar, but not America in the early twenty-first century age willingly, at first, would be the case of Ulfilas, stratification and family-dissolving individual- who, as a captured slave in the fourth century ism have progressed to the point that the Ameri- was forced to become bilingual and was enabled can model for church planting consists to a great eventually to contribute to the immensely influ- extent of the understandable concept of finding ential Gothic Bible. loose individuals and collecting them into fellow- Much less frequently in the twenty-first cen- ships which are like surrogate families. This does tury will we find conditions in which a lone indi- not work very well in a traditional society where vidual might be the intended method as the natural families are already the basic structure. means of significant mission. The world has In that case the strategy sometimes becomes one changed beyond imagining, introducing obsta- of extracting people from real families in order cles and opportunities that can hardly be pre- to produce the expected fellowship. dicted from one day to the next. The very nature Probably the strategy least likely to succeed is of the expanding kingdom of God is quite un- the one in which large, enthusiastic local congre- clear in detail, but unquestionably it is a global gations in the West send people out to reproduce phenomenon. And this certainly affects strategy. the precise image of their Western fellowship, For example, it is dramatically new that the bypassing the mission agencies which over a pe- Christian movement is leaping and abounding in riod of many years have adjusted to some extent the non-Western world without a parallel in the to the mixed realities of the field cultures and West. It is dramatically new that the former have accumulated wisdom rather than having to “mission fields” are now sprouting hundreds of reinvent the wheel. Often an individual mission- mission societies of their own and thousands 78 Suffering upon thousands of their own missionaries. Some have traditionally been willing to put up with de- of these new missionaries are often strikingly viations that might startle people back home. more able to fit in, while others are often embar- But probably the greatest obstacle to the devel- rassingly less willing to adapt, just as Western opment of effective new ways of working on the missionaries have been known to be. In sheer field may be the very fact that we have not been number of agencies, associations of agencies, re- willing to employ mission field perspectives in gional gatherings, global gatherings, scholarly our own backyards. Outgoing missionaries have gatherings, and scholarly societies, the situation no missiology to follow. Who among us has been is unprecedented. able to know what to do with the burgeoning When it comes to strategy one of the largest Mormon movement or the New Age movement? and yet most puzzling challenges is the emer- Undoubtedly new strategies will be developed gence of a major phenomenon of indigenous both through the inherent creativities of isola- movements that are neither fish nor fowl. In Af- tion and the methodical comparison of notes. rica at the turn of the millennium, the so-called The world is both bigger, more fluid, and more African Initiated Church Movement involves complex than ever. It is also smaller and more over thirty million people. Many of the leaders of amenable to nearly constant interchange be- this phenomenon are illiterate but quite intelli- tween workers who were once far more isolated gent, their movements fed by a few who read for from each other all across the world. the benefit of the rest. Their theologies range Some of the most pregnant possibilities, un- from what Westerners might approve to what dreamed of before, are arising out of strategic staggers the imagination—such as the concept of Partnerships and dozens of other ways in which divine persons as members. Few missions have workers are able to encourage and enlighten one developed a strategy for assisting these new another. Conversation and interchange have be- churches to move in the right direction. come virtually instantaneous compared to the In India the very possibility of Hindus who need for endless months for travel or even for continue to be Hindus in many cultural dimen- mail to get around the globe. Working closely to- sions but who devoutly read the Bible, worship, gether has always been a marvelous phenome- and seek to follow Christ has many wondering. non in the world of overseas missionaries, and While no one knows how large this phenomenon new levels of collaboration are now well estab- is, some scholars estimate that it is as large as lished, possibly leading to new innovations in the explicitly Christian movement, and to some mission strategy in the future. extent more earnest than those who, by now, are Ralph D. Winter brought up culturally as Christians. Strategies being developed to reach out to assist and fellow- ship with people like this are likely to have as lit- Suffering. The universal symbol of Christianity tle initial acceptance as Paul’s idea of uncircum- is the cross, a symbol of suffering, specifically, cised Gentiles. the suffering of Jesus. To reflect upon the life of But parallel, if not similar, reasons for not Jesus is to remember his suffering. As the Ser- identifying with Western Christians exist in both vant Songs of Isaiah anticipated, Jesus “was de- China and the world of Islam, and in both cases spised and rejected, . . . a man of suffering and millions are profoundly impressed by the person acquainted with infirmity” (53:3 nrsv, see also of Jesus Christ and the strange power of the Ju- 50:6 and 53:4–5, 7–12). Likewise, it has been the deo-Christian Bible. Strategies at the beginning fortune of those who follow Jesus to experience of the Third Millennium must take into account suffering. “Remember the word I said to you,” the possibility that far more of what we call Jesus reminded his disciples, “‘Servants are not Christianity is simply reflective of a particular greater than their master.’ If they persecuted me, cultural background of one portion of the globe. they will persecute you” (John 15:20). No sooner And, the way things are going, Western Christi- did the church begin to flourish then the apostles anity now incorporates many detestable, even were arrested and threatened. They and others demonic, elements such as radical age segrega- were imprisoned and murdered (Acts 4:1–22; tion, the temporary family structure, and the 5:17–33; 7:54–60). But their suffering was seen world’s highest divorce rate, delinquency rate, not as an affliction; it was rather a means of wit- and prison population. Meanwhile, many other ness. “They rejoiced that they were considered non-Christian societies exhibit stable family life. worthy to suffer dishonor for the sake of the It already appears to be true that the faith of the name” (Acts 5:41). Though the words of the Bible is now out of the control of the West. Just writer of 1 Peter were addressed to first-century as the Roman tradition eventually lost control of Christian slaves, they have been regarded, and European Christianity, the non-Western world is rightly so, as applicable to all of Jesus’ disciples: growing without adopting all of the features “For to this you have been called, because Christ Westerners might expect or desire. What strategy suffered for you, leaving you an example, so that can we develop in this situation? Missionaries you should follow in his steps” (1 Peter 2:21). 79 Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)

The Christian mission—if it is Christian, that Bibliography. A. J. Gittins, Bread for the Journey; is, Christ-like—is a replication of the mission of J. S. Pobee, Mission in Christ’s Way; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ; Jesus, and in due time will involve suffering. In D. Webster, Yes to Mission. his second letter to the church at Corinth, Paul recounts his own suffering in the spreading of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Lan- the gospel (11:23–28), and he reminds his read- guages (TESOL). The worldwide demand for ers that though suffering is a part of being a dis- English language instruction has made the ciple, it also is a form of witness. “We are af- teaching of English as a foreign or second lan- flicted in every way,” he writes, “but not crushed; guage a significant strategy in contemporary perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted, missions. This demand is due to a number of but not forsaken; struck down, but not de- factors, including the influence of English-based stroyed; always carrying in the body the death of media and technological information, the wide- Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be made spread use of English for conducting interna- visible in our bodies” (4:8–10). tional trade, and the desire for higher education It is important to remember, as Douglas Web- in English-speaking countries. Since, in one esti- ster observes, that the Greek word for Witness, mate, 80 percent of the world’s scientific and martus, soon acquired a new meaning, one who technical information is published in English, died for the faith, and it has been transliterated as the language has become important in many martyr, thus “combining the ideas of mission and countries as a means to modernization and par- suffering” (1966, 104). To be a witness will there- ticipation in the global community. fore result in suffering, sometimes in death. This Mission organizations have responded to the has been particularly true for missionaries. For demand for English instruction in a variety of some, mission has meant violent death, for ex- ways. English language teaching has allowed ample, John Williams, Eleanor Chestnut, and Christian workers (often referred to as tentmak- Archbishop Oscar Romero. For others it has ing missionaries) to gain access to areas of the meant harassment, arrest, and months or years world where it is difficult for missionaries to ob- in prison, for example, Adoniram Judson and tain visas. In countries with fewer restrictions, William Wade Harris. How many have suffered English language specialists often work in tan- the loss of spouses and/or children, for example, dem with missionaries and national Christians George Schmidt, E. R. Beckman, and Carie to conduct evangelism and establish churches. In Sydenstricker? Who knows the number who addition, the increase in non-Western missionar- have experienced terribly unhappy marriages be- ies has created a demand within the missions cause of abusive or mentally ill spouses, for ex- community for English language instructors to ample, William Carey, Robert Morrison, and work in contexts such as theological institutions Martha Crawford? Abandonment by colleagues and missionary training centers. or supporters has pushed some to the brink of In general, teaching English as a foreign lan- despair, for example, Rowland Bingham and C. T. guage (TEFL) refers to instruction in countries Studd. Oppression of the poor and the defense- where English is not the native language, while less invariably weighs heavily on compassionate teaching English as a second language (TESL) missionaries and missionary bishops, for exam- refers to instruction in English-speaking coun- ple, Bartholomew de Las Casas and Festo tries. A common umbrella acronym is TESOL, Kivengere. Significant, therefore, is the apostle “teaching English to speakers of other lan- Paul’s conclusion following his recitation of per- guages.” sonal suffering. He says, “And besides other History. The association of TEFL with mis- things, I am under daily pressure because of my sions became prominent during the second half anxiety for all the churches” (2 Cor. 11:28). Many of the nineteenth century with the establishment of the sufferings experienced in mission stem of educational institutions in areas under British from apprehension and pain for Christ’s people. colonial influence. In countries such as India, To be involved in the mission of Jesus Christ, Myanmar (Burma), Egypt, and China, these mis- therefore, is to experience suffering, and one of sion-based schools provided English instruction the most vivid reminders of this fact is when we in several different forms. Some schools were as Jesus’ followers gather for the celebration of English-medium, with English serving as the the Eucharist, a reenactment of the sufferings of language of instruction, while in others English our Lord. Whether we hold to the real or sym- was taught primarily as a foreign language. In bolic presence in the elements, we should always late-nineteenth-century Japan, where evangelism remember that “the breaking of the bread” and was prohibited but English was in great demand, the “drinking of the cup” happens repeatedly English language instruction in mission-spon- outside as well as inside the walls of the church. sored schools became an important means for Alan Neely missionary access. 80 Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)

A large-scale survey conducted prior to the EFL teachers frequently work within secular 1910 World Missionary Conference in Edin- schools and institutions. In some countries, most burgh found that English language instruction notably China in the 1980s and 1990s, the de- was widespread in mission-sponsored educa- mand for English instruction is strong enough to tional institutions across the Far East, the Indian make it possible to send large numbers of teach- subcontinent, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Mid- ers for short term (ranging from one month to dle East. Nevertheless, the teaching of English two years), with a limited amount of preservice was heatedly debated at Edinburgh and other training. early missionary conventions. The greatest con- Less restricted contexts allow a broader range cerns were that English language instruction of options for the use of TEFL as a mission strat- would tend to associate Christianity with An- egy. In nations such as Japan and Thailand, the glo-Saxon culture, and that graduates of mission ranks of English instructors include professional schools would become culturally separated from Christian teachers in secular institutions as well their own peoples. as career missionaries who use TEFL as a means During the second half of the twentieth cen- of making evangelistic contacts. The latter ap- tury TEFL became associated with the tentmak- proach often involves strategies such as short- ing model of missions described by J. Christy term English camps, private tutoring, and infor- Wilson Jr., who was himself initially an English mal classes using a Bible-based approach. instructor in Afghanistan in the early 1950s. A Another major use of TEFL occurs within global survey in 1957 located 257 missionaries evangelical contexts such as theological insti- teaching English in 24 countries, with the largest tutes, schools for missionary children, and mis- number working in Japan. During the subse- sionary training centers. English has become the quent three decades, political change in China, lingua franca of an increasingly diverse mission- Southeast Asia, the former Soviet Union, and ary population. In parts of the world which have central Europe created the opportunity for thou- a limited number of theological texts in the local sands of Christian EFL teachers to work in coun- languages, EFL instruction may be provided to tries which were, to varying degrees, closed to allow seminary students and pastors to read the traditional missionary work. In the 1980s several broad range of works published in English. Christian agencies responded to this demand by The rise of TEFL as a mission strategy has specializing in training and sending short-term been paralleled by an increase in the availability English teachers, while a number of established of professional training programs and curricular mission boards and agencies added TEFL to materials. Some mission agencies have re- their global strategy. A 1996 survey of 250 mis- sponded to the demand for English instruction sion organizations found that 65 had EFL-teach- by providing in-house training programs, while ing openings or anticipated openings in the near others send prospective teachers to one of the future. dozens of teacher education programs available Concurrent with the rise in demand for TEFL at secular and Christian colleges and universi- in Europe, Asia, and Latin America was an in- ties. Major publishing houses such as Cambridge crease in immigration to North America in the University Press offer a variety of EFL textbooks decades following the 1960s. Government fund- ranging from basic “life skills” English for refu- ing of English instruction for immigrants led to gees and immigrants to English for professionals the establishment of ESL classes in public in the fields of medicine and engineering. schools, college, and adult education programs. The association of English with Western cul- This in turn stimulated the development of ture continues to be a concern for missionaries TEFL/TESL as a specialized field, with its own and mission agencies. However, the character of professional organization (TESOL, Inc., initiated En­glish instruction and the nature of the English in 1966), a growing body of research, scholarly language itself have both changed since the 1910 and pedagogical journals, and professional Edinburgh conference. In the postcolonial era, preparation programs at the master’s and doc- English­ instruction is provided in response to de- toral levels. mand rather than imposed by a foreign power. Mission Strategy. As a strategy for evangelical By providing this instruction, the missionary mission, TEFL takes a variety of forms which are teacher often fills a role which is perceived by often related to the needs and limitations of a nationals as acceptable for a foreign worker. In particular context. In countries which prohibit addition, the rise of indigenous dialects of En- missionaries, such as communist and Islamic glish—in India, Nigeria, and many other coun- nations, English language teaching allows Chris- tries—has broadened the language beyond its tian workers to gain entry. These workers may Anglo-Saxon base. English is one of the few include professional teachers who are uncon- major languages with more second-language nected with any Christian organization as well as speakers than native speakers. missionaries who teach English primarily to With the passage of time, increasingly varied maintain their visa status. In restricted locations, forms of English will evolve—a process acceler- 81 Technology ated, perhaps, through the use of computer tech- send them, often expect answers back in the nology. As it adapts to international demand by same way and in the same day. taking increasingly varied and specialized forms, Mission administrators then raise several cru- TEFL is likely to remain a significant avenue for cial questions: Do the benefits justify the invest- missionary outreach. ment in the equipment and training costs? Are Alan A. Seaman the technologies contextually appropriate? Will the use of the new technologies facilitate the Bibliography. B. Baurain, EMQ 28:2 (1992): 164–73; reaching of the mission field or not? Many tech- B. Camenson, Opportunities in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages; L. Dickerson, Handbook nologies are available and affordable, but irrele- for Christian EFL Teachers; P. Lakin, ed., The ELT vant or distracting. Guide; D. Snow, More than a Native Speaker: An Intro­ Access to information about new technologies duction for Volunteers Teaching Abroad. is often available through shared databases avail- able publicly in either electronic bulletin boards or internet connections or privately through a Technology. Missionaries and mission agencies fee structure. Through the worldwide web one use technologies both for internal functioning can access any of several search “engines” to and to accomplish their primary external mis- identify information sources. If one does not sion. have access to these databases, most research li- Communicational Technologies. The range braries have facilities to search a wide range of and decreasing cost of communications technol- databases that touch on virtually any topic that ogies are placing virtually every missionary has been put either in print or in an electronic worldwide within an almost instantaneous inter- medium. active situation. Cellular and satellite phones in New and useful technologies are becoming urban and rural areas have opened telecommu- available in every arena of mission activity nications to local missionaries who in the past whether evangelism and church planting, leader- have had no access to phone communications.­ ship development, or relief and development. E-mail provides a wide range of communica- One could cite the software that Wycliffe Bible tional opportunities. Through internet links one Translators is developing in morpheme parsing can not only have text-based communications, as a significant technological step forward in lin- but graphics and audio as well. It is anticipated guistic analysis. It facilitates a more rapid and that interactive audio and video connections will accurate translation process as well as helping soon not only be possible (as they now are), but with literacy development. Or, one could men- will also be very practical and economical. tion some newly discovered “technologies” in the With the commitment of missions like Mission area of church growth that facilitate the wholis- Aviation Fellowship (MAF) to link what they de- tic growth of the church. One could show the scribe as the “telephone disadvantaged world” new technologies being used in mission aviation with the rest of the world through radio-based to make flying safer. The application of new elec- E-mail, the possibility of easily accessible two- tronic technologies to education and the equip- way communication through E-mail is now ping of leaders generates much excitement and being realized. By 1996 MAF had established ap- anticipation across the mission community. It proximately fifty “hubs” worldwide through will be helpful to briefly address some of the which people could have access to internet-based concerns about technologies in the arena of edu- E-mail. While often these connections are based cation for leadership development (see also Edu- on a relay system, the delay is hours rather than cational Mission Work). days or weeks. Some of these connections are Educational Technologies. Whether one lec- phone-based and others are high-frequency ra- tures using a chalkboard or satellite-based tele- dio-based. conferencing, the primary purpose of using dif- With the rise in accessibility to the missionar- ferent technologies in leadership education is to ies some questions have arisen related to the new enhance learning. The use of different technolo- forms of communication. Whereas in the past gies extends the potential range of learning expe- missionaries have often been distant in terms of riences, and provides the opportunities for more time and geography, with E-mail they are just a appropriate response and the contextualization click of a mouse button away. Some churches of the learning. The use of technology may in- and individuals have sought to communicate crease the potential access to the learning by re- more often with the missionaries and expect ducing the constraints of time, cost, and venue. more and “better” reporting from them with less The appropriate selection of the technologies delay. With the current “faddishness” of E-mail requires sensitivity to and knowledge about the some missionaries find themselves swamped local situation, learners, the people the learners with E-mail requests awaiting immediate re- will be working with, and the agency using the sponse. The senders of E-mail and faxes, know- technologies. The following issues must be taken ing that their messages arrive virtually as they into account: purpose of learning; objectives for 82 10/40 Window content; control (who makes/participates in the dent-directed, interactive, function-focused kind decision making?); characteristics of the learner of education. (e.g., learning style, competence in subject area, In anticipation of the required or expected cul- familiarity with the technology, relevant experi- tural changes a wise planner will begin initiating ence, motivation, relevant skill level, spiritual the steps to facilitate these changes in the com- maturity); overall educational delivery system, munity. As new technologies are becoming avail- including the balance of formal, nonformal, and able some educators are suggesting changes in informal modes, and the administrative support interdisciplinary organization. Missiology often system; costs to learner, agency, and community; requires multidisciplinary research. Planners available resources to the learner and for pro- should then organize the information along less duction, delivery, and support; instructors’ com- strict disciplinary lines or more multidisciplinary petence, commitment both in the subject area lines. and with the technology; skill objectives; and Educators also suggest that we implement de- spiritual formation objectives. sign learning flexibility with both administrative In addition to an in-depth understanding of and delivery structures more contextually de- the community to be served, the students, the signed. In some cases they would be more indi- teachers, the agency providing the technology, vidually structured and in other cases more and the technology’s local application should community/­cooperatively structured. Different also be understood before a significant commit- technologies lend themselves to this kind of flex- ment is made. Any change in the technological ibility. Some technologies serve individuals bet- sphere of an educational enterprise can be ex- ter whereas others serve groups well. For exam- pected to bring unpredictable changes in every ple, audiotapes tend to serve the individual part of the community. A change in technology better, whereas videorecordings may be used as may be expected to bring changes in the World- well with groups. Retraining faculty and stu- view of the community, including its assump- dents about the new technologies provides skills tions, values, forms, and expected ways of behav- and reduces fear. ior. A technological change will result in a Additionally, timing issues need to be designed change in culture. The more technological more flexibly. Such issues include duration, be- change is introduced, the more cultural change ginning and ending points, and when a person can be expected. The more quickly it is intro- can begin in terms of personal experience/pre- duced, the more one can expect cultural disso- requisites and allowance of self-pacing. Further, nance around the technology. constraints related to venue, student selection, When selecting an educational technology the and class size may be treated more flexibly with following values should be considered: the use of the use of new technologies. The use of computer-mediated courses has multiple sensory channels; the immediate use of generated much interest in training circles. Com- the proposed learning in which analogous or puter-mediated courses are now available in mis- equivalent immediate feedback is provided; ac- siology from the United States and one would tive rather than passive participation by the expect in some other countries very soon. As learner; an employment of variety, suspense, and areas develop access to the internet, these humor; opportunity for the learner to use his or courses will become available. Other missiologi- her own experience to discover what is to be cal information is becoming increasingly avail- learned; building on prerequisites without re- able on CD-ROM. peating them and transferability of the learning. Missionaries and mission agencies should and Given the expectation of culture change when will continue to explore and use an increasingly any new technology is introduced, the wise plan- broad variety of technologies. However, the se- ner will ask about the kinds of culture change lection of the technologies to be used should be that will need to be addressed in advance. What based on considered criteria, especially that of assumptions need to be challenged? What values cultural sensitivity and availability, rather than need to change? What behaviors will be affected? just contemporary faddishness. These kinds of questions of each of the involved Edgar J. Elliston constituencies should be addressed (e.g., learn- ers, communities to be served, educational/train- Bibliography. I. Babour, Ethics in an Age of Technol­ ing agency). It should not be assumed that in- ogy; F. Ferré, Hellfire and Lightning Rods; A. S. Moreau structors who are familiar with one set of and M. O’Rear, EMQ 33:4 (1997): 464–66; idem, EMQ 35:1 (1998): 84–87; idem, EMQ 35:2 (1998): 212–15; technologies will automatically be skilled in the N. Postman, Technopoly; R. Rowland, Missiology and use of another. Similarly, the support of one set the Social Sciences, pp. 84–101. of technologies may require a change in one’s “philosophy of education.” For example, one may have to move from a teacher-directed, con- 10/40 Window. The term “10/40 Window” has tent-focused kind of education to a more stu- been used to describe a rectangular-shaped win- 83 Tent-Making Mission dow 10 degrees by 40 degrees north of the equa- calls for a reevaluation of the church’s priorities, tor spanning the globe from West Africa to Asia, a refocusing of its energies, and a redeployment including over 60 countries and more than 2 bil- of its missionaries. Luis Bush, the international lion people. The majority of the unreached peo- director of the AD 2000 and Beyond Movement, ples of the world—those who have never heard sums it up well: “If we are to be faithful to Scrip- the gospel and who are not within reach of ture, obedient to the mandate of Christ, and if churches of their own people—live within this we want to see the establishment of a mis- window (see Peoples, People Groups). sion-minded church planting movement within At the Lausanne Congress on World Evange- every unreached people and city . . . so that all lization (1974), Ralph Winter rocked the evan- peoples might have a valid opportunity to experi- gelical world with the challenge of unreached ence the love, truth and saving power of Jesus peoples. At the Lausanne Congress II in Manila Christ, we must get down to the core of the un- (1989), Luis Bush gave the ethnic orientation of reached—the 10/40 Window.” unreached peoples a new geographical focus. Richard D. Love There, during a plenary session of the congress, he presented the strategic concept of the 10/40 Bibliography. C. P. Wagner, S. Peters, and M. Wil- Window for the first time. son; eds., Praying through the 100 Gateway Cities of the 10/40 Window; J. D. Douglas, ed., Proclaim Christ Until There are three major reasons for the dire spir- He Comes: Lausanne II in Manila, F. K. Jansen, ed., Tar­ itual state of the 10/40 Window. First of all, the get Earth. 10/40 Window is the home of the world’s major non-Christian religions: Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Over 1 billion Muslims, and more than 1 billion Hindus and almost 240 million Buddhists live in this region. Tent-Making Mission. The apostle Paul wit- Second, the poorest of the poor live in the nessed while he earned a living by making tents 10/40 Window. The remarkable overlap between in the city of Corinth (Acts 18:3). This is how the fifty poorest countries of the world and the tent-making got its name. Tent-making mission least evangelized countries of the world is no co- has gained prominence in recent years, but incidence. After observing that the majority of tent-makers are not new. They are as old as Abra- the unreached people live in the poorest coun- ham, Isaac, and Jacob. While being semi-no- tries of the world, Bryant Myers concludes, “the madic cattle-ranchers, they became witnesses to poor are lost and the lost are poor.” the living God, Yahweh, before the Canaanites. Third, there has been a lack of missionaries In the early church, persecution scattered believ- serving among the peoples of the 10/40 Window. ers from Jerusalem to Antioch and beyond. Only about 8 percent of the missionary force Those scattered went about bearing testimony as presently focuses on this needy and neglected they worked their trades. The modern mission- area. Historically, the three religious blocs of this ary movement sent out people as medical mis- region (Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist) have been sionaries, social work missionaries, educational considered resistant. But lack of fruit among missionaries, and agricultural missionaries. these people may not be due to resistance so They pursued their missionary calling while uti- much as neglect. Generally, the church has made lizing their professional skills. little effort to reach these peoples. The Bible is Why has tent-making gathered considerable clear that little sowing leads to little reaping. attention among the missionary strategists For these three reasons, the 10/40 Window during the past decade? The reason is simple: represents what some missiologists describe as missionaries as missionaries have not been per- Satan’s stronghold. From a careful analysis of mitted to go where the majority of non-Christian the 10/40 Window, it appears that Satan and his people are. During the past decades, missionar- forces have established a unique territorial ies have gradually been ousted from the coun- stronghold that has restrained the advance of the tries of their service as communism, totalitarian- gospel into this area of the world. In this region ism, and Islamic regimentation began to spread. of the world, Paul’s description of Satan as “the Despite the collapse of Eastern European coun- god of this age who has blinded the minds of un- tries, the Berlin Wall, and the Soviet Union, the believers” (2 Cor. 4:4) can be clearly seen. Clearly number of non-Christians in “closed” countries the forces of darkness stand behind the over- has been on the rise due to the resurgence of tra- whelming poverty and spiritual bondage of this ditional religions and ideologies. The movement region. for reaching the unreached has added value to Therefore, the 10/40 Window serves as an im- the acceptance of tent-making as a mission strat- portant and strategic tool for the completion of egy. the Great Commission. It helps the church visu- Who, then, are these tent-makers? They may alize its greatest challenge and focuses the be defined as cross-cultural workers with a secu- church on its final frontier. The 10/40 Window lar identity called to make disciples within 84 Terrorism

“closed” countries. This understanding is more one’s professional association or examine the job exclusive than other definitions. They are listing in a professional journal. Possibilities “cross-cultural workers,” not mono-cultural abound in high-tech fields. Foreign embassies workers. Christian witnessing to people of the are worth checking. Potential tent-makers may same cultural background is the duty of all be- latch on to government or intergovernmental as- lievers, and not to be categorized as something signments. They may go to work with humani- extraordinary. “With secular identity” refers to tarian relief and development organizations. one’s witnessing through one’s occupation. Teaching En­glish to Speakers of Other Lan- “Called to make disciples” refers to one’s sense of guages (TESOL) is in high demand all over the calling as a tent-maker with the intentionality to world. One can serve as a teacher in most fields make disciples. Finally, tent-makers as defined and at all levels, as a medical doctor, as a nurse, here serve “within closed countries” (see Cre- as an engineer, as a farmer, and as a “profes- ative Access Countries). sional” student. There are two main areas of dispute among There are some problems associated with those favoring the tent-making strategy. First, tent-making. For security reasons, the “success” the matter of tent-makers serving “within closed stories are in short supply. Often we hear only of countries.” The preference here for exclusivity is failures, tent-makers coming home due to their one of strategic concern. It is imperative that inability to adjust to the culture of the host coun- tent-makers receive special training with a focus try, family reasons, or inadequate preparation. It on a special people group. Reaching those be- is difficult to do the required balancing act be- hind closed doors stipulates special preparation. tween job and ministry successfully. There is Learning the language and culture of the people often not enough time for ministry because of requires time and discipline. The success of their the job pressures. Tent-makers are to witness ministry depends on it. Their service as through their occupations, but some employers tent-makers may be prolonged rather than short- prohibit such witnessing activities. Despite these lived. Obviously tent-making is applicable in difficulties, tent-making missions must continue “open” countries. Second is the issue of support to be explored. The future context of mission as methods. We should not make this an issue to a whole demands it. Tent-makers are the agents divide those who are advocates of the tent-mak- of strategic missions for tomorrow as well as ing strategy. today. In Acts 18:1–5, we see Paul supporting himself Tetsunao Yamamori by teaming up with Aquila and Priscilla as tent-makers. Later when Silas and Timothy ar- Bibliography. D. Hamilton, Tentmakers Speak: Prac­ tical Advice from Over 400 Missionary Tentmakers; rived in Corinth from Macedonia, Paul devoted J. Lewis, ed., Working Your Way to the Nations: A Guide himself exclusively to preaching. Paul vehe- to Effective Tentmaking; J. C. Wilson, Jr., Today’s Tent­ mently defended fully-funded spiritual ministry makers; T. Yamamori, Penetrating Missions’ Final Fron­ (1 Cor. 9:1–14). There are various ways of doing tier: A New Strategy For Unreached Peoples. ministry. On his part, he opted not to receive church support, not on principle but for a prag­ matic reason. For he has indeed successfully ar- Terrorism. In the two years following June 1991, gued for the legitimacy of accepting church sup- in the southern Philippines there were four mis- port for his ministry. sionaries killed, two raped, and six kidnapped. In What are the qualifications of tent-makers? addition, thirty-five were injured in a terrorist The tent-makers must be (1) physically, emotion- bombing. This is but one example of the risks ally, and spiritually self-reliant; (2) adaptable; missionaries are confronting as they propagate (3) biblically literate; (4) alert to the emerging the Christian message of peace in a world of vio- mission context; (5) trained in meeting needs lence. Other areas of ongoing instability include vital to the people group they seek to penetrate; Colombia, Peru, Liberia, Sudan, and Afghani- (6) trained in long-term and low-profile evange- stan. listic skills; (7) equipped with broad new strate- Two of the main sources of terroristic activity gic thinking; and (8) prepared with a special are fundamentalist Muslims and communist strategy for responding to opportunities pre- guerrillas. These fringe groups have no affinity sented by need. with Christianity. Therefore, the foreign mission- How does one go about finding a tent-making ary becomes a high profile person through job across cultures? One must be creative and whom they may make a religious or political persistent in job hunting like anyone else. One statement. Missionaries are also usually un- may consult sources such as InterCristo, the In- armed and thus totally vulnerable as a “soft tar- ternational Placement Network, and the Interna- get.” tional Employment Gazette. One may look for Evacuation of missionary personnel from international employment on the Internet. One areas of danger is an emotional topic in mission may inquire regarding job availability through circles. One side holds to a “stay at all costs” po- 85 Third World sition. They demand the right to make an indi- of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The dis- vidual decision on the field level without refer- covery of new lands under the thrones of Europe ence to home base directives or to local embassy gave rise to a period of rapid expansion of em- advisories. The other extreme represents those pires and the establishment of colonial rule (see who are ready to evacuate at the first sign of Colonialism). Along with colonial rule came the danger. Most missionaries would be positioned inevitable access to the resources of the colonies between these two extremes. and the economic advantage for the “mother Nationals in Bangladesh, Liberia, and Ethio- country.” The massive impact included the sys- pia expressed serious reservation as to how the tems of education, economics, healthcare, jus- missionaries fled their countries in times of dan- tice, and government which were established as ger. The local people felt forsaken by their spiri- part of the process of colonization. Perhaps the tual guides. It would seem imperative that major most virulent import were the languages of the decisions regarding evacuation be taken in tan- colonial empires. Although the colonial land- dem with these national believers. scape changed with the Industrial Revolution, it One of the few evangelical organizations that continued unchallenged through the end of the is working with mission boards in risk assess- nineteenth century with the rapid colonization of ment as well as in assisting in the release of kid- Africa and parts of Asia by the Western nations. napped missionaries is Contingency Preparation World War I marked the end of the era of imperi- Consultants. This group has held seminars in a alism and the foreshadowing of the period of Na- number of countries for mission leaders. tionalism which would follow World War II. Biblically, one finds the apostle Paul enduring Beginning with the independence of India extreme hardships as well as purposefully walk- (1947) and China (1949), the political map began ing into dangerous situations. However, on at its most radical change in history. The spread of least seven occasions he fled from those who nationalist movements was fueled by the eco- threatened his life, almost always upon the ad- nomic recovery in the West, the cold war ten- vice of the local people. This subject remains one sions, and the social climate brought about by of the most difficult areas with which missionar- the formation of the United Nations. Nationalist ies and missions boards have to deal. leaders emerged from within the colonies with Phil Parshall the momentum born of promises of a better world. While in some cases armed revolutions Bibliography. L. Accad, EMQ 28:1 (1992): 54–56; R. Klamser, EMQ 28:1 (1992): 48–52; P. Parshall, EMQ ensued, for the most part the nationalist move- 30:2 (1994): 162–66. ments pressured the already weakened govern- ments of the West, resulting in the formation of newly independent nations. By the 1980s, the Third World. The term, Third World, refers to majority of the world had won or been granted those nations primarily in Africa, Asia, Latin political independence. Due in large part to the America, and the Pacific which emerged from rapid political upheaval, the promises of better the colonial era after World War II. Having its times have largely gone unachieved. Forces such origin in the commercial class of the French as the vestiges of colonial structures, a global Revolution (third estate), the term Third World economy with advantages to the industrialized was coined first by the French intellectuals in the nations, unstable political climates, armed con- late 1940s and later by leaders of the nonaligned flicts, and the population explosion contribute to nations movement at a conference in Indonesia a staggering array of challenges for the newly in 1955. Popular usage of the term has shifted formed states of the Third World. from the political connotations with its emphasis Third World Issues. Although the nations of on opposition to the colonial powers and the the Third World represent the widest possible di- cold war nuclear threats of the first (capitalist) versity of cultures, religions, and lifestyles, there and second (communist) worlds, to a focus on are common issues which distinguish them from the issues which are common to the Third World the more developed nations. The foremost issue nations. Because the Third World represents ap- facing the Third World is widespread Poverty proximately 4 billion of the world’s population (6 (Isbister). While poverty is to some extent rela- billion), attempts have been made to change the tive and occurs in every nation, the extreme ef- term to the Two Thirds World. Despite these ef- fects of poverty are experienced to a dispropor- forts, the Third World remains a primary term of tionate degree in the Third World. In an attempt identification. to avoid overstating the gap between rich coun- History. The emergence of the Third World tries and the Third World, the World Bank uses a may be viewed as the product of two major “purchasing power parity” which in its estimates forces—external forces linked to the era of impe- of per capita income reveal that U.S. incomes rialism and internal forces linked to nationalism vary from 3 times higher than the richer coun- and Revolution (Gheddo; Isbister). The period of tries of the Third World to 20 times higher than Western imperialism began with the explorations the poorest countries (Isbister). Another way of 86 Totalitarianism understanding poverty is in absolute terms or in- Totalitarianism. “Totalitarian” refers to “. . . a come levels at which people are unable to afford system of government which tolerates only one food which is nutritionally adequate and essen- political party to which all other institutions are tial non-food items. Using an absolute standard, subordinate and generally demand total subser- the United Nations Development Program esti- vience of the individual to the state” (Oxford En­ mates that one-third of the Third World lives in glish Dictionary, 2nd ed). Possony quotes Guri- poverty with even higher proportions in Asia an’s definition as “the deification of a power (60%) and Africa (50%). system—the power system directed by that The problems which cause or result from pov- group which came into being as its creator and erty are complex; however, a number of critical is- claims to act as its realizer.” When applied to sues surround the extreme poverty of the Third Christian missions, it points to the life of the World. The issues of health and physical well-be- church and its expanding/growing movement ing are of primary concern. Diseases which are being realized under and in spite of oppressive linked to the shortage of potable water and inade- political and religious systems. The related term, quate nutrition plague the Third World. While the “authoritarian,” also supports complete submis- capacity to produce food and essential non-food sion to authority, perhaps without some of the items varies among nations, the difficulties of dis- strongly pejorative values of totalitarianism. tribution and generation of sustainable income to Throughout biblical and church history, God’s purchase available supplies are common problems people have been forced to grapple with life of the Third World. Added to these critical issues under totalitarian regimes. The Old Testament are the challenges of establishing appropriate edu- provides a catalogue of diverse conditions: under cation, sustainable development, healthcare, ade- the Egyptian oppression, the young nation of Is- quate housing, and equitable economic growth. rael under various shorter-lived oppressive re- Along with the debt crises, these issues are shap- gimes of closer neighbors, the destructive/trans- ing the agenda of the Third World and to an esca- forming captivities to Assyria and Babylon, and lating extent that of the industrialized world. the later servitude under the Roman Empire. Missiological Considerations. One of the Christ emerges to minister in the context of spin-offs of the independence movements among Roman imperial totalitarianism, the Great Com- Third World nations has been an increasing atti- mission is given to the early church very familiar tude among Western Christians that missions to with political and religious oppression. Through- the Third World should be from the Third World. out church history, God’s global people have In other words, independence for the church is found peace and prosperity an uncommon com- akin to that of the nations. While it is true that modity, with the reality being more a context of an increased partnership must be realized, it is poverty, weakness, violence, and oppression. also true that the church in the Third World can- A contemporary typology of totalitarian re- not address the problems alone (see Globalism). gimes offers two major categories with their own As Johannes Verkuyl put it, “interdependence is subsets and variants: (1) secular state totalitari- not only a necessity of life but also a calling with anism (Marxist, tribal, extreme nationalistic); (2) which we have been charged.” Interdependence theocratic state totalitarianism and other reli- demands a “vision of transformation” which in- gious totalitarianisms (Islamic, Hindu, Buddhist, cludes not only the generous sharing of re- Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and even Protes- sources, but a sustained commitment to the con- tant). The subtle Western spirit of “political cor- cerns of both evangelism and sociopolitical rectness” is nurtured by a ideological/cultural involvement (Samuel). The commitment was totalitarian virus. summarized well in the theme of Lausanne II, Contemporary mission and church history “calling the whole Church to take the whole Gos- finds the church engaging a spectrum of opposi- pel to the whole world.” The precarious position tions as it struggles to exist and thrive in diverse of the Third World raises major concerns for political and religious contexts. Following the missiological reflection which include an on-go- collapse of Russian and European Marxism, an ing commitment to “teaching them to observe” unwarranted euphoria swept the world, and ide- and “love your neighbor as yourself” (Matt. alists heralded a new era of global peace, justice, 22:39; 28:20). and democracy. That did not happen, and today C. Douglas McConnell nearly 120 nations restrict, in part or totally, open church life or access to foreign missions. Bibliography. P. Gheddo, Why Is the Third World Totalitarianism is inherently structured into the Poor?; J. Isbister, Promises Not Kept: The Betrayal of So­ heart of humanity individually and collectively cial Change in the Third World; Lausanne Congress on World Evangelization, The Lausanne Covenant; V. Sam- as well as in all created political and religious uel, Serving with the Poor in Asia, pp. 145–54; United systems. One of the prime reasons we still have Nations Development Program, Human Development so many unreached nations and people groups is Report; J. Verkuyl, To Break the Chains of Oppression, simply because they are difficult to reach—and pp. 85–103. the difficulty is often directly related to the spec- 87 Transformational Development ter (and spectrum) of totalitarianism found in prove human welfare bear witness to the charac- these regions. ter and activity of God through Christ. William David Taylor Second, God reconciles the seen and unseen elements of creation to himself through Christ. Bibliography. J. Ellul, Violence: Reflections from a This reconciliation is critically important to Christian Perspective; E. L. Frizen Jr., and W. T. Cog- transformational development. The Greek term gins, eds., Christ and Caesar in Christian Missions; T. Lambert, The Resurrection of the Chinese Church; in the passage, apokatallassom, meaning to recon­ P. Marshall, with L. Gilbert, Their Blood Cries Out: The cile, is a unique expression of katallassom, the Untold Story of Persecution Against Christians in the common word meaning to reconcile. The apostle Modern World, S. T. Possony, NCE, 14:210–11; N. Shea, Paul seems to have coined apokatallassom to com- In the Lion’s Den: A Shocking Account of Persecution municate a comprehensive view of Reconcilia- and Martyrdom of Christians Today and How We Should tion, particularly things that might not other- Respond, T. Yamamori, Penetrating Missions’ Final wise be reconciled. He used the term on two Frontier. occasions. On one occasion, Paul used it to af- firm that God fosters a relationship with the en- tire creation. God reconciles the seen and unseen Transformational Development. The term elements of creation to himself through Christ “transformational development” was coined to (Col. 1:20), affecting every area of life. recognize the contribution of Development work Third, Peace is the result of God’s reconciling to Christian mission. As an expression of Chris­ work through Christ. Peace, meaning a sense of tian mission, transformational development harmony in creation, results when communities seeks to change the spiritual assumptions that of people realize that they, through the empow- form the basis of a survival strategy in a particu- erment of God, can meet their physical, social, lar Culture. The change is from belief in the cul- emotional, and spiritual needs. By integrating ture’s existing spiritual milieu to faith in the Tri- and addressing these needs, transformational de- une God as the Creator, Redeemer, and Sustainer velopment affirms that God’s reconciling work of the world. A survival strategy is the combina- through Christ brings the fullness of peace to a tion of agricultural, medical, religious, educa- fallen creation. tional, commercial, construction, and household Bruce Bradshaw activities that contribute to human welfare in a Bibliography. B. Bradshaw, Bridging the Gap: Evan­ particular culture. A survival strategy reflects the gelism, Development and Shalom; P. G. Hiebert, Anthro­ Worldview assumptions of a community. pological Reflections on Missiological Issues; R. Sider, In most cultures, the activities that comprise a One Sided Christianity? survival strategy have a spiritual foundation. For example, farmers and medical practitioners in traditional African cultures often make Sacri- Truth. In common use truth refers to that which fices to their Ancestors. They believe the sacri- is correct, actually exists, or has occurred. Phi- fices foster the blessings of spirits or deceased losophers investigate the nature of truth itself in ancestors. In many Asian cultures, construction the areas of knowledge, beauty, and morals. workers place the heads of sacrificed animals in From the Enlightenment (early eighteenth cen- the foundations of the buildings and bridges. tury) onward they have sought a truth which can be verified by science with accuracy. Immanuel They believe sacrificed animals appease the spir- Kant (1724– 1802) raised the question of itual beings who control human destiny. The whether truth in itself is knowable or only as the spiritual beings will prevent the bridges and knower perceives it. He opened the way to exten- buildings from collapsing if they accept the sac- sive questioning of even the existence of truth. rifices. Relativists may deny its existence in any objec- Hindus have a variety of gods from whom they tive, absolute sense in favor of a “truth” which is seek blessings of health, fertility, rain, land, dependent upon knower and circumstances. Ex- money, and other necessities of life. In contrast, istentialists and their successors argue that truth people in secularized Western cultures are prone emerges from experience. Postmodernists hold to believe their survival does not have a spiritual to a Pluralism of many different “truths,” what- basis. This, too, is a spiritual assumption. It as- ever is true for a particular person or group is sumes the spiritual realm does not exist, or that correct for them, even if it contradicts the truths it does not interact with the physical realm. held by others. The biblical basis for transformational devel- Throughout the Bible one can detect different opment is Colossians 1:15–20. This passage has nuances concerning truth. The common conno- three key points. First, Christ is supreme in all of tations of correctness and accuracy are assumed. creation. Development that is transformational The Old Testament frequently stresses faithful- points toward the supremacy of Christ, and af- ness, reliability, and morality whereas in the firms that the development activities that im- New the emphasis is more upon true statements 88 Two-Thirds World and teachings and attitudes and actions consis- Missions and missionaries struggle with truth tent with God’s nature and will. in other ways. How information and attitudes In both Testaments truth is a quality of God, at are communicated differ from culture to culture. times almost becoming a personification of him. What seems to be correct, proper, or honest may Speaking of God both the psalmist (119:160) and be related or interpreted differently by different Jesus (John 17:17) affirm, “Your word is truth.” groups and raise questions about truthfulness. The Holy Spirit is “the Spirit of truth” (John The missionary must never regard as inferior the 14:17; 15:26; 16:13; cf. 1 John 5: 7). Hence, God’s persons or traditions of another group which do communication of truth is in complete harmony not impinge upon the content or the demands of with his nature (he does not lie, Num. 23:19; God’s message or of his will. Furthermore, God’s 1 Sam. 15:29); God’s revelation of his person, cross-border, cross-cultural servants must nei- works, and will are accurate and trustworthy. Ul- ther glamorize nor exaggerate the successes, dif- timately, Jesus Christ himself is truth. “I,” he ficulties, or hardships of their tasks. said, “am the way, the truth and the life, no one Truth is not only the believers’ lives but our comes to the Father but by me” (John 14: 6). He mission. It is our proclamation, life-style, operat- himself is the embodiment of truth—truth that is ing principle, objective, and love. For God is both personal and absolute, eternal and rela- truth, his word and revelation is truth, his stan- tional, objective and experiential. What philoso- dard is truth, his intent is truth, and he relates to phers, kings, sages, scientists, common people, and calls people to and in truth. priests, prophets, shamans, and diviners seek is J. Julius Scott Jr. found in him. In Jesus all things find their form, function, relation, and meaning. As the truth it- self, Jesus reveals the truth about God, the uni- Two-Thirds World. Synonym for terms such as verse, and their relationship. He is also the only “Third World,” “Non-Western World,” and “The way to the reestablishment of a right, accepting South.” It is intended to avoid any connotation relationship with God. of “third-rate” and instead to point to the poverty God’s servants and representatives are to be and size of the Third World. In practice its use is people of truth. They are to reflect and point to mainly associated with Western discussion of the truth which is Jesus Christ. They are to re- non-Western theologies, and the increase in port, to bear testimony to the Truth. The facts evangelical missionaries from the continents of and implications they report must be accurate, Africa, Asia, and Latin America. even when they might be threatening or irritat- “Two-Thirds World” has been in greater use ing, or bring hostility. In their own lives and ac- since 1982, but it is not universally preferred. tivities they are to tell the truth and be character- While the Ecumenical Association of Third- ized by faithfulness and dependability as they World Theologians (EATWOT) is a representa- live the truth. tive group that continues to own “Third World” This is the background and presupposition for as a self-designation, others are hesitant about “truth and missions.” Missions and missionaries either term. Both relate to common experiences must be committed to truth and be characterized of Colonialism, poverty, and Christianity as a mi- by it. They must proclaim the pure truth of the nority religion, usually in a multireligious con- gospel. God’s truth, which is sure (Titus 1:9), ab- text. That history needs to be explored compara- solute, changeless, and “committed once and for tively and from the inside. However, it is not all to the saints” (Jude 3) may come in cultural surprising that in particular countries, national- dress and cannot be separated from the persons ity and local culture are stronger influences on who proclaim it. Nevertheless, it transcends cul- Christian identity. Nobody sees themselves as ture, time, and messenger. One must be careful primarily “Two-Thirds World.” At most they see neither to add to nor subtract from God’s truth, this as a designation they share with others over nor to diminish his requirements or expecta- against the West. tions. It is often difficult to distinguish between The features that “Two-Thirds World” and preference stemming from the missionary’s cul- “Third World” highlight are becoming less valid ture and background and that which is a genuine as points of commonality and differentiation. In- part of God’s saving message—its implications, creasingly poverty, riches, and world religions and manners of life that comport with it. It usu- are global realities. Indigenous peoples and re- ally requires conscious effort. It was in a cross-­ gional minorities have Third World/Two-Thirds cultural situation that Paul employed the phrase World experiences with First World countries. “truth of the gospel” in a way which seems to Western theologies are now recognized as local equate the gospel and truth (Gal. 2:4, 14; 4:16; enculturated theologies with the same processes 5:7). For him to add, subtract, or act contrary to of formation as theologies of the Two-Thirds “the truth of the gospel” was to deny that the World. Christian mission as a characteristically death of Christ and justification by faith pro- Western activity refers only to a limited period of duced their intended results (Gal. 2: 16–21). history, and even then it was only partially true. 89 Unevangelized

“Third World” and “Two-Thirds World” will re- Evangelism,” presented at the Lausanne Con- main useful while Western Christians adjust to gress on World Evangelization (1974). Winter changing global realities and Non-Western Chris- challenged the notion that the gospel had been tians discover what they can learn from one an- preached to all the world and drew attention to other. They are as necessary as the term “West- hidden or unreached peoples who are not cultur- ern” to discuss important features of a recent ally near to any Christians. era, but they are just as inadequate. Winter asserted that these peoples can be John Roxborogh reached only by a specialized Cross-Cultural Evangelism. This innovation in thinking about Bibliography. V. Samuel and C. Sugden, eds., Shar­ ing Jesus in the Two Thirds World; L. E. Keyes and L. D. the world in terms of unreached peoples and de- Pate, Missiology 21:2 (1993): 187–206; L. D. Pate, From fining the unfinished task of missions as reach- Every People. ing the unreached profoundly impacted both the concept of missions and strategies of missions (see also Missionary Task, The). It infused the Unevangelized. The large segment of the world’s missionary enterprise with a renewed sense of population that lives without a viable witness of purpose and a new spirit of urgency. the gospel or a valid opportunity to accept or re- Research organizations such as the U.S. Cen- ject Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior. They have ter for World Missions and World Vision’s Mis- never heard the gospel with sufficient cultural sion Advanced Research Center (MARC) with its relevance to allow them an informed response to Unreached People Database were formed for the Christ. The unevangelized are those who do not express purpose of identifying and mapping un- know or hear about Christ; who do not have an reached people groups and motivating a move­ indigenous church with the resources to reach ment of Great Commission agencies, churches, them; who do not have meaningful contacts with and individuals to focus on reaching the un- Christians; who do not have the Bible available reached. Organizations such as the AD 2000 and to them; who live isolated from the gospel be- Beyond Movement emerged with the vision of cause of cultural, geographical, political, or lin- reaching all the people groups of the world as guistic barriers; and who will not be evangelized soon as possible. Major missions agencies added unless someone is sent to cross those barriers divisions or components to focus on the un- with the gospel. Some distinguish between evan- reached and to develop creative approaches to gelized and unevangelized people groups by in- penetrate them with the gospel. Greater coopera- sisting that a people group is evangelized when it tion has resulted between Great Commission has an indigenous church with the resources to missions agencies and organizations in the tar- evangelize the group without outside (cross-cul- geting of specific people groups (see also Peo- tural) assistance. ples, People Groups). Other related terms include “the lost” (those The estimate of the number of unreached peo- outside of Christ, separated from God, and living ple groups varies with the criteria used to iden- in spiritual darkness), “heathen” (an older term tify them. In his Lausanne message, Winter for those outside Christ, especially in non-Chris­ spoke of 16,750 such groups. This number has tian countries), “hidden peoples” (those who live often been quoted. Patrick Johnstone, compiler places where they are unseen and unreached by of Operation World, projects the number as ap- Christians). In recent years, one of the terms proximately 12,000. Regardless of the different most commonly used in the context of the une- estimates, seeing the world in terms of un- vangelized is “unreached peoples”—ethnolin- reached people groups accentuates the magni- guistic groups with a significant group identity tude of the unfinished task of world evangeliza- and affinity which do not have their own indige- tion. nous witness or church and in which the major- There are general implications of the un- ity of the members are unevangelized. The Laus- reached peoples approach to missions strategy. It anne Committee for World Evangelization uses a helps clarify the demands of world evangeliza- scale of terms to identify unevangelized peoples. tion. It moves the focus of missions away from The scale includes “hidden people” (no known the geographic borders of nation-states. A Christians within the group), “initially reached” church may be planted in a nation but not be in- (less than one percent of the group are Chris- digenous to all the peoples of that nation. People tians), “minimally reached” (one to 10 percent of groups transcend the borders of nations, and the group are Christians), “possibly reached” (10 multiple groups live within a nation. It is reason- percent to 20 percent of the group are Chris- able, therefore, to see the task of world evangeli- tians), and “reached” (over 20 percent of the zation not as reaching nations but as reaching group are Christians). those unevangelized people groups wherein indi- Unreached people groups became a serious viduals have their primary identity. focus of mission strategy with Ralph Winter’s The unreached peoples approach helps target address, “The Highest Priority—Cross-Cultural those specific groups that are still to be evange- 90 Uniqueness of Christ lized. The concept of the 10/40 Window, for ex- bined in the uniqueness of Christ: the unique- ample, has helped focus personnel, planning, ness of Israel and the uniqueness of Yahweh. and praying on that area of the world where the Both lie at the heart of a biblical understanding majority of the unevangelized live. of mission (see also Old Testament Theology of The unreached peoples approach helps com- Mission). municate that the goal of world evangelization is The Uniqueness of Israel. The Bible presents achievable. The number of people groups is not God’s redemptive answer to the human problem infinite. The challenge is not to win every indi- (comprehensively portrayed in Gen. 1–11) vidual. It is instead to plant Indigenous through the call of Abraham and the creation of Churches within each people group which, in Israel as God’s people. God’s covenant with Abra- turn, are able to evangelize the group. Thus, this ham concludes with God’s commitment to the approach provides a standard to measure prog- mission of blessing all nations (Gen. 12:3). God ress in the task. chose to achieve that universal goal through a The unreached peoples approach underscores particular historical means—the nation of Israel. the growing need for specialized cross-cultural Israel’s unique election thus stands in integral missionaries. The unevangelized peoples will not connection to its place in the mission of God for hear the gospel or have a church unless such the nations. The New Testament, from Matthew’s workers penetrate their group with the gospel. A opening genealogy, affirms that Jesus completed majority of the unevangelized live in either what God had already begun to work out closed or Creative Access Countries. Traditional through Israel. The mission of Jesus has to be missionaries cannot gain entry in most of these understood against the background of a histori- situations. To reach them requires a force of mis- cal, particular people (see also Jesus and Mis- sionaries with specialized training and special- sion). His uniqueness is linked to theirs. The He- ized skills that are both relevant and necessary to brew Bible is clear that God’s action in and the people group and will provide the means for through Israel was unique. This does not mean residency (see also Tent-Making Mission). that God was in no way involved in the histories The unreached people approach has stimu- of other nations. On the contrary, Israel boldly lated strategic innovations in missions planning claimed that Yahweh was sovereign over all na- and methods for accomplishing world evangeli- tions (e.g., Amos 9:7; Deut. 2:20–23; Exod. 9:13– zation. Among these are creative access strate- 16; Isa. 10:5–19; Jer. 27:5–7; Isa. 44:28–45:13). It gies, the Nonresidential Missionary, targeting of does mean that only in Israel did God work people clusters, missionary specialists who uti- within the terms of a covenant of redemption, lize a vocation to establish residence, the in- initiated and sustained by his grace (e.g., Amos creased number of Third World missionaries 3:2; Deut. 4:32–34; Ps. 147:19f.; Isa. 43:8–13; comprising the global missionary force (see Exod. 19:5–6; 20:26; Num. 23:9; Deut. 7:6). Israel Non-Western Mission Boards and Societies), only existed because of God’s desire to redeem culturally sensitive models of church planting, people from every nation. While God has every specialized missionary training, reaching stu- nation in view in his redemptive purpose, in no dents and other members of particular groups other nation did he act as he did in Israel, for the abroad and training them to return to evangelize sake of the nations. No other nation experienced their group (see Student Mission Work), utiliz- what Israel did of God’s revelation and redemp- ing development projects as points of entry and tion. bridges to evangelism, and coordination and co- The New Testament presents Jesus as the Mes­ operation among Great Commission organiza- siah, Jesus the Christ. And the Messiah “was” Is- tions to maximize spiritual, human, financial, rael. That is, he represented and personified Is- and technical resources. rael. The Messiah was the completion of all that Donald R. Dunavant for which Israel had been placed in the world— God’s self-revelation and his work of human re- demption. For this reason, Jesus shares in the Uniqueness of Christ. Many discussions about uniqueness of Israel; indeed he was the point the significance of Jesus Christ within the con- and goal of it. What God had been doing through text of world religions virtually cut Jesus off no other nation he now completed through no from his historical and scriptural roots and other person than the Messiah, Jesus of Naza- speak of him as the founder of a new religion, reth. The paradox is that precisely through the whereas certainly Jesus had no intention of narrowing down of his redemptive work to the launching another “religion” as such. The com- unique particularity of the single man, Jesus, ing of Jesus was prepared for through God’s God opened the way to the universalizing of his dealings with Israel and their Scriptures. It was redemptive grace to all nations, which was his from the Hebrew Bible that Jesus drew his iden- purpose from the beginning. It was this connec- tity and his motivating mission. Two major tion between the “mystery” of Israel’s existence unique aspects of Old Testament revelation com- for the nations in the Old Testament and the sig- 91 Urbanization nificance of the gospel of Jesus’ messiahship that the world of Greco-Roman polytheism in 1 Cor- formed the basis of Paul’s mission theology in inthians 8, and in the way Peter converted the relation to the Gentiles (Gal. 3:14, 26–29; Eph. Deuteronomic affirmation that Yahweh is God 2:11–13; 3:4–6). The fulfillment of Israel’s histori­ “and there is no other” (Deut. 4:35–39), into the cal particularity in Jesus was at the same time exclusive claim that salvation was to be found in the fulfillment of Israel’s eschatological universal­ the name of Jesus, and in “no other name” (Acts ity. In this way the uniqueness of Christ is insep- 4:12). arable from the mission of God’s people. Possibly the most remarkable identification of The Uniqueness of Yahweh. There can be no Jesus with Yahweh comes in Philippians 2:5–11, more powerful affirmation in the Old Testament probably part of an early Christian hymn which than the claim that Yahweh alone is truly and Paul incorporates here to make his point. Jesus uniquely God (e.g., Deut. 4:32–40). This mono­ has been given “the name above every name” theistic thrust was not simply the singularity of (v. 9)—which in the light of the Hebrew Scrip- deity, but rather sought to define the one God in tures could only mean the name of Yahweh. terms of the nature, character, and actions of Verse 10 then clinches this affirmation by apply- Yahweh (e.g., Isa. 40:12–31; 43:10–12; 45:5, 22– ing to Jesus words taken from Isaiah 45:22f. 24). Yahweh is unique in character, and deity. which were originally spoken by Yahweh about An important ingredient in Old Testament Is- himself, declaring his uniqueness as God and his rael’s eschatology was the conviction that Yah- unique ability to save. The uniqueness of Jesus is weh would come bringing both redemption and thus founded unmistakably on the uniqueness of judgment. Several of these texts were applied by Yahweh, and specifically to his action in salva- Jesus to himself, or to the circumstances sur- tion. It thus has a direct connection with the cen- rounding his ministry (e.g., Isa. 35:4ff.; Matt. tral dynamic of Christian mission. 11:4–6; Ezek. 34; John 10:11, 14; Matt. 22:41–46; In Jesus, then, the uniqueness of Israel and the Mal. 2:1; 4:5; Matt. 11:14). The implication was uniqueness of Yahweh flow together, for he em- that, in the person of Jesus, Yahweh had indeed bodied the one and incarnated the other, climac- come, as the birth title “Emmanuel” also signi- tically fulfilling the mission of both. fied, to inaugurate the new age of his salvation Christopher J. H. Wright and reign. Similarly, soon after the death and resurrec- Bibliography. L. Hurtado, One Lord, One God: Early Christian Devotion and Ancient Jewish Monotheism; tion of Jesus we find the early church referring C. J. H. Wright, Knowing Jesus through the Old Testa­ to him and addressing him in terms which had ment; idem, Thinking Clearly about the Uniqueness of previously been applied only to Yahweh in their Jesus; N. T. Wright, Who was Jesus? Scriptures. They called him Lord, the Greek word Kyrios being the one regularly used in the Greek version of the Old Testament for the divine Urbanization. Wandering Cain’s move to a city name Yahweh. They “called on his name” in wor- (Gen. 4:17) and the call for volunteers to live in a ship and prayer (cf., Ps. 116:12f., 17). Stephen rebuilt Jerusalem (Neh. 11:1–2) point to urban- saw Jesus standing at the right hand of God ization’s most familiar side: the process of people sharing in his divine glory (Acts 7:55). Paul migrating to cities and the growth of those cen- transferred the saving name of Yahweh to Jesus ters of power. Often associated with that defini- in his evangelism (Acts 16:31; cf. Joel 2:32; Rom. tion is still another dimension—the impact of 10:13). In possibly his earliest letter, 1 Thessalo- the city on humanity. nians, Paul speaks of Jesus in remarkable ways, Changes in Research. Past discussions in So- given that it was written within about a decade ciology and cultural Anthropology have placed of the crucifixion and that the Thessalonians ob- emphasis on the target of urbanization, the city viously accepted the claims as basic elements in as a place of population density, size, and social their new faith. He speaks of “the Lord Jesus heterogeneity. Propelling these studies was an Christ” in the same breath as “God the Father” anti-urban bias that argued urbanization led to (1:1, 3). He addresses prayer to both together stress, estrangement, dislocation, and anomie (3:11–13). Jesus is “God’s Son,” who will come to (Gullick, 1989, 5–20). bring in the final act of judgment and salvation This static, deterministic path has not helped (1:10). “The Day of the Lord (Yahweh)” (e.g., Joel missions; it has reinforced stereotypes of the 1:15; 2:11, 28–32; 3:14 etc.) has been trans- church’s often negative view of the city. Urban- formed, in the light of the expected coming of ization as a common grace provision of God Jesus, into “the Day of the Lord Jesus” (4:16– loses its remedial role in human and social 5:2). change. The heartbeat of Old Testament monotheism All this is changing. Current urban research can also be felt in the way Paul expanded the still recognizes that population size and density credal shema of Deuteronomy 6:4–5 into a decla- are common to virtually all definitions of the ration of the uniqueness of Jesus in relation to city. But scholarship is also recognizing that 92 Urbanization such criteria are minimal and threshold in na- 10,000 inhabitants. By 1800 there were 364 such ture, not all-or-nothing characteristics. Attention cities. is turning from the city as place to the city (and Increasingly shaping this new movement of to urbanization) as process. Other dimensions— urbanization was the Renaissance mentality of religious, institutional, social, cultural, behav- the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Medieval ioral—must also be examined. ideals of Christian knight and Christian prince Alongside this shift is coming new attention to were replaced. The institutional church was mar- urban mission. In the wake of massive global ur- ginalized. Cities were seeing Christianity, repre- banization since World War II the church is see- sented by its clergy, more and more tied to an- ing the process as a “bridge of God” and the city other world, outsiders to the city. as the stage for evangelization in the twenty-first Interrupting this time of urban transition century. Research and strategy planning are came the Reformation. Under leaders like Mar- speaking of “gateway cities.” New holistic part- tin Luther, Menno Simons, and John Calvin its nerships of church planting, evangelism, and so- urban impact was widespread. Fifty of the six- cial transformation are being formed (Conn, ty-five imperial cities subject to the emperor offi- 1997, 25–34, 193–202). cially recognized the Reformation either perma- Missions and History’s Urban Waves. The nently or periodically. Of Germany’s almost 200 church’s awareness of the city is not a recent de- cities with populations exceeding 1,000 most velopment in world history. Missions has made witnessed Protestant movements. Geneva under use of each of the three great waves of urbaniza- Calvin became the Jerusalem of Europe. Its im- tion that have preceded ours. In the first wave pact stretched far and wide. the city as the symbol of civilization shifted from Ultimately the Reformation remained a paren- its place as a religious shrine to a city-state to a thesis. It had hoped the city would be the urban military and socio-political center. And in the exhibition of God’s righteousness in Christ. But midst of the Greco-Roman world that was its cli- it could not stop the growing Renaissance em- max the church was born. Along the roads that phasis on the Secularization of the city. The led to Rome, the church, following Paul and the urban citizen transformed the Reformation call to the obedience of faith into freedom from reli- early Christian community, carried the gospel to gious superstition and nominalist uncertainty. A the far corners of the empire. new ethic of urban service arose outside the in- By the middle of the third century seven mis- stitutional church. sionary bishops had been sent to cities in Gaul The third great urban wave centered in the (including Paris). In southern Italy there were machine and the Industrial Revolution. The city over a hundred bishoprics, all centered in cities. turned for its symbol from the temple, the castle, One hundred years after it became a licensed re- and the marketplace to the factory. ligion of the empire in a.d. 313, it numbered Europe’s colonial expansion and “new world 1,200 bishops in the urban centers of North Af- discoveries” prefaced that revolution with pre- rica. The church’s urban orientation had trans- views of future urban patterns. Greed bypassed formed the Latin term paganus, originally mean- the indigenous cities of Africa, Asia, and Latin ing rural dweller, into the word used to describe America to found colonial port cities as collec- the unbeliever. tion points for gathered wealth and natural re- With the decline of the empire, the impact of sources. European racism harvested Africa’s barbarian invasions, and an expanding Islam, “black gold” of slaves from those same ports. once great western cities became isolated ham- Christian missions used those urban paths lets and autonomous villages. From the fifth to opened by Colonialism, promoting a growing the eleventh centuries the urban world reverted pattern of “civilizing and Christianizing.” to a rural mosaic. And the church in its adminis- Industrialization in Europe, following the fa- tration and architecture became the preserver of tigue of the Napoleonic wars, gave a renewed Rome’s urban political past in its borrowed pat- lease on life to global expansionism and internal terns of parish and diocese (Mumford, 1961, urbanization. England led the way. By 1790– 265–66). 1810 it was “the workshop of the world.” Lon- God and gold introduced the second great don, followed by Liverpool and Manchester, urban wave as it did the third. Cities found new grew from nearly 900,000 in 1800 to nearly 3 identities as permanent marketplaces; commerce million in 1861. became urbanization’s new partner. The Cru- The emerging United States turned quickly to sades (1096–1291) were more than holy wars; industrialization. And urbanization followed they expanded trade routes linking Europe and (Conn, 1994, 49–58). In the one hundred years the Middle East. The bubonic plague of the four- between 1790 and 1890 its total population grew teenth century struck a devastating blow to ur- sixteenfold and its urban population 139-fold. By banization but Europe recovered. By 1500 the contrast, the non-Anglo-Saxon world remained continent numbered 154 cities each with at least basically rural. 93 Volunteer, Volunteerism in Mission

Soon colonialism shifted to a territorial form And, second, to speak increasingly of the as it sought for political, social, and economic urban lost is to speak of the poor. It is estimated leverage. And Protestant missions, fed by the that half the urban population in the southern Great Awakenings and the Anglo-Saxon power hemisphere live in slums or shantytowns. In the base of the “industrial age,” turned the nine- year 2000, 33.6 percent of the world will be in teenth-century global expansion of Western pow- cities in less developed regions. Forty percent of ers into the “Great Century” of church growth. that number will be squatters (846 million). The By 1900, the number of urban Christians to- last frontier of urban evangelism and ministry taled 159,600,000 (Barrett, 1997, 25). But they has become the “unmissionaried” urban poor were located largely in the cities of Europe and (Conn 1997, 159). North America. Missionary strategy had focused Harvie M. Conn wisely on the rural world that still made up the Bibliography. J. Abu-Lughod, Changing Cities: vast bulk of global population. As it did, the West Urban Sociology; D. Barrett, IBMR 21:1 (January 1997): was becoming overwhelmed by urban poverty 24–25; idem, World-Class Cities and World Evangeliza­ and immigrant needs; a strong anti-urban spirit tion; H. Conn, The American City and the Evangelical began to emerge, fed by Anglo ethnocentrism Church; idem, ed., Planting and Growing Urban (Lees, 1985). Churches: From Dream to Reality; J. Gullick, The Hu­ Missions and the Fourth Urban Wave. Since manity of Cities: An Introduction to Urban Societies; World War II massive urban growth has shifted A. Lees, Cities Perceived: Urban Society in European and into high gear everywhere except North America American Thought, 1820–1940; L. Mumford, The City in History: Its Origins. Its Transformations, and its Pros­ and Europe. The number of city dwellers in 1985 pects. was twice as great as the entire population of the world in 1800 (Abu-Lughod, 1991, 53). Africa’s urbanization rate is the most rapid. Its urban Volunteer, Volunteerism in Mission. Voluntary population, 7 percent in 1920, more than qua- association with or participation in the mission- drupled in 1980. Asia’s urban population will ary activity of the church, Christians choosing likely hit 40 percent by 2000, a 665 percent on their own to become involved in intercultural growth over 1920. Seventy-four percent of Latin missionary outreach. American and Caribbean populations lived in Biblical Background. In the Old Testament, urban areas by 1997. the renewal of the Mosaic covenant at Shechem A unique feature of this urban wave is the under Joshua was an early demonstration of col- trend toward ever-larger urban agglomerations. lective voluntarism (Josh. 24:1–4). Other exam- In 1900 there were 18 cities in the world with ples include the prayer association of the populations over one million; thirteen were in Nazarites and the Jews organized by Nehemiah Europe and North America. At the turn of the to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. twenty-first century, that figure will surpass 354. In the New Testament, Jesus invited people to And 236 of the total will be found in developing follow him, signifying a willing commitment. countries (Barrett, 1986, 47). In 1991 there were The basic ethic of Jesus’ ministry was based on a 14 so-called mega-cities (exceeding 10 million in- willing, voluntary response and service. Disciple- habitants). Their number is expected to double ship, in essence, was an act of one’s own choos- by 2015, when most of them will be in develop- ing. The cost of discipleship was a voluntary ing countries. By contrast, the large cities of the commitment (Luke 9:23; 12:32ff.). In his encour- West (London, New York, Paris) are not expect- agement to prayer, Jesus again taught a volun- ing much growth. The world’s urban center of tary principle: “Ask . . . seek . . . knock . . .” (Matt. gravity is moving from the northern to the south- 7:7). ern hemisphere. The early church of the first century expanded Two realities of great significance for the fu- through the voluntary acts of the disciples and ture of the Christian mission are emerging out of apostles. The apostles followed a voluntary pat- this shift. First, the growth of the cities in tern, including the economic support of the com- non-Christian or anti-Christian countries, com- munity (Act 2:37–47). The concept of doing lov- bined with the erosion of the church in the ing acts (charity) for others in the early church northern hemisphere, is multiplying the soon evolved into a more formal structure of non-Christian urban population. In 1900 the good works in the imperial church. world greeted 5,200 new non-Christian urban The Emerging Theological Basis of Christian dwellers per day; by 1997, that figure had Voluntarism. During the period of medieval mo- reached 127,000 (Barrett, 1997, 25). Out of the nasticism, Christians practiced voluntarism on a ten largest cities in the world in 1995, seven are highly intense level. Thomas Aquinas (1226–74) located in countries with only minimal Christian provided a theological rationale for such effort impact. Increasingly, to speak of those outside of by defining charity as “the mother of all virtues” Christ is to speak of the urban dweller. because “it initiates the action of other virtues by 94 Volunteer, Volunteerism in Mission charging them with life.” Francis of Assisi Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1181–1226) and his followers serve as one of the was formed in 1813 and became the parent of all great examples of this newly found collective the cooperative voluntary mission associations Christian activism that catalyzed change in soci- at the national level. ety. The positive experience of churches with vol- The Launching of a New Era. Two important untary associations quickly lent itself to other roots link the eighteenth-century religious awak- forms of Christian endeavor. During and after enings and the rise of religious voluntarism. the Civil War Christian voluntarism was espe- First, the Great Awakenings in North America cially concerned with the American South, fos- unleashed spiritual forces among large numbers tering education societies, missionary bodies, of common people in the colonies. The mass and literacy bands. American cities also provided meetings of George Whitefield (1714–70) at- a fruitful arena for a variety of voluntary minis- tracted thousands to his sermons of evangelism tries dealing with housing shortages, poor sani- and discipleship, and led to the establishment of tation, inadequate schools, crime, and unem- orphanages, academies, and pro-revival ployment. No other area of voluntary expansion churches. Similarly, Jonathan Edwards (1703– better illustrates the pulse beat of American reli- 58) is connected with the English Prayer Call gious life in the late nineteenth century than movement and other renewal forces in the colo- women’s work. Over two dozen associations of nies, and unleashed spiritual energy that led nat- women for missions were formed to send women urally to tangible forms of Christian service, typ- to mission work at home and abroad. ically in the form of new voluntary associations. New Directions for a New Century. The twen- The Wesleyan movement was the second impe- tieth century witnessed ecumenical voluntarism, tus that led Methodism to create numerous ave- particularly in the area of student missions. In nues of Christian service for its followers. John 1886, the Student Volunteer Movement for for- Wesley pioneered outdoor preaching and itiner- eign missions was formed and spread quickly to ant evangelism, and modeled a burden for the Britain and Europe. Out of this emerged Inter- working classes and underprivileged. Varsity in the United States in 1941. Similar to By the 1780s the basic voluntary paradigms InterVarsity are the Navigators (1943), Youth for were in place. The catalyst that ignited the gen- Christ (1930), Pioneer Clubs (1939), Young Life eral cultural outbreak of voluntarism was Wil- (1941), and Campus Crusade for Christ (1951). liam Carey, who pioneered a strategy whereby In the later decades of the twentieth century large numbers of people with modest resources new forms of religious voluntarism have arisen could be involved in the work of missions. in the United States. One type is related to trans- The Evangelical Century. The voluntary asso- ciation was the primary vehicle for the growth of lating a religious perspective into political activ- the evangelical movement during the nineteenth ism: the National Association of Religious century. Four emphases marked evangelical vol- Broadcasters and the Moral Majority. Another untarism in the latter half of the century: the ho- form is the organizational network centered on liness movement, the conservative/liberal debate, mass evangelism. Both radio and television evan- evangelistic missions in the empire, and human- gelists have established vast networks of volun- itarian concerns. The perfectionist theology of tary “prayer partners” and supporters. Charles G. Finney (1792–1875) had a direct in- The turn of the century calls the future of vol- fluence on the holiness tradition in Britain as untarism into question. Does global change and well, and found institutional expression in sev- increasing complexity threaten voluntarism as eral kinds of voluntary associations such as the the primary means of doing Christian mission? Keswick Convention (1875). Various voluntary Is voluntarism declining in the West as some associations also grew up in response to the suggest? What about the generation of aging challenge to biblical authority from liberal theo- Baby Boomers nearing retirement? Will they logians. In universities and among the churches, step into the gap as second-career mission volun- missionary and study societies, such as the Inter- teers? Will voluntarism spread from the West to collegiate Christian Union (1877) and the Bible the emerging churches in the majority world League (1892), grew up in support of the new who venture to missions frontiers? Historians evangelical concerns. The expansion of the Brit- summarize the enduring values of Christian vol- ish Empire provided a further field of interest for untarism as empowerment for groups of people, Victorian evangelicals. In India, a dozen associa- experimental spontaneity to respond to needs as tions were formed between 1848 and 1876, with they arise, the creation of new leadership, and its at least ten more formed in China. singularity of purpose—various types of Chris- North American Developments. The earliest tian mission. To the extent that voluntarism con- forms of voluntarism in the United States were tinues as a values-driven movement it will sur- denominational, and this was followed by coop- vive. eration among the denominations. The American Steve Hoke 95 Wars

Bibliography. W. H. Brackney, Christian Volun­ the world leader in technology and now this skill tarism in Britain and North America: A Bibliography was applied more completely to warfare. Chal- and Critical Assessment; idem, Christian Voluntarism: lenged by the Napoleonic victories, a Prussian Theology and Praxis. military instructor, Karl von Clausewitz, articu- lated the theory of “total war.” He believed that it is necessary to push conflict to its “utmost Wars. War is one of the great social problems, bounds” in order to win. At the time he ex- along with poverty and racism, with which the pressed these ideas the Industrial Revolution missionary movement has had to struggle. It is began increasing the power of armaments so difficult to formulate the Christian position on that an enemy could be totally defeated in a war because of the problem of harmonizing the manner never before possible. Old Testament with the New Testament and the Christians in the nineteenth century re- difficulty of applying the teachings of Jesus to sponded to the danger caused by new arma- society. In the Old Testament, many passages en- ments by encouraging international cooperation dorse armed conflict, such as Deuteronomy 7 and humanitarian endeavors. These attempts led and 20 and the war narratives of Joshua, Judges, to international gatherings, including the Hague and Samuel. Although these are used by some Conferences of 1899 and 1907. But the forces Christians to justify their participation in war, that worked toward harmony and peace failed, others point out that Israel was a theocratic and with World War I Clausewitz’s view moved state, and that in New Testament times there is closer to reality. The two sides used mines, ma- no state where God is king, but he deals with hu- chine guns, poison gas, submarines, and aerial manity through an international body, the bombardment, thus taking the conflict to land, church. Another problem arises, however, over sea, and air. The churches supported the war. the directions that Jesus gave to his followers. The rhetoric of leaders such as Woodrow Wilson He seems to indicate that they be nonviolent, in made them feel that they were involved in a cru- such statements as “But I tell you, do not resist sade to help humankind. an evil person. If someone strikes you on the On the eve of World War I, thousands of mis- right cheek, turn to him the other also” (Matt. sionaries were serving all over the world. During 5:39) and “But I tell you, love your enemies and the nineteenth century numerous missionary so- pray for those who persecute you” (Matt. 5:44). cieties had been founded in Europe and North Because Christians are citizens of national states America, many of which encouraged an interde- in addition to being members of the church, it nominational approach. Although the differ- has seemed to most of them that these words ences among the sending churches might be should be interpreted in a way that allows them great, these did not seem so important on the to fight for their country. In an attempt to apply mission field, because workers possessed the these Scriptures to world affairs, Christians have common purpose of preaching the gospel to peo- responded in a variety of ways, ranging from ple of other faiths. World War I had an enormous nonviolent pacifism to advocating a just war the- impact on this international Christian enterprise. ory. The early church, certain Christian human- Mission properties were seized and hundreds of ists, and the majority of Anabaptists have taken a workers were forced to leave the field and did nonresistant or pacifist stance (see Pacifist The- not return. More serious than these physical ology). The majority, however, have followed Au- losses was the spiritual damage done to the en- gustine and claimed that certain wars are just. tire Protestant missionary movement. The con- Denominations, including the Church of the flict demonstrated that the ultimate loyalty of Brethren, Quakers, and Mennonites, maintain a most of those who preached the gospel was not position of nonresistance, but the larger groups to Christ and his church but to the nation-state. such as Lutherans, Presbyterians, Baptists, The war also shattered the postmillennial hopes Roman Catholics, Methodists, and Reformed ad- of the Anglo-American missionary enterprise. Al- here to the just war interpretation. In certain though some of this optimism continued in the rare instances Christians have even supported postwar years and led to the founding of the crusades. The medieval popes urged such action World Council of Churches, the dynamic force against the Turks, and in the twentieth century in international outreach shifted to the conserva- some Christians have maintained such an atti- tive evangelical groups that followed a more in- tude toward Communists. dividualistic approach to missions. These organi- During the nineteenth century, from the defeat zations, mostly premillennial, had little interest of Napoleon to the outbreak of World War I, in promoting Christian unity or extending Chris- there was a global expansion of Western Chris­ tian culture to other parts of the world. tian missionary efforts accompanying European The damage done to the missionary cause by imperialism and colonialism. These later move- World War I included a change in the attitude of ments depended on superior military power. non-Western populations toward the Christian Western Europe since medieval times had been cause. In many instances missionaries had 96 Wealth and Poverty brought to such people modern medicine, peace Despite progress made in economic growth, among warring tribes, the abolition of the slave public health, and literacy in the third world, at trade, and justice for those who were too weak to least 800 million live in “absolute poverty.” This secure it for themselves. But now the European is defined as a condition of life where malnutri- claims to a monopoly of religious truth and civi- tion, illiteracy, disease, squalid housing, high in- lization were shattered as they waged what fant mortality, and low life expectancy are be- amounted to a civil war that left them bankrupt yond any reasonable definition of human economically and spiritually. In World War I for decency. The stark reality is that the North (in- the first time many Indian, African, and Japa- cluding Eastern Europe) has a quarter of the nese troops fought very effectively against the world’s population and 80 percent of its income, white men. The natural consequence of this was while in the South (including China) three-quar- the awakening of nationalism among the peoples ters of the world’s people live on one-fifth of its of Asia and Africa. This reaction was furthered income. Also, approximately 90 percent of the by World War II. Although nationalism can be a global manufacturing industry is in the North. positive force, it often becomes a narrow, arro- While the quality of life in the North rises gant intolerance toward members of other steadily, in the South every two seconds a child groups. This hurt the missionary movement in dies of hunger and disease. the many instances where it could not adjust to Still the contrast between wealth and poverty an indigenous church organization and ministry. does not correspond exactly with the North– World War II, however, had many positive ef- South division. Many OPEC countries are rich, fects on the North American church and this en- while poverty is found in North America and Eu- couraged missionary outreach. Many of those rope. In the United States 14 percent of people involved in the armed services experienced “fox- and 30 percent of children are beneath the pov- hole religion” and returned with the gospel to the erty line. In Britain over 10 percent live below places where they had fought. They also stirred the legal definition of poverty, and another 10 the churches to give to missions, used new meth- percent to 15 percent are close to this point. A ods such as aeronautical technology, and great disparity between wealth and poverty is founded interdenominational mission groups found not only between nations but also within such as the Inter-Varsity Christian Fellowship them. that recruited and sent out missionaries. With On the other hand, one-fifth of the world’s the end of the Cold War and the resulting reduc- population lives in relative affluence and con- tion of global tension, perhaps armed conflict sumes approximately four-fifths of the world’s will become a more isolated phenomenon as it income. Moreover, according to a recent World was during the nineteenth-century period of mis- Bank report, the “total disbursements” from the sionary expansion. wealthy nations to the Third World amounted Robert G. Clouse to $92 billion, a figure less than 10% of the Bibliography. R. H. Bainton, Christian Attitudes To­ worldwide expenditures on armaments; but this ward War and Peace; R. G. Clouse, ed., War: Four Chris­ was more than offset by the “total debt service” tian Views; R. V. Pierard, Earthen Vessels, American of $142 billion. The result was a negative trans- Evangelicals and Foreign Missions, 1880–1980, pp. 155– fer of some $50 billion from the third world to 79; idem, IBMR 22:1 (1998): 13–19; M. Walzer, Just and the developed countries. This disparity between Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument With Historical Illustra­ wealth and poverty is a social injustice so griev- tions; and R. A. Wells, ed., The Wars of America. ous that Christians dare not ignore it. God has provided enough resources in the Wealth and Poverty. One of the great social earth to meet the needs of all. Usually it is not problems that faces those who would bear wit- the fault of the poor themselves, since for the ness to the Christian faith in a global manner is most part they were born into poverty. Christians that of distributive justice. There is an extreme use the complexities of economics as an excuse divergence between the rich and poor of today’s to do nothing. However, God’s people need to world, a contrast often described in terms of the dedicate themselves not only to verbal evange- North–South divide. Experts in demographics lism but also to relieving human need as part of estimate that early in the third millennium, the sharing the good news (Luke 4:18–21), both at world’s population will be 6.3 billion, and by home and to the ends of the earth. 2025 it may reach 8.5 billion. Moreover, 95 per- This explains why Christians in the two-thirds cent of the global population growth over this world place issues of poverty and economic de- period will be in the developing countries of velopment at the top of their theological agen- Latin America, Africa, and Asia. By 2025, Mexico das. Some Christians in the North have difficulty will have replaced Japan as one of the ten most understanding why “liberation” is so central to populous countries on the earth, and Nigeria’s the thinking of their counterparts in Latin Amer- population will exceed that of the United States. ica, Africa, and Asia, but they have never faced 97 Worship the stark, dehumanizing reality of grinding pov- missionary rank increased from less than 19,000 erty (see also Liberation Theologies). in 1953 to over 39,000 in 1985. These new mis- The Western missionary movement reflects an sionaries were mostly from evangelical mission- affluence that has developed as a result of the ary groups who tended to neglect the work of the threefold revolution that has given Europe and denominational agencies and focused on per- North America a standard of living that is the sonal conversion, often ignoring economic and envy of the world (see also Missionary Afflu- material problems. ence). Since the sixteenth-century the scientific, Yet the work of authors such as Viv Grigg and industrial, and political revolution has unleashed Jonathan Bonk as well as a number of contribu- an avalanche of material goods that has raised tors to the Evangelical Missions Quarterly and the West from poverty. Most of the world has not Missiology focused attention on the obstacle to shared in this achievement. When missionaries Christian witness inherent in the issues of wealth from the West went to preach and minister in and poverty. Many of these writers counsel other lands during the nineteenth century, they Christians in the more developed lands to share often believed that God favored them materially their material means with others. This can be and scientifically so that they could overawe the done by supporting public and private efforts to heathen. As recently as the 1970s a missionary aid the poor, by scaling down their standard of could observe that “Economic power is still the living, and by working for the empowerment of most crucial power factor in the western mis- those who do not have the ability to represent sionary movement. It is still the most important themselves. way that the Western missionary expresses his Robert G. Clouse concept of what it means to preach the gospel” (Bernard Quick). The fact that most Protestant Bibliography. J. Bonk, Missions and Money, Afflu­ missionaries serve in some part of Africa, Latin ence as a Western Missionary Problem; R. G. Clouse, America, or Oceania, those parts of the world ed., Wealth and Poverty: Four Christian Views of Eco­ where most of the poor reside, indicates that nomics; V. Griff, Companion to the Poor; K. Koyama, missionaries are economically superior in the so- Waterbuffalo Theology; J. A. Scherer, Global Living Here cial contexts of their ministry. and Now; J. V. Taylor, Enough Is Enough: A Biblical Call for Moderation in a Consumer-Oriented Society. There have always been a few individuals who have pointed out that Western missionaries can take for granted a level of material security, life- Worship. Today as throughout history, worship style, and future options that are beyond the and mission are linked inextricably together, for wildest dreams of the people among whom they God propels his mission through the drawing of work. As the twentieth century progressed others worshipers to himself. God’s call to worship him joined in calling attention to the unforeseen and empowers us to respond with his passion to do unwelcome effects of this economic disparity. At mission. Thus, worship ignites mission; it is the Tambaram Conference (1938) a report was God’s divine call-and-response strategy. presented that clearly showed the dilemma be- Indeed, the Scriptures resound with his global tween the comparatively “wealthy” missionaries call to worship via mission. The prophet Isaiah, and the “poor” people to whom they ministered. for example, responding in the midst of worship, By the very nature of the situation missionaries were looked upon as the representatives of a takes up the call to go (Isa. 6:1–8). Likewise, the wealthy and powerful civilization who intro- Samaritan woman encounters Jesus Christ, the duced a new standard of economic values. The incarnate God. He discloses that the Father is people that they served looked upon them not as seeking authentic worshipers, people in relation- proclaimers of a new faith, but as sources of po- ship with him. The woman responds by immedi- tential economic gain. The problem of the per- ately calling others to come see the man who sonal affluence of Western missionaries when told her everything she had done (John 4:26). Fi- compared to the indigenous peoples was spelled nally, the greatest call-and-response pattern sur- out more explicitly in books such as Ventures in faces when the disciples meet with the resur- Simple Living (1933) and Living as Comrades rected Jesus just before his ascension (Matt. (1950) written by Daniel Johnson Fleming, pro- 28:16ff.). Finally recognizing Jesus’ true identity, fessor of missions at Union Theological Semi- they fall down and worship him. In the context nary (N.Y.). Writers like Fleming pointed out that of worship, Jesus gives his crowning imperative, the wealth of the West obscured the message of the Great Commission (Matt. 28:17–20). The mis- Christ, and led to feelings of helplessness and in- sionary mandate flows out of an intimate rela- feriority on the part of those to whom the mis- tionship with God generated in worship. God’s sionaries ministered. propelling call to go into all the world becomes However, the problem of global economic dis- our response of commitment and allegiance to parity was once again obscured in the post– him. We join him in his passion to call worship- World War II period, when the North American ers to himself. 98 Worship

Wherever we have seen meaningful, authentic America. Their distinctive approaches commonly worship, the church has experienced a new mis- revolve around worship. In Kenya, one of the sions thrust. Yet, a radical separation of worship most dynamic examples of church growth is from mission has dominated mission methodol- found at the Nairobi Chapel. The Chapel bases ogies. Donald MacGavran once claimed, “Wor- much of its strategy on the development of ship . . . is good; but worship is worship. It is not meaningful worship (especially music) for effec- evangelism” (1965, 455). The typical practice has tively communicating the gospel to a predomi- been to call people to a saving faith in Jesus nantly university-student based church (Long). Christ with worship being a resultant by-prod- The vision does not stop with Kenya; they are uct. While ignoring God’s primary call to wor- reaching out to neighboring Tanzania. In West ship, missiologists have, however, recognized the Africa, Senufo Christians of Cote d’Ivoire are need for relevant Christian worship to nurture a reaching out to their neighbors through their Christian movement. Thus, the model of “evan- distinctive worship form—song, dance, and gelism-before-worship” has dominated evangeli- drama (King). Christian Inca Indians from Peru cal mission strategies. are reaching out to Native Americans of North Yet God’s call to worship him is currently America. Through their deeper understanding of sweeping around the world in great, new revolu- more culturally relevant worship forms, Inca tionary ways. Along with new openness to new Christians are preaching through the use of In- forms and patterns of worship, there is greater dian storytelling styles. Asians are going to other recognition of the intimate relationship between Asians; Koreans to the Philippines and American worship and mission. Such winds of worship Filipinos to Japan. In one case, Taiwans’ Ho- empowering mission have been building over the sanna Ministries partnered with the Korean past few decades in relation to renewal move- Tyrannus Team in initiating a series of Worship ments. In 1939, for example, the Methodist Epis- and Praise activities in 1989. This partnership copal Church published a small manual, A Book brought forth a movement of renewal in Taiwan of Worship for Village Churches, for the “great where unbelievers came to Christ and believers army of Christian pastors, teachers, and laymen dedicated themselves to missions (Wong). They who are leading the toiling villagers of India discovered “an intimate relationship between through worship to the feet of Christ” (Ziegler, worship and mission” (1993, 3). Worship pro- 1939, 7). The manual resulted from a desire to pelled both evangelism and commitment to do see the church in India take root in its own soil more mission. in tandem with the vast treasures of two thou- With the growing surge of worship empower- sand years of Christian heritage. Research re- ing mission, we must keep five factors in mind in vealed that where dynamic worship was prac- order to achieve a lasting impact for the king- ticed, changed lives and growing churches dom. First, worship must remain worship: we resulted. On the other hand, weak, stagnant and must, above all, seek encounter with God. Wor- ineffective churches existed where worship of ship services should not serve as functional sub- God in Christ was neglected (ibid., 5). stitutes for evangelism. Rather, we must seek au- More recently, as renewal movements grow in thenticity of interaction with God and developing their experience with God, God calls them into relationship with him. Genuine worship of the mission. The common strategic link of each of Creator will attract and confront those who long these groups is their focus on worship with evan- to enter into the kingdom. Likewise, evangelistic gelism as the inclusive by-product: the “wor- programs must pursue evangelism. The two, ship-propels-mission” model. French Benedic- worship and mission, must remain distinct, yet tine monks, for example, have entered Senegal work hand-in-hand. with the goal of creating a model of contextual- Second, we must allow God to transform and ized worship drawn from cultural musical tradi- make anew his original creation. Contextualiza- tions. They have adapted African drums and the tion of the gospel is not an option, but an imper- twenty-one-string Kora harp to attract Muslims ative. Throughout the Scriptures and history, we to Christ. Likewise, the Taizé Movement from see people worshiping God in ways that were France is growing through the development of formerly heathen but then transformed with rad- contemplative, worship forms. Facilitated by the ically new meaning. Service order, length, lan- burgeoning impact of electronic media and new guage, symbolism, prayer forms, songs, dance, musical forms worldwide, the growth of a Wor- bowing, speeches, Scripture reading, and arti- ship and Praise Movement, originating from facts must be captured to nurture believers and such streams as the Jesus People Movement bring the peoples of the world into relationship through Marantha! Music and the Vineyard with the living God. Movement, is forging an openness to new, global Third, we are to pursue diversity within the worship forms. unity of the body of Christ (Eph. 2; 1 Cor. 12): Among the most exciting developments are the “Diversity (of worship forms) seems to coincide new mission forces from Asia, Africa, and Latin with the periods of effective mission efforts” 99 Worship

(Muench, 1981, 104). Foundational mission worshipers of the living God. Then they are em- goals must seek to make Christ understood and powered to take up God’s passionate call to bring known within their own context. The Celtic all peoples to worship him. Besides studying the church, for example, known as a strong mission nature of worship and the numerous patterns church, encouraged each tribal group to develop and forms that worship can embody, we must its own worship service pattern. Likewise, wor- train people to lead worship and stimulate mean- ship patterns and forms must vary according to ingful worship cross-culturally. Training for wor- the cultural contexts—including multicultural ship must become a major component in the for- settings. In order to know God intimately, peo- mation of missionaries. ples from differing contexts require the freedom Authentic Christian worship brings people to to interact with him through relevant worship encounter Jesus Christ. As one looks to God, God forms. reveals his vision to us. We respond to his call. Fourth, there is a great need for research to- Thus, worship propels and empowers mission. ward developing appropriate worship. We must Ultimately, God calls us to participate in achiev- allow dynamic worship to grow and change as ing God’s vision as entoned by the Psalmist: “All relationship with God deepens. Worship forms the nations you have made will come and wor- are shaped by and reflect our relationship with ship before you, O Lord; they will bring glory to God via appropriate, expressive cultural forms. your name” (Ps. 86:9). There is great need for openness in pursuing, ex- Roberta R. King perimenting, exchanging, and documenting ex- Bibliography. P. B. Brown In and For the World: periences in worship. Needed topics of research Bringing the Contemporary Into Christian Worship; J. G. should include biblical models of worship that Davies, Worship and Mission; R. R. King, Pathways in seek precedents for adapting cultural forms, Christian Music Communication: The Case of the Sen­ comparative philosophical thought forms, his- ufo of Cote d’Ivoire; K. W. Long, Worship and Church torical models of worship from the Christian Growth: A Single Case Study of Nairobi Chapel; S. Mor- movement, uses and meaning of ritual (anthro- genthaler, Worship Evangelism: Inviting Unbelievers pology), verbal and non-verbal symbols (commu- into the Presence of God; P. E. Muench, “Worship and nication), and comparative cultural worship pat- Mission: A Review of Literature” M.A. Thesis, Fuller terns. Theological Seminary; J. Piper, Let the Nations Be Glad; A. L. C. Wong, The Dynamics of Worship and Praise in Finally, we must train for worship and worship God’s Mission in Taiwan; E. K. Ziegler, A Book of Wor­ leading. In keeping with “spirit and truth” wor- ship for Village Churches. ship (John 4:23), missionaries must first of all be

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