Africa

Abolitionist Movement. The abolitionist move- Bibliography. J. R. McKivigan, The War against Pro- ment in the United States had a great impact on slavery Religion: Abolitionism and the Northern the home and overseas movement. Churches, 1830–1865; B. Wyatt-Brown, Lewis Tappan During the 1820s and 1830s antislavery and and the Evangelical War against Slavery; C. Whipple, Relations of the American Board of Commissioners for proabolition activity put pressure on mission Foreign Missions to Slavery; R. Torbet, Venture of Faith. agencies to sever all relationships with slavehold- ers: not to appoint them as , receive Africa. The growth of the church in Africa is one their donations, place them on their boards, or of the most surprising facts of twentieth-century receive them as members in their home mission church history. From an estimated 4 million pro- churches. As a result, the American Board of fessing Christians in 1900 African Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) has grown to over 300 million adherents by the from 1840 to 1860 repeatedly was presented with year 2000. What accounts for such growth? The petitions that called it to deal with issues of common notion that nineteenth-century mis- slaveholding and slaveholders in connection with sionary efforts explain African Christianity’s re- its work among the Cherokee and Choctaw peo- cent explosion is an oversimplification. The true ple in the United States. Tensions within the story behind these statistics reaches back to the churches and the board itself between moderate very earliest centuries of Christian history. and radical proabolition factions made it diffi- Beginnings. The roots of African Christianity cult for the agency to solve these disputes to ev- are to be found in the four regional churches of eryone’s satisfaction. Africa in the Roman era—, North Africa, Such adjustments that the ABCFM and other Nubia, and . The origins of Christianity mission agencies made did not satisfy the radical in Egypt are obscure. The first documentary evi- abolitionists. Therefore, the antislavery Ameri- dence of the existence of an Egyptian church can Home Mission Society was formed in 1826, dates from a.d. 189 with Demetrius. Per- and by the early 1840s a number of “comeouter” secution in the third century caused the faith to groups separated from denominational boards. spread down the Nile into rural Egypt among the For example, the American Baptist Free Mission Coptic-speaking population, where it found a Society (ABFMS) was organized in 1843 and no new champion in Antony, the father of monasti- longer worked with the of cism. After a period of syncretism in the fourth northern . This society, which existed century, mature Coptic churches emerged in the until 1868, became the means through which an- fifth century under the leadership of inde- tislavery Baptists engaged in missions at home pendently minded monastic leaders such as She- and abroad. During the years of their existence nout. The signs of an indigenous Christianity the ABFMS had personnel in and Burma. rooted in the language and life of the people It also agitated in Baptist state associations in were everywhere evident, including Cop- the north on behalf of slaves, as well as in slave- tic-speaking and Coptic liturgies together holding areas in Kentucky and Virginia. with Scripture translations. Similar to the ABFMS in all but a denomina- North Africa. While Egyptian Christianity was tional name was the American Missionary Asso- a testimony to the importance of a contextual- ciation (AMA) formed in Albany, New York, in ized Christianity, North Africa was a sober re- 1846. Strongly proabolition, the AMA at its minder of the fragility of a faith insufficiently founding integrated into itself three antislavery rooted in the life of the people. The Roman seg- missionary organizations—the Union Missionary ment of North Africa embraced the gospel with Society, the Committee for West Missions, vigor but the Punic and Berber peoples were and the Western Evangelical Society. It promoted never adequately reached. The brilliance of already existing mission activities and many new North African Christianity cannot be doubted. ones. By 1856 it had a total of seventy-nine mis- The genius of Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustine sionaries working among North American Indi- is well known, yet even their brilliance could not ans and in Africa, the Sandwich Islands, Jamaica, prevent the decline of a church troubled by sepa- Siam (Thailand), Egypt, and . The AMA ratism and persecution. Despite the failure of began work among Chinese in America in 1852, North African Christianity to contextualize the and this led to the formation of the California faith, Augustine’s observation that the story of Chinese Mission by 1875. With the beginning of the African church is the story of the clash of the Civil War the work of the AMA began to focus two kingdoms, the City of God and the earthly almost exclusively on the freedmen in the South, city, continued to illuminate African church his- and it ceased broader missionary efforts at home tory. and abroad. Important leaders in the work of the Ethiopia. Solid evidence for the conversion of AMA included such evangelical abolitionists as Ethiopia appears in 350, when King Ezana be- Lewis Tappan and Joshua Leavitt. gins to ascribe his victories to the “Lord of All Ralph R. Covell . . . Christ who has saved me” rather than 1 Africa to the traditional gods. Crucial to this change Alwa, was conquered by a tribe from the south was the ministry of Bishop Frumentius, who had recently converted to Islam. The last word from been commissioned by Athanasius of Alexandria Nubian Christianity occurs in 1524 when they as a missionary to Ethiopia. The precedent set by wrote to the Coptic patriarch of Egypt for help to Athanasius became entrenched and the Ethio­ meet their critical shortage of clergy. The lack of pian Orthodox Church continued to receive its indigenous church leaders combined with the abun (bishop) by appointment of the Egyptian failure to evangelize the peoples to the south Coptic patriarch. By Ezana’s death in 400 Chris- conspired to undermine Nubian Christianity. tianity was firmly rooted at court but had made Egyptian and Ethiopian survival. Christianity little impact on the countryside. That changed in survived the onslaught of Islam but not without the sixth century with the coming of a new mis- losses. Caliph Umar had forbidden new churches sionary force from Syria. The tesseatou Kidous- or monasteries but under the Umayyids (661– san (“nine saints”) established monasteries in the 750) this law was not enforced. Other forms of rural areas and engaged in widespread evange- pressure, however, were applied. In 744 the Mus- lism. Linked with the Egyptian Coptic Christian- lim governor of Egypt offered tax exemption for ity and armed with the Scriptures in the vernac- Christians who converted to Islam. Twenty-four ular the Christians of Ethiopia entered the thousand responded. Throughout the African Middle Ages, where they “slept near a thousand Middle Ages the Coptic church suffered from a years, forgetful of the world, by whom they were lack of trained leadership, discriminatory laws, forgotten” (Gibbon). and a stagnant ritualism in worship. Nonethe- Nubia. Like Ethiopia, Nubia (modern Sudan) less, it survived. By 1600 Egypt was a “country of was never part of the Roman Empire. The Chris- dual religious cultures.” tianity that infiltrated Nubia began a religious Ethiopian Christianity also followed the path revolution in Nubia that transformed both peo- of survival. After a crisis in the tenth century ple and prince by the sixth century. Archaeologi- when the pagan Agau nearly toppled the king, cal evidence that came to light only in the 1960s Ethiopian clergy began to work for reform and has revealed the vigor of Nubian Christianity. revival of the national faith. One movement of Two sixth-century missionaries from Byzantium, renewal brought a new dynasty to the imperial Julian and Longinus, are credited with officially throne of Ethiopia. The most popular leader of introducing the Christian faith, in its Mono- the Zagwe dynasty, Lalibela, strengthened Ethio- physite form, to this kingdom along the Blue pia’s religious patriotism by building a New Jeru- Nile. salem in the Ethiopian highlands and strength- The African Middle Ages. These four original ening the belief that Ethiopians were the new sources of African Christianity faced their great- Israel through whom God would bring light to est challenge during the African Middle Ages. the nations. Under the missionary monk Tek- The first challenge, which inaugurated the Afri- la-Haymanot Ethiopian Christianity experienced can Middle Ages, came from a new religion— revival. New missionary efforts among the Shoa Islam. The second challenge, which brought the of the south met with success. Emperor Zara-Ya- African Middle Ages to an end, came from the qob (d. 1468) brought Ethiopia to new heights of kingdoms of European Christendom represented glory but by 1529 the kingdom was in decline. by the Portuguese and the Dutch. Ahmad Gragn, a Muslim, successfully overthrew North African and Nubian collapse. The rise the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia but his reign and spread of Islam across Africa’s northern was short-lived. Within a few years Christian shore in the seventh and eighth centuries was Ethiopia was restored, this time with the help of followed in the tenth and eleventh centuries by a a new player on the African stage—the Portu- southward expansion led by the merchant and guese. the missionary. North Africa was most dramati- The Portuguese. Inspired by their visionary cally affected by this expansion of Islam. The de- leader, Prince Henry, the Portuguese embarked cline of North African Christianity was nearly on a campaign of aggressive expansion between total by the sixteenth century. Attempts by the 1450 and 1700. This expansion led to the Euro- fourth crusade (1215) to liberate North Africa pean “discovery” of Africa and the establishment politically and Franciscan attempts to revive it of a trading empire that spread from Lisbon to spiritually ended in failure. A faith only lightly India. Christian communities were established rooted in the life of the people faded into mem- in and in port cities along the south- ory. ern and eastern coasts but Portuguese missions Nubia proved more resistant. During the enjoyed its greatest success in the ancient king- eighth through tenth centuries, while Islam con- dom of Congo, where the king Afonso I pro- tinued to expand in Africa, Nubian Christianity moted the new faith aggressively. Yet the mis- reached its height. But in 1272 Muslim Turks sionary efforts of the Catholic missionaries were sent by the legendary Saladin overthrew north- eventually undermined by the commercial inter- ern Nubia. In 1504 the southernmost kingdom, est of Portuguese merchants who quickly saw 2 Africa potential for a profit in the slave trade. Hatred of inspired similar Christian communities farther the Portuguese trader soon was directed at the down the coast in the Nigerian towns of Abeo- Portuguese priest. By the time of Livingstone’s kuta and Badagry. “Recaptives” (slaves liberated travels in the mid-nineteenth century few ves- by the British Navy) added to the population of tiges of Portuguese Christianity could be found. Freetown. Many converted to the Christian­ faith Dutch Expansion. In 1652, one hundred repre- and found an opportunity for training at Free- sentatives of the Dutch town’s , established in 1827. landed on Africa’s southernmost tip and pro- One of the most outstanding graduates of the ceeded to establish a way station for the com- college was a young recaptive named Samuel pany ships traveling from Amsterdam to Batavia Ajayi Crowther. Crowther was ordained in 1843, in the Pacific. From this modest beginning came and in 1864 became Africa’s first Anglican Cape Town and the beginnings of the nation of bishop. The Church Missionary Society (CMS) . The first church established was recognized in Crowther the leader they needed to that of the Dutch Reformed Church but by 1900 further the spread of . Lutherans and Moravians had also begun their Under Henry Venn, an aggressive program of Af- work. The churches of the settlers soon came ricanization was adopted that called for the im- into conflict with a missionary Christianity mediate building of self-supporting, self-propa- spawned by the wave of Great Awakenings that gating, and self-governing local churches. were sweeping North America, , and Eu- Crowther was asked to implement this strategy rope in the eighteenth century. An early repre- in the Nigerian interior. Through the failure of sentative of this new evangelical movement was some members of his team and through the hos- the Moravian Georg Schmidt, who began work tility of white missionaries opposed to Venn’s among the Khoisan of the Cape in 1738. He soon policies, Crowther was forced to resign. Leader- came into conflict with the established church ship of the CMS work in West Africa fell into and was stopped from further mission work in white hands. This led to a number of African-ini- 1748. tiated churches. In addition to , work African Christianity in the Nineteenth and went on in Liberia, Ghana, Cameroon, Gabon, Early Twentieth Centuries. The Antislavery cru- Senegal, and Zaire, which was the main arena sade. While Schmidt was struggling with the for Catholic missions. stubbornness of his Dutch hosts, English evan- Southern Africa. While West Africa was evan- gelicals began to struggle with the issue of slav- gelized largely by Africans returning to their ery. John Wesley condemned slavery in a pam- motherland, South Africa from the very earliest phlet of 1774, and a number of his followers took days of Christianity was dominated by the white up the cause. Early opposition to slavery came expatriate. Despite the common denominator of from Granville Sharp, Thomas Clarkson, and white domination, there was little unity in South through the support of his African Christianity, which saw three distinct upper-class evangelical friends (the and mutually hostile expressions of Christianity Sect). The first breakthrough came in 1807 with emerge in the nineteenth century. the passage of a bill prohibiting the slave trade The first expression was that of Afrikaner but allowing ownership. By 1833 legislation was Christianity and the Dutch Reformed Church. passed abolishing slavery everywhere in the Brit- After England gained control of South Africa in ish Empire. British evangelicals had opposed 1815, conflicts between Boer farmers and En­ slavery both on humanitarian grounds as well as glish administrators multiplied, which led to missiological ones. They realized that their de- mass migrations of Afrikaner families to north- sire to engage in missions in Africa would be se- eastern regions of South Africa. One small party riously thwarted by the existence of slavery. The of “voortrekkers” encountered an army of Zulu missionaries that English societies sent out to warriors. Their surprising victory at the battle of Africa were therefore equipped with the dual Blood River in 1838 coupled with the tradition message of “Christianity and commerce.” It was that the trekkers had made a special covenant thought that Western-style commerce would with God prior to the battle fueled the belief that make slavery economically unnecessary, thus Afrikaner Christians were an elect nation en- permitting the message of Christianity to make dowed by God with both a right to rule the land its way deep into the lives of the hearers. and a right to resist the nonelect. This religious The growth of Christianity in Western Africa. In tradition became a political and cultural force 1787, 411 freed blacks left London to found a that found expression in the formation of the Af- community called Freetown in what is now Si- rikaner Nationalist Party. erra Leone. It became a haven for freed slaves A second expression of South African church and an outpost for the spread of the gospel. Like life in the nineteenth century was that of “mis- the who settled New England, these sionary Christianity,” which made major inroads early settlers burned with religious zeal. Free- into the Xhosa community and produced out- town became a Christian commonwealth that standing believers such as the hymn writer 3 Africa

Ntsikana and the African Presbyterian leader, leading to expulsion in 1843. Under Emperor Me- Tiyo Soga. Such African leaders encouraged the nelik II, Ethiopian Christianity experi­enced a new missionary-dominated churches to engage in surge of life and entered the twentieth century programs of training, including Lovedale College carefully guarding its dearly won political and re- and Fort Hare University. ’s ligious independence. In Sudan, Catholic work fame exceeded that of all other nineteenth-­ under the leadership of the Verona Fathers was century missionaries despite his failure as evan- swept away by the Islamic Mahdist movement. gelist (he saw only one convert, who eventually . Krapf began work in Kenya in 1844 fell away). His achievements as an explorer, an after his expulsion from Ethiopia. Together with antislavery crusader, and missions promoter es- his colleague Johann Rebmann, Krapf envi- tablished his place in history. sioned a chain of mission stations across the Though missionary Christianity tended to em- continent, linking up with Freetown in West Af- phasize an inward piety and a broadly evangeli- rica. His vision would guide numerous mission cal theology that stood in contrast with the more agencies for the next century. Though he at- reformed Afrikaners by the late nineteenth cen- tempted to establish the eastern link of this tury, attempts were made to bridge the gap. Most chain at Rabai Mpyia, it was the later formation successful was Jr., moderator of Freetown in 1874 as a refuge for runaway of the DRC and champion of both evangelical slaves that gave Christianity its firmest foothold piety and missions. His emphasis on “Absolute in British . Outstanding Christian Surrender” and the formation of new agencies leaders came from the community at Freetown, such as the South Africa General Mission (now including David Koi, Kenya’s first Protestant African Evangelical Fellowship) acted as a cor- martyr. These missionary efforts on the coast rective to the Afrikaner Christianity. were soon augmented by a new thrust inland. A third expression of South African Christian- James Stewart, a Presbyterian missionary at ity was that of the social gospel championed by Lovedale College, was recruited by Livingstone people like the Anglican bishop John Colenso to establish an industrial mission in the Kenyan and John Jabavu. The emphasis of this form of interior in 1891. The CMS began work among Christianity was upon economic and political the Kikuyu of Kenya’s central highlands in 1901. justice. Colenso opposed the Afrikaner and En- and his newly founded Af- glish messianic nationalism, which he saw at the rica Inland Mission began churches among the root of injustice in South Africa. His clash with Kamba people in 1895. The Holy Ghost Fathers Bishop Robert Gray of Cape Town ended with began work in Nairobi in 1899. the formation of an independent Anglican com- . Catholic missionary efforts centered munion in South Africa. Like Colenso, John Ja- around the formation of a “Christian Village” at bavu regarded politics as an appropriate arena Bagamoyo (1868), where three hundred freed for Christian involvement. A tireless campaigner slaves found a place of refuge. Protestant work for African rights, he founded his own indepen- was conducted by the Universities Mission to dent newspaper. This third expression of Christi- Central Africa (UMCA), who were vigorous in anity would become a major force in the years their opposition to the Arab slave trade that was following South Africa’s Sharpville massacre of decimating the inland peoples of Africa’s Great 1960. lake region, where the LMS and CMS had estab- Despite the fragmented witness to the king- lished a presence. Through the intervention of dom of God provided by South African Christi- Germany the Arab slave trade was broken and a anity, this region entered the twentieth century number of German mission agencies introduced as one of the most Christianized regions in all of Lutheranism. Africa. Yet white domination of the churches . More dramatic than in any other part would eventually spawn a vigorous movement of of East Africa was the response to the gospel in “Ethiopianism”—separatist churches that de- Uganda. Christianity was introduced by the CMS manded respect from the Westerner and a in 1877 and flourished under the zealous leader- greater share of church leadership. ship of Alexander Mackay. White Fathers intro- Eastern Africa. The nineteenth century wit- duced Catholicism in 1879. Despite the indiffer- nessed the reintroduction of Christianity into the ence of King Mutesa I and the violent hostility of former Nubia (Sudan) and in Mombasa (Kenya). his son Mwanga, Protestant and Catholic Christi- Ethiopian Christianity was also revitalized during anity eventually produced a religious revolution the century. Additionally the lands of Tanzania in Uganda that spilled beyond the borders of the and Uganda saw the initial introduction of this kingdom of Buganda into the smaller kingdoms ancient African faith among their own people. that make up the modern-day nation of Uganda. Ethiopia and Sudan. In 1830 the CMS arrived The missionary factor. The colonial era (1885– in Ethiopia. Originally working within the Coptic 1960) brought sweeping changes to African church, Protestant missionaries such as J. Ludwig Christianity. The most notable change was the Krapf clashed with Coptic church authorities, proliferation of missionaries and agencies from 4 Africa the West and the corresponding growth of Afri­ type of movement is the East Africa Revival that can Christianity. In 1900 there were an estimated swept much of East Africa from 1930 onwards. 4 million Christians spread throughout the conti- Christianity in Independent Africa. In 1960, nent compared to 60 million Muslims. By the au- fourteen African nations achieved selfhood and tumn of colonialism in 1950 the number of Afri- inaugurated a new era within African Christian- can Christians had reached 34 million. ity. Henry Venn’s vision of an African Christian- The missionaries of the colonial era were, on ity that was self-governing, self-propagating, and the whole, a remarkable lot. Like Rowland Bing- self-supporting was at last realized. In denomi- ham of the Sudan Interior Mission (SIM; now nation after denomination African leaders re- Society for International Ministries), they placed missionaries. The new leaders faced a were a tough-minded breed who often buried number of new challenges in the modern era. their colleagues and kept going. Like George Five challenges in particular have dominated Af- Grenfell of the Baptist Mission Society of rican Christianity in the closing decades of the Congo, they were tireless explorers and enemies twentieth century. of the slave trade. Like Albert Schweitzer of Church and state. The overarching fact of mod- Gabon they were often humanitarians. Like ern African life since the late 1960s was wide- of the Calabar mission many were spread disillusionment with the nation-state. As single women who gave their entire lives to the the promise of the new African ruling elite work. Like P. A. Bennett, acting secretary of the turned sour, criticism began to mount. The com- CMS in Nigeria, they were sometimes incorrigi- mon response of the ruling elite to the growing ble racists. But like Archdeacon Dennis, also of chorus of criticism was tightened control, pro- the CMS in Nigeria, they more often opposed motion of personality cults and messianic na- racism with equal vigor. Like Father Shanahan tionalism, and growing conflict with the church. of Nigeria they aggressively founded schools. Kwame Nkrumah’s tragic rise and fall in Ghana Most important, like Carl Christian Reindorf of was all too typical. Zaire’s Mobutu Sese Seko, Li- Ghana, they mastered the vernacular languages beria’s Samuel Doe, Uganda’s Idi Amin, and Ethi- opia’s Mengistu Haile Mariam were typical of of the people and like George Pilkington of leaders who saw the church as a dangerous inde- Uganda, they translated the Scriptures and pendent voice. Church responses have varied trained indigenous evangelists. This last factor, from silent partnership with the ruling elite vernacular translations and the training of na- (Roman Catholicism in , DRC in South tional evangelists, accounts for the remarkable Africa) to critical protest of state injustice (Des- church growth that took place during the colo- mond Tutu in South Africa, NCCK in Kenya). nial decades. Occasionally the state has lashed out violently Independent religious movements. One reaction against the church as in the cases of the mar- to the missionary factor was the birth of the Afri- tyred Archbishop Janani Luwum of Uganda and can Initiated Church Movement. The indepen- the numerous imprisoned pastors of Mengistu’s dent churches that were founded tended to fall Ethiopia. into distinct groupings. Some were primarily Unity and diversity. Over six thousand different concerned with African leadership and only sec- independent churches were documented in Af- ondarily concerned with changing missionary rica by the late 1960s. Organizations like the All theology or worship. A second grouping empha- Africa Conference of Churches (AACC), the Orga- sized healing and the supernatural. Armed with nization of African Instituted Churches (OAIC), Scriptures in their own languages they struck out and the Association of Evangelicals in Africa on their own, like William Wade Harris of Libe- (AEA) have sought to bring some unity to the ria, whose preaching in West Africa between fractured body of Christ in Africa. A series of 1913 and 1915 claimed over one hundred thou- Pan-African Christian Leadership Assemblies sand adherents. Others like Simon Kimbangu of (PACLA) have sought additional harmony by Zaire catalyzed separation from missionary bringing leaders of the AACC and AEA together. churches into new denominations. In some cases Parachurch agencies have also played their part these prophet churches moved clearly outside the in bridging denominational dividing lines, some bounds of orthodoxy. Such was the case with Isa- by working with the independent churches. iah Shembe and his Church of the Nazarites in Theology and culture. In Roman Catholic as South Africa. After his death in 1935 his follow- well as Protestant circles great effort has gone ers proclaimed that he had risen from the dead into the formation of a Christian theology that and was in fact the true Christ for Africa. A third would adequately address the modern African category covers movements of revival within es- context. The varieties of theologies within the Af- tablished denominations. The passion in these rican context range from theologies of identity to types of movements was the discovery of a vital traditional evangelical formulations to radical Christianity to replace a numbing nominalism in liberation theology. African evangelical theology the church. The outstanding example of this third is still emerging, but important voices include 5 American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM)

Tokunboh Adeyemo, Kwame Bediako, Byang gational Association of Massachusetts the forma- Kato, Lamin Sanneh, and Tite Tiénou. tion of a foreign mission board. African missions and church growth. In the In 1812 the ABCFM was incorporated, and its 1970s Kenyan Presbyterian leader John Gatu first five missionaries sailed for India. Out of the called for a Moratorium on Western missionar- first group the Judsons and became ies in order to foster “selfhood” within the Baptists, the Judsons going on to Burma (now church. The outcome of this debate has been a ) while Rice returned to the United decrease in “mainline” missionaries (5,000 in States to form the Baptist Missionary Union. 1959 to 3,000 in early 1970) At the same time The Board’s purpose was to propagate the gos- there has been a resurgence of missions in three pel in “heathen” lands by supporting missionar- other groups. In 1974 a Synod of at ies and diffusing the knowledge of the Holy Rome rejected the call for moratorium and Scriptures. Evangelism and church planting had pledged 100,000 new missionaries by the year the highest priority, with Bible translation im- 2000. Evangelical missionaries from the faith portant and social concerns subordinate. About missions grew from 11,000 in the 1970s to over half of its missionaries were Congregationalists; 16,000 in the late 1980s. In addition dozens of most of the others were Presbyterian or Re- new African mission agencies emerged in the formed. The Board worked in thirty-four fields, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. The most dramatic which included indigenous Americans. When the story of church growth in Africa, however, was Cherokees were expelled from their land in Geor- the expansion of Pentecostal and charismatic gia, two missionaries went to prison in protest; preachers, evangelists, and missionaries in the others accompanied the people on the “Trail of closing decades of the twentieth century. The Tears.” Traders had arrived in Hawaii by 1800; as gospel of health, wealth, and wholeness ac- a result, the native population had fallen by half, counted for much of the appeal of this form of its culture disintegrating. In 1820 the missionar- Christianity. ies came, and by 1840 the language was reduced Discipleship, leadership, and nominalism. The to writing, most of the Bible translated, litera- ture produced, schools established, and twenty greatest challenge facing African Christian lead- thousand people, a fifth of the population, had ership was the challenge not of the unreached become church members. The local rulers but of the undiscipled. If one accepts the statis- passed laws against prostitution, gambling, and tics that African Christianity has grown from an drunkenness. estimated 4 million professing Christians in 1900 In the the goals were to work with to some 300 million adherents today then one is Muslims, ancient Christian churches, and Jews. forced to ask how these huge numbers of people Success among Muslims was limited, and al- can be discipled. Though the promise of African though the missionaries did not plan to Prosely- Christianity is great, the church of Africa must tize members of the older churches, converts to wrestle with the dilemma of a Christianity that evangelical Christianity were expelled from those may be “expanding at the periphery” even while bodies, leading to the establishment of Protes- it is “collapsing at the center” (Roland Oliver). tant churches. Leadership development and the training of the In Sumatra the first two missionaries were laity seem to be the crucial needs of this conti- killed and eaten by the Bataks, but a church was nent “shaped like a question mark” (Ali Mazrui). later established among them by European mis- Mark Shaw sionaries. Bibliography. J. Baur, 2000 Years of Christianity in The Bible was translated into a number of lan- Africa; J. de Gruchy, The Church Struggle in South Af- guages, many of which were first reduced to rica; R. Gray, Black Christians and White Missionaries; writing. Educational institutions from the pri- C. P. Groves, The Planting of the Church in Africa; mary to university levels were established, while A. Hastings, The Church in Africa, 1450–1950; E. Isi- and John Scudder were acclaimed chei, A History of Christianity in Africa; L. Sanneh, West for their medical work in and India. African Christianity; M. Shaw, The Kingdom of God in Rufus Anderson, a secretary of the Board Africa. from 1823 to 1866, was America’s most outstand- ing mission leader and theoretician of the nine- American Board of Commissioners for For- teenth century. He is best known for his formula- eign Missions (ABCFM). The ABCFM was the tion, along with Henry Venn of the CMS, of the first and most important nineteenth-century “Three-Self” formula, which stated that the goal American mission board. Samuel Mills, a child was to establish churches that were self-govern- of the , led a group of ing, self-supporting, and self-propagating. He students at to pledge them- also advocated Christianization over civiliza- selves to missions in the “Haystack Prayer tion—Westernization—in an important debate. Meeting” in 1806. In 1810, as students at Ando- The theological shift in New England Congre- ver Seminary, the group proposed to the Congre- gationalism in the last third of the nineteenth 6 Asia century greatly affected the Board and contrib- contemporary Mennonites carry on their legacy uted to its eventual decline. But by 1959 it had (see Mennonite Missions). sent out over 4,800 men and women. With the A. Scott Moreau union of the Congregational and Evangelical and Bibliography. H. Kasdorf, Anabaptists and Mis- Reformed Churches in the 1950s the ABCFM be- sion, pp. 51–60; R. L. Ramsayer, Anabaptists and came the United Church Board of World Minis- ­Mission, pp. 178–78; N. van der Zijpp, Anabaptists tries. and Mission, pp. 119–36. Paul E. Pierson Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, ed., To Advance the Gos- Anderson, Rufus (1796–1880). American mis- pel: Selections from the Writings of Rufus Anderson; F. F. sion theorist. Born in Yarmouth, Maine, he was Goodsell, You Shall Be My Witnesses; C. J. Phillips, educated at Bowdoin College and Andover Semi- Protestant America and the Pagan World, the American nary. There he volunteered to go to India at a Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1810– time when world missions was largely an after- 1860. thought in American church life. The American Board of Commissioners for Anabaptist Missions. “Anabaptist” (“re-bap- Foreign Missions (ABCFM) ordained him as an tizer”) is a cover name given to a movement of evangelist. In 1826 he became assistant secretary splinter groups initiated at the time of the Refor- and in 1832 he became foreign secretary, a post mation. They denied infant baptism, instituting a he held until his retirement in 1866. His influ- restriction of baptism to believing adults. Though ence was extended through his worldwide trav- not thinking of themselves as rebaptizers, this pe- els, teaching, and writing. He was probably the jorative label (given by the Catholics and Reform- first person rightfully to be called a missionary ers who persecuted them) has through historical statesman. He shaped the policies of his own use become the accepted term of reference. board by strongly emphasizing that the churches In addition to believer’s baptism, Anabaptist established overseas should be self-governing, groups were characterized generally by personal self-supporting, and self-propagating. (See Indig- devotion to Christ, passionate commitment to enous Churches.) This formula was soon ad- evangelism, and radical separation of church opted by other agencies as well. and state. Several groups also lived communally, Anderson believed that mission compounds preached eschatological urgency, and were paci- and reliance on foreign missionaries hindered fists. The blend of unswerving evangelistic fervor the growth of the national church. He was firmly and persistent refusal to take oaths of loyalty to committed to the training and ordination of na- earthly rulers resulted in the perception that they tional pastors. His theories were published in were insurrectionists. They were thus outlawed 1856 by the ABCFM as the Outline of Missionary almost everywhere they went. Practice. Literally thousands were martyred, many by Jim Reapsome drowning as a cruel parody of their baptismal practice. The sheer number of martyrs, however, Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, To Advance the Gospel: attests to the movement’s vitality. Long before Selections from the Writings of Rufus Anderson. William Carey, and in contrast to the Reformers, Matthew 28:19–20 was a central text in Anabap- Asia. Asia covers thirty independent nations in tist mission motivation. A primary goal was rees- the vast areas of land from Japan in Northeast tablishing the biblical model of the church, Asia, numerous other nations in Southeast Asia which they felt had been lost in the mixed mar- and South Asia, and up to Turkey in West Asia. riage of church and state. Generally they gath- Asia represents three major cultural blocs (Mes- ered people in homes rather than ecclesiastical opotamia, India, and China) and the birthplaces structures for worship, and these home groups of the major living World Religions of Christi- maintained fluidity and the ability to multiply anity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. The re- rapidly. The movement was largely lay-driven; gion’s population of approximately three billion each person responding to Christ became an ac- represents 60 percent of the world’s total popula- tive missionary, sharing Christ at home, in the tion. Its five thousand years of history have made market, and in vocational life. Those who fled it a continent of rich cultural heritage. The major persecution witnessed wherever they went. wars of the past four decades have been fought Eventually the combination of constant perse- in Asia, bringing much suffering to millions of cution, slowing apocalyptic fervor, and loss of Asians but also awakening them to their need for first-generation commitment led to withdrawal spiritual values. from mainstream culture and second-generation Historian Arnold Toynbee once stated, “The complacency. At a time when the Reformers changing events of Asia will decide the future of largely ignored the need for missionary out- the world tomorrow.” With the rapid moderniza- reach, however, the Anabaptists engaged in work tion and economic dynamism of Asian nations, that remains a model still relevant today, and particularly in the Asia-Pacific basin (Japan, Tai- 7 Asia wan, , , and China), many of national churches and of foreign religious are saying that “the 21st Century will be the Age workers are restricted. of Asia.” Economic and Social Changes. One word Changing Patterns of Asian Societies: Politi- that describes Asia the best is “changes,” for Asia cal Changes. Politically, there are three major is rapidly changing in social and cultural pat- factors affecting Asia and the Asian church. terns as well as in economic living standards. First, every nation in Asia except Japan and New building construction sites for high-rise Thailand have experienced bitter foreign colonial apartments, department stores, and government domination, especially from the Western nations. offices are commonly observed in major cities of But today all nations in Asia are politically inde- Asia. Rapid Urbanization, traffic congestion, air, pendent. National independence from political noise, and water pollution, drugs, prostitution, Colonialism has brought enormous changes in and crime have marred the dreams of many the political structures of the national govern- Asians. The lifestyle of the urban cities is getting ments as well as many internal conflicts and more materialistic, secularistic, and Western- wars among different ethnic groups in many ized. However, rural people are still living as they Asian nations. Related to independence and always have for hundreds of years. There is a strong Nationalism is the withdrawal of Western widening gap between urban and rural and be- powers, finalized for Britain in July of 1997 tween rich and poor. With the increase in eco- when Hong Kong reverted back to China. The nomic power, many Christians in Asia are not mass exodus of British troops from the former only able to manage their churches financially colonies in South and Southeast Asia, the French but also to support their own missionaries defeat in former French Indo-China (Vietnam, within and outside their borders. Cambodia, and Laos), and the American military With the rise of living standards and the rapid withdrawal from South Vietnam, Taiwan, and Modernization of Asian society, Asians are fac- the Philippines have created a political vacuum ing many social and cultural changes. The influx in many regions. of Western cultures into Asia through mass In the past it was the foreigners who con- media by introducing Hollywood movies into trolled the internal as well as foreign affairs of theaters and TV, rock music, fashion shows, and their colonies. The expatriates regulated mis- other secular and hedonistic events along with sionary activities according to their own national fast food chains have made a tremendous impact interests. In contrast today an increasing num- upon Asian lifestyles. Consequently, there is an ber of Asian nations have used political pres- increasing gap between the older and younger sures against foreign missionary activities in generations. Young people today care much less their countries, especially in the communist (China, North Korea, Vietnam, Kampuchea, and about traditional culture, have no memory of the Laos) and Islamic (Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangla- wars and the sufferings of their parents’ genera- desh, Malaysia, and Central and Middle Eastern) tion, and readily accept new ideas and practices. nations. Hindu nations (India and Nepal) and Religious Resurgence. There are three large Buddhist nations (, Thailand, and non-Christian religious groups which constitute Myanmar) also bring pressure against Christian the majority of Asia’s three billion people: one activities. In 1997 more than 83 percent of the billion Muslims, 700 million Hindus, and 300 Asian population resided in countries where the million Buddhists (see Islam, Hinduism, Bud- acquisition of a missionary visa was very limited. dhism). There has been a resurgence of major re- A creative access strategy is needed in order to ligions in Asia and religions are used by the na- facilitate alternative ways of carrying on mis- tional governments to promote unity among sionary activities (see Creative Access Coun- different tribes, cultural groups, and languages. tries). The influence of Islam, seen in the reintroduc- Second, as a result of this self-control, Asian tion of ­Shari’a and the rise of Islamic fundamen- nations are experiencing a resurgence of nation- talism, is growing. Malaysia exemplifies this. The alism and traditional values. This resurgence Federation of Malaysia consists of West Malay- which derives from chauvinistic, patriotic pas- sia, Sarawak, and Sabah. It has 22.3 million peo- sion has been expressed in cultural, linguistic, ple, 52.5 percent of whom are Malays, 30 percent and religious ways. A common motto throughout Chinese, 8.1 percent Indians, and 8.9 percent tri- Asia is “Import Western technology, but retain bals. The Federation is trying to unite these dif- your own traditional culture.” ferent races through the unification of language Third, the rise of the communist threat was and religion. The Malaysian government en- real throughout Asia during the Korean War forced the Bahasa Malaysian program in which (1950–53) and the Vietnam War (1964–75). Com- the Malay language is used, instead of the ver- munist ideology still controls over two billion naculars. Consequently, there has been a gradual people in China, North Korea, Vietnam, Kampu- assimilation of the Chinese and Indians into the chea, and Laos. In these countries the activities Malay Islamic culture. 8 Asia

Buddhism, too, has been revived in Thailand, ual tribes. Therefore, Asia still presents the great- Myanmar, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, and other Bud- est challenge to Christian missions today and in dhist nations. Throughout urban cities and rural the next century. communities one can observe thousands of de- Most nations in the 10/40 Window do not eas- vout Buddhists worshiping the statues of Bud- ily grant visas for foreign missionary work. Ap- dha and offering food and burning incense in proximately 20 percent of the total missionary Buddhist temples. force in the world works in these restricted na- In India, Hinduism was also revived through tions in Asia. This means that the future focus of its reform movements such as Brammo Samaj, world missions in the twenty-first century must Arya Samaj, and Rama Krishna Mission of the be on the two billion unreached peoples of Asia. nineteenth century. Radical Hindu followers of With the development of modern transportation the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and and mass media through television, film, radio, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) contributed telephone, fax, and e-mail service, we can now significantly to rejuvenate Hinduism and Hindu know the background of these unreached peo- nationalism in India and make minority commu- ples in Asia (see also Information Technology, nities of Muslims and Christians feel threatened Media, and Mass Communication). The Global and insecure by insisting that a true Indian must C onsultation o f Wo r l d E vangelization be a Hindu. (GCOWE ’95) which met in Seoul, Korea, with In Japan, there is a renewed interest in tradi- 4,000 participants from 186 nations in May 1995 tional religious traditions, including some signs adopted a motto, “A church for every people and of increasing links between the state and Shinto- the gospel for every person,” and challenged all ism. Nevertheless, with rapid church growth in participants to pray especially for the unreached many nations in Asia, there has been an increas- peoples of the world within the 10/40 Window. ing confrontation between Christianity and other Expansion of Christianity in Asia. The his- traditional religions of Asia. Therefore, it is cru- tory of Christianity in Asia goes back to the first cial for the Asian church to learn how to deal century. According to the Acts of Thomas, St. with the traditional religions of Asia. Thomas came to the Malabar coast of Kerela, Asia: The Least Evangelized Continent. Asia South India, to preach the gospel to the Indians is the least evangelized continent in the world, and became a martyr near Madras in a.d. 72. The with approximately 3 percent of the three billion Christian message penetrated into the regions of people following Christ. Johnstone provides sta- Media, Persia, Parthia, and Bactria (modern tistics of seven large Asian nations which have , , and Afghanistan) by a.d. 150. Accord- small Christian populations, including China, ing to the Nestorian Tablet which was discovered Taiwan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Japan, and in the city of Sian in central China in 1625, a Thailand. The vast majority of the unreached Nestorian missionary from the Syrian church, people today reside in these countries. , went to China in a.d. 635. During the The AD2000 and Beyond Movement has em- Mongolian Empire of the twelfth to thirteenth phasized the evangelization of unreached peo- centuries, several Roman Catholic friars such as ples in the 10/40 Window. These countries cover John of Plano Carpini, , the whole continent of Asia from Japan to India, and William Rubruck went to China as mission- and from Central Asia to North Africa. The aries. Adopt-a-People Campaign of the U.S. Center for With the historic voyage of Vasco Da Gama to World Mission in Pasadena reports that there are Capetown, South Africa, in 1498 and to Malabar, approximately two billion people in 11,000 un- India, two years later, the Western colonial age reached people groups (out of a worldwide total known as “the Vasco Da Gama Age” began in of 24,000). Asia, Africa, and South America. , The vast majority of these two billion are a Jesuit missionary, came to Kagoshima, Japan, found in four major blocs. The Islamic world in 1549 and ministered to the Japanese for more contains over one billion Muslims, most of than two years, moved to South China in 1552, whom reside in Asia, with over 4,000 unreached and died there after four months. Since then, Muslim people groups in the world. The Hindu thousands of other Roman Catholic missionaries world of India and Nepal represents more than have been commissioned to Asia. 700 million Hindus in 2,000 unreached groups. The beginning of the Protestant missions in Most of the 300 million Buddhists are found in the early eighteenth century heralded another Southeast and Northeast Asia, representing ap- era in Asia’s mission history. In 1706 the first proximately 1,000 unreached people groups. The Protestant missionaries arrived in South India Chinese in China today represent by far the larg- from Europe. The Danish-Halle Mission sent est number of unreached peoples in the world Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and Henrich with 1.2 billion people, living in some 1,000 un- Plutschau to Tranquebar to work among the reached people groups. There are millions of Tamil-speaking Indians. In 1792 the Baptist Mis- other people who belong to 3,000 small individ- sionary Society in England­ commissioned Wil- 9 Asia liam Carey to Calcutta, India. He did missionary Slower growth has been seen in countries work in India for forty-one years. In 1807 Rob- such as Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, and India. ert Morrison of the London Missionary Society Minimal growth has been experienced in na- came to Macao and translated the Bible into the tions where there are tremendous struggles and Chinese language. In 1813 resulting pressures from unsympathetic govern- from the United States arrived in Rangoon, mental and religious leaders, such as Pakistan, Burma, and ministered to the Burmese for thir- Bangladesh, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and the Mid- ty-seven years. Since then, thousands of other dle Eastern nations. Protestant missionaries from Europe, North Seven Basic Issues of an Asian Church. America, and / have fol- Many Asian church leaders and theologians have lowed these pioneers to work in different parts of discussed various issues of the Asian church Asia. through different consultations. With the rapid Church Growth in Asia. The amazing church growth of the church in different parts of Asia, growth in Asia since the end of World War II has the Asian churches are facing seven important been widely reported throughout the world. Sev- issues: (1) grassroots evangelism must be em- eral countries have experienced dramatic rates phasized in order to reach the vast number of of church growth. The Christian population in non-Christians in Asia; (2) leadership training South Korea has reached 12 million Protestants for both full-time Christian workers and lay lead- (25% of the population) and 2.4 million Roman ers is needed since there is a tremendous short- Catholics (6% of the population) among 47 mil- age of trained leaders at the local church level; lion people since the arrival of the first Protes- (3) since lay Christians play a very important tant missionaries in Korea in 1884. China, the role in church growth, there has been an increas- most populous nation in the world, had never ing demand for lay training programs; (4) na- exceeded one percent Christian population until tional Christians must seriously evaluate their the Peoples’ Republic of China was established own contextual situation in order to find the in 1949. Since the modernization of China began most effective indigenous ways to communicate in 1979, the Christian population has sharply in- the gospel of Jesus Christ (see Contextualiza- tion); (5) theological issues emerging from vari- creased. Some China watchers in Hong Kong re- ous kinds of Asian theologies, religious Dia- port that there are between 50 million and 70 logue, Religious Pluralism, and Human Rights million Christians and 50,000 house churches have created theological confusion in the Asian (see Chinese Movement), even theological arena; (6) Christian social responsi- though the Three Self Patriotic Movement bility with its holistic approach must be empha- (TSPM) and the Communist Party only acknowl- sized to help the poor and to alleviate the suffer- edge the growth of the church from one million ing from social injustice and discrimination; and Protestant members in 11,470 churches in 1949 (7) spiritual renewal within the church is desper- to 7,000 state churches with 6 million Christians ately needed to bring spiritual revival among the and 20,000 registered home meetings in 1995. members of the church. There must be a discern- The Philippines, which is the only Roman ible difference between the lifestyles of Chris- Catholic nation in Asia, has a growing number of tians and their non-Christian neighbors. Protestant believers. Indonesia, with the largest The Asian Missionary Movement. It is en- Muslim population in the world, has also experi- couraging to observe that many Asian churches enced rapid church growth. After the communist particularly since 1970 have been sending their coup failed in Indonesia in 1966, President Su- own cross-cultural missionaries. Many Asian harto’s government guaranteed religious free- church leaders who attended the international dom to five major religions (Islam, Hinduism, missions congresses were deeply challenged for Buddhism, , and Roman Catholi- the task of world evangelization, and as a result cism) according to the “Pantasila” policy in the organized their own national and regional evan- Constitution. Singapore, known as the cross- gelism congresses and missions consultations roads of Asia with a multiracial and multireli- (see Asian Mission Boards and Societies). gious background, has Protestant and Roman Consequently, the Asia Missions Association Catholic populations of 8 percent and 5.7 per- (AMA) was organized in 1973 to coordinate mis- cent respectively, particularly among educated sions agencies throughout Asia. In 1990 the First Chinese and Indians. Nepal, the only Hindu Asian Missions Congress was held in Seoul, kingdom in Asia, was very hostile to the gospel Korea, sponsored by the Missions Commission until a multipolitical party system developed in of the Evangelical Fellowship of Asia (EFA) with 1991. It has experienced remarkable church 1,200 participants from different parts of Asia. growth from only a handful of believers to over The theme of the congress was “World Missions: 52,000 Protestant members (0.56% of the popu- The Asian Challenge.” The Second Asian Mis- lation) and 2,100 Roman Catholics (0.02% of the sions Congress was held in Pattaya, Thailand, in population) today. 1997 with 350 participants with the theme, “Into 10 Australian Mission Boards and Societies the 21st Century: Asian Churches in Missions.” man a fish and he will eat for a day. Teach a man In 1997 approximately 30,000 Asian missionaries to fish and he will have food for a lifetime.” It from India, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, was imperative, therefore, for Paul to train the Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, leaders of the Ephesian church in order that they and others joined their hands with Western mis- would be able to train others to bring the gospel sionaries for world evangelization. Two nations to 500,000 people in the city of Ephesus. Like- in Asia which sent out the largest number of wise, the training of national church leaders in cross-cultural missionaries were India and South the Asian church today is also imperative in Korea with 20,000 and 5,500 cross-cultural mis- order to reach three billion Asians with the gos- sionaries respectively. pel. These spiritual leaders will be able to mobi- Challenge of Asia to Christian Missions lize the laity of the church at the grassroots level Today. As Paul had his missionary concern for in order to penetrate into the non-Christian the Jews and Gentiles in Palestine, Asia Minor, Asian society with the gospel of Christ. Macedonia, Achaia, and Rome in the first cen- Therefore, three important proposals need to tury, so Asian Christians today must have their be stressed for the evangelization of Asia. First, deep prayerful concern to reach their own peo- the burden of communicating the gospel and ple with the gospel of Christ on the grassroots making disciples in Asia today must rest primar- level. How Paul evangelized the largest city of ily with the national Christians. Therefore, the Ephesus in Asia Minor in the first century pro- national church must implement the concept of vides a very significant missiological lesson to “Christianization of the nation” among the na- the Asian church today. There are a number of tional Christians. Second, effective church similarities between the Ephesus of Paul’s time growth in Asia depends on the creative and spir- and urban cities in Asia today and between the it-filled leadership of pastors and lay leaders. Ephesian church then and the Asian church in Third, and finally, the top priority of the Asian our time. If Paul were to come to Asia today and church in the twenty-first century must be the walk on the streets of Bombay, Singapore, Ja- training of national church leaders in order that karta, Bangkok, Hong Kong, , Taipei, they would be able to mobilize the laity of the Seoul, and , what kind of ministry would church. he launch to bring the good news of the gospel of God has always worked through his chosen Jesus Christ to Asians? people in the history of redemption. Peter says in The city of Ephesus of the first century and 1 Peter 2:9–10, “But you are a chosen people, a Asian cities today have three main similarities. royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belong- First, Ephesus, which was the largest city in Asia ing to God, that you may declare the praises of Minor with a population of 500,000, had a great him who called you out of darkness into his harbor, emporium, library, commerce, educa- wonderful light. Once you were not a people, but tion, and culture. Likewise, Asian cities are now you are the people of God; once you had not crowded with the masses of people and many received mercy, but now you have received high-rise buildings developed in modern sur- mercy.” In centuries past God has used the roundings. Second, as Ephesus was the religious churches in Europe and North America to bring city with the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:23–41), the gospel to Asia, Africa, and South America. so is Asia today filled with spirits, idols, and su- Asia, known spiritually as the darkest continent perstitious beliefs of traditional religions of Hin- in the world with the least Christian population duism, Buddhism, Taoism, Shintoism, and of any continent, is experiencing God’s spiritual Islam. Third, Ephesus was a sinful city, as Paul awakening among its peoples. God has chosen described it as “having lost all sensitivity, they Asia and the Asian church in the twenty-first have given themselves over to sensuality so as to century to proclaim his wonderful light to mil- indulge in every kind of impurity, with a contin- ual lust for more” (Eph. 4:19). Likewise, Asian lions of Asians and around the world. cities are filled with sin, crime, drugs, sexual im- Bong Rin Ro morality, bribery, and injustice. Bibliography. S. Athyal, ed., Church in Asia Today; When Paul faced the great task of evangelizing D. E. Hoke, ed., The Church in Asia; S. H. Moffett, A Ephesus and many other cities in Asia Minor History of Christianity in Asia; M. Mohamad and and Europe in his time, he concentrated on the S. Ishihara, The Voice of Asia; B. R. Ro, ed., Christian leadership training of the Ephesian church by Suffering in Asia; P. T. Welty, The Asians. emphasizing the spiritual gifts: “It was he who gave some to be apostles, some to be prophets, Australian Mission Boards and Societies. and some to be evangelists, and some to be pas- Overview. Australian churches have been send- tors and teachers, to prepare God’s people for ing and supporting missionaries for more than a works of service, so that the body of Christ may century. Each of the ten evangelical denomina- be built up” (Eph. 4:11–12). There is a Chinese tions have mission boards and/or societies. In ad- proverb that teaches a similar lesson, “Give a dition, Australia has at least ninety interdenomi- 11 Australian Mission Boards and Societies national agencies. Thirty of these are either new Other areas of change include the struggle to or small and are not registered as members of keep up with available technology; the inroads of Missions Interlink, the national missions associa- modernity; the frustration of having to process tion. and prepare candidates who come from dysfunc- The Australian missions family is diverse. tional families or immature churches; the reali- Some missions have a long, rich heritage; others zation that the gospel has a holistic application carry the zeal of a new vision. Some have strong (see Holistic Mission); the need for Contingency international linkages; others have only a small Plans to safeguard missionaries in an increas- local committee of volunteers. Some have more ingly hostile world; the need to prepare tentmak- than one hundred missionaries; others support ers for ministry in creative access countries (see indigenous church workers. In 1995, Australian Tentmaking Mission); and the urgent need to re- missions who were members of Missions Inter- cruit people under thirty years of age as career link supported 1,850 overseas workers and 1,485 missionaries and board members. home staff. These figures do not include overseas Contemporary Challenges. Underlying most indigenous church workers who are also sup- of the contemporary challenges facing Australian ported by Australian churches and societies. mission boards and societies is the need to un- The Path to the Present. Australia is an island derstand the thinking of young people under nation. Before the days of relatively cheap and thirty years of age, in order to recruit them as fast jet travel, most Australians did not venture long-term career missionaries and board mem- out of the country. They lived in a country where bers. Missions Interlink has set a goal of identify- the churches exercised considerable influence ing one thousand young people who have de- and where every child was taught religion in cided to become missionaries in the future and school. The Second World War ended the isola- to nurture them toward meaningful involvement tion. Young Australians fought in a war far from in the missionary movement. home. While some returned home embittered A second challenge relates directly to the need and sad, others brought with them a new under- to recruit young people. At least 20 percent of standing of the needs of the world and of other Australian societies cannot remain viable with peoples and cultures. This awareness strength- their current level of staff or finances. Some have ened the missionary cause and resulted in a new reduced home staff in order to lessen expendi- wave of voluntarism. In the fifty years since the ture. The way societies finance their operations war, the advent of television, overseas travel, and is under review by those societies who have the access to modern technology have further re- expertise. The concept of team support will be duced the insularity of many Australians. Mo- challenged and reviewed. Some larger churches dernity has brought a negative side as well, are challenging the concept now, by fully sup- which hinders the efforts of both churches and porting their own workers but not allowing for mission societies. the societies’ costs. Some societies are in dia- Along the path to the present, the mission soci- logue with possible compatible partners with a eties have been forced to change and adapt to view to amalgamation. Unless the size of the re- ensure their long-term viability. Some changes source base can be enlarged, it seems inevitable have been of great significance. Formerly, mis- that some societies will soon cease to exist. sionaries received financial support by one of One way of increasing the level of support for three methods—a salary from the mission, a the missionary task is to mount an effective edu- share of gifts made to the general fund of the cation program in the churches about the bibli- mission, or whatever the Lord supplied through cal basis for the mission of the church and the churches and friends. While some denomina- ways in which the church can be involved in tional boards still pay salaries, most boards have changing the world. Many pastors cannot under- introduced a system of team support for their take this task, so the missions must. The small missionaries. The change has meant a better in- number of missions who already have church come for most missionaries, but it has negatively education programs cannot meet the demand. impacted their time for rest during home assign- Proper care of the missionary family will be a ment, as well as the general funds of their mis- prime responsibility, especially for the younger sion. generations who demand this. Care begins with A second bittersweet change has been the proper candidate processing, orientation, and change in relationships with emerging national training. Care continues to be a responsibility churches. It has been satisfying to see the young through a term of missionary service, and ex- churches come of age, but it has also been pain- tends through debriefing and reentry to the ful for the mission to deal with the transition in home scene (see Member Care in Missions ). relationships from parent to partner. Problems Finally, Australian boards and societies will have surfaced regularly around requests from face the dual challenges of completing the task the new church for workers and funding which with the churches they have already started and appear to the society to be unwarranted. finding the keys to successful church planting in 12 Canadian Mission Boards and Societies the more resistant Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic vians arrived in 1764 and established self-sup- cultures. porting Christian settlements (see also Moravian John Tanner Mission). English medical missionary Wilfred T. Grenfell drew world attention to the plight of Brainerd, David (1718–47). American mission- the native peoples of Labrador by his work 140 ary to indigenous Americans. The influence of years later. David Brainerd’s life far exceeded his brief mis- John Eliot’s 1661 translation of the New Tes- sionary career among indigenous Americans. He tament for the Algonquins (who extended into was born in 1718 in Haddam, Connecticut, and Upper Canada) was the forerunner of Bible began his studies at Yale College in 1739. After translations that spurred Protestant mission in three years he was expelled for his criticism of a Canada. The first non-English publication of the tutor, which seemed to flow from the effects of British and Foreign Bible Society was the Gospel the Great Awakening on the campus. School au- of Mark, translated by a Mohawk chief (pub- thorities did not take kindly to the outbreaks of lished 1804). The un- prayer and Bible study groups. However, at Yale dertook the evangelization of the west and north. Brainerd heard about missionary work among A Methodist missionary invented a syllabic script the Indians and in 1742 he investigated work for a translation. Presbyterians and others under The Society in for the Propaga- joined in the outreach. By 1914 those efforts had tion of Christian Knowledge. He was appointed resulted in an estimated three-quarters of native and served in New York, Pennsylvania, and New Canadians becoming Christian. However, since Jersey. By 1746 he counted some 150 converts in then, native peoples have suffered the impact of New Jersey. By that time his health had failed social vices and face great spiritual and physical and he died of tuberculosis at age twenty-nine. problems. Today native churches and missions Brainerd did not establish any landmarks in continue pastoral and missionary outreach his work. In fact, some of his methods were crit- among their own people. icized because he appeared to be unwilling to Increasingly, Canadians responded to the call learn from others who had worked with the Indi- of missions overseas. Among the pioneers were ans. However, his lasting influence on world mis- Baptist Samuel Day (India 1835); Presbyterians sions came through his deep devotional life, George L. MacKay (China 1888); Salvationist which inspired and motivated succeeding gener- Rowland V. B ingham (Africa 1893); Baptists Ar- ations of missionaries until the mid-twentieth chibald and Jean Reekie (Bolivia 1898). Pente- century. His Life and Diary became a standard costal missions began developing early in the devotional classic after it was published by 1900s, with four Canadians taking part in a proj- Moody Press in 1949. ect in Liberia (1908). Two Canadians who launched global missions Jim Reapsome were close friends and fellow gospel entrepre- Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, ed., Pioneers in Mission; neurs. Albert B. Simpson began as a Canadian P. E. Howard Jr., ed., The Life and Diary of David Presbyterian before moving to pulpits in the Brainerd. United States. Trainer of missionaries, editor, and author, he founded the Christian and Mis- Canadian Mission Boards and Societies. Sam- sionary Alliance in 1897. Bingham, Simpson’s uel de Champlain, who founded Quebec city friend, pioneered the Sudan Interior Mission (see (1608), declared, “The salvation of a single soul Society for International Ministries) in 1893, is worth more than the conquest of an empire.” opened Canada’s Keswick spiritual life confer- He was sympathetic to the French Calvinistic ence as a mission-sending base, and initiated a Huguenots, several of whom accompanied him mission-focused­ magazine, a publishing house, and settled in Acadia/Novia Scotia (1605) and and a mission to the armed forces. Quebec (1608). However, the early influence of In 1928, another Presbyterian minister, Os- these Protestants was snuffed out by the Jesuits, wald J. Smith, started Peoples Church, a non-­ who arrived in 1611, and gained control of “New denominational work that gained international France” by 1620, blocking further Huguenot im- missions fame. Traveling to 80 countries, Smith migration. contributed to missiology through slogans, the Jesuit, Franciscan, and other Roman Catholic “faith pledge,” many of his 1200 hymns, poems, missionaries suffered much physical hardship and gospel songs, and his 35 books (six million and, in some cases, torture and death at the copies, 128 languages). hands of those they sought to win to the Church. World War II exposed Christian members of Outreach to the far West was carried on chiefly Canada’s armed forces to the spiritual and phys- by the Oblates of Mary Immaculate (OMI). ical needs of other lands. Reports influenced An early Protestant pioneer was Johann Chris- groups such as the Mennonites to become active tian Erhardt, a Moravian who visited Labrador in missions and development projects. By the in 1752 but was killed by the . Other Mora- 1960s, Canadian foreign missionaries numbered 13 Carey, William over four thousand. The highest proportion of into a poor family near Northampton. He be- these came from Associated Gospel (AGC), came an apprentice shoemaker at age sixteen Brethren, and Fellowship of Evangelical Bap- and was married in 1781. Poverty stalked the tists churches, although the majority served out- family, but Carey studied hard and became a side their own denominational missions—most Baptist lay preacher in 1785. He combined his under missions are linked with the Interdenom- biblical and geographical knowledge and soon inational Foreign Missions Association (Can- preached that the church’s primary responsibil- ada Branch). Most evangelical denominational ity was foreign missions. Fighting an uphill bat- missions are linked with the Evangelical Fel- tle against the religious establishment, in 1792 lowship of Mission Agencies (USA) through he published his landmark study, An Enquiry their member bodies in America. Other global Into the Obligation of Christians to Use Means for evangelistic associations registered in Canada the Conversion of the Heathens. Under his influ- include AD 2000, Lausanne Committee on ence, some Baptist ministers organized a new World Evangelism (LCWE; see Lausanne Move- mission board, the Baptist Missionary Society. In ment), and World Evangelical Fellowship. 1793 Carey and John Thomas and their families As to media-related global outreach from Can- sailed to India. ada, Bible Stories Alive (“A Visit with Mrs. G.”) Despite family and economic hardships, Carey produces and records dramatized Bible stories in persisted in preaching, doing Bible translation 30 languages and ships tapes to 170 countries. work, and starting schools. However, for the first These are also broadcast by international mis- seven years at Malda there were no Indian con- sionary radio stations (ELWA, FEBC, HCJB, verts. TWR) and are on 500 radio stations in America Carey moved his base to Serampore, where he alone. A high-tech counterpart is Galcom Inc., a ministered thirty-four years until his death. He radionics mission which has developed so- completed translations of the Bible into Bengali, lar-powered, pocket-sized, fix-tuned radio receiv- Sanskrit, and Marathi. He organized schools and ers and distributes them around the world—es- started a print shop. By 1818 there were some six pecially significant in “limited access” countries. hundred baptized converts. The following year In 1996 the Evangelical Fellowship of Canada he began to train pastors. revived the EFC Task Force on Missions, which However, as the mission grew, serious internal works with church and agency leaders seeking to problems developed, which eventually caused a maximize the effectiveness of Canadian evangel- split in the mission in 1826. icals in global mission. As well, EFC has recom- Carey’s wife Dorothy died in 1807 and he re- missioned Vision Canada 2000 to promote evan- married within a year, much to the consternation gelization within the nation. of his fellow missionaries. His colleagues also Acceptability of Canadian missionaries is en- felt that Carey’s children suffered because of his hanced in certain sensitive nations, because they heavy workload and the lack of discipline. An- see it as a tolerant, conciliatory country that is other grievous setback was the loss of his manu- not a major world power. The country’s multicul- scripts in a fire in 1812, but he zealously plunged turalism and pluralism have led some non-Cana- into his work again. dian missions to use its ethnic communities as a Carey’s fatherhood of modern Protestant mis- base for orientating candidates headed for other sions is seen in the fact that his basic strategies of lands. Canada’s missionary heritage and its work have been followed ever since: Bible Trans- human and financial resources position it to play lation and production, Evangelism, Church an active part in the cause of world missions. Planting, Education, and Medical and Relief W. Harold Fuller Work. Although Carey had a high regard for In- dian culture, he fought against widow burning Bibliography. A. J. Austin, Evangelical Studies Bulle- and infanticide. He left his mark on India, while tin. Spring 1997; J. W. Grant, ed., The Churches and the in both Europe and North America his zeal for Canadian Experience; A. Motz, ed., Reclaiming a Na- tion; G. A. Rawlyk and M. A. Noll, Amazing Grace; B. C. world missions provided the impetus for a re- Stiller, From the Tower of Babel to Hill. markable upsurge in missionary vision, the start- ing of new mission societies, and the sending of thousands of missionaries. Carey, William (1761–1834). English missionary to India. William Carey’s nomination as the “Fa- Jim Reapsome ther of Modern Missions” may not be chronolog- Bibliography. M. Drewery, William Carey: A Biogra- ically accurate (Moravian missionaries criss- phy; T. George, Faithful Witness: The Life and Mission crossed the globe before he was born), but it is of William Carey. accurate in terms of what his life and ministry spawned in the ensuing years of Protestant mis- Caribbean. The nations of the Caribbean have a sions in England—that is, the so-called Great diverse population of 40 million people who oc- Century of missionary outreach. Carey was born cupy twenty-five major islands and hundreds of 14 Caribbean smaller ones. The region has long been referred Haiti, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Martin, to as a “Naboth’s vineyard,” an unspoiled natural and Saint Bathélemy; the Dutch possessions of paradise whose serenity, resources, and vulnera- Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saint Martin, Saba, bility have led frequently to political interven- and Saint Eustatius; and the Virgin Islands, tion, economic exploitation, and cultural intru- which the United States purchased from Den- sion. Three hundred years of competition mark in 1917. between the Spanish, French, Dutch, and British The Caribbean population is ethnically 35 per- empires, a later hegemony by the United States, cent Afro-Caribbean, 31 percent Creole-mulatto, international commercial and tourist develop- 30 percent European, and 4 percent Asian. The ment, and ideological tensions—the most recent few thousand Amerindians who survive are the of which have been caused by Fidel Castro’s remnants of the native Carib and Arawak popu- communist —have given the Caribbean a lations that probably numbered at least colorful but often tragic history. The religious 300,000—if not as many as one million—at the picture that follows from these conditions is a time of European intrusion. Linguistically, 60 blurred mosaic of churches, social movements, percent of the population speak Spanish, 20 per- and cults that to a large extent recapitulate the cent French, 17 percent English, and 3 percent region’s turbulent past. Dutch. The nature of Christianity in the Caribbean The Religious Profile. The religious prefer- follows from three basic facts of the region’s so- ences of the Caribbean peoples correspond cial history. First, its ethnic composition is the roughly to their ethnic and national origins. result of the virtual elimination of the indige- Roman Catholics make up 60 percent of the pop- nous peoples within decades of the discovery of ulation, Protestants 20 percent, spiritists 9 per- the islands in the late fifteenth century and the cent, and members of Eastern religions—Hin- introduction of perhaps as many as 5 million Af- d u s , B u d d h i s t s , S i k h s , M u s l i m s , and rican slaves over a period of three centuries to Baha’is—about 3 percent. An estimated 9 percent support production of sugar, the region’s main of the inhabitants are considered nonreligious. cash crop. Second, the Caribbean has a frag- The Jehovah’s Witnesses, with some members in mented religious and cultural character as a re- most of the islands, claim 50,000 in the French sult of European imperial rivalry, its proximity territories of Haiti, Martinique, and Guadeloupe. to mainland North and South America, and the The Roman Catholic traditions of the peoples importation of indentured workers, including of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto East Indian laborers in the nineteenth century. Rico, who together account for more than half of Third, notwithstanding the high mortality rates the total Caribbean population, are a product of in the region from endemic disease and unhy- the early missionaries and a colonial administra- gienic conditions, the Caribbean in the twenti- tion that lasted in the case of Cuba and Puerto eth century had continuing appeal as a paradise, Rico for four hundred years, from 1492 to the not only for tourism and commercial exploita- Spanish-American War of 1898. Consequently, tion, but for political and social experimenta- the Roman Catholic Church in the region bene- tion. Besides Cuban socialism, the region has fits from deep religious loyalties, even in Puerto had a long history of social uprisings, progres- Rico, where an evangelical minority has as- sive labor unions, and populist parties, the most sumed an important role, and in Cuba, where recent led by Maurice Bishop in Grenada and Atheism prevails officially. Michael Man­ley in Jamaica. The picture is quite different in the colonies As a consequence, the insular Caribbean, in- and former dependencies of the British Empire, cluding the Greater Antilles (Cuba, the island of including Jamaica, the Bahamas, Bermuda, Bar- Hispaniola [occupied by the Dominican Repub- bados, Trinidad, and several of the Lesser Antil- lic and Haiti], Jamaica, and Puerto Rico) and the les. There Anglicans and Methodists, dating from Lesser Antilles, the archipelago that extends British colonial days, tend to predominate. On from the Bahamas in the north to Trinidad off the island of Anguilla, for example, the Protes- the Venezuelan coast, offers a complex social tant population reaches 90 percent, and on sev- profile. While the islands are distinguished by eral others, and Barbuda, the British their geologic origins and their location (e.g., the Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, northern Lesser Antilles are known as the Lee- Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the Turks and Caicos ward Islands and the southern as the Wind- Islands, the proportion is above 80 percent. Nev- wards), more often the islands are grouped ac- ertheless, observers sometimes conclude, nomi- cording to their former or actual colonial status: nal adherence with little commitment character- the former Spanish possessions of Cuba, the Do- izes the faith of many Caribbean Protestants. minican Republic, and Puerto Rico; the several In contrast, Roman Catholic influence predom- British islands of Jamaica and the Lesser Antil- inates in the island societies that formed under les, the Bahamian and Cayman clusters, and French cultural influence—even those like Domi- Trinidad and Tobago; the French possessions of nica, Grenada, and Saint Lucia, which later came 15 Caribbean under British jurisdiction—although without the table evangelistic fervor. In only five of twenty-six status and public support that the Catholic jurisdictions do evangelical Protestants account Church has enjoyed in the former Spanish posses- for more than a quarter of the population. In sions. Although Haiti’s evangelical population is twelve of these island units the proportion is less substantial—as much as a quarter of that coun- than 15 percent. Nevertheless, on some islands try’s 7 million—prolonged and sometimes inten- the better-established churches and various Bap- sive effort at Protestant evangelization has not al- tist, Holiness, and Pentecostal groups appear to tered the essential character of Haitian culture, be making headway. In several of the islands the and the Protestant community in the other largest or second largest Protestant group is the French areas is generally much smaller, as low as Seventh-Day Adventists. only 4.1 percent of the inhabitants of Guadeloupe. Pervasive Spiritism. The mainly Afro-Carib- Two other patterns are observable in the Carib­ bean and Creole-mulatto character of the island bean’s religious configuration. In the Dutch is- population has important religious and cultural lands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, nominally overtones. While Europeans of Spanish descent Catholic societies, the evangelical population is make up substantial proportions in Cuba and quite small, as it is also in the Virgin Islands of the Puerto Rico, the other European populations are United States, the Cayman Islands, and the Baha- but a small minority of their respective island so- mas, where also the process of Secularization is cieties. From the Afro-Caribbean cultural major- well advanced. In contrast, in Trinidad, along ity have emerged strong religious influences, with the mainland states of Guyana and Surinam, such as Afro-Cuban Santería, Jamaican Rastafar- substantial numbers of East Indians form Hindu ianism, and Trinidadian Shango and Obeah. and Muslim communities that retain distinctive Spiritists (Voodoo, Vodun) acquired political im- religious practices and compete with the previ- portance in Haiti during the years of the dictator ously established Afro-Caribbean communities François “Papa Doc” Duvalier, and Rastafarian- for recognition and control. ism, which identified in the post–World War II These descriptive categories, however, indicate period with Emperor Haile Selassie, has gained little about the human aspirations and the reli- support in Jamaica. These, however, are only the gious dynamics of the area. The religious frame- more formalized traditions among the many folk work must be understood within the context of practices deeply embedded in the traditional cul- an exploitative slave and racial caste system, a ture. Not atypically, half of the people of the Do- stratified white society, large numbers of white minican Republic are believed to engage in oc- indentured (often Irish Catholic) servants, an im- cult practices. While spiritist cults may not posed, accommodating, dominant religion, always be a defiant obstacle to evangelical Chris- whether Protestant or Catholic, a tradition of au- tianity in the region, they fortify latent resistance thoritarian government, ongoing struggles for to forms of Christianity that were once the reli- freedom and identity, and in more recent decades gion of the colonial, slaveholding European mi- considerable overpopulation and consequent em- nority. Only where evangelical Protestantism has igration and, often, a sense of hopelessness and accommodated popular cultural forms has it futility. The religious recourse has often been Af- taken root and grown, such as in the case of the ro-Caribbean spiritism. More than merely a per- nineteenth-century revivalist movement in Ja- sonal cult or cultural relic, spiritism at times has maica and twentieth-century Pentecostalism in given rise to organized political-religious move- Puerto Rico. ments of protest and rebellion (see Latin Ameri- Scholars who have investigated spiritist move- can New Religious Movements). On a smaller ments throughout the region see them appealing but not unimportant scale, indigenous Holiness, not only to the Afro-Caribbean peasants and re- Pentecostal, and charismatic movements have cent migrants to the cities, but to established emerged in several of the islands; and some urban residents as well. As survival mechanisms mainland missionary ventures, notably those of that thrive in small underground groups, they the Seventh-Day Adventists, have established im- satisfy the need for reassurance in an uncertain, portant religious beachheads. often hostile world. Spiritism and Christianity The relative lack of spiritual inertia of the con- are not mutually exclusive for many adherents. temporary Caribbean region stands in contrast to The eclectic sponge-like quality of spiritism en- the vitality of evangelical Christians in the nine- ables it to survive among the various competing teenth and early twentieth centuries. In earlier religions, explains anthropologist Joan D. Koss. decades the Caribbean Protestant churches ex- In comparing Haitian Vodun and Pentecostal- hibited considerable vision for evangelizing their ism, Luther P. Gerlach finds many structural own peoples and sending missions to West Af- similarities between the two. Both religions con- rica. Nowhere in the Caribbean except in Puerto ceive of a world of powerful supernatural forces Rico and Jamaica is there presently an island and practice spirit possession. Both are charac- population whose evangelical (as contrasted with terized by tight-knit local cells linked together in nominal Protestant) Christians demonstrate no- polycephalous overlapping networks. This de- 16 Caribbean sign, Gerlach argues, is eminently suited to sur- the many missionaries sent from one Caribbean vival. These groups keep a low profile and are island to another, and, increasingly, the expatri- tolerated by political authorities because, on the ate West Indians in the United Kingdom who are one hand, they appear to be harmless and, on returning to evangelize their homelands. the other, may be useful as a counterforce among An Assessment. The extremely diverse and the masses to the more powerful established reli- often opposing cultural and religious traditions gions. But despite some similarities, the two con- of the Caribbean preclude easy generalization sider each other to be implacable enemies. Spir- about the spiritual needs. With the exception of itists attempt to manipulate the spirit world, several of the larger islands, the evangelical asserts Gerlach, while evangelical Protestants churches have not acquired the strength and au- exorcise evil spirits and submit to the Holy tonomy that would permit them to radically in- Spirit. fluence the lives of their own peoples or send Anthropologist William Wedenoja has pointed missionaries abroad. In this respect Puerto Rico out that the conditions that gave rise to evangeli- and Jamaica stand apart, having developed cal groups in Jamaica, notably Pentecostalism, strong evangelical communities, benefiting orig- have also produced a growth in Rastafarianism, inally from Holiness and Pentecostal missionary with many of the same tendencies to individual- efforts but now entirely independent and contex- ism and egalitarianism. But Rastafarianism ap- tualized. It is estimated that 30 percent of the peals most to the chronically unemployed black total population of Puerto Rico considers itself urban youth who appear to be the victims of evangelical, the majority identified with one or Modernization. While the movement has height- another Pentecostal denomination. While 165 ened social consciousness and created pride in foreign Protestant missionaries serve in Puerto Jamaican indigenous culture, unlike Pentecostal- Rico, the island churches send 65 missionaries— ism it does not cut across racial, class, and cul- and a number of effective short-term evange- tural lines. lists—abroad. In contrast, Protestants account The Evangelical Presence. Most of the evan- for only 5 percent of the Dominican Republic’s gelical missionary focus has been on the larger population of 8 million and 2.5 percent of Cuba’s islands, where Protestant evangelicals remain in 11 million people. the minority. On a limited scale, elements within Protestant evangelicals on Jamaica, on the the established Protestant denominations have other hand, make up an estimated 18 percent of provided the mechanism for kindling evangelical the population, the Protestant churches are well sentiments. Often overlooked in the discussion established, and forty missionaries have been of the Caribbean evangelical picture have been sent out to other countries. In the wake of Af- the homegrown Pentecostal groups, many of ro-Christian revival cults that emerged among them receiving at least token support from North the Jamaican masses from the 1860s to World American denominations such as the Church of War II, Pentecostalism has in the period of mod- God (Cleveland, Tennessee) and the Church of ernization from a peasant to an urban society, God in Christ, but others like the Iglesia de Dios become the most dynamic Protestant movement Pentecostal in Puerto Rico are essentially autoch- on the island. William Wedenoja identifies sev- thonous religious expressions with little relation eral contrasting features of these groups, despite to any mainland organization. In several island their many similarities. While for the revivalists societies these largely independent and often so- God and the angels are key deities, the Pentecos- cially marginal Pentecostal and Holiness tals are christocentric; while the revivalists con- churches have provided the only assertive evan- centrate on the Old Testament, the Pentecostals gelical leadership. focus on the New Testament; while revivalists The North American missionary force in the tend to authoritarian structures, Pentecostals Caribbean includes 1,128 career (four years or tend to be more congregational. Wedenoja found longer) Protestant missionaries, one missionary that the trends were away from large, formal, for each 35,000 inhabitants. Europe has sent cold congregations in favor of churches that are fewer than 100 Protestant missionaries. The fervent, smaller, and more intimate. North American denominations supporting the In a time of modernization and political inde- largest numbers of overseas personnel are the pendence, as the old values and ways of life are Christian Churches/Churches of Christ with 86 disintegrating, the majority of the Caribbean missionaries (with the largest contingents in peoples are caught in a bewildering transition. Puerto Rico and Haiti) and the Southern Baptist The labor unions and populist movements that Convention with 96 missionaries (27 in the Do- formed after World War I and the political exper- minican Republic and 17 in the Trinidad and To- iments like those of Cuba, Trinidad, Grenada, bago). By comparison, the Roman Catholic per- and Jamaica have sometimes given island inhab- sonnel at work in the Caribbean total 5,210 itants nominal control, but with little sense of religious, five times the number of Protestant power, given the islands’ spare resources, stag- missionaries. Not to be overlooked, however, are nant economics, and growing populations. 17 Centenary Conference on the Protestant Missions of the World (London, 1888)

Self-governing nations of the size of Antigua aided a spirit of generic evangelical comity. An (64,000), Grenada (84,000), and Dominica attempt to launch a permanent international (86,000) are far too small to deal with the bur- committee to facilitate inter-mission cooperation geoning problems. With only Trinidad in the Ca- was unsuccessful. A postconference caucus did ribbean producing substantial quantities of pe- vote to petition governments to end the , troleum, and with their single-export (mainly liquor, firearms, and slave trades. sugar) economics having collapsed, these coun- Though some delegates were disappointed at tries have turned increasingly to tourism and off- the lack of specific results, outcomes of the Lon- shore banking—and the laundering of drug don Conference included an overall raised con- money—to support their peoples. As a result sciousness and support level for foreign missions; many young people have emigrated to mainland America assuming more contribution and leader- countries or, having resigned themselves to a life ship for world missions; the establishment of the with little promise for the future, are living sim- World’s Missionary Committee of Christian ply for the present. The high numbers of unmar- Women and what later became the Foreign Mis- ried mothers and alarming increases in crime sions Conference of North America, important document as much. For the Caribbean peoples for the later ecumenical movement. Additionally who have embraced it, however, evangelical the precedent was set for the decennial megacon- Protestantism offers the spiritual resources ei- ferences in New York (1900) and Edinburgh ther to ease the transition to modern life or to (1910). provide consolation for the sectors that the mod- Thomas A. Askew ern world has simply passed by. Bibliography. T. A. Askew, IBMR 18 (1994): 113–16; Everett A. Wilson W. R. Hogg, Ecumenical Foundations; J. E. Johnston, Bibliography. L. P. Gerlach, Religious Movements in ed., Report of the Centenary Conference on the Protes- Contemporary America, pp. 686–96; S. D. Glazier, ed., tant Missions of the World, 2 vols. Perspectives on Pentecostalism: Case Studies from the Caribbean and ; P. E. James and C. W. Chalmers, James (1841–1901). Scottish mis- Minkel, Latin America, 5th ed.; J. D. Koss, Caribbean sionary to the South Pacific. Born into a Scottish Studies 16 (April 1976): 43; A. Lampe, The Church in stonemason’s home in Ardrishaig, and converted Latin America, 1492–1992, pp. 201–15; J. Rogozinski, A at age fourteen, he worked briefly with the Brief History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the Glasgow City Mission before studying for the Carib to the Present; W. Wedenoja, Perspectives on Pen- tecostalism: Case Studies from the Caribbean and Latin Congregational ministry at Cheshunt College, America, p. 44. Cambridge. Ordained in 1865, he trained further under the London Missionary Society, and in 1867 was sent first to Raratonga in the Cook Is- Centenary Conference on the Protestant Mis- lands, then in 1877 to New . It was dan- sions of the World (London, 1888). Meeting at gerous work: once Chalmers and his wife were Exeter Hall June 9–19, 1888, this was the largest, threatened by the stark ultimatum, “Presents—or most representative interdenominational, inter- death.” Slowly, however, they won the trust of national missions assembly to that date. Meant the local peoples. As he furthered the work of to celebrate the first 100 years of modern mis- evangelization and education Chalmers wrote, sions advance, the centennial name marked no “It is not the preaching of a sermon so much as specific anniversary. Present were 1,579 dele- living the life that tells on the native heart.” An gates from 139 denominations and societies rep- advocate of Indigenous Churches who sought to resenting 10 countries, including a coterie of preserve what was good in local customs, Chalm- non-Westerners. Great Britain and her colonies ers set up a string of mission posts, established a dominated the roster; 219 from 67 societies rep- training college, and shared his geographical in- resented North America and 41 from 18 societies terests in Pioneer Life and Work in New Guinea came from continental Europe. Most females at- (1895). While pressing on into territory unknown tending were wives of male delegates, though a to Europeans, Chalmers was killed on Goaribari few women gave speeches. Island, Papua. Sixteen public assemblies surveyed the world’s J. D. Douglas mission fields; more sensitive topics were ad- dressed in twenty-two closed sessions, which dis- Bibliography. D. Langmore: Missionary Lives: cussed women’s work, education, literature, Papua, 1874–1914. medicine, native churches, polygamy, the opium and liquor trades, inter-mission competition, and Clapham Sect. A group of wealthy Anglican other issues. Meeting at the zenith of the Euro- evangelicals who lived in a suburb of London in pean imperialist era, speakers assumed Western the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centu- colonialism to be advantageous for missions and ries. Influenced by the evangelical revivals, they the gospel as civilizer. Procedural rules prohib- worked for the extension of evangelical Christi- ited the adoption of formal positions, which anity throughout the world and labored for so- 18 Colonialism and Missions cial reform in England. was their rec- The complexity of the relationship may be tor; their best known lay leader was William seen in the case of William Carey, Adoniram Wilberforce. They helped establish the Church Judson, and the East India Company. The Com- Missionary Society in 1799 and the British and pany denounced Carey’s venture in the British Foreign Bible Society in 1804. Parliament and refused him residence in Cal- The group cooperated with dissenting or cutta, forcing him to live in Serampore, a Danish non-Anglican evangelicals in establishing cha- colony. When Judson was not allowed to remain pels in many parts of England and helped fund in Calcutta he went to Burma, where after a few the training of pastors. Wilberforce led the cam- years he was imprisoned during the Anglo-Bur- paign in Parliament that abolished the slave mese War as an English spy. Thus the missionary trade in 1807 and ended slavery in the British was often caught between two opposite forces, Empire in 1833. Their projects for social reform distrusted by both. included the regulation of factory conditions, the Two dominant motifs appear in this complex improvement of treatment of the mentally ill, relationship. First, to the missionaries, evange- sailors, chimney sweeps, the unemployed, and lism was most important. This concern for the individuals who had been imprisoned for small advance of the gospel determined varying politi- debts. They promoted schools for the poor and cal responses by the missionaries in widely differ- provided funds for Sunday schools. They in- ent contexts: sometimes they favored colonial- spired a later generation of nineteenth-century ism, sometimes they did not, depending on what seemed to be most advantageous for their mis- reformers, including Lord Shaftesbury, William sion. Second, most missionaries defended the in- Booth, and Florence Nightingale. They inte- digenous peoples against the exploitation of Eu- grated their evangelical faith, their commitment ropean commercial and political forces. This, to mission, and their concern for social reform. too, led them to a variety of attitudes in different Paul E. Pierson situations. But it is clear that colonial govern- Bibliography. N. Scotland, Themelios 18 (1992): 16– ments and European settlers were interested in 20. stability and profits, while the missionaries had different goals. To further complicate the picture, Colonialism and Missions. Some have accused at times the European traders and settlers were the missionary movement of simply serving as at odds with their own governments, which in the religious side of nineteenth-century colonial- some cases attempted to curb the worst exploita- ism, as an attempt to impose “Western religion” tion of indigenous populations. And often differ- on Asia and Africa along with political and eco- ent mission groups found themselves on oppos- nomic domination. But the truth is far more ing sides of issues. For example, Anglicans, complex. At times missionaries arrived before coming from the established church in England, the colonists, at times with them, and at times were more apt to favor imperialism than were later. But it is clear that the missionary move- English non-conformists.­ American missionaries, espousing the separation of church and state, ment lived in uneasy tension with colonialism, were often naive in thinking they were nonpoliti- having very different goals. Hence, at times mis- cal. They usually supported American policies, sionaries found themselves in conflict with Euro- especially in the Philippines after the Spanish pean settlers or colonial governments; at other American War, despite the brutality against the times they believed that European control Filipino independence movement. But they often brought the best hope for peace, stability, and encouraged the aspirations of nationals for inde- protection of the native populations. pendence in colonial lands. In India the British The missionary movement had its roots in the required American missionaries to sign a pledge eighteenth- and nineteenth-century revivals. promising no involvement in Indian political af- Consequently, its primary concern was evange- fairs. lism, but it also had a powerful humanitarian The attitudes of colonial governments varied. focus, with especially strong opposition to slav- The British refused to allow missionaries to work ery (see Abolitionist Movement). At the same in northern Nigeria, fearing it would antagonize time the revivals affirmed the values of liberal the Muslim rulers. The Dutch encouraged mission democracy and Western culture, seeing them as work among animists in parts of Indonesia (hop- basically Christian, and believing with most Eu- ing it would aid in their control) but refused to ropeans and Americans that the tide of history allow work among Muslims in Java. On the other was taking Western institutions to the rest of the hand, the British gave grants for education in world. Thus most missionaries, even the most India and nearly every mission school benefited. vociferous critics of the abuses of colonialism, The clash between colonialism and missions believed the system to be consistent with the can be seen in the case of India. When Carey Christian faith. In this they shared the naiveté of campaigned against infanticide and suttee, the their contemporaries. Hindu practice of burning widows with the bod- 19 Colonialism and Missions ies of their husbands, the East India Company At times the missionaries expressed strong op- opposed him, believing that interference with position to colonial policies. At the turn of the such customs would threaten stability and put century two American Presbyterians published profits in peril. Other missionaries criticized the articles condemning the exploitation of African British government for collecting taxes from rubber workers in the Congo, calling it “twenti- Hindu pilgrims, which were then used to sup- eth century slavery.” The case brought interna- port Hindu temples. But the ambiguity of the re- tional attention, the missionaries were sued for lationship is seen in the fact that Carey eventu- libel, and the suit was finally dismissed. Some ally accepted an appointment to lecture in improvement in the treatment of the African re- Indian languages at the Company’s college, using sulted, but the case created tension between the the income to support Bible Translation and Belgian and American governments. After World distribution. When direct British control was War I, with nearly all the land in Kenya in the substituted for Company rule the Serampore hands of English settlers, Africans were forced to missionaries and others expressed their belief work two months each year on settler lands, that it would bring great temporal benefits. The leaving their own crops unattended and families fact that it opened India to evangelization and unprotected. While some missionaries believed Western education and ended certain inhumane the Africans should be compelled to work as part practices were no doubt factors in this evalua- of the “civilizing” process, others disagreed. tion. Strong protests came from two Anglican bishops Baptist missionaries to Jamaica were told to and the Church of Scotland mission, reinforced have nothing to do with political affairs (i.e., by J. H. Oldham, a leader in the International slavery) but their experience with the plantation Missionary Council, who denounced the prac- system led them to call it the “offspring of the tice as immoral. As a result the government devil.” Thus the planters perceived the evangeli- order on native labor was withdrawn in 1921. cal missionaries as a threat to the stability and Two years later, Oldham’s influence was decisive power of their society. Missionary Christianity in a declaration of the Colonial Office, that the was a challenge to colonial oppression. Some “interests of the African natives must be para- mount,” over against settler demands. Yet Old- missionaries urged slaves to be obedient to their ham and others were not opposed in principle to masters, believing that the progress of Christian- white rule or settlement, but idealistically if na- ity would lead to the end of slavery. But after a ively believed the empire could be justified on slave revolt, Baptist missionary John Smith was the basis of a harmonious partnership between blamed and condemned to death on scanty evi- all groups. In contrast, the Scottish mission in dence, dying in prison before a pardon from the Malawi worked for its independence, and was king arrived. The situation became worse and in noted by an African writer as perhaps the only 1832 fourteen Baptist and six Methodist chapels case of pursuit of equity in a colonial cause by a were destroyed by enraged whites over the issue. group who were members of the imperial power. The ambiguity may be seen further in Central The case of the “Opium Wars” with China also Africa, where missionaries encouraged British illustrates the ambiguity. The opium trade and control, believing it was the greatest protection the two wars of economic aggression (1839–42 against the slave trade by Arabs, Portuguese, and and 1858–60), were strongly criticized by the others. Livingstone’s belief in “commerce and missionary community as unjust. Yet when Christianity” represented an antislavery ideology, China was opened to Europeans, and thus mis- the hope that commerce would introduce pros- sionary residence, as a result, and Christians perity and thus end the slave trade. In the 1820s were promised protection, nearly all missionar- LMS missionary , working in a con- ies saw this as a providential act of God, who text of violence between settlers and native peo- had used the “wrath of man” for his purpose. ples, became an advocate of the Xhosas, his in- They naturally believed that the greatest blessing fluence being decisive in a reform giving them that could come to China was the gospel and legal status. This incurred the rage of both En­ soon sent large numbers of missionaries under glish and Boer settlers. The Wesleyans had dif- the umbrella of the “unequal treaties” which had ferent views at some points but both missionary been imposed on the Chinese. groups wanted British rule because they believed Thus it is clear that most missionaries sup- it would bring security and the benefits of Brit- ported colonialism even as they fought against ish law to the native peoples. In midcentury an- its abuses. They recognized its achievements. other LMS missionary, John Mckenzie, working One wrote, “Gone is the slave trade and inter- farther north, advocated British rule because he tribal wars. A new era of civilization has dawned believed it to be better than either of the possible for Africa.” But if they often failed to see the neg- alternatives in that fluid and chaotic situation: ative aspects of colonialism, they contributed to white supremacist Boer rule or the imperialism its destruction by refusing to accept the idea that of Cecil Rhodes. non-Westerners were genetically inferior, believ- 20 Contextualization ing there was no obstacle to their reaching the tion became the norm, the system increasingly standards of any other people if evangelical showed its limitations. Its chief legacy in evangel- Christianity was accepted. And the liberal educa- ical missions circles is in the courtesy and cooper- tion and new ideas introduced in mission ation shown among agencies in discussing future schools were an important factor in generating plans and in not duplicating existing efforts. nationalistic movements in a number of Asian Gary R. Corwin and African countries, leading to their indepen- Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, PWCM, pp. B:58–72; dence and thus, the end of colonialism. S. Neill, HCM. Paul E. Pierson Bibliography. S. C. Neill, Colonialism and Christian Contextualization. The term “contextualiza- Missions; B. Stanley, The Bible and the Flag. tion” first appeared in 1972 in a publication of the Theological Education Fund entitled Minis- Comity. A concept derived from the general try in Context. This document laid out the princi- principle that mission groups ought not to com- ples which would govern the distribution of pete with one another. The method used to pro- funds for the Third Mandate of the TEF. The mote this concept was to make one agency re- scholarships were awarded for the graduate edu- sponsible for evangelism in a particular territory cation of scholars in the international church. or among a particular people. Double occupancy Contextualization was described as “the capacity of a region, with the exception of big cities, was to respond meaningfully to the gospel within the to be avoided. framework of one’s own situation.” A precedent Historically the term owes its origin to the for the new term, “contextual theology,” resulted late-nineteenth-century missionary conferences from a consultation held in Bossey, Switzerland, (for and by missionaries, with some nationals in August 1971. The Ecumenical Institute of the participating as guests) that took place first in World Council of Churches had sponsored that Asia, and then in a less extensive fashion in parts earlier discussion under the theme “Dogmatic or of Africa and Latin America. The first such con- Contextual Theology.” ference, the “General Conference of Prot- The lament behind the Third Mandate of the estant Missionaries,” took place in Calcutta in TEF was that “both the approach and content of 1855, and was followed by numerous regional theological reflection tend to move within the and national conferences over the next half cen- framework of Western questions and cultural tury, leading up to the great World Missionary presuppositions, failing to vigorously address the Conference in Edinburgh (1910). The establish- gospel of Jesus Christ to the particular situa- ment of the principle of comity in missions was tion.” Further, it was declared that “Contextual- one of the most outstanding results of these early ization is not simply a fad or catch-word but a conferences. theological necessity demanded by the incarna- The need for comity arose because missions tional nature of the Word.” entered many territories in a rather haphazard While the document had a limited purpose, fashion, with frequent chaos and overlap. The re- the implications coming from it resulted in a sulting waste of limited resources was widely ab- movement which has had an impact on the the- horred, as was the confusion caused to those ory and practice of mission. The contextualiza- newly receiving the gospel. Because the good tion concept was a timely innovation. New na- stewardship of personnel and money was a uni- tions were struggling for their own life. The versal ideal among the various societies, the mission enterprise needed new symbols to mark principle of comity quickly gained broad accep- a needed separation from the colonialistic, West- tance. Verbal and personal agreements among ern-dominated past (see Colonialism). missionaries became the order of the day, with There is no single or broadly accepted defini- missions agreeing not to open up work in areas tion of contextualization. The goal of contextual- where another mission was already established. ization perhaps best defines what it is. That goal While this approach led ultimately to what is to enable, insofar as it is humanly possible, an mission historian R. Pierce Beaver called “de- understanding of what it means that Jesus nominationalism by geography,” there was a Christ, the Word, is authentically experienced in general expectation that many emerging each and every human situation. Contextualiza- churches would likely join together after the mis- tion means that the Word must dwell among all sionaries moved on to other regions. This has, in families of humankind today as truly as Jesus fact, often happened. At the same time, the levels lived among his own kin. The gospel is Good of cooperation comity required often spilled over News when it provides answers for a particular into other mission spheres as well. people living in a particular place at a particular On the whole, the system worked well as long time. This means the Worldview of that people as people stayed where they were. However, as provides a framework for communication, the greater mobility for purposes of work and educa- questions and needs of that people are a guide to 21 Contextualization the emphasis of the message, and the cultural to a motion picture. The older indigenization gifts of that people become the medium of ex- was more isolated while contextualization, pression. though locally constructed, interacts with global Contextualization in mission is the effort made realities. by a particular church to experience the gospel The fact that the early documents about con- for its own life in light of the Word of God. In the textualization were formulated in offices related process of contextualization the church, through to the World Council of Churches also made the the Holy Spirit, continually challenges, incorpo- concept difficult to accept in the nonconciliar rates, and transforms elements of the culture in circles. The heavy emphasis on justice and social order to bring them under the lordship of Christ. development left little, it seemed, for evangelism As believers in a particular place reflect upon the and conversion. Scholars in Latin America were Word through their own thoughts, employing among the earliest to write about what they saw their own cultural gifts, they are better able to as an appropriate theology for their context. The understand the gospel as incarnation. direction this new theology took alarmed many The term “contextualization” is most com- evangelicals. monly associated with theology, yet given the Liberation Theology became almost as a above definition, it is proper to speak of contex- household word in the 1970s and 1980s. Evan- tualization in a variety of ways encompassing all gelicals felt it demonstrated an inadequate use of the dimensions of religious life. For example, the Bible and relied too heavily on a Marxist ori- church architecture, worship, preaching, sys- entation. This was difficult for North American tems of church governance, symbols, and rituals conservatives to accept. Even before his book, are all areas where the contextualization princi- Ministry in Context, Gustavo Gutiérrez had al- ple applies. Context, on which the term is based, ready written his Theology of Liberation (1971). is not narrowly understood as the artifacts and Soon afterward J. Miguez Bonino followed with customs of culture only, but embraces the differ- Doing Theology in a Revolutionary Situation ences of human realities and experience. These (1978). These major innovations opened up fur- differences are related to cultural histories, soci- ther thinking on contextualization. They fol- etal situations, economics, politics, and ideolo- lowed closely the volatile 1960s in the United gies. In this sense contextualization applies as States. Ideas about contextualization in the much to the church “at home,” with all its varia- United States first became associated with the tions, as it does to the church “overseas.” controversial issues raised by the Vietnam War In mission practice the more visible aspects of and American racism. “Black Power,” as advo- contextualization were closely related to older cated by James Cone (1969), had become a pop- terms such as Accommodation, Adaption, Incul- ular application of what contextualization is. turation, and Indigenization. Issues such as Because of this ferment Hermeneutics quickly forms of communication, language, music, styles became the central point of contention among of dress, and so on had long been associated evangelicals. The question was asked whether with the so-called three-self missionary philoso- truth is derived primarily from human experi- phy which was built around the principle of in- ence or from Revelation. At first there was little digenization. Indigeneity often was understood consensus among evangelicals about the role of as “nativization,” in that the visible cultural Culture and social issues, especially in theology. forms of a given people would be used in ex- The contextualization debate made serious new pressing Christianity. In going beyond these thinking possible, especially with regard to cul- more superficial expressions, the new term “con- ture and the way in which it connects to the bib- textualization” tended to raise the fear of Syn- lical record. cretism. This would mean the “old religion” Throughout the 1970s the writing and discus- would become mixed in with the new biblical sion on contextualization began to clarify direc- faith and that culture would have more authority tions that evangelicals should take. A Laus- than revelation. Some felt, therefore, that the anne-sponsored gathering at Willowbank older concept of indigenization should not be (Bermuda) in 1978 adopted the theme “Gospel changed but, rather, broadened to cover more and Culture.” The conference took seriously the adequately the field of theology. role of the cultural context of the believer as In addition to giving greater attention to the well as the biblical text in defining evangeliza- deeper levels of culture, the new term “contextu- tion and church development. The late 1970s alization” became distinguished from indigeni- also saw the rise (and demise) of the quarterly, zation in other ways. Indigenization always im- The Gospel in Context. The journal’s brief life plied a comparison with the West, whereas demonstrated how creative and stimulating contextualization focuses on the resources avail- worldwide contextualization could be. able from within the context itself. Indigeniza- The decade of the 1970s also brought remark- tion was static while contextualization is dy- able progress in finding ways to carry out con- namic, as a still photograph might be compared textualization. Each of the ways, or “models,” as 22 Contextualization they are called, carries certain epistemological recognition of sharing insights with “outsiders.” assumptions, as well as philosophical ideas Each contributes to the other, while each main- about truth. While the models each have their tains its own distinctives. The openness and le- differences, they also have several features that gitimacy given to all views would tend toward they share in common. Some are more centered ambiguity and a kind of universalism. on human experience while others show a Transcendental model: This model does not greater dependence on widely accepted teach- concentrate on the impersonal aspect of theol- ings of the church and the Bible. Thus, the as- ogy, that is, to prove something “out there,” but sumptions undergirding some of these models is primarily concerned with what any truth make them less acceptable to evangelicals. Varia- means to the subject and to members of the sub- tions exist within a given model and certain fea- ject’s community. Likewise revelation is under- tures of more than one model may be combined. stood as the active perception or encounter with A brief review of the models will show how di- God’s truth. Much criticism can be raised. How verse the approaches to contextualization are. can one be an authentic believer without objec- Adaptation model: One of the earliest ap- tive context and why is such Western sophistica- proaches was to make historical-theological con- tion necessary? cepts fit into each cultural situation. Traditional Translation model: Based on translation sci- Western ideas are the norm. These are brought ence, the nearest possible meanings of the origi- to the local culture. What is irrelevant may be set nal text are sought out in the receiving culture. aside and what must be modified can be Exact forms may not be possible, but expres- changed. The faulty assumption here is that sions and forms that are equivalent are intro- there is one philosophical framework within duced. Attempts were made to identify the “ker- which all cultures can communicate, assuming nel” or core of the gospel which then would that other forms of knowledge are not legitimate. apply to all cultures. The problem of subjectivity Anthropological model: The beginning point in selecting forms is a risk, as is separating the is to study the people concerned. The key to Word from what is culturally negotiable. communication and pathways to the human In contextualization, evangelicals have a valu- heart and spirit lies in the culture. The assump- able tool with which to work out the meanings of tion is that people know best their own culture; Scripture in the varieties of mission contexts and worldview themes, symbols, myths are reposito- in conversations with the churches of the Two- ries of truth for all people. While this is true, un- Thirds World. A built-in risk of contextualization less discernment about a culture is brought to is that the human situation and the culture of the Word for affirmation or judgment the con- peoples so dominate the inquiry that God’s reve- textualization exercise can become distorted and lation through the Bible will be diminished. To misleading. be aware of this danger is a necessary step in Critical model: The critical aspect of this ap- avoiding it. Contextualization cannot take place proach centers on how features of traditional unless Scripture is read and obeyed by believers. culture—rituals, songs, stories, customs, music— This means that believers will study the Scrip- are brought under the scrutiny of biblical teach- tures carefully and respond to their cultural con- ing. Here the culture and the Scriptures are eval- cerns in light of what is in the biblical text. Cul- uated concurrently in the search for new ways to ture is subject to the God of culture. Culture is express belief and practice. One must ask who important to God and for all its good and bad will carry out the process, and how accurate are factors, culture is the framework within which the meanings derived from both customs and the God works out God’s purposes. Some indications Scripture. of the gospel’s presence in the soil may be evi- Semiotic model: Semiotics is the science of dent, but Scripture is something that is outside “reading a culture” through “signs” (see Symbol, and must be brought into the cultural setting to Symbolism). This comprehensive view of culture more fully understand what God is doing in cul- interprets symbols, myths, and the like that re- ture, and to find parallels between the culture veal the past as well as studying “signs” that indi- and the Bible. cate how the culture is changing. These realities The strength of contextualization is that if are compared with church tradition in a process properly carried out, it brings ordinary Christian of “opening up” both the local culture and Chris- believers into what is often called the theological tian practice. To master the complicated method process. Contextualization is not primarily the would tend to separate an indigenous researcher work of professionals, though they are needed. It from the people and the context. is making the gospel real to the untrained lay Synthetic model: Synthesis involves bringing person and the rank-and-file believer. They are together four components: the gospel, Christian the people who know what biblical faith must do tradition, culture, and social change. These ele- if it is to meet everyday problems. The term “in- ments are discussed together using insights of- carnational theology” is another way of speaking fered by the local people. Also there must be a about contextualization (see Incarnational Mis- 23 Counter-Reformation sion). This means that Christian truth is to be The greatest of their early missionaries, Fran- understood by Christians in the pews and on the cis Xavier, planted the Catholic Church in India, streets. The objective of contextualization is to the East Indies, and Japan, and died seeking en- bring data from the whole of life to real people trance to China. Catholic missionaries accompa- and to search the Scriptures for a meaningful ap- nied the explorers to Latin America, where the plication of the Word which “dwelt among us” indigenous peoples were baptized en masse, (John 1:14). The missiological significance for often thousands in one day, even as they were contextualization is that all nations must under- terribly exploited and cruelly treated. By 1559 stand the Word as clearly and as accurately as nine million had been baptized in Mexico alone. did Jesus’ own people in his day. Some of the missionaries raised strong protest Dean Gilliland against such treatment. Among them were Anto- nio Montesinos and Bartholomew de Las Casas, Bibliography. S. B. Bevans, Models of Contextual who argued that Indians should have the same Theology; D. S. Gilliland, The Word Among Us: Contex- tualizing Theology for Mission Today; D. J. Hesselgrave rights as any other Spanish citizens. and E. Rommen, Contextualization: Meaning and Robert de Nobili went to India in 1605, mas- Methods; W. A. Dyrness, Learning About Theology from tered Sanskrit, adopted Indian dress and cus- the Third World; R. J. Schreiter, Constructing Local toms, and won a number of Brahmins; and Mat- Theologies. teo Ricci went to Peking in 1600, adopted Chinese customs, and won a number of converts Counter-Reformation. More than an anti-Prot- in the court and beyond. estant movement, the Counter-Reformation was While some priests and friars, especially in a readjustment by the Catholic Church to meet Latin America, were unworthy, others showed the changing conditions of the early modern pe- great dedication and courage, a number suffer- riod, partially in reaction against the Protestant ing martyrdom. The major defects of early Reformation. It also reflected a cry for change, Roman Catholic missions lay in the long delay which began a century and a half earlier. before ordaining indigenous priests and the high The primary vehicles were the Council of degree of Syncretism with pagan customs. Such Trent, which ran sporadically from 1545 to 1563, syncretism and the shortage of priests still and the monastic orders led by the Jesuits. Trent plague the church in Latin America. cut off all possibility of reconciliation with Prot- Paul E. Pierson estants, stating Catholic dogma in a manner that Bibliography. S. Neill, HCM; P. W. Searle, The defined Protestant doctrines as heretical. Au- Counter Reformation. thority in the Church was defined as tradition plus the Scriptures (including the Apocrypha), Danish Mission Boards and Societies. In 1706 but it was clear that no one could interpret the the first missionaries from a Lutheran land ar- Bible contrary to the Church. rived in the Tranquebar region of southeast Justification by faith alone was rejected, and India, sent out by what became known as the the Priesthood of the Believer was denied. The Danish-Halle Mission. The Danish king, Freder- seven medieval sacraments were asserted to be ick IV, had been especially eager to spread the necessary for salvation, and through them grace faith by sponsoring this initiative. But in fact the was conferred by the act performed (ex opere op- first missionaries were Germans, as were most erato). There was a degree of moral and adminis- of the several dozen sent to India throughout the trative reform, the authority of the pope was rest of the century. (However, the number of strengthened, corruption decreased greatly, and Danes, six or so, who went probably was the better training of the clergy and more preaching right proportion compared to the far more nu- were required. The Inquisition was strengthened, merous German population.) A missionary col- especially in Spain, and was used against anyone lege was founded in Denmark in 1714 to further suspected of having Protestant ideas as well as this and other ventures. By the beginning of the against Jews. nineteenth century, this early Danish-Halle The Jesuit order led by Ignatius Loyola be- thrust had been overwhelmed by a rationalistic came the primary vehicle of mission, along with spirit. Franciscans and Dominicans. After a period of A new beginning occurred in 1821 with the intense spiritual conflict, Loyola formed the nu- founding of the Danish Missionary Society. It has cleus of the Society of Jesus at the University of always functioned as a voluntary society within Paris in 1534, and the order was officially recog- the framework of the national Lutheran Church, nized by Rome in 1540. They took vows to obey to which almost all Danes nominally belong. Fi- the pope “for the good of souls and the propaga- nancial support is provided by contributions tion of the faith in whatever countries he might rather than through the taxes that have provided send them.” By 1556 they had one thousand for buildings and clergy salaries. This society, like members. many of the other early ones around Europe, ini- 24 Diaspora(s) tially sent workers through the auspices of older nucleus of the churches planted in the Roman ones, such as the , before sending Empire came from diaspora Jews and “God fear- missionaries on its own. Eventually the Danish ers.” The Syriac-speaking church in the East society had up to seventy missionaries at a time which took the gospel to India and, through the in China. But by the 1960s there were only about Nestorians, to China probably had its beginning eighty-five missionaries total, two-fifths each in in synagogues of the diaspora in Mesopotamia. Africa and India, the rest in Taiwan and Japan. Through the centuries Christians have been Meanwhile, many other societies emerged scattered in other diasporas because of religious within the national Lutheran Church, eventually or political persecution or to seek economic op- numbering sixteen or seventeen, mostly small and portunities and political freedom. The Walden- focusing on one or two fields. The only other one sian movement arose in Lyon, France, in the with more than a score of workers is a “Sudan” twelfth century and spread across southern and Mission, begun in 1911 for work in what is now central Europe, only to suffer Persecution and Nigeria, and which reported sixty-six missionaries Martyrdom. Some Waldensians joined remnants by 1970. Among the smaller Lutheran ones are of the Hussite movement which arose in Bohe- the “Santal” dating from 1867 for work in India mia and Moravia in the fifteenth century to form and a Lutheran Missionary Association begun in the Unitas Fratrum. It was a few members of that 1868 with work in Tanzania and Surinam. group who became the nucleus of the Moravian In 1912 a national missionary council was movement which became a major catalyst of the formed, as in so many other countries in the modern Protestant missionary movement (see wake of the 1910 Edinburgh World Missionary Moravian Missions). Conference. Initially it had twelve member soci- The Mennonites are the primary heirs of the eties, all Lutheran. Fifty years later the number sixteenth-century Anabaptist movement. They of agencies had doubled and included four have been scattered through a number of Euro- non-Lutheran ones. pean countries as well as North and South Amer- As in the rest of Scandinavia, the Danish “free ica at first because of persecution by the state churches” are very small. The membership total churches and also in an attempt to preserve their for all of the congregations in each denomina- sense of community and their pacifism (see Paci- tion is still only a few thousand. This has never- fist Theology). While in some cases their com- theless not kept them from concern for foreign munities have turned inward, in others they have missions, and proportionately they send out far reached out in mission (see Mennonite Mis- more than the societies within the national sions). Part of the evangelical movement in Rus- church. Their small size means that this yields sia has its roots in the Mennonites. only one or two dozen missionaries from each The Puritans came to North America in dias- denomination. They differ from the main body pora and it was a latter-day Puritan, Jonathan Ed- also in that the denomination as a whole gener- wards, who played a key role in the first Great ally takes responsibility for the missions work. Awakening which laid the foundation of the The Danish free church missions have mostly American missionary movement. Swedish Bap- worked in Africa. One example are the Baptists tists and other free churches persecuted by state who, beginning in 1928, served in the Central Af- churches in Europe came to the United States rican countries of Rwanda and . seeking religious freedom and economic opportu- In the early 1970s there were about 330 Dan- nity. Such groups have made a contribution to ish Protestants serving abroad with twenty-eight missions far beyond the proportion of their num- boards and societies in thirty countries, as well bers. For example, the Covenant Church, of Swed- as a dozen or so Roman Catholic and Jehovah’s ish origin, was originally the Mission Covenant Witness missionaries. Twenty years later the Church. number of Protestant missionaries had risen to In the twentieth century the Chinese have es- about 350, but mergers had reduced the agencies tablished churches in at least thirty-three coun- to eighteen. tries, probably more. Koreans began to flee from Donald Tinder their homeland after 1910 and established churches in Siberia and China. It is estimated Diaspora(s). The role of the Jewish diaspora is that there are two million Koreans in China, and seen clearly in the Acts of the Apostles. Stephen, that at least 12 percent are Christians. The more Philip, Barnabas, and Paul were all Jews of the recent Korean diaspora has taken them to 170 diaspora who were at home in both Jewish and countries, and they have established churches in Greek culture. And it is clear that the first to at least 150 nations. In some cases they are preach the gospel to Gentiles were such bicul- reaching out to non-Koreans. That has no doubt tural Jewish followers of Christ. The first specific been a factor in the growing Korean missionary mission to the Gentiles was called out from the movement. Now many of the second-generation, Antioch church which included both Gentile and bicultural youth are showing interest in mis- diaspora Jewish believers. Acts tells us that the sions. Like the first cross-cultural Christian mis- 25 Doremus, Sarah sionaries who were Hellenistic Jews at home in ers, whose strong educational policies he es- two languages and cultures, bicultural Christians poused. Ordained in 1829, Duff sailed for Calcutta today, Koreans, and others, have great potential (surviving two shipwrecks), and opened a school for missions. where the higher classes studied the Bible and all Paul E. Pierson true knowledge. A general government decree or- dained that higher education teaching should be Bibliography. R. DeRidder, Discipling the Nations; F. Gibson, ed., You Are My Witnesses, The Waldensians in English and should promote European litera- across 800 Years; W. Shenk, ed., Anabaptists and Mis- ture and science. Soon Duff’s College (as it came to sion. be known) was the largest mission school in India, causing anxiety among Hindu leaders. Poor health Doremus, Sarah (1802–77). American urban forced Duff to temporarily return home (1835–39); missionary and mission activist. Born into a then, in 1843, Chalmers led evangelicals in form- wealthy New York City family, she spent the ma- ing the Free Church, and Duff (who approved) had jority of her life building on the benevolent to vacate the Church of Scotland’s Indian property Christian foundation she had been given. In and seek new accommodations. 1828, seven years after marrying a man of sub- Duff co-founded and edited (1845–49) the Cal- stantial wealth, Thomas Doremus, and becoming cutta Review before returning to Scotland, where the mother of nine children, she began her first he was his church’s moderator in 1851. A mis- organized benevolent work among Greek sions-promotion tour of North America followed women. In the early 1830s, she instigated church in 1845. In a gripping address to the British services in the New York City prison and later Evangelical Alliance in 1855 Duff condemned formed the Women’s Prison Association for dis- worldliness in the churches and called on Chris- charged prisoners. Her other efforts include tendom “to remember the perishing nations.” manager of the New York City and Tract Mis- Syncretism to Duff was anathema; Hinduism was sion; manager of the City Bible Society; founder a “stupendous system of error.” His college’s en- of the House and School of Industry, the Nursery rollment rose to over 1,700. Duff had provided and Child’s Hospital, and the Women’s Hospital; the role model that led to the establishment of and organizer of the Presbyterian Home for Aged other colleges for the training of Indian evange- Women. Although she was an active member of lists, and was a prime mover in founding the the South Reformed Church, this denomina- University of Calcutta. When ill health finally tional affiliation was no barrier to her breadth of compelled him to leave India in 1867, he became service nor did it prevent her from launching the professor of theology at New College, Edinburgh, effort for which she is most remembered, the but remained a tireless promoter of missions. Women’s Union Missionary Society of America, Among his numerous works was Missions the in February 1861. Having long supported foreign Chief End of the Christian Church (1839). missions, it was no surprise that she was called J. D. Douglas on to organize an interdenominational society Bibliography. A. A. Millar, Alexander Duff of India; geared specifically for sending single women W. Paton, Alexander Duff: Pioneer of Missionary Educa- missionaries. Although subjugated at the hands tion; G. Smith, The Life of Alexander Duff, D.D., L.L.D. of strong male opposition in the 1830s, when it was first suggested, it took off under Sarah’s Dutch Mission Boards and Societies. Though leadership thirty years later when the opposition Dutch Protestants initially took the lead in mis- had decreased. The organization thrived under sions work, by the twentieth century the contri- her presidency and continued on as an inspira- bution had become overwhelmingly from the tion to other denominational women’s organiza- Catholic portion of the population despite the tions long after her death. Her entire consecra- large Protestant presence at home and in com- tion to the Lord’s service truly makes her one of merce. The Catholic population has remained the most significant women of nineteenth-cen- comparatively large and stable, being almost 40 tury American Protestantism and a true pioneer percent in 1830 and the same 40 percent in 1970. of urban mission efforts to help women, chil- By the 1990s, Catholics had dropped to about a dren, and the poor. third of the population, and the proportion of Wendy S. Larson those who attended Mass regularly had plum- Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, American Protestant meted. But in the early 1970s, even though the Women in World Mission; P. R. Hill, The World Their number had started declining, it is noteworthy Household; R. A. Tucker, GGC; N. Hardesty, Women that of some 12,300 Dutch priests, fully 30 per- Called to Witness; A. Brouwer, Reformed Church Roots. cent of them were still serving as missionaries overseas. They were joined by many more broth- Duff, Alexander (1806–78). Scottish missionary ers, sisters, and lay workers, so that in total there to India. Born in Scotland’s Perthshire Highlands, were over 7,600 missionaries. At the same time he studied at St. Andrews under Thomas Chalm- there were only some 350 Dutch Protestant mis- 26 Ecumenical Missionary Conference (New York, 1900) sionaries, less than 5 percent as many missionar- Church. It understandably concentrated its ef- ies as the Catholics were sending. forts in Indonesia, where the Netherlands had In the 1970s, this declining but still formidable already replaced Portugal as the leading com- Catholic missionary force of 7,600 was widely mercial power and gradually extended its politi- dispersed. There were no significant indigenous cal control outward from Java. Theological con- Dutch sending agencies, so instead some three troversies in the homeland were also reflected in dozen international agencies or orders were new mission societies (within the main church) used, the largest number being with the Mill Hill and new denominations (generally with their Fathers, the White Fathers, the Spiritans, and small mission efforts being part of their official the Franciscans. However, those four still com- church structure) being formed throughout the prised less than one-fifth of the total force. As to nineteenth century. These new agencies gener- area of service, roughly one-third were in Africa. ally occupied different areas of the vast East In- They were scattered, with Congo’s 450 being the dies. In the twentieth century most began coop- largest contingent. Another third were in Asia, of erating more closely, and the societies (except whom four-fifths were quite understandably in one) of the main church finally in 1951 united as Indonesia, the former Dutch East Indies. The an official arm of it. Most of the older mission final third served in the Americas, the Pacific Is- efforts, including those of the older (and very lands, and even some in Europe, chiefly Scandi- small) non-Reformed churches, are represented navia. Brazil, the largest Catholic country, re- in a Missions Council, are more theologically di- ceived more than one thousand Dutch verse, and their missionaries are decreasing and missionaries. But about 630 were serving in the have disbursed from their original concentration small Netherlands Antilles or in the sparsely in Indonesia. From about 350 in the early 1960s, populated South American Dutch possession their numbers had decreased more than 60 per- which did not gain independence as Suriname cent to under 140 by the early 1980s. until 1975. However, by the early 1990s, the By contrast, the newer non-Reformed number of Catholic missionaries had continued churches, though still relatively small at home, to fall to less than five thousand. and joined by some of the Reformed, are sending The trend for Protestantism is quite different. forth an increasing number of missionaries, often Their percentage of the population in the home- through small Dutch branches of the denomina- land has dropped sharply, so that by 1970 tional and interdenominational societies that slightly fewer Dutch people identified themselves have become such a key part of the evangelical as Protestants than as Catholics, and by the movement in the twentieth century. The Evangel- 1990s they comprise even nominally only about ical Missionary Alliance included forty such one-fourth of this Protestant-founded nation. agencies with almost 180 missionaries in the That makes the recent significant increase in early 1980s, but by the mid-1990s there were Protestant missionaries even more interesting, about eighty agencies in the Alliance (none very showing that there is no simple correlation be- large) and they comprise the great majority of the tween overall church attendance and missionary approximately 1,200 Dutch Protestant missionar- effort. ies. Dutch ministers had been working abroad Donald Tinder since the early 1600s, when the small Dutch na- tion started becoming a major global trading and Ecumenical Missionary Conference (New colonizing power. Though they lost what became York, 1900). Though not widely known, the Ec- New York in 1664, various waves of Dutch immi- umenical Missionary Conference held in New gration to North America before and since, and York City, April 21–May 1, 1900, may be the larg- the corresponding effort to minister to the immi- est 10-day event in American religious history; grants and their descendants, have probably di- 170,000 to 200,000 persons gathered at its nu- verted overseas efforts that might otherwise have merous sessions in various churches. Headquar- gone to non-Christian areas. On the other hand, ters and principal speeches were located at the as the Dutch integrated into North America soci- 4,000-seat Carnegie Hall. The word “ecumenical” ety, they became major participants, not just in in its title indicated global coverage rather than ethnic churches, but in church life generally, in- representation from all Christian traditions. Ac- cluding the missionary effort from North Amer- corded extensive press coverage, the conference ica. The colonial Great Awakening began among featured former President Benjamin Harrison as the Dutch before leaping to English-speaking set- honorary chair and addresses by President Wil- tlers. In the twentieth century, Dutch entrepre- liam McKinley and governor of New York, Theo- neurs led the evangelical book publishing indus- dore Roosevelt. try. The New York conference demonstrates the The first major Dutch Protestant mission soci- impact the foreign missions movement had on ety was founded in 1797, alongside of, but not the popular imagination. Invitations were sent to controlled by or limited to, the Reformed all known missionaries, but only 2,500 served as 27 Edwards, Jonathan official “members,” with delegations from 162 several weeks later from the effects of a smallpox mission boards apportioned by the size of their inoculation. budgets. Like the Centenary Conference on the His legacy of advocacy in missionary efforts, in- Protestant Missions of the World (London, cluding leadership in the Great Awakening, the 1888), New York 1900 was inspirational and in- work of putting into publishable form the diary of formative rather than a working conference to David Brainerd, and his influential arguments legislate policy priorities. A vast agenda was cov- that the Great Commission was still relevant (in ered, including medicine, evangelism, education, contrast to the Reformed theology of the time) as native churches, non-Christian religions, and a well as efforts in preaching the gospel across cul- country-by-country survey. Women in missions tural barriers make him one of the most signifi- were highlighted, and a scattering of non-West- cant forerunners of the modern missionary move- erners addressed sessions. ment. Prominent participants included J. Hudson Tay- A. Scott Moreau lor, Bishop James M. Thoburn, John G. Paton, Bibliography. R. E. Davies, IBMR 21:2 (1997): 60– John R. Mott, A. T. Pierson, and Robert E. 66; C. Mitchell, WWCH, pp. 224–26; I. Murray, Jona- Speer. than Edwards: A New Biography; H. S. Stout, BDCM, A postconference caucus called for the forma- p. 195. tion of a permanent international missions coor- dinating committee, but the project never mate- Eliot, John (1604–90). English missionary to In- rialized. The Ecumenical Missionary Conference digenous Americans. Eliot was born in 1604 in did, however, pave the way for the World Mis- Widford, England. After receiving an A.B. from sionary Conference (Edinburgh, 1910) with its Jesus College at Cambridge in 1622, he worked at more significant outcomes. a school headed by Thomas Hooker, who influ- Thomas A. Askew enced him to adopt Puritan beliefs. Because of the anti-Puritan policies of the Church of En­ Bibliography. Ecumenical Missionary Conference gland, Eliot emigrated to Massachusetts Bay in New York, 1900, 2 vols.; W. R. Hogg, Ecumenical Foun- dations: A History of the International Missionary Coun- 1631. The Puritans had done little to evangelize cil and Its Nineteenth Century Background. the Indigenous Americans and there was little support for such work. But Eliot felt a call to reach these neighbors with the gospel. He learned Edwards, Jonathan (1703–58). Prominent some Algonquin from a neighbor’s servant and, in American philosopher-theologian and mission- 1646, began preaching in Algonquin in tribal vil- ary to indigenous Americans. Gifted with one of lages. Slowly he made converts. Opposition came the best theological minds in America (graduat- not only from tribal sachems, but also from colo- ing from Yale at the age of seventeen), his reflec- nists. But Eliot persisted and his reports led in tions on the nature of genuine religion and advo- 1649 to the founding in England of the Society cacy for experiential Calvinism influenced for the Propagation of the Gospel in New En­ generations of Christians. An intellectually vigor- gland. Eliot believed converts should be sepa- ous preacher who aroused deep emotional re- rated from the associations of tribal life, so he sponse in his audience, his sermons were pivotal organized the settlement of towns, where the in the outbreak of the first Great Awakening be- “Praying Indians” could live close to English ginning in 1739. In 1741 he preached “Sinners in communities and adopt the English lifestyle. The the Hands of an Angry God,” perhaps the best first of fourteen such settlements was in 1651 at known sermon in American history. Natick. Eliot prepared a catechism in 1653 as Accepting a position in 1727 at the First Con- part of his continuing effort to train indigenous gregational Church in Northampton, Massachu- American lay leaders and ministers. He published setts, under his grandfather Solomon Stoddard, in 1663 his translation of the entire Bible in Al- Edwards took over the pastorate after Stoddard’s gonquin, one of the first achievements of Ameri- death in 1729. Ousted from the church in 1750 can scholarship. In 1671 he distributed dialogues after controversy over his strict Communion in English that provided vivid pictures of the standards, he accepted an invitation to work means he and his Indian associates used to com- with the Mohawk and Housatonnoc Indians in municate the gospel in meaningful terms. By Stockbridge, Massachusetts, a mission he had 1674 there were almost 4,000 Praying Indians, helped to found in 1734. He served there from led by twenty-four indigenous ministers, about 1751 until 1758, during which time he produced 1,100 in Eliot’s settlements. Disaster came in his most mature reflections (for example, Free- 1675. As a result of the so-called King Philip’s dom of the Will, 1754; The Great Christian Doc- War in 1675, the Praying Indians were rounded trine of Original Sin, 1758). In 1758, he reluc- up and eventually sent to a small island, where tantly accepted a call to the presidency of the harsh conditions and the shock of betrayal killed College of New Jersey (now Princeton), dying some and broke the spirit of more. Eliot tried to 28 English Mission Boards and Societies protect them, but was largely ineffectual. After two of the most influential missionary thinkers the war ended in 1676, the remaining Praying In- in recent Christian history: Henry Venn and Max dians could return home, but only enough for Warren. John Wesley’s new “Methodist” move- four small settlements came back. Eliot contin- ment within the was also ac- ued to labor among them, but few other English tively involved in foreign mission from 1786, or Algonquin-speaking people took up his work. when the first Methodist missionary arrived in He died on May 21, 1690, but his example was a the . However, the formal organiza- strong influence on future American missionary tion of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Soci- efforts. ety took place only after 1813, when different Robert Shuster Methodist districts established their own mis- sionary societies, which came together in one Bibliography. H. W. Bowden and J. P. Ronda, John national body in 1818. Unlike the BMS, LMS, or Eliot’s Indian Dialogues: A Study in Cultural Interac- tion; O. E. Winslow, John Eliot: “Apostle to the Indians.” CMS, the WMMS was not a voluntary society separate from denominational structures, but an integral part of the Methodist connectional ma- English Mission Boards and Societies. The chinery. two oldest English mission agencies predate the Nevertheless, the English mission agencies in Evangelical Revival. The Society for Promoting the nineteenth century shared an essentially Christian Knowledge was established in 1698 to common evangelical theology and similar ap- provide schooling and Christian literature in proaches to fundraising at home and policy on both Britain and North America. Connections the field. As the century proceeded, three devel- with German Pietists also led the Society in 1710 opments occurred that diversified this picture. to adopt the Danish Lutheran mission at Tran- First, the revival of High Churchmanship within quebar, the first Protestant missionary venture in the Anglican Church expressed in the Oxford India. The Society for the Propagation of the Movement first transformed the SPG into an ef- Gospel in Foreign Parts was founded in 1701 pri- fective missionary agency, and then, in 1857, marily to provide Anglican pastoral ministry to led to the formation of a new mission, the Uni- settlers in the British North American colonies. versities’ Mission to Central Africa. Although Although the Society’s royal charter made im- owing much to the ideas of Livingstone, the plicit reference to the needs of the indigenous new mission also embodied the distinctively An- American peoples, the SPG remained almost en- glo-Catholic principle that missionary ventures tirely a colonial church society until the 1830s. should be pioneered by “missionary bishops.” These two religious societies were not dedi- The focus was shifting from voluntary society to cated exclusively to overseas mission. The first church. Second, James ’s forma- English society founded specifically for this pur- tion of the China Inland Mission in 1865 pose was the Particular Baptist Society for Prop- marked an alternative and distinctively evangel- agating the Gospel among the Heathen, founded ical departure from the voluntary society ideal. in 1792 by the Particular (Calvinistic) Baptists. The CIM repudiated the idea of a society run by The Baptist Missionary Society (BMS), as the an elected committee and responsible to its sub- Society became known, sent William Carey to scribers, and introduced instead the model of Bengal in 1793. Other denominations similarly nondenominational “faith mission,” directed on touched by the Evangelical Revival soon fol- the field by a spiritually gifted leader, with the lowed suit. In 1795 evangelicals from various domestic emphasis falling less on fundraising churches formed “The Missionary Society” in an than on prayer. This ideal became international united endeavor to send the gospel to the “hea- in scope during the 1880s and 1890s, but also then,” leaving the converts to decide their own spawned other faith missions in England such form of church government. This dream of evan- as the Regions Beyond Missionary Union gelical proved hard to sustain once (whose origins go back to 1878) or the Sudan different denominations had their own mission- United Mission (1904). Third, in the final years ary bodies. The name was changed to the Lon- of the century strains began to appear within don Missionary Society in 1818. The LMS be- English missions over theological issues, partic- came chiefly identified with the Congregational ularly in relation to biblical criticism and atti- denomination. Among its missionaries were tudes to Indian religions. By the early 1920s Robert Morrison, Robert Moffat, and David these strains had become acute, issuing, for ex- Livingstone. Evangelicals in the established ample, in the secession of some conservatives Church of England formed their own missionary from the CMS in 1922 to form the Bible society in 1799: the “Society for Missions to Af- Churchmen’s Missionary Society (now known rica and the East” or “Church Missionary Soci- as ). ety.” The CMS grew over the course of the nine- In terms of size of missionary force and levels teenth century into the largest of the English of popular support the older denominational so- societies. From the ranks of its secretaries came cieties reached their peak between the World 29 Enlightenment

Wars. After 1945 these societies, under the lead- Often explicitly anti-Christian in outlook, En- ership of mission statesmen such as Max War- lightenment philosophers not only attacked tradi- ren, began to revise their policies in response to tional Christian beliefs but propounded ideas the growth of nationalism in the non-Western that called into question the need for evangelism world and the beginnings of decolonization. and missions. In its own way, however, the En- Their approaches were also affected in varying lightenment both prepared the way for the new measure by the increasing theological doubts missionary initiatives and influenced their direc- about the appropriateness of seeking to convert tion. people of other faiths to Christianity. Some of Building on the humanistic foundations of the the older societies changed their names or even Renaissance and seventeenth-century rational- dissolved themselves in favor of new bodies that ism, eighteenth-century Enlightenment philoso- expressed ideals of global Christian partnership phers as diverse as Rousseau, Voltaire, Lessing, rather than mission in the traditional sense of a Kant, Paine, and Hume asserted the autonomy one-way flow of personnel and funds from the of the individual and the ability of unaided West. Between 1966 and 1977 the LMS was human reason to discover truth. They therefore transformed into a global partnership body, the rejected reliance on any external source of truth Council for World Mission. Less radically, the in philosophy and religion, including divine rev- CMS in 1995 changed its name to the Church elation and the authority of religious institu- Mission Society, reflecting an understanding that tions. The attitude of many Enlightenment phi- mission is a broader process than the sending of losophers toward religion is well summarized in missionaries. In 1965 the SPG and the UMCA the title of Immanuel Kant’s 1793 essay Religion had merged to form the United Society for the Within the Bounds of Reason Alone. Propagation of the Gospel (USPG). Most Enlightenment philosophers did not In England, as elsewhere, the newer faith mis- deny God’s existence, but were Deists who be- sions have continued to stress the priority of ini- lieved that God was distant and uninvolved in tiating evangelistic expansion to unreached pop- human affairs, and had left it to human reason ulations. However, by the 1990s they too were to discover the path to happiness, morality, and struggling to maintain their levels of support, as truth. Their focus, therefore, was on nature and the younger generation of English evangelicals on human experience, and by exalting human appeared less acutely concerned than their fore- reason as the arbiter of what was ethical or true bears about the spiritual condition of non-West- they affirmed the innate goodness and potential ern peoples. To some extent evangelicals in En­ of the individual. They therefore rejected the gland have followed the more liberal sections of Christian belief in the Depravity of Humankind the English churches in focusing their overseas or the need for spiritual conversion—and thus concerns on Christian relief agencies such as evangelical missionary activity. TEAR Fund, set up by the Evangelical Alliance in Christians who retained their orthodox convic- 1968. Young people in England have nonetheless tions reacted sharply against Deism and other been attracted to a third generation of mission aspects of Enlightenment philosophy. On a theo- agencies, such as Operation Mobilisation (1957) logical level, Bishop Joseph Butler’s The Analogy or Youth With a Mission (1960), which have en- of Religion (1736) was apparently intended as a couraged short-term service and vacation mis- point-by-point refutation of the writings of the sion opportunities for students. noted Deist Matthew Tindal; it became the most Brian Stanley widely used theological work of the eighteenth century. Although Butler is usually remembered Bibliography. J. Murray, Proclaim the Good News: A as a philosophical theologian, one of his printed Short History of the Church Missionary Society; B. Stan- sermons supported the cause of foreign mis- ley, The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Missions and Brit- sions. ish Imperialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centu- ries; idem, The History of the Baptist Missionary Society On a practical level, evangelists such as John 1792–1992; H. P. Thompson, Into All Lands: The His- Wesley and George Whitefield crisscrossed the tory of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in British Isles (and in Whitefield’s case the Ameri- Foreign Parts 1701–1950; B. Thorogood, ed., Gales of can colonies) proclaiming the Bible’s message to Change: Responding to a Shifting Missionary Context. large crowds. Most of their hearers were ordinary The Story of the London Missionary Society 1945–1977; people, but Whitefield’s Journals are sprinkled A. F. Walls, DSCHT, pp. 567–94. with accounts of encounters with Deist intellectu- als. “I fear Deism has spread much in these parts,” Enlightenment. Surely one of church history’s he wrote during a 1739 trip through Maryland. more intriguing ironies is the fact that the mod- When William Carey, the father of modern ern Protestant missionary movement, which foreign missions, catalogued the religious state began in the late eighteenth century, came out of of the nations of the world in his influential tract an environment that was strongly influenced by An Enquiry into the Obligation of Christians to the philosophy of the Enlightenment. use Means for the Conversion of the Heathen 30 Europe

(1792), he noted that France consisted of “Catho- Whitefield is one example of this; another is the lics, Deists, and Protestants” and added that growth in lay witness and work. The explosion in “Various baneful, and pernicious errors appear evangelical foreign mission societies (as well as to gain ground, in almost every part of Christen- voluntary societies devoted to a host of other re- dom; the truths of the gospel, and even the gos- ligious and social causes) in the late eighteenth pel itself, are attacked.” Although urging the and early nineteenth centuries owed far more to cause of foreign missions, Carey realized that so- lay activists than to ordained clergy. called Christian countries could not be excluded The Enlightenment unquestionably laid the from missionary activity. foundations for much modern secular thinking, Nevertheless the Enlightenment significantly and as such continues to challenge contempo- influenced the spirit of eighteenth-century soci- rary Christians. Even in modern missions its ety, and as such had an indirect but definite im- continuing influence can be detected among pact on the beginnings of modern Protestant for- those who deny the need for overt evangelism eign missions, particularly in England. and reduce missions solely to humanitarianism. Enlightenment thinkers unintentionally en- Nevertheless, without the Enlightenment the couraged foreign missions, for example, through emergence of the modern missionary impulse their attempt to find a common natural religion would have been seriously hampered. throughout the world. The age of exploration John N. Akers had opened up new vistas for studying diverse human societies, and as they looked beyond su- Europe. Mission in Europe, as also in Africa and perficial cultural differences Enlightenment Asia, must start with the biblical record: thus the scholars concluded that human nature was basi- importance for Europeans of the Syrophonecian cally the same everywhere. As David Hume de- woman in Mark’s Gospel who used Jesus’ sense of clared in 1748, “It is universally acknowledged, humor to secure the healing of her daughter, and that there is a great uniformity among the acts of the Greeks in John’s Gospel “who would see men, in all nations and ages, and that human na- Jesus.” Building on this the record indicates Eu- ture remains still the same.” In Christian eyes ropean participation in the Pentecostal experi- this reinforced the conviction that the gospel was ence: Peter’s direction by vision to accept Corne- equally valid for all humanity, and that no cul- lius as a fellow follower of the Way, and the ture should be excluded from its message. Macedonian appeal to Paul to render help to the The scientific and experimental methodology youthful churches of Europe. Thus bound up of the Enlightenment also influenced the growth with the early history of Europe is the growth of of missions. As eighteenth-century evangelicals the early Christian community, the story of how moved away from Puritanism, with its preoccu- it came to define its core beliefs in relation to in- pation with inward-looking piety as the test of cipient heresy, and how from being a persecuted conversion, they embraced immediate religious sect it became the state religion of the Roman experience as the basis of their assurance of sal- Empire. This process was not all gain, for with it, vation. In so doing they were mirroring the En- as Eusebius (c. 260–340), the church’s first histo- lightenment’s method of seeking truth through rian, observed, there came social advantage in immediate experience. This in turn encouraged a adopting the Christian faith, whose adherents new activism in evangelism and missions, since came to represent a range of motivations from Conversion could be immediately experienced. continued faithfulness to more pragmatic rea- In other ways the Enlightenment spurred the sons (“the hypocrisy of people who crept into growth of an activist spirit in Western society as church” with an eye upon securing imperial a whole, which in turn influenced evangelical favor). Christianity. Enlightenment ideas gave impetus With the Christianization of the Roman world, to a new spirit of optimism and progress in soci- the expansion of the empire itself came to have ety, for example, and a determination not to be mission implications. Some have suggested that bound by the past. While at times this could take the expansion of Christianity among the Teu- radical directions (as indeed happened in the tonic peoples pressing on the borders of the em- French Revolution), in a more general way this pire was in the first place a product of Christians progressive attitude encouraged the development who had been taken prisoner by, for example, of new approaches to old problems and new the marauding Goths. Franks and Celts were to ways of looking at the world. This in turn made follow in accepting the Christian faith and Christians more open to new directions in their among them some remarkable early missionar- work—including foreign missions. ies responded to the missionary call to evange- In a similar way the Enlightenment opened lize the continent: receiving cultures soon be- the door to a new wave of pragmatism and a came also sending cultures, seen, for example, in willingness to experiment with new methodolo- the lives of Columbanus (c. 543–615) and Boni- gies. Evangelicals embraced this attitude with face (680–764) (see also Celtic Missions). Later enthusiasm. The field preaching of Wesley and the missionary endeavors in the East of two 31 Europe

Greek brothers, Cyril (826–869) and Methodius a new missionary society in 1819, Hamburg fol- (c. 815–885), saw the gospel taken in 862 to lowed in 1822; the Basel Mission was estab- Moravia, where Cyril’s educational activities led lished in 1815, the Rhineland Society in 1828, to the invention of the Cyrillic alphabet, which it and the Berlin Society in 1824, two years after is claimed became the foundation of all Slavonic French Protestants had formed the Paris Evan- languages. The Eastern Church’s use of the ver- gelical Missionary Society. nacular in early missionary activities was in Missiology in such a context was born out of marked distinction to the Western Church’s con- shared experiences and soon implanted within centration on Latin. the university curriculum with the establishment In the fifteenth century the missionary endeav- of the Halle chair of mission studies in 1896. ors of a reinvigorated Catholic Church were Missiological scholars networked with one an- more obvious than the outreach of Protestant- other and with practitioners through the activi- ism, which remained confined to Europe. In the ties of the International Missionary Council, it- West the sending of priests alongside the con- self a child of the historic World Missionary quistadores to colonize the new world that Co- Conference meeting in Edinburgh in 1910, lumbus had “discovered” was seen as simply a which played such a crucial part in bringing the continuation of the Christianization of the Ibe- Ecumenical Movement to maturity. Consent be- rian peninsula, or Reconquista, the driving of the tween Christians on the style and content of Moors out of Spain. Columbus’s famous journey was not easily obtained and and the fall of Granada both occurred in 1492. At was not resolved by the integration of the IMC the same time militant Islam, in the form of the into the work of the World Council of Churches Ottoman Turks, was pressing the Christian East in 1961. with great ferocity until 1683, when Vienna in Already, by the second half of the nineteenth the center of Christian Europe came under siege century, denominational endeavors were supple- by these alien forces. The most remarkable mis- mented by interdenominational initiatives in sionary story of the sixteenth century was that of which a new kind of missionary society was the Jesuit, Francis Xavier (1506–52), who in the born, of which Hudson Taylor’s China Inland last decade of his life undertook a formidable Mission of 1865 was archetypal. The new Faith program of evangelization starting in Goa. From Missions did not overtly solicit funds from sup- there he traveled to Sri Lanka and the islands of porters, who no longer controlled policy, for de- Indonesia, going as far east as Japan and found- cision making was now invested in the hands of ing a church there before continuing his mission missionaries to identify with those to whom they work in China. In the process he was surprised ministered in dress and culture. to find a Christian presence already in India in The century which followed that of Europe’s the form of the Malabar Christians whom he unstinted investment of human resources and fi- thought most dreadfully ignorant. nances in both home and foreign missions, has (1552–1610), born in the year of Xavier’s death been a century of Secularization. Fundamen- and also a Jesuit, won the trust of the Chinese tally, it was the fruits of Enlightenment thinking court through his demonstrated mastery of sci- as well as scientific advances which, for many of ence and technology and exploited this for mis- Europe’s citizens, in a century of troubled politi- sionary purposes. cal and economic development, pushed matters In the Protestant world it was not until the era of faith to the margins of life and concern. In the of had succeeded that of the Reforma- East the legacy of the years of Marxist constraint tion that the churches began to look to wider and persecution is still painfully present. Regret- missionary horizons. In England the Society for tably the relationships between evangelical mi- the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts norities and state orthodoxy have all too often was founded in 1701. Although much of its work deteriorated since the end of the Cold War, while was among European ex-patriots it did provide a in the former Yugoslavia, as in the island of Cy- mechanism to evangelize non-Christian popula- prus, ethnic tensions and conflict have all too tions, a theme that in continental Europe came often set Christians against their Islamic neigh- to be championed by Count von Zinzendorf bors. (1700–1760) and the Moravians. By the end of In the West, folk or national churches still the eighteenth century, Protestants, under the in- claim large baptismal memberships and main- fluence of Calvinism modified by the experience tain an excellent range of worship buildings and of the Evangelical Revival inaugurated what La- ancillary facilities, even though regular worship- tourette has called ‘The Great Century’ of mis- ers form only a small percentage of secular Eu- sionary endeavor. The Baptist Missionary Soci- rope’s population. Europe hardly needed the re- ety was formed in 1792, with the London minder of the Mexico City Conference on Missionary Society following in 1795 and the World Mission in 1963 that witness was to take Church Missionary Society in 1799. In Europe, place in all six continents. Those who had been where Bremen led the way with the founding of sending nations now desperately needed to re- 32 Evangelical Missions Conferences ceive something of the buoyancy and hope of the Evangelical Missions Conferences. Repre- churches of the south. Many North American sented by a broad spectrum of types, evangelical missionary societies increasingly saw Europe as missions conferences have typically shared the a mission field needing urgent attention. common purpose of furthering the worldwide In its turn this has led to a new relationship be- Christian movement. While they have taken a va- tween mission agencies and the churches which riety of forms, most have tended to fall within had been born out of the labors of their mission- one of two main categories. They generally exist aries. First, within the Ecumenical Movement either as “think-tanks” for discussing missions younger mission-founded churches sought recog- strategies, programs, and policies, or as inspira- nition as churches in their own right, not to be tional meetings to rally the Christian public. The represented by proxy through mission boards. latter seek to inform and inspire people in the Second, questions were raised about missionary pews to contribute their prayer and financial structures and some of the old societies chose to support, as well as to send forth their sons and reconstruct themselves more into mission part- daughters (and increasingly themselves, as short- nership organizations. Perhaps the classic trans- term and second-career missionaries) to engage formation was the way in which the London Mis- directly in the great missionary task. sionary Society became first the Congregational The most common variety of the inspirational Council for World Mission in 1966. This body was type conferences have been those held annually in turn fully internationalized as the Council for in local churches (see Church Missions Confer- World Mission in 1977. The new council, it was ences). These have followed a wide variety of hoped, recognizing a diversity of leadership schedules and patterns during their lengthy his- through equality of presence around a single part- tory, but the long-popular pattern of week-long nership table, would combine a commitment to conferences with nightly meetings has largely unity with a commitment to mission. In Europe, given way in our overly programmed and fre- the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society went netic age to weekend conferences or month-long through a similar change in 1971 when it became mission emphases with special events and speak- the Communaute Evangelique d’Action Apos- ers taking center stage over several weeks of reg- tolique (CEVAA). Other societies were reluctant ular meeting times. The common features gener- both to unite home and foreign mission and to ally include displays and reports from replace the societal model by one of world Part- furloughing missionaries and mission agencies nership. that the church supports as well as messages Europe has seen the uniting of some churches, from one or more gifted speakers. especially within the Methodist and Reformed A related but largely fading tradition among traditions, the continuation of large national fundamentalist and evangelical Christians is the churches though with serious loss of member- Bible and missions conference centers, which ship, and the revival of orthodoxy in the context combine rustic vacation and recreational oppor- of political freedom but economic constraint. tunities with Bible teaching and missionary re- The Roman Catholic Church at the end of the ports and challenges. While these were very pop- century recognizes other Christians in a way that ular during the late nineteenth century and would have seemed impossible at its beginning. much of the twentieth, they have not fared as In some countries it has joined national ecumen- well in recent decades with an increasingly afflu- ical bodies as an equal partner, and there are ent and harried American evangelical popula- good relationships between the Conference of tion. Even where these centers have continued European Churches and the Conference of Euro- with relative success, the missions emphasis has pean Bishops, so that they are able to have joint become much less pronounced. continent-wide celebrations. Moreover, the influ- In terms of perennial conferences, there can ence of the Charismatic Movement among be little doubt that the triennial Urbana Mission Roman Catholic laity and clergy has opened up Conferences are among the most famous and new and fruitful lines of communication, but a long-lasting. This massively attended event reluctance to go further still emanates from the (close to 20,000 in 1996) has been held over the Vatican on such issues as the recognition of Christmas break since 1948 at the University of non-Roman orders and the possibilities of Illinois at Urbana, but its roots go all the way shared communion. Undoubtedly, a major as- back to the quadrennial student conventions pect of the century has been both the growth of begun by the Student Volunteer Movement in Pentecostalism alongside historic Protestantism 1891. Those gatherings continued until 1936, and the wide impact of the Charismatic move- but ended as the clouds of war gathered. The ment both within the mainstream churches and model was again picked up in 1946 in Toronto the new house and community churches. To- by the InterVarsity Christian Fellowship, which gether, these have contributed to growth in had recently merged with the Student Foreign Christian witness in Europe. Missions Fellowship. The gatherings today at John H. Y. Briggs Urbana, which combine large doses of both in­ 33 Evangelical Missions Conferences spiration and information, attract hundreds of York, 1900), the Congress (1916), and mission agencies and thousands of students, most notable of all, the World Missionary Con- missionaries, and others. ference (Edinburgh, 1910). Conferences devoted to discussing strategic In recent decades a new wave of self-con- missions policies, programs, and plans have sciously evangelical international conferences played an influential role in shaping the North have taken place. Beginning in 1966, with the American evangelical missionary movement twin events of the Congress on the Church’s through the years. Over the last three decades or Worldwide Mission (Wheaton, 1966) and the so, they have been doing the same internation- World Congress on Evangelism (Berlin Con- ally as well. On the domestic North American gress 1966), evangelicals of many stripes, and scene, a long-standing and influential place has from around the world, have gathered together in been held by the annual conferences sponsored events like these to declare their commitment to by the Interdenominational Foreign Missions global mission in the face of theological, cultural, Association (since 1917), and the Evangelical and pluralistic challenges to its legitimacy. Subse- Fellowship of Mission Agencies, the missionary quent global conferences over the period have wing of the National Association of Evangelicals, maintained this emphasis while building on it in formerly known as the Evangelical Foreign Mis- various ways. sions Association (since 1945). Supplementing The most significant of these more recent con- their annual meetings, these two associations ferences was the first Lausanne Congress on have also met jointly on a triennial basis since World Evangelization (1974). Besides being the 1963, when their momentous first meeting to- most representative global conference up to that gether gave birth to the Evangelical Missions In- time, it was pivotal in at least two ways: First, it formation Service. Others among their meetings refocused in a very important way the attention have also been of weighty importance. Their of the evangelical missions community on the meeting together at Green Lake, Wisconsin, in most neglected segment of the world’s popula- 1971, for example, was a pivotal event in the his- tion, unreached peoples. Second, through the in- tory of evangelical mission and church relation- strumentation of the Lausanne Covenant, it en- ships, providing as it did a strategic examination hanced the status of social concern ministry as of both overseas and domestic issues. an integral part of gospel witness. Other confer- Other important issues-oriented missions con- ences that followed built on these foundations. ferences that take place annually or periodically These included the Lausanne Congress II on in North America would include the meetings of World Evangelism held Manila in 1989, a fact groups like the American Society of Missiology, indicating perhaps better than anything else the the Evangelical Missiological Society, the In- ternational Society for Frontier Missions, AIMS enduring legacy of Lausanne I. It clearly was a (Association of International Mission Services), watershed event, having produced in its wake a and ACMC (Advancing Churches in Missions movement with the same name. Commitment). The other really significant series of global There are in addition periodic scholarly con- conferences that followed in the train of Laus- ferences devoted to missions topics, generally anne I, albeit with a less churchly and more spe- sponsored by evangelical seminaries and gradu- cifically missions-oriented clientele, were the ate studies programs. An important example Global Consultations on World Evangelization would be the June 1986 conference held at held in Singapore in 1989, in Seoul in 1995 (see Wheaton College, “A Century of World Evangeli- Global Consultation of World Evangelization zation: North American Evangelical Missions, [GCOWE 95]), and in Pretoria in 1997 (see 1886–1986.” More regular but smaller study con- Global Consultation of World Evangelization ferences are also sponsored by the Overseas Min- ’97 [GCOWE II]). This series of conferences has istries Study Center, a center for missions schol- been particularly significant in mobilizing na- arship which publishes the International Bulletin tional evangelical leadership in various countries of Missionary Research. to the task of reaching the unevangelized peoples On a wider and usually international front, and corners of their own land with the gospel, as there is a long tradition of the great conferences, well as in stirring up a passion for engaging in some of which would be claimed by both evan- mission beyond their own borders. gelical Christians and others, and some of which Finally, mention should be made of the World would be far less international than others. The Evangelical Fellowship and its network of asso- earliest of these would include gatherings such ciations and commissions that sponsor global, as the Union Missionary Convention (New York regional, and national conferences that serve Missionary Conference, 1854), the Centenary over 100 million evangelicals globally every year. Conference on the Protestant Missions of the A significant portion of these have a profound World (London Missionary Conference, 1888), missions impact. the Ecumenical Missionary Conference (New Gary R. Corwin 34 Faith Missions

Bibliography. J. D. Allan, The Evangelicals: An Illus- eral and that it was more committed to social is- trated History; J. D. Douglas, ed., Let the Earth Hear His sues than to evangelism. Voice: International Congress on World Evangelization, A third factor for the establishing of the inde- Lausanne, Switzerland; idem, Proclaim Christ Until He pendent mission agencies was financial. Denom- Comes: Lausanne II in Manila; D. M. Howard, Student inational agencies often had insufficient funds to Power in World Evangelization; H. Lindsell, ed., The Church’s Worldwide Mission; D. McGavran, ed., The send out missionaries. The new boards, operat- Conciliar-Evangelical Debate: The Crucial Documents ing on the faith principle, believed that God 1964–1976; J. M. Phillips, and R. T. Coote, eds., Toward would provide even when it appeared that no the 21st Century in Christian Mission; J. Stott, ed., Mak- money was available. This made it possible for ing Christ Known: Historic Mission Documents from the them to continue to send out new missionaries. Lausanne Movement, 1974–1989; T. Wang, ed., Count- At the beginning, societies like the China Inland down to AD 2000: GCOWE in Singapore. The AD 2000 Mission instructed their missionaries not to ask Movement. for money nor to tell anyone but God about their specific financial need. At present, most of the Faith Missions. With the beginning of the mod- faith agencies ask for money or in some way ern missionary movement in the last years of the make their financial needs known. eighteenth century, several types of mission As concerned Christian leaders assessed the agencies emerged. The earliest agencies, such as spiritual needs of the world, they formed a num- the American Board of Commissioners for For- ber of specialized mission agencies that can also eign Missions and the London Missionary Soci- be considered faith or independent societies. ety were interdenominational. In the early years Among these were Mission Aviation Fellowship, of the nineteenth century denominations orga- Far Eastern Broadcasting Company, Gospel Re- nized their own boards of missions; and even as cordings, and Wycliffe Bible Translators. late as 1925, 75 percent of American missionar- The formation of these new agencies came in a ies were affiliated with denominational boards. period at the end of the nineteenth century when Faith mission societies, often also referred to mission interest was stirred to new heights by as independent, interdenominational, or nonde- many mission conferences both in England and nominational, developed in the latter half of the in America. Among these were international con- nineteenth century. At the present time they have ventions held in Cleveland, Detroit (1894), and many more missionaries under appointment Liverpool (1896) by the Student Volunteer than do the denominational agencies. These Movement for Foreign Missions. Another series types of mission agencies appeared first in Great of important annual conferences was promoted, Britain, the best known being the China Inland beginning in 1893, by the Interdenominational Mission in 1865. Some of the early faith mis- Conference of Foreign Missionary Boards and sions in the United States were the Christian and Societies in the United States and Canada. The Missionary Alliance (1887), the Evangelical Alli- most international and interdenominational of ance Mission (1890), the Sudan Interior Mission all these conferences was the Ecumenical Mis- (1893), and the (1895). sionary Conference held in New York in 1900. Several interrelated factors led to the develop- From the beginning, the faith mission societies ment of faith mission societies. First was the derived their finances and personnel from inde- conviction that the denominational agencies pendent Bible and community churches. Most of were not reaching the unevangelized areas of the their missionaries were trained in Bible schools world—they were not penetrating the interiors founded in the last two decades of the nineteenth or frontiers of many countries. The terms “inte- century, such as Nyack (1882), Moody (1886), rior” and “inland” in the names of these new Ontario (1894), and Barrington (1900). Gradu- agencies testified to this fact. Among the un- ally, many of these schools added liberal arts reached in many countries were women. This led courses to their curriculum and became Bible to the first American faith mission, the Woman’s colleges granting the B.A. degree. Most candi- Union Missionary Society (1860). dates for faith missions continue to come from A second major issue was theological. Chris­ these schools. tian leaders were alarmed at the growth of what Many faith mission agencies that were based they perceived to be liberalism in many denomi- originally only in the United States or England nations and wished to found agencies that were have now established centers in other countries, fully committed to the authority of Scripture and even in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Thus had an evangelistic fervor to reach the lost. they have become international societies, sending These new agencies were connected with the missionaries from six continents to six conti- fundamentalist movement, were theologically nents. conservative, and usually separated themselves The theologically more inclusive nature of the from the mainline denominations. They tended World Missionary Conference at Edinburgh in to be opposed to the conciliar Ecumenical Move- 1910, the growth of liberalism in mainline denom- ment, believing that many of its leaders were lib- inations, and the antipathy of denominational 35 Farrar, Cynthia boards to the faith mission agencies contributed ployed by Farrar became a Christian. Shunning to the founding in 1917 of the Interdenomina- discouragement, she continued to direct mission tional Foreign Mission Association of North schools and later a primary and secondary America. Boards formerly a part of the Foreign school before her death. Mission Conference of North America, such as the Wendy S. Larson Africa Inland Mission, Central American Mission, Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, All Loves Excelling; R. C. China Inland Mission, Sudan Interior Mission, Brouwer, New Women for God: Canadian Presbyterian South Africa General Mission, Inland South Women & India Missions 1876–1914. America Missionary Union, and the Woman’s Union Missionary Society joined forces to form Finnish Mission Boards and Societies. Fin- this new association of interdenominational or land became independent only in 1917, after a faith missions societies. Today a total of seven- century of Russian czarist rule and, before that, ty-two agencies belong to the IFMA. seven centuries of Swedish domination. The old- The IFMA does not include denominational, est and, until recently, largest sending agency, Pentecostal, or holiness groups, even though it is the Finnish Missionary Society, was founded in willing to work with them in cooperative endeav- 1959 and traditionally was organizationally inde- ors. So in 1945 a group of mission executives re- pendent of, but closely linked with, the Lutheran lated to the National Association of Evangelicals Church. It sent out its first missionaries in 1870 formed the Evangelical Foreign Missions Associ- to the northernmost region (Ovamboland) of ation (EFMA), now renamed Evangelical Fel- what is now Namibia and a strong Lutheran lowship of Mission Agencies. It includes many Church eventually resulted in what remained its agencies that are not members of the IFMA. main receiving field. In 1901, missionaries were Ralph R. Covell sent to China. After World War II they were with- Bibliography. E. L. Frizen Jr., 75 Years of IFMA drawn, but work, usually cooperating with other 1917–1992; J. H. Kane, A Concise History of the Chris- agencies, was begun in Tanzania, Taiwan, Paki- tian World Mission. stan, and . By the mid-1960s there were nearly two hundred missionaries with this Farrar, Cynthia (1795–1862). American mission- agency, representing more than 90 percent of the ary to India. She was born in Marlborough, New national church’s total force, and supported by Hampshire. When she was twenty years old she voluntary contributions rather than official made a profession of faith and immediately church funds. joined the . After com- There are a few other small sending societies pleting her studies at Union Academy in Plain- working within the national church. Mention field, New Hampshire, she applied her teaching should be made of the Lutheran Evangelistic As- skills both in New Hampshire and later in Bos- sociation, which began in 1873 for home mission ton, Massachusetts. It was during this time that work as part of a revival movement, but since the Marathi Mission in western India requested 1900 has often supported around a dozen mis- that the American Board send an experienced sionaries at a time in Japan in association with single woman educator to their school. It was the Lutheran Church there. the belief of the mission that they needed expert The total of all Protestant free church adherents and continual supervision that no one caring for in Finland is probably under 3 percent of the pop- a family and a husband could provide. Farrar re- ulation and is divided into several denominations, ceived and accepted the challenge in May 1827, most of which have Swedish- and Finnish-speak- and sailed for India on June 5, 1827, becoming ing sections (which usually have separate mission the first unmarried American woman to be sent programs). The Pentecostals apparently have overseas as a missionary by any American more members than the combination of all the agency. During her thirty-four years with the rest (Adventist, Baptist, Free Church Methodist, Marathi Mission she successfully educated many Salvation Army, etc.) In general, the small free young women who formerly were not allowed an church denominations take responsibility as a education by their Hindu fathers. She gained the whole for their missionaries rather than through respect of the higher castes, the support of some separate organizations. These missionaries often prominent British residents, including the gover- work in cooperation with international agencies, nor, and later, Bishop Carr provided her with so that it is hard to identify a mission church of funds to establish additional schools. In 1839, specifically Finnish free church origin. she was transferred to Ahmednagar, where she However, the free churches as a whole, and the organized new schools that attracted the atten- Pentecostals in particular, contribute quite dis- tion of some of the high-caste men who asked proportionately to the total missionary force that she establish two schools for their daugh- from Finland. In the early 1970s there were over ters. Unfortunately the sponsors closed these five hundred Finnish missionaries and this was a schools when one of the Brahmin teachers em- doubling of the figure from a decade before. The 36 French Mission Boards and Societies

Pentecostals were sending more than a third of France today is both a mission field and a send- them (and they were going to many different ing country. Home and foreign missions (based fields, especially in Asia). By the early 1990s, the mostly in America, England, Holland, and Ger- total of missionaries had grown to over 1,300, many) are approaching secularized French popu- serving with some twenty-two agencies, six of lations and also linguistic minorities settled in which work within the national church. Opera- France in growing numbers (North and West Afri- tion Mobilization has been especially successful cans, Asians, Eastern Europeans). A striking de- in recruiting Finns to serve abroad, most com- velopment was the creation of the Evangelical monly for shorter periods of service. Gypsy Church in France through the ministry of Donald Tinder Clément Le Cossee and some American mission- aries. This church was received in 1975 as a full Fiske, Fidelia (1816–64). American pioneer mis- member of the Federation of Protestant Churches sionary to Turkey. Raised in Massachusetts in a in France. Similarly, some missionary groups are strong Christian family that traced its American targeting so-called Nominal Christians. Many immigrant roots to 1637, Fiske made public con- scattered Pentecostal, Baptist, and independent fession of faith in Christ at the age of fifteen, and evangelical congregations and networks have at the age of twenty-three began attending emerged mainly in the cities, either spontaneously Mount Holyoke Seminary. After graduating, she or through the ministry of evangelists and mis- taught at the seminary until compelled to go to sionaries. Persia (now Turkey) by the request for help from While the consolidated Protestant population a visiting missionary. She arrived in the small in France oscillates between 2 and 5 percent, Nestorian Community in Urumiah, Persia, in Roman Catholic tradition is cherished by about 1842. Fiske saw that one way of raising the value two-thirds of the population. This includes a of women in Persian Nestorian society was to ed- strong foreign missionary commitment, which ucate them. Her task was difficult, for education interfered with French foreign policy in the nine- was not valued in Persia and the Nestorian com- teenth and the beginning of the twentieth centu- munity, though viewed as heretical in the rest of ries, when France officially protected Roman the world, considered itself Christian. She en- Catholic missions in China and the Pacific. joyed a great deal of success, watching several of There are about 300 Roman Catholic mission- her students mature into godly Christian women ary orders and congregations in France; among and providing a model for other girls’ seminaries them at least 210 women’s congregations of which opened in cities throughout Persia. When French origin. But most of them have become forced by illness to return to America in 1858, international groups due to the Vatican strategy she wrote the book Woman and Her Savior in of centralization since 1922, and to interna- Persia. After teaching for a year at Mount Holy- tional recruitment. At this time most of origi- oke Seminary, she died in the summer of 1864. nally French Catholic foreign missions have moved their headquarters to Rome: the Oblates Grace L. Klein of Mary Immaculate, founded in 1816 by Eu- Bibliography. E. C. Dawson, Missionary Heroines of géne de Mazenod; the Holy Ghost Fathers, re- the Cross; P. Kretzmann, Men and Missions: Glimpses founded by François Libermann in 1848; the of the Lives of Great Missionary Women; D. L. Robert, White Fathers, founded by Charles Lavigerie in BDCM, p. 213. 1868; the Christian Brothers, the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny, the Daughters of Charity of St. French Mission Boards and Societies. France Vincent de Paul, among many others. Until the has been a mission field since the beginning of decline of missionary vocations in the 1960s, Christianity. Paul’s disciple Crescens possibly France and the Netherlands had the highest reached Gaul (2 Tim. 4:10 according to ancient ratio of missionaries in the world. Roman Cath- manuscripts). The first congregations were olic missions are supported by a worldwide Greek-speaking. Latin became common until fund established in Rome since 1922, but fund French was shaped and established itself as a re- raising is also operated by local and regional ligious language. Worship in French became the missionary networks. rule in the sixteenth century in the emerging The internationalization of the Protestant churches of the Reformation. The Roman Catho- missionary movement is probably even more ev- lic Church of France followed suit only after the ident. The Paris Evangelical Missionary Soci- Second Vatican Council allowed local languages ety (1822–1971) always recruited its staff from to be used in the Mass liturgy (1963). Sermons, many European countries and worked in close however, were always delivered in French. The cooperation with the London Missionary Soci- level of language is differentiated according to ety, the Basel Mission, and the Methodist Mis- educational, social, and geographical back- sion. This mission board was restructured in grounds. Bible Societies produce several trans- 1971 as the French Evangelical Department of lations from basic to literary French. Apostolic Action (DEFAP). It recruits missionar- 37 German Mission Boards and Societies ies and volunteers on behalf of almost all de- Herrnhut managed to withstand the Enlighten- nominations (Reformed, Lutheran, Moravians, ment and provided spiritual and organizational Baptists, Mennonites, Free Churches). Other links to the classical missions of the Great Awak- French evangelical missions are associated with ening, which came over to the Continent from Swiss, Dutch, German, English, and American Britain. Basel, through the Christentums­ mission boards. Significant organizations in gesellschaft, served as a center of revival and mis- France are Action Chrétienne en Orient Fellow- sions for both Germany and German-speaking ship (founded in 1922 by Paul Berron in Stras- Switzerland. Several of the Basel auxiliaries de- bourg, restructured in 1995), the Baptist branch veloped into missions of their own. The first set of the European Baptist Union, the French of these Protestant classical German missions branch of the Evangelical Leprosy Mission, the (Basel, 1815; Berlin, 1824; Barmen, 1828, Bre- French branch of the Evangelical Mission in men, 1836) was interdenominational, based on Côte d’Ivoire, the International Association for Lutheran and Reformed churches, but not de- the Albert Schweitzer Hospital at Lambarene, pendent on them. The second set of classical Gabon. missions came from the more definitely Lu- When the churches in the mission fields be- theran wing of the Great Awakening in Germany: came autonomous bodies in the 1950s and Leipzig (1836), Neuendettelsau (1841), Her- 1960s, mainline mission boards merged into the mannsburg (1849), and Breklum (1876). The synodal structure of the French churches. This power of the classical missions lay in their re- so-called churchification of missions led to the vival spirituality, lay involvement, and organiza- creation of a new intercontinental and inter- tional independence. Both groups together form church body, the Apostolic Community for Apos- today the ecumenical missions and are largely tolic Action (CEVAA) (1971), which presently op- integrated into the German Lutheran/Presbyte- erates on behalf of forty-seven churches rian territorial churches. worldwide, with headquarters in Paris. Its first Next came the Faith Missions, originating in executive secretary was Victor Rakotoarima- the Holiness revival (1859) which also came nana, of the United Reformed Church of Mada- from Britain: Neukirchen (1880), Allianz Mission gascar. This body is directly supported by church (1889), China Inland Mission, German Branch synods, according to the respective financial ca- (1896, later Liebenzell), Marburg (1899/1909), pacities of the member churches. Swiss and Sudan Pioneer Mission (1900), Mission für Söd- French contributions make up 90 percent of the Ost-Europa (1903), and Licht im Osten (1920). budget. The German faith missions originally followed Relationships between Roman Catholic and the concepts of the British faith missions, but in- Protestant missions used to be tense and even creasingly modified them to better suit the eccle- hostile until the Second Vatican Council (1962– siastical environment. The only major mission 65) articulated a new theology of ecumenism. then of the German “Free Churches” was the There have been many successful experiments in Baptist Mission (1890). forms of common witness. Two ecumenical asso- The Pentecostal revival (1907), not being ciations of missiologists have been established strong in Germany, still produced some foreign (1979 for mission history, 1994 for mission theol- mission work, starting with Velbert (1931). The ogy). Catholic missionary revival started after the A puzzling development is the multiplication Great Awakening, with major centers in France, of highly profiled nongovernmental organiza- Belgium, and Holland. Catholic missionary work tions in the field of development and relief, rely- relies heavily on missionary orders (Society of ing upon secular funding. Many of them have a the Divine Word, Steyl, 1875, the Mission Bene- Christian background, but are reluctant to coop- dictines of St. Ottilien, 1887, and the White Fa- erate with established churches and mission thers of Trier, 1894, being the first in Germany) boards. and supporting societies (Franziskus Xaverius Marc R. Spindler Verein, 1832, Kindheit-Jesus-Verein, 1843). Women far outnumber men as Catholic mission- Bibliography. P. King, ed., French Christian Hand- aries (Servants of the Holy Spirit, Reichenbach, book. 1887, the first German female missionary order). Though women also provided the larger numbers German Mission Boards and Societies. The in the Protestant missionary force, they devel- German missions are children of revivals, and oped few women’s missionary societies they differ depending from which revival they (Deutscher Frauenmissionsgebetsbund, 1899). come. After an unsuccessful attempt by Justinian The First World War disrupted German for- von Welz (1664), the first two German missions, eign missionary work severely, and the years be- the Danish-Halle Mission (India, 1706) and the tween the wars were, as in other countries, years worldwide Moravian Mission (Herrnhut, 1732), without revivals, when few new missions were were born in the pietistic revival (see Pietism). founded. However, in the Third Reich the Ger- 38 Great Awakenings man Protestant missions as a whole took the side Great Awakenings. The term “Great Awaken- of the Confessing Church against the state-­ ings” refers to a series of movements in western supported German Christians. Nazi rule and ide- Europe and North America that began around ology did affect their work. The period after the 1725 and extended to the late nineteenth century. Second World War saw a strong renewal of the In generally accepted terminology, Revivals oc- efforts of the classical missions in a new ecu- curred within the church, bringing Christians to menical setting. A missiological reorientation deeper personal faith and devotion, while awak- connected with the New Delhi Assembly (1961) enings resulted from revivals as the church led to a closer integration of the classical Protes- moved powerfully into the world in evangelism, tant missions into the territorial (mainline) social transformation, and mission. But the two churches, and to a reliance more on funds allo- cannot be separated. Most scholars list three cated by the churches than on funds collected by major awakenings during the period, even the missions. though the chronological boundaries cannot al- During the same time the evangelical missions ways be easily defined, and vary from area to experienced a major expansion. The fact that area. The movements had their roots in English over the decades most of the early German faith Puritanism and German pietism, while Moravi- missions had become closely related to one or anism, which was part of the first awakening, several fellowship movements within the territo- was a catalyst in the wider church, especially in rial churches created room for new interdenom- missions. inational missions. Many of them were German The First Awakening began in North America branches of interdenominational faith missions in the 1720s, led by Theodorus Frelinghuysen and Gilbert Tennent. Tennent’s father William like WEC International, Overseas Missionary was an Irish immigrant who established a “log Fellowship, and Sudan United Mission. Taking ideas from the faith missions and from the college” to prepare ministers who were spiritually alive as well as theologically orthodox. Influenced Brethren missions, Ernst Schrupp developed Missionshaus Bibelschule Wiedenest, which had by pietism, they preached the necessity of conver- sion to Frelinghausen’s Dutch parishioners and originated in an effort to evangelize in Eastern Tennent’s Presbyterians. The movement spread, Europe (Alliance Bible School Berlin, 1905) into and the revivalists began to itinerate. In 1741 a major evangelical mission with a strong con- Presbyterians in the middle colonies divided over gregational base. The Baptist mission was reor- the issues of pastoral training, itineration, and ganized as European Baptist Mission, and a the emphases of the revival. When they reunited good number of new evangelical missions came in 1758, the revivalist group had tripled in num- into being (like Deutsche Indianer Pionier Mis- ber, while the anti-revivalist group had dwindled. sion or Kindewerk Lima). A new departure was In 1734–35 Jonathan Edwards, a Congrega- the founding of the Deutsche Missionsgemein- tionalist, led a revival in Northampton, Massa- schaft (1951), also Vereinigte Deutsche Mission- chusetts, and neighboring towns. In 1740–42 the shilfe (1961), designed to send German mission- movement spread across much of New England aries to many international faith missions. The and eventually across the American colonies as majority of the German missions and missionar- George Whitefield became the major figure. ies are now evangelical. The charismatic revival, Formerly a member of the “Holy Club” at Ox- which reached Germany in 1963, was slow in ford, he had experienced an evangelical conver- developing its own missions, but is now increas- sion in 1735. On his second trip to America in ingly doing so, with the missions often being 1739–40 he preached to large crowds in the mid- based in or almost identical with a local congre- dle colonies and New England in a unique dis- gation. A new development is the transformation play of interdenominational cooperation. Crowds of the Vereinigte Evangelische Mission (Barmen/ flocked to hear him; thousands were converted Bethel) into a worldwide fellowship of [equal] and joined the churches. When Congregational- churches in mission (United Evangelical Mis- ists in New England split over the revival, some sion, 1996). became Baptists and later went to Virginia and In Germany the classical (ecumenical) missions the Carolinas, where their churches grew pri- cooperate in the Evangelisches Missionswerk­ marily among the poor. A spontaneous move- (1975, successor to Deutscher Evangelischer Mis- ment also began in Hanover County, Virginia, as sionstag, 1922), the evangelical missions cooperate lay persons came together to read the sermons of in the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Evangelikaler Missionen Whitefield and writings of Luther. Thousands (1969, with the Freie Hochschule für Mission), and came, special buildings were constructed, and the Pentecostal and charismatic missions in the Presbyterian churches were eventually estab- Arbeitsgemeinschaft Pfingstlich-Charismatischer lished. The democratizing influence of Presbyte- Missionen (1993). rians and Baptists would bring change in the Klaus Fiedler rigid social order of Virginia. 39 Great Awakenings

The focus of preaching in the awakenings was the eastern United States, and three years later the necessity of conversion, personal faith in the awakening became widespread. Jesus Christ that went beyond mere assent to or- Revival came to Yale in 1802 under the presi- thodoxy to include personal assurance of salva- dency of Timothy Dwight, Edwards’ grandson, tion, and the call to a Christian lifestyle. Opposi- and one-third of the students professed conver- tion arose, primarily for two reasons. Some, for sion. The Haystack Prayer Meeting in 1806 at reasons of spiritual complacency or theology, did Williams College resulted in the beginning of the not believe in the validity of the movement or its American overseas missionary movement. The necessity. Others rejected it because of the ex- revival was orderly in the East, but in the West cesses and fanaticism of some revivalists or be- and Southwest it was accompanied with many cause of preaching by laymen. unusual manifestations. A camp meeting was In Britain, praying societies similar to pietist held in 1800 in Kentucky with services held in groups in Germany were precursors. In Wales, the open air; families came from a distance. In Daniel Rowland, an Anglican vicar, and Howell 1801 the Cane Ridge Meeting was organized in Harris, a layman, were converted in 1735 and Kentucky, which lasted six days and was at- began itinerant preaching. In 1736 Whitefield tended by around 12,500. Hundreds were held began to preach widely and with great effect. He the following years, and the camp meeting be- and his friends began a daily prayer meeting in came an important method of evangelism in the 1737 for the renewal of the church. The follow- southern United States, led first by Presbyterians ing year John and Charles Wesley, already zeal- and later by Baptists and Methodists. The latter ous in their religious devotion, came to personal two groups grew very rapidly to become the larg- assurance of salvation. John Wesley’s preaching est Protestant denominations in the United on the new birth and the radical nature of disci- States, largely because of the awakening and be- pleship soon resulted in his exclusion from most cause of their flexibility in ordaining pastors churches. He joined Whitefield in a pattern he with little or no training and establishing would follow until his death in 1791—traveling churches quickly. Other results of this phase of four thousand to five thousand miles per year the Second Awakening in the United States were the formation of the American Board of Commis- and preaching fifteen to eighteen times per week sioners for Foreign Missions in 1810, the Bap- in streets, fields, and Methodist societies. The tist Foreign Missionary Society in 1814, and the two eventually split because of Whitefield’s ac- Methodist Episcopal Foreign Missionary Society ceptance of Calvinism and Wesley’s rejection of in 1819. predestination and acceptance of the doctrine of After the War of 1812 the awakening contin- perfection. The bishop of London sharply criti- ued. Its most prominent exponent was Charles cized Wesley’s movement, saying it drew “to it- Finney, a Presbyterian who rejected the older self the lowest and most ignorant people.” Calvinist theology and adopted new techniques The awakening gave birth to the Methodist designed to lead people to conversion. In his Church, while thousands joined Presbyterian, 1830 campaign in Rochester 10 percent of the Congregationalist, and Baptist churches. The 10,000 citizens professed conversion and 450 successful antislavery movement in England joined the Presbyterian churches; other churches found its roots here. Missionary work like that of grew as well. This phase of the American awak- David Brainerd among “Indians” was stimu- ening produced a number of interdenomina- lated. Brainerd’s Journal would be powerfully tional voluntary societies to promote educational used in subsequent missionary motivation. The and social reform and missions. At Oberlin Col- awakening also produced a number of colleges, lege Finney encouraged the ministry of women. including Princeton and Dartmouth. It hastened A strong antislavery movement developed in the separation of church and state in America and to North but not in the South. some degree contributed to the American Revo- In England the Methodists saw their total lution. Women played a role in the Wesleyan membership grow from 72,000 in 1791 to nearly movement as preachers and class leaders. a quarter of a million within a generation. Other The awakening died down in the 1760s and churches also grew. The Protestant missionary 1770s with the American Revolution and the movement, with roots in the earlier awakening, growth of rationalism. In 1784 John Erskine of was launched. William Carey’s Baptist Mission- Edinburgh republished Edwards’ Call to Prayer ary Society was formed in 1792, the interdenom- for a Revival. Soon concerts of prayer were held inational London Missionary Society in 1795, across Britain and on the Continent. The direc- and the Anglican Church Missionary Society in tors of the newly formed London Missionary So- 1799. Other societies were formed in Scotland ciety recommended that one meeting a month and on the Continent. The evangelical movement focus on prayer for missions. was greatly strengthened in the Church of En­ By 1795 concerts of prayer had spread among gland, led especially by , who churches of most evangelical denominations in was also a strong advocate for foreign missions. 40 Great Century of Missions

The Clapham Sect comprising Anglican evangel- grown out of the Second Awakening. News from icals successfully implemented a number of so- America reached the British Isles. Others began cial reforms, including the Abolition of slavery. to pray, and increasingly people were converted. The Religious Tract Society (1799) and the Brit- Twenty thousand met in the open air in Ulster, ish and Foreign Bible Society (1804) were estab- while in Scotland much of the northeast was af- lished. Evangelicals sought to work out Christian fected, and the movement spread into the whole principles in society. These included Robert country. The revival began in Wales in 1858, Raikes and Hannah Moore, who founded the reaching its height the two following years. Sunday School movement; Elizabeth Fry, the Phoebe and Walter Palmer visited Newcastle in prison reformer; and later the Earl of Shaftsbury, England in 1859, and the awakening began to in- who campaigned for improvement of inhuman crease in strength. William Booth, joined in factory conditions. The Scot, Robert Haldane, preaching by his wife Catherine, began an itiner- used his wealth to establish a Society for the ant ministry, which led to the formation of the Propagation of the Gospel at home, which sent Salvation Army. Theaters were used for Sunday out over one hundred catechists and missionar- evening services, which were attended by large ies, and personally financed the training of three crowds who would not have entered a church. hundred students in a missionary training insti- The Salvation Army, the Keswick movement, tute. Eventually he ministered effectively in Swit- Christian Unions in universities, and the growth zerland and France. In Norway a movement de- of the Sunday School movement all resulted. A veloped through the itinerant preaching of Hans large number of itinerant evangelists came to Hauge, a lay preacher who traveled widely for prominence in the revival, the best known of eight years before being imprisoned for ten whom was Moody. years. His societies remained in the Lutheran The missionary movement received new im- Church. pulses. J. Hudson Taylor organized the China In Scotland the evangelical party maintained Inland Mission in 1865. Moody’s Cambridge Mis- Sunday schools, protested against the exploita- sion in 1882 resulted in a number of conver- tion of the poor, and promoted popular educa- sions, including the , who went tion. Its greatest leader, Thomas Chalmers, insti- to China as missionaries. They powerfully influ- tuted an ingenious plan for the church to care enced other students. Among the 251 in atten- for the poor. dance at Moody’s student conference in 1886, Similar movements in Switzerland, France, 100 volunteered for mission, and the Student Holland, and Germany resulted in philanthropic Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions was social action, Sunday schools, Bible distribution, formed. Under its auspices 20,500 young people and mission to the Jews. from Europe and North America eventually went The Second Awakening had significant results to Asia, Africa, and Latin America as missionar- in the shape of the church in the United States. ies. It also led to the formation of the World Stu- Baptists and Methodists became the major de- dent Christian Federation. nominations. Evangelical Protestantism became In the last third of the century “revivals” began a significant force at every level in Great Britain to lose their character of widespread movements, and North America, and the awakening provided becoming primarily mass evangelism, a tech- the foundation for the overseas mission thrust of nique for reaching people that was much less the second half of the century. concerned with changing society. This was ac- The Third Awakening began in 1857 in the centuated by the rise of theological liberalism United States, when Presbyterians, Baptists, and and the social gospel. Methodists began meeting for prayer and discus- Nevertheless, the Third Awakening, building sion on the need for revival and awakening. That on the previous two, shaped Anglo-American year Jeremiah Lamphier, a lay missionary in Protestantism and the missionary movement downtown New York for the Dutch Reformed during the first half of the twentieth century, and Church, started a weekly noonday prayer meet- provided most of its significant leaders. ing. Beginning with six men, within six months Paul E. Pierson 10,000 businessmen were meeting daily to pray Bibliography. A. Brouwer, Reformed Church Roots; in 150 different groups. Similar prayer meetings R. E. Davis, I Will Pour Out My Spirit; J. Edwards, began to spring up in other cities. A financial cri- Works, vol. 4, The Great Awakening; E. S. Gaustad, The sis had occurred shortly after he began, but there Great Awakening in New England; E. H. Maxson, The is evidence that the revival had begun prior to Great Awakening in the Middle Colonies; J. E. Orr, The the crisis. Light of the Nations; idem, The Second Evangelical This Third Awakening saw laymen play a Awakening; T. Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform; much stronger role. D. L. Moody began his J. Wesley, Journal. Christian work in 1858 and two years later gave up his business interests to concentrate full time Great Century of Missions (a.d. 1792–1910). on Sunday schools and the YMCA, which had The “great century” is considered to have begun 41 Great Century of Missions with William Carey and the organization of the access to all of China after 1856. This resulted in Baptist Missionary Society in England in 1792. a massive influx of missionaries by the end of Carey is properly called the “Father of the Mod- the century, led by the China Inland Mission, or- ern Protestant Missionary Movement,” because ganized in 1865. Four American societies en- of his leadership in initiating this new and tered Japan from 1859 to 1869, and American greatly expanded phase. But he was not the first Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in Korea in Protestant missionary. Puritans had worked with 1884 and 1885. Protestant work began in the Native Americans in New England in the seven- Philippines shortly after the Spanish American teenth century, German pietists had gone to War. Permanent Protestant work began in Latin India early in the eighteenth, and Moravians had America after midcentury, when Presbyterians, gone to at least twenty-eight countries in that Baptists, and Methodists arrived in Brazil, which century. enjoyed a measure of religious liberty. Work in The movement had its roots in the spiritual dy- other countries followed. Thus by 1910 several namic of the first and second Great Awakenings thousand Protestant missionaries were at work on both sides of the Atlantic, and resulted in the in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. organization of a large number of other mission- Carey’s goals, which most others accepted, ary societies. In England they included the Lon- were first, to preach the gospel by every possible don Missionary Society (LMS, 1795), primarily means; second, to support the preaching by the by Congregationalists and Presbyterians, the distribution of the Bible in the languages of the Church Missionary Society (CMS, 1799) by people; third, to establish the church; fourth, to evangelical Anglicans, and the British and For- study the background and religious thought of eign Bible Society (1804) by evangelicals of vari- the peoples; and finally, to train indigenous min- ous denominations. In the United States the isters. The nineteenth-century movement accom- American Board of Commissioners for Foreign plished all of these objectives to some degree, al- Missions (ABCFM, 1810) and the American Bap- though different missions and their workers tist Society (1814) were established. Others were varied in their emphases. organized in Scotland and on the Continent. In the words of two of the greatest mission The first area of service was India, followed in leaders of the century, Henry Venn of the CMS, 1813 by Burma (Myanmar). Beginning in 1796 and Rufus Anderson of the ABCFM, the goal LMS missionaries did heroic work in the South was to establish churches which would be “self-­ Sea Islands, where a number were killed. In 1820 supporting, self-governing, and self-propagat- John Williams went to Samoa with eight Tahi- ing.” An important assumption, with roots in the tian teachers, and in a few years the Samoan revivals which gave birth to missions, was that church had sent missionaries to a number of the preaching of the gospel would be accompa- other islands. ABCFM personnel arrived in Ha- nied by works of compassion and lead to positive waii in 1820. Anglicans, Presbyterians, and Con- changes in the societies where the church was gregationalists arrived in Iran in 1811, Egypt in planted. Naturally, in the minds of most mission- 1818, and Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey shortly aries those changes would include Western-style afterward. The CMS began sending personnel to education, literacy, health care, and better treat- in 1804, where in twenty years over ment of women. Even though many of the fifty missionaries died of disease. But others changes looked very Western, that was not en- took their places. The Basel Mission began work tirely negative. Carey worked, successfully, to in Ghana in 1828, the Scottish Presbyterians end infanticide and suttee (the burning alive of went to Calabar (Nigeria) in 1846, and the LMS widows with the bodies of their husbands) in entered South Africa in 1799. David Livingstone, India; Scottish Presbyterians were the first to who arrived there in 1841, went north into Cen- speak out against female genital mutilation in tral Africa with the twofold goal of evangelizing Kenya; while others worked to end the painful and ending the slave trade. When Anglicans en- and crippling practice of in China. tered Uganda, Bishop was Thus, along with the preaching of the gospel, speared to death, and later thirty-five Christian clinics, hospitals, and eventually medical schools martyrs were burned alive by the chief of the Bu- were established along with facilities to care for ganda people. But within a few years Buganda marginalized people, the blind, lepers, and or- Christians were taking the gospel to traditional phans. Missionaries established schools, semi- enemies, and one of them, Apolo Kivebulaya, naries, and universities. They did so, first, to train won the trust of pygmies, learned their language, the children of new Christians and prepare and translated the Gospel of Mark. church leadership, but they had other goals in China prohibited the residence of foreigners mind: to raise the social and economic level of until forced by the West to allow them to live in the people, and to win students and their families five ports after the treaty ending the first Opium to the faith (see also Educational Mission Work). War in 1842. The treaties after the second Opium By 1826 the ABCFM had established twenty-six War forced the government to allow Christians schools in Hawaii with sixty-six indigenous 42 Great Century of Missions teachers and twenty thousand students. Projects Christ; the willingness to defend the social di- to improve agriculture were initiated in several mensions of missions; and a pragmatic ecu- countries (see also Agricultural Missions). Mem- menism. The advent of Darwinism and the un- bers of the Swiss Basel Mission introduced the dermining of biblical authority brought cultivation of Cacao into Ghana. Industrial confi­dence in progress, a more optimistic view of schools and Western technology were also intro- human nature, and a lower Christology on the duced. one hand, while the movement which would be Literacy, Bible Translation, and the produc- known as fundamentalism adopted premillenni- tion of literature were important. Many unwrit- alism, the view that only when Christ returned ten languages were learned, reduced to writing, would the millennium be established and that and part or all of the Scriptures translated. By thus the only important activity was evangelism 1873 the Hawaii mission had published 153 dif- (see Millennial Thought). ferent works plus thirteen magazines and an al- In this context two new movements arose. The manac in the local language which missionaries first, the Student Volunteer Movement for had reduced to writing. At the end of the century, Foreign Missions began among students at a the entire Bible had been translated into over conference led by D. L. Moody in 1886. Before one hundred languages, the New Testament into its decline in the 1920s it had motivated the vo- 120, and parts of the Bible into three hundred cations of over 20,500 missionaries, most of more. whom served under the older boards. The other Early in the century women began to seek a development was the rise of the Faith Missions, greater role in the missionary enterprise (see also beginning with the China Inland Mission in Women in Mission). First, they organized them- 1865. It was soon followed by the Sudan Inte- selves to raise funds, to pray, and to encourage rior Mission, the Central American Mission, the their children and churches in mission. When the male leaders of the boards were unrespon- African Inland Mission, and others. These were sive to their desire for a greater role, women’s fundamentalist in theology, interdenominational, missionary societies were organized. These, some led by laymen, and many of their person- along with the older agencies, sent out many nel were graduates of the newly formed Bible in- women who often did work in Asia and Africa stitutes instead of universities and seminaries. denied to them at home. Eventually, nearly one- This development of the fundamentalist and third of the missionary force would be single evangelical missions, along with the beginning of women and one-third married women. They pio- the Pentecostal Movement in 1906 would even- neered in education and medical care for girls tually change the face of the missionary enter- and women, while some itinerated as evange- prise. At the same time, liberals and fundamen- lists. Charlotte “Lottie” Moon became one of talists alike assumed that Western culture was the best known of all Southern Baptist mission- Christian and superior to all others, and thus aries because of her vision, compassion, and normative for all Christians, believing that the ability to communicate with the church back entire world would eventually adopt that culture. home. Clara Swain, who arrived in India in Even though there were large people move- 1870, was the first woman medical missionary ments among some groups of animistic back- appointed by any board. She was the first of ground (Karens in Burma, Mizos and Nagas in many who not only treated women, whom men Northeast India, untouchables in other parts of were not permitted to see, but pioneered estab- India, some African tribes and especially South lishing nursing and medical schools, opening Pacific peoples) most of the churches formed these professions to women. When the first mis- were still small. In Korea a revival from 1903 to sionaries arrived in Korea, a woman had no sta- 1907 laid the foundation for remarkable growth tus outside her home except for functions in tra- later. But even though most wanted only to ditional shamanism. But by the middle of this preach a nondenominational “pure gospel,” as century, Helen Kim was president of Ehwa, the the LMS had urged, the churches established largest women’s university in the world, estab- were similar to those from which the missionar- lished by Methodists. She was also a leader in ies came. The Anglican Bishop Tucker serving in evangelism. Uganda at the turn of the century wanted to see Shortly before the end of the century the evan- a church in which missionaries and Africans gelical consensus in Protestantism in general, served side by side in a spirit of equality, but and thus the missionary movement, began to most churches were still dominated by Western- break down. That consensus included four ers. And while there were some exceptions in points: the assertion that the supreme aim of Korea and elsewhere, inadequate attention was missions was to make Jesus Christ known as Sav- given to preparing national leadership. In some ior and Lord, and to persuade persons to become areas, China and Africa especially, breakaway his disciples and gather them into churches; alle- churches which sought to be more culturally in- giance to the uniquely divine nature of Jesus digenous, would later grow rapidly. 43 Haystack Meeting

The climax of the “Great Century” came with formed a Society of Inquiry on the Subject of the Edinburgh World Missionary Conference Missions and in June 1810 appeared before the in 1910. Over 1,200 delegates from various mis- General Assembly of Congregational Churches, sion agencies came together; however, all but where they offered themselves for missionary eighteen were Westerners. It was a time of opti- service. This led to the formation of the ABCFM, mism as they planned for greater unity and ad- with themselves as the first appointees. vance. There was reason for celebration. For the Ralph R. Covell first time in history, the Christian faith was now worldwide. The church, along with educational Bibliography. J. H. Kane, A Concise History of the and medical institutions, had been planted in Christian World Mission. many countries. A growing number of national leaders was being prepared, establishing a foun- History of Missions. The Apostolic Age. The dation for growth in the future. The missionary story of how the followers of a first-century itin- movement had made a significant contribution erant Jewish preacher spread his message of in works of compassion with women and mar- God’s kingdom to the entire world is amazing. ginalized people, and had introduced such con- The initial conquest of the Roman Empire and cepts even among some who did not accept the the subsequent planting of the Christian church Christian faith. But there were also problems, around the earth were the result of the witness of some of which were seen, others not. The theo- countless believers. A great number of these mis- logical consensus regarding the nature and pur- sionaries are known, but there is an even greater pose of mission was ending. Western Christen- number whose names are unknown to subse- dom still failed to see the beam in its own eye: quent generations. This lack of a complete his- Colonialism, Ethnocentrism, and feelings of su- tory forces us to recognize that God empowered periority. The church still looked very foreign in ordinary believers to carry out the missionary many cultures. And few if any realized that four task. While Jesus limited his ministry to the years later Western Christendom would be areas of Judea and Galilee, with occasional for- plunged into one of the most meaningless and ays into non-Jewish territory, he gave his disci- bloody wars in history. That would bring the end ples specific instructions to be his witnesses in of confidence to much of the West and would “Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria and even to the re- raise a whole new set of problems for the mis- motest parts of the earth” (Acts 1:8). The Acts of sionary movement in the new century. the Apostles is organized along that plan, with Paul E. Pierson the gospel emanating in an ever-increasing cir- Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, All Loves Excelling; cle. With the coming of the Holy Spirit on the J. Carpenter and W. Shenk, eds., Earthen Vessels; day of Pentecost, the gospel was preached in Je- W. Hutchison, Errand to the World; S. A. Neill, History rusalem to Jews and proselytes “from every na- of Christian Missions. tion under heaven” (Acts 2:5). The first persecution that dispersed the church Haystack Meeting. The first American mission after the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7) resulted in board to spread the gospel outside the United the scattering of the believers throughout Judea, States was the American Board of Commission- Samaria (Acts 8:1), Phoenicia, Cyprus, and An- ers for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). The impetus tioch (Acts 11:19–20). It is noteworthy that the to found this society came from a group of stu- movement commanded by Jesus to disciple the dents at Andover Theological Seminary. The nations only commenced with Persecution. This leader of this group was Samuel Mills, who, theme of God’s using what seemed like tragic touched by the Second Great Awakening in New events to propagate the gospel is repeated England, had received a call to missions and throughout history. The bringing of the gospel to gone for training to Williams College in Massa- the Samaritans bridged two major hurdles, reli- chusetts. Here several like-minded students, gion and culture. The first recorded preaching to among them Luther Rice, joined with him to Gentiles is Peter’s interaction with Cornelius form the Society of Brethren, a group that met in (Acts 10). Some of those who were scattered be- a grove of maples near the campus for prayer and cause of persecution went to Antioch, where they discussion about missions. One day going to their shared the message with Gentiles (Acts 11:20). time of prayer, they were caught in a violent Since these Gentile converts were not proselytes, thunderstorm and took refuge in a nearby hay- it is not strange that the disciples were first stack. After an intense time of prayer, they took a called Christians in Antioch to distinguish them pledge to devote their lives to missionary service. from a sect of Judaism (Acts 11:26). The mis- After their graduation from Williams College, sionary journeys of Paul originated from this several of these students went to Andover Semi- church, the Holy Spirit directing the sending of nary, where they were joined by Adoniram Jud- Paul and Barnabas (Acts 13:2ff.), indicating son from Brown, from Harvard, where Paul and his team were forbidden to and Jr. from Union College. They preach the gospel (Acts 16:6–10). At the end of 44 History of Missions

Acts Paul is in Rome preaching Christ unhin- sought to defend the Christian faith against mis- dered while awaiting the disposition of the representation. By the year 251, there is an esti- charges against him. mate of the Christian population in Rome num- The early expansion of the church is a para- bering thirty thousand. The persecution did not digm for understanding how the gospel traveled eliminate the church, as the clear testimony of around the world in the succeeding two millen- the martyrs often bore eloquent witness to the re- nia. Under the Pax Romana the gospel spread ality of the Christian faith. Because of their cou- rapidly in the major centers of commerce and rageous witness, Tertullian (c. 160/70–c. 215/20) government. Even during Jesus’ ministry, the could write that the blood of the martyrs is the gospel had penetrated government circles (cf. seed of the church (see also Martyrdom). Luke 8:3, where Joanna, the wife of Chuza, The gospel entered Egypt at an early date, Herod’s steward, is numbered among the circle though again the original missionaries are not that traveled with Jesus). Paul can write from known. Alexandria became a major Christian Rome that the reason for his imprisonment is center with teachers like Clement (c. 150–215) well known in the palace (Phil. 1:13). This inter- and Origen (c. 185–254) holding firmly to the est in Christianity by the ruling authorities is in- biblical revelation but also recognizing Greek dicative of the interaction that the gospel would philosophy as a preparation for the gospel. This have throughout history. Up through the twenti- is the first example of discerning the seeds of a eth century, the conversion of a ruler often pre-gospel understanding in a people’s culture as meant gaining at least the nominal adherence of a forerunner to evangelization. The results of that ruler’s subjects to Christianity. The close both the Alexandrian model and applications of connection between the ruler’s religion and the the same principle throughout the history of the subjects’ adherence is particularly pronounced church have been debated. The danger of Syn- through to the sixteenth century in Europe, and cretism is ever present in such formulations. it is always common in close knit societies. Christianity spread quickly across Roman The interaction of the gospel with commerce is North Africa among the educated colonial something that is seen in Acts and has been re- classes. These were the first Latin-speaking peated in various periods of missionary work. At churches in the world. There was some use of times the gospel was bad for business (Acts the Punic language, brought by the Phoenicians 16:19; 19:23ff.). The commercial motive drove who had colonized Carthage, but it is not clear the sponsors of both Catholic and Protestant that the church ever penetrated to the Berber missions. Another theme that is repeated is the vernacular of the villages and nomads. By not interaction of the gospel with other religions. using the heart language of the peasant popula- The main rivals of the Christian faith in the first century were the mystery religions; elements of tion, it was assured that these groups would turn these religions addressed similar questions an- to Islam in the seventh century. The major lesson swered in the Christian gospel. There was a spir- learned from the experience in North Africa is itual hunger that the gospel could meet. How- that the church needs to penetrate the common ever, the pagan religions did not give in easily, language of the people. While the church in this necessitating Power Encounters such as those area produced outstanding theologians, includ- in Acts (e.g. 6:8; 8:9ff.; 13:6ff.; 16:16ff.) ing the key figure in Western theology, Augustine The First 500 Years. As we do not know the of Hippo, the theological formulations did not identity of the disciples who first preached to the stop the rapid spread of Islam. Gentiles in Antioch, so we do not know who first The Donatist controversy, which revolved preached the gospel in Rome. But Paul found be- around what was to be the church’s stand toward lievers there to welcome him. The earliest con- those who deny the faith during times of perse- verts were most likely from the lower classes. cution, further weakened the church of North However, during the persecution under the em- Africa. Nevertheless, from a missiological per- peror Domitian (c. a.d. 96), a cousin of the em- spective it is sobering to note the absence of peror was put to death and his wife banished be- Christianity today in what had been an influen- cause of “sacrilege,” the usual charge against tial center. Christians. Some take this as an indication of the The earliest Christian kingdom was Edessa, penetration of the gospel to the highest reaches which was one of the sources for the spread of of society. At the end of the first century and the gospel in Armenia, the second Christian throughout the second century, severe persecu- kingdom. Tradition tells of the visit of the apostle tions arose against Christians because of their Thomas to India. Such a voyage would have refusal to pay homage to the Roman gods. Their been possible; Roman coins found in India indi- loyalty to Christ alone as God earned them the cate a trading pattern. The Mar Thoma (St. name atheists since they would not acknowledge Thomas) Christians regard their origin in the the Roman pantheon of deities. Justin Martyr ministry of the apostle. The church certainly was (c. 100–165) was one of the early apologists who in India in the first centuries of the Christian era. 45 History of Missions

The conversion of the emperor Constantine inal. The three key factors in this period were dramatically changed the picture for the develop- royal patronage, martyrdom, and monasticism ing church. From a persecuted minority, the (see also Monastic Movement). church became legal and then socially accept- Another challenge to Christendom came from able. The peace of the church from external per- Arabia, where Muhammad gathered his follow- secution provided the opportunity to solve its ers and provided them with a sense of unity and theological disputes, a process in which the em- mission. They swept over Christian lands and perors from Constantine on took part. The trini- within a hundred years of Muhammad’s death, tarian and christological disputes gave rise to all of North Africa and most of Spain, as well as what are sometimes called the Oriental Eastern Palestine and Syria were under Muslim control. churches, which adopted a doctrinal stance dif- Checked for the first time by Charles Martel at ferent from the Chalcedonian formulas. These Tours in 732, Muslims still sacked Rome in 846. churches were missionary centers, with the Sicily was a Muslim country by 902. Finally in Nestorian Mission movement reaching into 1453, itself fell to the Muslims, China. ending over a thousand years of primacy in Even before Christianity became recognized as Christendom. the official religion of the Roman Empire (a.d. Yet in spite of perilous times, the church con- 333), the gospel had penetrated the western and tinued to be found in new places. Irish mission- northern provinces of the empire. Irenaeus aries established monasteries on the rugged (c. 130–c. 200), bishop of Lyons, writes of using Scottish coast and evangelized Britain. At the Celtic as well as Latin in the church, which signi- same time a mission was sent by Pope Gregory fies the presence of the church among the less the Great to the Anglo-Saxons who had sup- educated population. When Christianity became planted the native Britons. In 596 Augustine and the religion of the empire, more direct assaults a party of monks made their way to Kent, where could be made against paganism. However, the Ethelbert (c. 560–616) was king. He had married gain in legitimacy was at the expense of an in- Bertha, a Christian princess from Gaul and by creasing nominalism. Monasticism was in part a the end of the year, Ethelbert and ten thousand reaction to the lower standard of Christianity. Saxons were baptized. The Celtic missionaries Patrick (c. 389–461) was captured by Irish had slightly different customs which had been raiders from his home in England as a youth. preserved in their more isolated settings. While After six years, he escaped and entered a monas- these differences seem insignificant to modern tery in France. Persistent visions led him to re- readers, it raised the question that reappears in turn to Ireland at the age of forty-three, where he other ages: Who has the right to resolve differ- labored until his death. When he began his work, ences? In the end Rome prevailed, which set a Ireland was nearly entirely pagan but by the time pattern that endured until the Reformation. he died, Ireland was largely Christian.­ Later The advance of the church was not without Celtic monks would be responsible for evangeliz- compromise, exemplified by Pope Gregory, who ing large parts of Europe (see Celtic Missionary advised his missionaries to reconsecrate the Movement). pagan temples, destroying only the idols in them. One of the turning points in Europe was the Likewise, pagan festivals were remade into baptism of Clovis, king of the Franks. He had Christian holy days and traditional religious married (in 493) a Christian princess, Clotilda of customs baptized as Christian symbols. The ori- Burgundy, who did her best to convert him. Clo- gins of the Christmas tree, the Yule log, and vis vowed if the Christian God would help him even the traditional date of Christmas are exam- defeat his enemies, the Alemanni, he would con- ples of this A­ ccommodation. vert. On Christmas day 496 he was baptized There were Power Encounters between the along with three thousand of his soldiers. Other missionaries and the indigenous people. Boni- rulers had converted, but Clovis was the first to face, apostle to the Germans, felled the sacred accept, to the extent he understood, the Catholic oak of Thor in Hesse. The gospel made a slow, faith instead of Arianism. steady advance through Europe, though it is The Dark Ages, 500–1000. The classical world doubtful that the pagan influences were ever was passing. The barbarians pouring out of the fully rooted out, surfacing again in folk stories of Central European plain overran western Europe. trolls and fairies, with syncretism affecting The Vikings raided as far as Constantinople and church life. Some peoples were more resistant to terrorized Britain and northern Europe. Centers the gospel and many monks were martyred. of learning were special targets because they The schism between the church in the eastern were wealthy, yet even the horrors of these en- and western halves of the Roman Empire was counters presented an opportunity for the gos- not official until the bull of excommunication of pel. These five hundred years were the time 1054 and even then it was only the hierarchies when the church attempted to tame the barbar- that were excommunicated. However, the drift ians and make their conversion more than nom- can be detected earlier in the different theologi- 46 History of Missions cal foci that were developing. The importance tians like you I will become one myself.” The for missions is that the eastern church did not lasting legacy of the Crusades is enmity between insist on the same linguistic unity that the west- Muslims and Christians that exists to this day. ern church did. It is significant that Ulfilas The rumored existence of a Christian kingdom (c. 311–383), the missionary bishop who trans- to the east of the Muslim-dominated lands lated the Bible for the Goths, was consecrated at prompted speculation. Several expeditions were Constantinople, though his Arianism keeps him undertaken to the Mongols, with varying degrees from being claimed by the Eastern Orthodox. In of success. The Christian kingdom was not the eighth century when Cyril and Methodius found. However, the Mongols who ruled Central undertook missionary work among the Slav- Asia threatened the Muslim Empire, capturing ic-speaking Moravians, they were opposed by and destroying in 1258 and reaching missionaries connected with the pope because of Damascus two years later. The Nestorian church their translation work. The three principles that enjoyed a favorable position under the Mongols these two brothers from Thessalonica put for- it had not known before. But in the end the Mon- ward were the use of the vernacular in worship, gols came under the Muslim culture and the op- the employment of indigenous clergy, and the portunity was lost to bring them into the realm eventual selfhood of the church. They traveled to of the church. Rome, where they were able to celebrate the Sla- The traveler Marco Polo brought back tales of vonic liturgy in the pope’s presence. However, the Chinese Empire and a request from the when Methodius returned to Moravia as a Kublai Khan for one hundred scholars to debate bishop, he faced opposition and eventual expul- the virtues of the Christian faith. John of Monte- sion. Their disciples spread throughout the corvino (c. 1247–1328), a Franciscan, undertook Slavic lands, giving rise to the circumstances the journey, reaching Beijing in 1294. By the that led to the conversion of Vladimir in 988. time of his death (1328), he had been joined by Prince Vladimir, who was descended from Vi- three other Franciscans and had been appointed kings, used his authority to force his followers archbishop by the pope. John had baptized sev- into the fold of the church, thereby setting one of eral thousand people; however, after his death, the patterns for successive rulers of Russia. In the church in China declined because more mis- spite of its beginnings, the church in Russia has sionaries were not sent. endured for more than a thousand years, at The Age of Discovery, 1500–1600. The Cru- times under repressive rulers who tried to con- sades fueled a desire to reach the East by cir- trol it. cumventing the lands under Muslim control. The Medieval World, 1000–1500. As the Voyages of exploration were undertaken to reach Christian church entered its second millennium, it was a mainly European phenomenon. Vestiges the East Indies to secure a trade route for the of the ancient churches existed in Muslim-con- spices of the East and to attempt to find allies in trolled territory, the church had a foothold in the continuing crusade against Islam. Prince India and Ethiopia, but the Nestorian work in Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) had sent crews China had been suppressed. The Scandinavian down the coast of Africa. Christopher Columbus peoples were initially resistant to the gospel, but tried to reach the East by sailing west and de- by the late twelfth century, the church had been sired to bring the benefits of Christianity as well planted in the Nordic lands. The paganism that as securing lands and riches for his patron, Isa- had been the religion was hard to suppress and belle, queen of Spain. In 1493, to settle a dispute still carries on in Nordic folklore. between two Catholic sovereigns, the pope di- The Crusades are perhaps the least likely vehi- vided the world between the nations of Spain cle for missionary expansion in the history of the and Portugal with the commission to bring the church. Conceived as an attempt to wrest control true faith to the lands that they conquered. All of the Holy Land from the Muslims, the military the lands west of the line were to belong to adventures spanned two hundred years and re- Spain, those to the east to Portugal. When the sulted in thousands of lives lost. The attempt to line was moved to the west a year later, Brazil use force to convert unbelievers, while it had a came under Portugal. The conquest of the New seven-hundred-year tradition in the church, was World was accomplished with considerable vio- a failure, in part because the Crusaders found it lence by the conquistadors. Some of the mission- easier to kill the infidels than reason with them. aries to Spanish America became vocal champi- The attempts to witness to Muslims by the hum- ons of the Indians. The best known was ble Francis of Assisi (1181–1226) and the schol- Bartholomew de Las Casas (1474–1566), who arly Raymond Lull (c. 1235–1315) are bright petitioned the Spanish throne for fair treatment spots on an otherwise bleak landscape. Lull was of the Indians. Pedro Claver (1581–1654), a Je- martyred in North Africa. Francis managed to suit, devoted his life to ministering to the African preach before the Sultan of Egypt, who is re- slaves brought to work the plantations. It is said ported to have said, “If I meet any more Chris- he baptized over three hundred thousand slaves. 47 History of Missions

When in 1534 Ignatius of Loyola gathered surd than to transport France, Spain, Italy or with his six friends to form the Jesuits, a potent some other European country to China.” missionary force was launched. This new order In India Robert de Nobili (1577–1656) fol- was subject to the pope and devoted to the re- lowed the methods of Ricci by adapting his conversion of heretics and the conversion of pa- method of presentation to Brahman customs. gans to the Catholic faith. By 1640 Jesuit mis- While he gained some success with the upper sionaries had been in most of the then known castes, he faced opposition from other European world. One of the original six, Francis Xavier, missionaries who accused him of theological was not only to become a famous Catholic mis- compromise. It was only when the lower castes sionary, but arguably one of the greatest mis- were the target of missionary work that what sionaries of all time. Xavier first worked among might be termed a Mass Movement occurred. the illiterate fisherfolk in India, but news of the With the decline of Spain and Portugal, France potential for evangelism in Japan led him there. became the great Roman Catholic missionary One of Xavier’ s lasting contributions to mission- source. French expeditions had priests with ary thinking arose out his experience in Japan. them who journeyed with the explorers into the His previous ministry among low-caste people interior of North America, establishing missions did not prepare him for the advanced culture among the indigenous populations. In France a and traditions of the Japanese. Rather than tear nun of the Ursuline order, Mary of the Incarna- down everything in the culture, Xavier sought to tion, had a vision of missionary work in Canada. refine and re-create elements of tradition. In Arriving in Montreal in 1639, the first six mem- some ways, this is an extension of the policy car- bers of the order were the forerunners of the ried out during the evangelization of Europe considerable involvement of nuns in missionary when pagan customs were incorporated into the work. In Paraguay Jesuits established self-suffi- faith. It was to have great consequences and cient villages or reductiones in which they gath- some controversy in the missionaries who fol- ered their Indian converts. These were places of lowed Xavier. safety to protect the converts from hostile tribes Another great innovative Catholic missionary and the colonial slave traders. While the church was the center of the community life, from the was Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), who labored in standpoint of expansion of the church, the work China. An expert clockmaker, he presented among the Guaraní was a failure because while clocks as gifts to the Chinese and when the the Jesuits conducted their mission for more clocks needed to be wound he used the opportu- than a century, they brought no candidate for the nity to preach. He dressed as a Confucian priesthood forward from the Indians. scholar and allowed his converts to observe the The second half of the eighteenth century saw rites that honored Confucius and the family. Ric- the eclipse of Roman Catholic missions. Among ci’s principle was to make the gospel as accept- the reasons for this change was the evolving po- able as possible to the Chinese and, judging by litical situation with Protestant nations becom- the number of converts of high rank, he was suc- ing world powers. In some countries a reaction cessful. The question of accommodation, how- against Christianity set in and many missionar- ever easy to enunciate, is extremely difficult to ies were martyred. The final blow was the sup- practice without compromising the gospel. pression of the Jesuits by Pope Clement XIV in Roman Catholic Missions, 1600 to 1800. The 1773. The loss of their missionaries and influ- advantages of the Padroado, which divided the ence was at that time irreplaceable. world between Spain and Portugal, meant that Eastern Orthodox Missions. After the Great the missionaries could count on support, if not Schism (1054), the histories of the Western and overly generous, from the colonial authorities. Eastern branches of Christianity drifted even far- But it broke down because Portugal, whose pop- ther apart. The Tartar invasion was the crucible ulation at the time was around one million, that forged the Russian nation but it also hin- could not fulfill the missionary mandate. Thus in dered evangelism. However, there were notable 1622 Pope Gregory XV established the Sacred missionary heroes of the Orthodox Church, all of Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith to whom shared the same concern for the Bible and assume the missionary task. Francesco Ingoli, liturgy to be in the language of the people. Ste- the first head of the Propaganda, was a remark- phen of Perm (1340–96) evangelized the Zyrians, able missionary statesman. Ingoli pushed for the reducing their language to writing. Makarius rapid development of indigenous clergy and the Gloukarev (1792–1847) worked in the Altai freeing of Christian work from colonial attach- Mountains, incorporating education and health ments. In 1659 the Propaganda issued instruc- care into his missionary work and being one of tions to the vicars apostolic (heads of missionary the first to see the ministry of women. Nicholas regions) not to attempt to change customs of in- Illiminiski (1821–91) was a linguist who became a digenous peoples unless these practices were dis- brilliant missionary strategist. While he was never tinctly non-Christian. “What could be more ab- a missionary in the traditional sense, he discov- 48 History of Missions ered that the use of Arabic script was reinforcing tiny colony of Tranquebar. He turned to the cen- the Tartars’ allegiance to Islam rather than in- ter of pietism in Halle in Germany for recruits. structing them in Christianity. Illiminiski reduced August Hermann Francke (1663–1727) selected the Tartar language to writing using Russian two men, Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and Henry script and promoted the use of vernacular lan- Plüschau, who arrived on the field in 1706, the guages to teach Christian truth. Innocent Venia- first non-Roman Catholic missionaries in India. minov (1797–1878) answered the missionary call Ziegenbalg (1683–1719), with no precedence to to Russian Alaska, planting the church among the guide him, unerringly made the right choices Aleuts. He also adopted the use of the vernacular and the best of missionary work followed the and was proficient in navigating his kayak around principles he laid down for Bible translation, an his island parish. After his wife died, he became a accurate understanding of local culture, definite monk, taking the name Innocent, and was made a and personal conversion, and development of in- missionary bishop for the vast territory of Siberia. digenous clergy as quickly as possible. He saw He ended his service to the Church by occupying the potential of using education to spread the the highest office, metropolitan of Moscow. One gospel because Christians must be able to read of the missionaries that he influenced was Nico- the Word of God. las Kasatkin (1836–1912), who pioneered the Or- Another missionary leader influenced by pi- thodox Church in Japan. Kasatkin’s method of etism was Count Nicolaus Ludwig von Zinzen- making each believer responsible to teach another dorf, who had welcomed the Brethren of the person mobilized the Japanese. Common Life who had been exiled from Mora- The common elements in these examples were via to settle on his estate at Herrnhut. Hearing the use of the vernacular and the creation of an that the Danish mission to would indigenous clergy. likely be abandoned, he proposed that the Mora- The Beginnings of Protestant Missions. At vians undertake the mission. August 21, 1732, is the time of the Protestant Reformation, the celebrated by the Moravian churches as the be- countries that embraced the Reformation were ginning of their missionary work. In addition to not the world’s dominant powers. Furthermore, the work in Greenland, the Moravians sent mis- internal squabbles as well as pressure from the sionaries to the West Indies and Surinam (see Catholic Church made missions impossible. The also Moravian Missions). response of the Reformers was to teach that the The Great Century of Missions. The explosion obligation for missionary work had ceased with in Protestant missions coincided with the Euro- the apostles (see also Reformation and Mission). pean mastery of speed in the form of the steam- There were notable exceptions, such as Justinian ship and power in the form of the steam engine. von Welz (1621–68), who advocated missionary As the European powers scrambled to carve out work. When Holland became a world power, colonies in the rest of the world, so missionary chaplains were sent to its colonies. However, any interest in the spiritual welfare of these peoples missionary effort was to come after their pri- increased. The voyages of Captain Cook stirred mary task of meeting the needs of the colonists. William Carey, whose An Enquiry into the Obli- The discovery of America prompted a new in- gations of Christians to use Means for the Conver- terest in reaching the Native American popula- sion of Heathens (1792) was a stirring call to mis- tion. The charter of the colony of Massachusetts sions. Carey challenged the generally accepted included the statement that the principal pur- theological notions that the missionary mandate pose of the plantation was to convert the natives had ceased. Carey (1761–1834) was a shoemaker to Christianity. The first successful attempt was and schoolteacher. A self-taught man, he is by John Eliot (1604–90), who learned the lan- sometimes referred to as “the father of modern guage of the Pequots and organized his converts missions.” This is not accurate, as Carey knew into “Praying Towns” so they could live Christian about the work of previous missionaries. How- lives. He is remembered for his Bible translation ever, Carey’s importance was as a forerunner in into the Indian language. David Brainerd (1718– the English-speaking world which has produced 47), a close friend of Jonathan Edwards, also la- in the time since Carey the overwhelming major- bored among the Indians. When he died, ex- ity of Protestant missionaries. Landing in India hausted by his labors, he left behind a diary that in 1793, he worked as a plantation manager for influenced both William Carey and Henry Mar- five years. With the arrival of more Baptist mis- tyn. sionaries in 1799, the missionary work pro- The European missionary enterprise had its gressed. start in the movement known as Pietism. Pia De- Carey was persuaded to join sideria written by Philip Jakob Spener outlined (1768–1837), a schoolteacher, and William Ward the necessity for personal conversion, holiness, (1769–1823), a printer, in establishing a station fellowship, and witness. As the movement grew at the Danish enclave of Serampore, sixteen in the churches, King Frederick IV of Denmark miles from Calcutta. They established a Baptist decided that he should send missionaries to his church and engaged in preaching tours. Their 49 History of Missions great work was in translation. In thirty years, six ever, Gütz­laff’s work was not in vain as he made whole Bibles, twenty-three complete New Testa- the outside world aware of the provinces. An- ments, as well as Bible portions in ten additional other result of the opium trade and the entrance languages were printed. They were students of of missionaries was the T’ai P’ing rebellion. Indian culture, with Ward publishing a book on Hung Hsiu-Ch’uan (1814–64) had received Chris- Hindu culture in 1811. tian literature from Liang Fah (1789–1855), the While the Serampore Trio had education as first ordained Chinese Protestant pastor. one of their goals, it was Alexander Duff (1806– Through a series of dreams he conceived of his 78) who opened the first English-speaking insti- destiny to reform China through Christian prin- tution of higher education in India. Duff’s aims ciples as he understood them. The extent of his were both educational and evangelistic and sect’s orthodoxy is debated, but he used the while he only saw thirty-three converts in eigh- Lord’s Prayer and the Ten Commandments, with teen years, these were solid conversions. Duff’s the fifth enhanced to include filial piety and the methods were widely copied in other areas. seventh to prohibit opium use. This peaceful Adoniram Judson (1788–1850) was the pioneer movement was transformed between 1848 and in Burma (Myanmar). Ann Hazeltine Judson 1853 into a revolutionary army that had its goal (1789–1826) was one of the first missionary her- of overthrowing the Manchu dynasty. Nanking oines, literally keeping her husband alive during was captured by the rebels in 1853 and for eleven his captivity in the Anglo-Burmese war. Judson’s years was the capital of Hung’s dynasty. The im- work lived on in his translation of the Bible into perial forces assisted by the Western powers Burmese. But a greater legacy was to be found in crushed the revolt. Ironically Charles Gordon, one of his converts, Ko Tha Byu, who brought the British Army officer who commanded the the gospel to his own Karen people. The Karens imperial troops, was as much a Bible reader as had a tradition of a Creator God whom they had Hung, whose printers had been distributing displeased because of their sin. The gospel told Morrison’s translation at a great rate. them of a Savior who paid the price of their sin. The great visionary for China was James Hud- A mass movement occurred among the Karens. son Taylor, who founded the China Inland Mis- By no means the first missionary to Africa, sion to place missionaries in the interior of David Livingstone (1813–73) is known for his ex- China. His workers wore Chinese dress and plorations and opposition to the slavery. Son-in- adapted as much as possible to the Chinese way law to Robert Moffat (1795–1883), who served of life. Taylor accepted missionaries who had lit- for forty-eight years among the Tswana people of tle formal education, which was a change from Southern Africa, Livingstone was not content to the societies that were growing more profes- stay in one place. Beckoned on by “the smoke of sional. In most cases his recruits were fine mis- a thousand villages” that had never heard the sionaries and many became superior linguists. gospel, he explored the interior. It was his con- He also had the mission headquarters in China viction that only as Africa became Christian and so that the work could be directed by those who developed economically could the horrors of the knew the local situation. slave trade be stopped. The gospel had some success in China so that Christianity’s entrance into China was with the by the end of the nineteenth century there were accompaniment of commercial interests. The about half a million adherents, but it also first Protestant missionary in China was Robert spawned fear and resistance. China was still in Morrison (1782–1834). He arrived when it was turmoil, with foreign nations making more de- illegal for missionaries to preach the gospel and mands and in some cases occupying territory. was compelled to live in hiding. However, his flu- Opposition to foreigners and Christians exploded ency in Chinese was so great that he became a in 1900 with the formation of Righteous Harmo- translator for the East India Company. The trade nious Fists (Boxers), supported by the empress in tea was causing an imbalance of payments for dowager. The Boxers killed Chinese Christians the British as the Chinese demanded silver for and missionaries and destroyed mission prop- their tea. The answer for the British, who con- erty. It was the greatest loss of missionaries’ lives trolled the areas that produced opium, was to to that time. A military force from the Western force China to allow trade in the narcotic. Two powers finally suppressed the rebellion. opium wars opened China to trade and allowed Missionary work in the twentieth century ex- the residence of foreigners in China and trans- panded dramatically. The Bible was translated ferred Hong Kong to Britain. Karl F. A. Güt- into more languages. As the Bible was made zlaff (1803–51) envisioned a grand strategy for available in Africa, the phenomenon of separatist evangelizing the interior of China by employing churches erupted. The result of a vision of their native agents as colporteurs (see Colportage) founder, such as the Church of Simon Kimbangu, and evangelists. Unfortunately, his agents were these groups which are variously called Zionist not always trustworthy and did not carry out the or Ethiopian are conveniently referred to as Afri- missionary work for which they were paid. How- can Independent Churches to indicate their non- 50 Indigenous Churches missionary origin. Their doctrines are typically a the Holy Land in 1523 was intended to become a mixture of traditional African cultures and the permanent mission to the Muslims of the Middle biblical revelation. These indigenized forms of East and North Africa, but Christians in the area Christianity engaged the concerns of the people deterred him. He returned to study at the univer- and provided an answer to a population transi- sities of Barcelona, Alcala, Salamanca, and Paris, tioning to the pressures of the modern world (see at each place introducing students to the Spiri- African Initiated Church Movement). tual Exercises. In 1540 he and six companions re- The twentieth century was also marked by a ceived papal permission to found The Society of worldwide charismatic phenomenon, that grew Jesus. Ignatius trained his Jesuits for social ser- out of the Holiness movement. This renewal, vice and missionary work, with special emphasis which resulted in the formation of Pentecostal given to the establishment of educational institu- denominations, provided a fresh impetus for tions. missionary work. The outbreak of charismatic From 1547 until his death, he oversaw the ex- activity in the older traditional denominations pansion of the order throughout Europe, Asia, has prompted a new interest in spreading a gos- and the Americas. His Constitutions of the Soci- pel of power encounters with the forces of evil ety of Jesus outlined the educational philosophy (see also Pentecostal Missions). of the order; it is still used in its original form In this survey of expansion of the church, sev- today. The combination of spiritual devotion, ac- eral themes have reappeared. The Bible, in the ademic rigor, and missionary fervor that came to vernacular of the people, is a powerful force for characterize the Jesuits has been inspirational to transformation of societies. Empowerment of Catholics and Protestants alike. converts, either by recognizing them as leaders Larry Poston through ordination or through separatist move- Bibliography. C. De Dalmases, Ignatius of Loyola, ments, is the way the church grows in a culture. Founder of the Jesuits; G. E. Ganss, Ignatius of Loyola: The contagious sharing of what has been experi- Spiritual Exercises and Selected Works. enced in Christ empowered by the Holy Spirit, either by missionaries or converts, is the key to Indigenous Churches. The term “indigenous” church growth. comes from biology and indicates a plant or ani- James J. Stamoolis mal native to an area. Missiologists adopted the Bibliography. J. Beeching, An Open Path: Christian word and used it to refer to churches that reflect Missionaries 1515–1914; S. Bolshakoff, The Foreign the cultural distinctives of their ethnolinguistic Missions of The Russian Orthodox Church; A. J. Broom- group. The missionary effort to establish indige- hall, Hudson Taylor and China’s Open Century; nous churches is an effort to plant churches that J. Du Plessis, A History of Christian Missions in South fit naturally into their environment and to avoid Africa; F. Dvornik, Byzantine Missions Among The planting churches that replicate Western pat- Slavs; H. M. Goodpasture, Cross and Sword: An Eyewit- ness History of Christianity in Latin America; C. P. terns. Groves, The Planting of Christianity in Africa; M. Jar- Missionary efforts to establish indigenous rett-Kerr, Patterns of Christian Acceptance: Individual churches are attempts to do missions as the Response to the Missionary Impact 1550–1950; S. Neill, apostle Paul did. A brief recital of Paul’s mission- Colonialism and Christian Missions; idem, A History of ary methods demonstrates this fact. Paul served Christian Missions; K. S. Latourette, A History of the as an itinerant missionary, never staying more Expansion of Christianity; idem, Christianity in a Revo- than three years in any city. Paul’s approach to lutionary Age: The 19th and 20th Centuries; S. H. Mof- evangelizing regions was to plant churches in fett, A History of Christianity in Asia; D. Roberts, Amer- cities from which the gospel would permeate the ican Women in Mission; E. Smirnoff, A Short Account of The Historical Development And Present Position of surrounding areas. He never appealed to the Russian Orthodox Missions; B. Stanley, The Bible And churches in Antioch or Jerusalem for funds with The Flag: Protestant Missions and British Imperialism in which to support the new churches. Rather, he the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries; R. A. Tucker, expected the churches to support themselves. FJIJ; idem, GGC; A. F. Walls, The Missionary Movement Paul appointed and trained elders to lead all the in Christian History; M. Warren, The Missionary Move- churches he planted. He gave the churches over ment from Britain in Modem History. to the care of the Holy Spirit, but he also visited them and wrote to them periodically. Ignatius of Loyola (c. 1491–1556). Spanish Henry Venn (1796–1873) of the Church Mis- founder of the Jesuits. Born in the Basque region sionary Society and Rufus Anderson (1796–1880) of Spain, until 1521 he pursued a military career of the American Board of Commissioners of For- but during convalescence from a wound he was eign Missions first used the term “indigenous converted to Christ through reading devotional church” in the mid-nineteenth century. They both books. His resolve to change his life led him to wrote about the necessity of planting “three-self” write the Spiritual Exercises, a program designed churches—churches that would be self-support- to produce mastery of the will. A pilgrimage to ing, self-governing, and self-propagating (Venn 51 Indigenous Churches used the term “self-extending”). They exhorted (3) Church finances should be provided and con- missionaries to establish churches that could sup- trolled by the local church members. (4) Chris- port themselves, govern themselves, and carry out tians should be taught to provide pastoral care a program of evangelism and missions. They cau- for each other. (5) Missionaries should give na- tioned missionaries about becoming absorbed in tional believers the authority to exercise spiritual pastoring and maintaining churches, insisting gifts freely and at once. Allen’s principles have that the missionary’s primary task must be plant- influenced many twentieth-century missiolo- ing new churches that would be “self-reliant” and gists, most prominently Donald McGavran. “purely native.” They instructed their missionar- Melvin Hodges (1909–86), a missionary and ies to train national pastors and hand the care of mission administrator with the Assemblies of the churches over to them at the earliest opportu- God, wrote The Indigenous Church (1953). nity. Venn coupled the concept of indigenous Widely used in missions courses, this book ex- churches with euthanasia in missions. By eutha- pressed the ideas of Venn, Anderson, Nevius, and nasia he meant that missionaries should plant Allen in an updated, popular format. Hodges ac- churches, train leaders, and then move on to new, knowledged the difficulty missionaries experi- unevangelized regions. Henry Venn believed that ence in changing a field from a subsidy approach missionaries should always be temporary work- to an indigenous approach. He also emphasized ers, not permanent fixtures. training national workers and giving them re- John L. Nevius (1829–93), a Presbyterian mis- sponsibility for the care of the churches, freeing sionary to China, built on Venn and Anderson’s the missionaries to concentrate on starting new indigenous principles in his classic work, Plant- churches. ing and Development of Missionary Churches. Ne- In his book, Verdict Theology in Missionary The- vius developed a set of principles that came to be ory, Alan Tippett (1911–88) updated the three-self called “The Nevius Plan”: (1) Christians should formula of Henry Venn. Tippett served on the fac- continue to live in their neighborhoods and pur- ulty of the School of World Mission at Fuller Sem- sue their occupations, being self-supporting and inary and was a member of Donald McGavran’s witnessing to their co-workers and neighbors. (2) inner circle. The writings of Tippett, McGavran, Missions should only develop programs and in- and others show that the Church Growth Move- stitutions that the national church desired and ment accepted and built on the work of the earlier could support. (3) The national churches should proponents of indigenous missions. call out and support their own pastors. In Verdict Theology Tippett proposed a sixfold (4) Churches should be built in the native style description of an indigenous church: (1) Self-im- with money and materials given by the church age. The church sees itself as being independent members. (5) Intensive biblical and doctrinal in- from the mission, serving as Christ’s church in struction should be provided for church leaders its locality. (2) Self-functioning. The church is every year. In his writings Nevius criticized the capable of carrying on all the normal functions heavily subsidized work that most missions car- of a church—worship, Christian education, and ried on in China. Nevius’s principles had little so on. (3) Self-determining. This means the impact in China, but when the American Presby- church can and does make its own decisions. terians began their work in Korea, the new mis- The local churches do not depend on the mission sionaries invited Nevius to advise them. They to make their decisions for them. Tippett echoes adopted his plan and enjoyed great success. Venn in saying that the mission has to die for the (1868–1947), an Anglican priest, church to be born. (4) Self-supporting. The served as a missionary in China with the Society church carries its own financial burdens and fi- for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign nances its own service projects. (5) Self-propaga- Parts from 1892 until 1904. Like Nevius, he crit- tion. The national church sees itself as responsi- icized the methods employed by most missions ble for carrying out the Great Commission. The in China. He wrote several books, but expressed church gives itself wholeheartedly to evangelism his philosophy of indigenous missions in Mis- and missions. (6) Self-giving. An indigenous sionary Methods: St. Paul’s or Ours? (1912) and church knows the social needs of its community The Spontaneous Expansion of the Church and endeavors to minister to those needs. (1927). Tippett summarizes his understanding of the Allen emphasized the role of the Holy Spirit in indigenous church with this definition: “When missions and encouraged missionaries to work the indigenous people of a community think of in itinerant church planting, trusting the Holy the Lord as their own, not a foreign Christ; when Spirit to develop the churches. Allen’s main prin- they do things as unto the Lord, meeting the cul- ciples are these: (1) All permanent teaching must tural needs around them, worshipping in pat- be intelligible and so easily understood that terns they understand; when their congregations those who receive it can retain it, use it, and pass function in participation in a body which is it on. (2) All organizations should be set up in a structurally indigenous; then you have an indige- way that national Christians can maintain them. nous church” (136). 52 Judson, Adoniram

In recent years some missiologists have sug- Interagency cooperation includes a number of gested adding a seventh mark to Tippett’s list— risks for those who wish to participate. Agency self-theologizing. They believe a truly indigenous boards, leaders, and personnel will worry about church will develop its own theology, expressed a number of issues: Will they lose the agency’s in culturally appropriate ways. These theologies distinctive for existence? Will the agency’s mis- would affirm the central doctrines of the Chris­ sion statement and core values be compromised? tian faith, but they would express them using How can the different philosophies of ministry metaphors and concepts that reflect their own be unified? Should they? If certain positions in unique cultures. the agency are no longer necessary, what hap- Missionaries who seek to establish indigenous pens to those who filled them? What energy churches should keep these principles in mind as costs will be necessary to maintain productive they begin their work: (1) Missionaries should cooperation? Who funds what? And of deeper plant churches with the goal in mind. This concern, will their agency die? means that the desired outcome—an indigenous The trust factor figures large in interagency church—should influence the methods em- cooperation. To offset some of the above con- ployed. (2) There will always be a dynamic ten- cerns, courting should precede the wedding con- sion between supracultural doctrines and vari- tract. When they eventually say, “I do,” they say able cultural traits. (3) Church planters should “yes” to commitment, character, a common vi- expect the churches to support themselves from sion, costs, cooperation, and communication the beginning. (4) Bible study groups should be over concerns, and “no” to competition and com- encouraged to make basic decisions even before parison. they organize as churches. (5) Missionaries The rewards of interagency cooperation must should encourage new congregations to evange- move beyond survival. And they can. From the lize their communities and seek opportunities to perspective of agency personnel, the pooling of begin new churches. (6) Missionaries should al- personnel and finances can meet their needs ways use reproducible methods of evangelism, from recruitment to retirement much more ade- teaching, preaching, and leadership. (7) Mission- quately. From the perspective of ministry projects and programs, interagency cooperation can ex- aries should give priority to developing nationals pand the kingdom of God in ways no single to serve as church leaders. (8) Missionaries agency can. Some of these efforts may be short- should view themselves as temporary church term, some long-term. But all processes should planters rather than permanent pastors. (9) Mis- be driven by the unity–diversity of the partici- sionaries should resist the temptation to estab- pants, thereby glorifying the creative God behind lish institutions and wait for the national church them. to take the initiative. (10) Missionaries must Tom A. Steffen allow the national churches to develop theolo- gies and practices that are biblical yet appropri- Bibliography. L. Bush and L. Lutz, Partnering in Min- ate in their cultural settings. istry; The Direction of World Evangelism, IJFM 11:1 (1994); J. H. Kraakevik and D. Welliver, eds., Partners in John Mark Terry the Gospel: The Strategic Role of Partnership in World; Bibliography. R. Pierce Beaver, ed., To Advance the W. Sandy, Forging the Productivity Partnership; W. D. Gospel: Selections from the Writings of Rufus Anderson; Taylor, ed., Kingdom Partnerships for Synergy in Mis- M. L. Hodges, The Indigenous Church; J. L. Nevius, sions. Planting and Development of Missionary Churches; A. Tippett, Verdict Theology in Missionary Theory; Judson, Adoniram (1788–1850). American mis- M. Warren, ed., To Apply the Gospel: Selections from the sionary to Myanmar. Born in Malden, Massachu- Writings of Henry Venn. setts, and one of America’s best known mission- aries, he and his wife, Interagency Cooperation. While the days of (1789–1826), sailed for India from Salem, Massa- mission agencies acting as lone rangers continue chusetts, on February 19, 1812, with the first to diminish, there is still progress to be made. A American foreign missions contingent. Though number of external factors will continue the sponsored by the Congregationalist American push toward cooperation: the dwindling number Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, of full-time missionaries; the increase of short-­ the Judsons became Baptists while en route to termers; churches doing their own selecting, Asia. This decision led to their founding the first training, sending, and mentoring; the diminish- mission to Burma (now Myanmar) and the for- ing appreciation for denominations; ministry mation of what became the American Baptist overlap between agencies (reduplicating support Missionary Union to support them and other personnel); the difficulty of fundraising for missionaries. workers and agency maintenance. More by ne- Gifted linguistically, Judson labored to learn cessity than design, interagency cooperation pro- Burmese, a complex language. In 1834 he com- vides a solution for survival and ministry. pleted the Burmese Bible and his Dictionary, 53 Judson, Ann Hazeltine

English­ and Burmese in 1849. A church was es- Kasatkin, Nicholas (1836–1912). Russian Or- tablished despite Judson’s horrendous seven- thodox missionary to Japan. Kasatkin was born teen-month imprisonment, the death of his first in the Smolensk province of Russia. Graduating wife (1826) and child (1827), the death of Sara at the top of his class, he was urged by his supe- Boardman Judson (1845), his second wife, and his riors to pursue a life in academia. He chose in- own persistent ill health. Returning to America in stead to go as the first Russian Orthodox mis- 1845, Judson advanced the expanding foreign mis- sionary to Japan, arriving there on June 2, 1861. sions movement. In 1846 he married Emily Chub- The first seven years of ministry proved frus- beck, a novelist, and returned to Burma. On a voy- trating as Nicholas struggled with the Japanese age to improve his health he died near the language and customs, the xenophobia and per- Andeman Islands on April 12, 1850, and was bur- secution of the government, and the failure to ied at sea. baptize even one convert. Things began to The son of a Congregationalist clergyman, change, however, when he baptized three men, alumnus of Brown University (B.A., 1807) and including a Shinto priest, in 1868. With these Andover Seminary (B.D., 1810), Judson is re- three men as a foundation, the church began to membered for a Burmese church of seven thou- grow. By 1880, the Russian Church elevated sand members at his death, his translation work, Nicholas as bishop of Japan for the almost 5,000 and his contribution to the launching of Ameri- believers he had baptized. Although no other can foreign missions. Russian missionaries had come to help, by 1896 Thomas A. Askew the Orthodox Church had grown to over 23,000. By the fiftieth anniversary of his arrival in Japan, Bibliography. C. Anderson, To the Golden Shore: The the church consisted of 33,017 Christians in 266 Life of Adoniram Judson; R. Torbet, Venture of Faith; communities, 43 clergy, 121 lay preachers, 200 F. Wayland, A Memoir of the Life and Labors of the Rev. teachers, a seminary with 94 students, and 2 Adoniram Judson, DD. girls’ schools with 80 students. Together with his astounding accomplish- Judson, Ann Hazeltine (1789–1826). American ments as a missionary and bishop, his other pioneer missionary in Myanmar. Judson was main contribution was the translation of the en- truly a lady of firsts: the first American woman tire New Testament and most of the Old Testa- missionary, the first missionary wife who felt her ment, as well as many liturgical services into own call to missions, the first woman missionary Japanese. who wrote on missionary life and the conditions Luke A. Veronis of mission work (and who became the leading female missionary author of the early nineteenth Bibliography. N. Gorodetzky, IRM 31(4): 400–411; century), the first missionary woman who ad- I. Kondrashov, Theological Journal of the Moscow Patri- dressed the specific concerns of women, and the archate 11 (1–2): 69–73, 72–76; L. A. Veronis, Missionar- ies, Monks, and Martyrs: Making Disciples of All Nations. first wife of Adoniram Judson. The Judsons sailed to India thirteen days after their marriage in 1812, and eventually estab- Keswick Convention. An annual gathering in lished mission work in Burma. Ann learned the England begun modestly in the 1870s by evan- language quickly and began a women’s Sunday gelicals concerned about their increasing polar- class to study the Scriptures that her husband ization, even bitter controversies, at a time when was translating. The difficult living conditions liberalism and Agnosticism were making serious contributed to constant illness, and she was inroads into their churches. More, they were en- couraged by the unexpected national impact of forced to leave Burma on several occasions for the first (1874) Moody/Sankey revival meetings medical reasons. Her first child, a son, died at in London coupled with the public cry for more seven months of age. Her courage was sorely authenticity in evangelical Christian living. The tested when war broke out between England and decision was taken to convene a conference that Burma, and Adoniram was imprisoned. Pregnant would seek to “promote Scriptural holiness” and alone, she got food and clothing through to under the banner “All One in Christ Jesus.” The him and kept him alive. When Adoniram was underlying conviction of Keswick’s founders was sent on a death march, Ann followed, carrying that through the gospel Christ offered his people her newborn, and eventually became so ill that the possibility of living victoriously by his in- guards allowed Adoniram to care for her and the dwelling presence and power. In their eyes Scrip- baby. The British liberated the Judsons in 1826, ture held out the prospect of Christians’ enjoying but both Ann and the baby girl died soon after- unbroken fellowship with God and victory over wards. all known sin. Sin was always possible, but not Judith Lingenfelter necessary. The biblical themes that were felt to Bibliography. B. Miller, Ann Judson: Heroine of need wide promotion were personal surrender to Burma; H. M. W. Morrow, Splendor of God. Christ and buoyant faith in his Word. 54 Latin America

The first gathering took place in 1875 at Kes- ther studies, was ordained in 1507. Initially serv- wick in England’s Lake District. From the outset ing as an encomendero (recipient of a grant which the conventions attracted hundreds despite the gave control over Indians who were to provide sharp criticisms they provoked among some labor and goods in exchange for protection and re- prominent evangelical theologians (“Keswick ligious instruction) in Spain’s colonial encomienda promotes sinless perfection!”). For twelve years system, a conversion experience in August of 1514 Keswick excluded all reference to missions de- led him to work for reform. Freeing his own spite the growing evidence that when young slaves, he returned to Spain in 1515 to advocate Christians deliberately surrendered themselves to for the Indians. He then launched a lifetime of at- Christ, they increasingly sensed a drawing to mis- tempts to initiate projects which would foster sionary service in the world for which he died. peaceful colonization, with varying success. He Fortunately, when this was officially recognized, joined the Dominican Order in 1523. a portion of each convention, usually the morn- His projects mostly met with opposition and ing of the closing day, was devoted to missionar- failure, but his powerful and fertile writings were ies and overseas nationals speaking to “the claim far more successful and the chief source of last- of Christ to his people’s willing service in the ing influence. His thinking shaped the papal bull cause of the evangelization of the world.” Over Sublimis Deus (1537), which recognized the In- the years Keswick’s influence on missions has dians as rational beings with the same rights as been enormous, particularly on the Student Vol- Europeans. He also played a key role in the de- unteer Movement and on the World Missionary velopment and passing of a set of laws in 1542 Conference at Edinburgh (1910). which, among other things, limited the power of Through promotion by such prominent Chris- the encomenderos and prohibited slavery of the tians as Bishop G. Handley Moule, J. Hudson indigenes. Taylor, G. Campbell Morgan, Dwight L. Moody, After retirement and final return to Spain in Robert E. Speer, John R. Mott, Arthur T. P ier- 1547, Las Casas engaged in major debates with son, Donald Grey Barnhouse, , and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda over the legitimacy of many others, and through the proliferation of the Spanish conquests in the New World (1550– conventions throughout the world, Keswick has 51). One of his most significant contributions gained and retained high regard among evangel- was in developing the discussion on what would icals. It began the pattern of sending “missioners become the contemporary concept of Human to missionaries” to bring them spiritual renewal Rights. while on the field; even today Keswick speakers A. Scott Moreau continue to minister regularly in many parts of the world. Current activities include the publish- Bibliography. G. Gutiérrez, Las Casas: In Search of the Poor of Jesus Christ; J. Klaiber, BDCM, p. 384; H. R. ing of annual reports, the radio broadcast of Parish and H. R. Wagner, The Life and Writings of Bar- “Keswick Week,” a tape library service for na- tolomé de las Casas; A. Saint-Lu, NCE, 8:394-5. tional churches, and a hospitality fund to enable furloughed missionaries and overseas nationals Latin America. This continent must be studied to attend conventions in the United Kingdom. In in light of its unique geography, historical devel- 1892 Keswick sent out , its first opment, peoples, religions, and cultures, as well missionary, and thereby inaugurated a pattern of as its current, changing social environment. Only supporting workers serving in a wide range of from that perspective can one fully understand societies overseas. Indeed, for almost a century the Latin spiritual mosaic, in particular, its vi- Keswick represented evangelical ecumenicity at brant evangelical Christianity. Latin America is its best, although at present it does not com- very diverse, with each country displaying its mand its former dominant position. This is own unique features. doubtless due to the emergence of more contem- Geography and Population. Latin America porary renewal movements and to the change in (Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking) is composed style among evangelicals through the dynamism of nineteen nations, having 15 percent of the and growth of the charismatic and “house world’s land mass and about 8 percent of the church” movements, particularly in England. global population. Starting with Mexico’s north- Arthur F. Glasser ern border, one travels 7,000 miles down to the Bibliography. J. C. Pollock, The Keswick Story; C. F. bottom tip of Chile, just north of Antarctica, and Harford, ed., The Keswick Convention. at its widest 3,200 miles from Peru’s Pacific coast eastward through Brazil to the Atlantic. Two of Las Casas, Bartholmew de (1474–1566). Spanish the nineteen countries are found in the Carib­bean missionary to Latin America. The son of a mer- (Cuba and the Dominican Republic), while the chant who had traveled on Columbus’s second other island nations enjoy their different heri- voyage, Las Casas himself arrived in the Carib- tages—English, French, and African. Puerto Rico bean in 1502 and after a return to Spain and fur- is a North American Commonwealth island, and 55 Latin America while it shares many historical, religious, and cul- nent. Vast civilizations had come and gone by tural values with the other nations it must be the time Columbus landed, but in 1492 three studied within its own Caribbean and U.S. reali- major ones remained: the Aztecs in Central Mex- ties. On the northern flank of South America are ico, the Maya in southern Mexico and Guate- two nations that identify more with the Carib- mala, and the Inca in the Andean region. Esti- bean—Suriname, Guyana, and the French colony, mates of the Indian population in 1492 range Guyane. widely between 15 million to an unrealistic 100 The races and peoples within each country are million. also very diverse. The original tribal peoples The colonial history produced a mixed legacy. whom the Europeans met over 500 years ago still On the positive side the Europeans brought a compose a significant percentage of the popula- system of education; they introduced new tech- tion. Called “Indians” (so named by mistake, be- nology; they transferred two major languages— cause Columbus concluded erroneously that he Spanish and Portuguese; they “evangelized” had arrived in India) pre-Columbian (before Co- bringing a new religion—Roman Catholic Chris- lumbus) peoples are found primarily in Mexico tianity; they introduced an entire social structure (11% of 102 million people), Guatemala (50% of to organize and expand Spanish culture and so- 12.2 million), Peru (45% of 26 million), ciety. On the negative side, the Spanish have (21% of 12.6 million), Bolivia (55% of 8.3 mil- been criticized severely for social and cultural lion), and Chile (9% of 15.3 million). The black evils inherent in the conquest and colonization. people (originally coming as African slaves and Europeans delivered diseases against which the later as Caribbean immigrants) form a signifi- Indians were defenseless and which killed mil- cant percentage of Latin America, particularly in lions, and brutal slave labor wiped out un- the Caribbean and in a “black ribbon” on the Pa- counted numbers. Early on there was a battle to cific Ocean coast, as well as in Brazil (6% black determine whether these “primitive peoples” had and 38% mulatto). People of pure European and souls or not. If not, then they were a higher level Asian blood live in all the nations. However, of animals for slave work. In Mexico alone, one most of the population is a mixture of the races, estimate states that the Indian population called “mestizos.” dropped from 16,871,408 to 1,069,255 between Over 160 million Brazilians speak Portuguese, 1532 and 1608. A few valiant priests defended a result of the colonization by Portugal. Most of the Indians, such as Bartholomew de Las Casas, the remainder of 312 million people in the other who battled until the Indians were declared to be eighteen nations speak Spanish, either as mother human. Unfortunately, this humanity did not ex- or trade tongue. But millions of Latin American tend to Africans, who were then imported as pre-Columbian peoples also speak their historic language. slaves to work the colonial economy. Latin America’s population is growing at the Following independence from both Spain (be- annual rate of 1.8 percent per year, and will dou- tween 1820 and 1821) and Portugal (indepen- ble in 38 years. By the year 2010 it is projected to dence in 1822; with Brazil becoming a federal have some 589 million people and by the year republic in 1889), the new nations struggled for 2025 the estimate surges to 691. In 1997, 72 per- viability and political/economic development cent of the continent was considered urban; 34 from 1824 to 1880. It was relatively easy to defeat percent under the ages of 15 years and only 5 Spain and gain autonomy, but nearly impossible percent over age 65. It is helpful to compare to organize and administrate stable republics. Latin America’s annual GNP of $3,310 to that of The map was redrawn, but the nations were in the less developed world ($1,120), the more de- crisis, with political foundations unprepared for veloped world ($19,310), and the entire world Western democracy. Into that leadership/power ($4,920). vacuum emerged the dictators, who took per- A Historical Panorama. Modern Latin Amer- sonal charge of their nations from the early nine- ica must be understood from the perspective of teenth century even into the mid-twentieth cen- its particular history and its four major time tury. segments: (1) pre-Columbian times (ancient The 1880–1930 period was marked by relative past to 1492); (2) the conquest and colonization peace and limited national development, with so- (1492–1821); (3) the genesis and crisis of the cial positivism experiments (Brazil and Mexico new nations (1821–1930); and (4) the modern are case studies) with its “scientific technocracy.” period (1930–92). National infrastructure was developed, the The demarcation date for the mutual discovery armies grew stronger, and central governmental is 1492, when the Latin/European history begins control extended. During this period the contro- in this newly discovered (for the Europeans) versial role of the United States emerged as the world. Evidence points to a crossing of the Ber- Western Hemisphere’s superpower—generating ing straits some time prior to 20,000 b.c., and an ongoing love–hate relationship between Latin gradually the population moved down the conti- America and the United States. 56 Latin America

The modern period, starting in 1930, gradually attracts Brazilians. Anyone in Latin American increased social and political stability. During the Christian ministry must understand this world- 1960s and 1970s the right-wing military con- view and be equipped to minister in the context trolled most of the nations, with democracy fad- of Power Encounter—both evil and Triune ing even as violence and poverty increased. Fun- God-provided. damental political and economic structures did Another aspect of the cultural and spiritual not begin to change substantially until the late mosaic is the continental spirit of “Indianism,” 1980s and into the 1990s. By 1995, all but one currently on a continental rise. On the positive country (Cuba) had voted for some form of dem- ledger, it celebrates the God-given values and cul- ocratically elected government. The 1990 collapse tures of these pre-Columbian peoples, recogniz- of Russian and European Marxism robbed the ing their ethnic riches as well as their economic intellectual left of socialist/Marxist political mod- and political power in partial counteraction to els, which contributed to the 1990 electoral de- centuries of abuse. Yet there are warning signs feat of the Nicaraguan Sandinistas. Peace ac- also, particularly the revival of traditional spirit- cords have been signed in El Salvador and ism and pre-Columbian nature-worshiping reli- Guatemala, and political stability has even gions. opened space for former Marxists to run for and Contemporary Latin Catholicism reveals a win public office. broad diversity of streams: the historic, tradi- Much faith continues to be placed in the hands tional sacramentalist, hierarchy-ruled, in some of the new political technocrats, the market econ- nations allied with the oligarchy; a progressive omy, privatization, microeconomic development, wing with socialist to Marxist sympathies, at- and growing stability of trade agreements within tempting to articulate a new theology of libera- Latin America as well as with the United States tion; a biblical studies circle that has generated and Pacific Rim nations. The military have cur- solid Scripture resources; the charismatic “re- rently retreated to their barracks. But dark signs newed” Catholics (many drawn back into Catho- loom over the continent: endemic corruption, the lic mysticism but others still related to charis- violent drug industry, political systems drastically matic evangelicals); the large majority of needing overhaul, the uncontrolled growth of Catholics who would practice some form of pop- poverty, the breakdown of the family, and the ular religiosity, converging traditions, personal fragmentation of fragile human social systems. emotions, and syncretistic folk religious prac- The privatization of former state industries is cre- tices; nominal Catholics who are simply that be- ating immediate high unemployment, as are the cause of family tradition but the underlying value cuts in traditional social programs and services. system is secular. Many evangelicals have inter- New liberationists and leftist intellectuals se- faced with the more biblical and charismatic sec- verely criticize the extremes of this “neo-liberal- tors. Liberation theology was primarily con- ism.” ceived, birthed, and given life within Latin The Spiritual Mosaic. Latin America is histori- Catholicism, generating a vast amount of publi- cally and nominally Roman Catholic and Rome cations and influencing global theology. Since the still considers Latin America within its religious collapse of Russian and European Marxism, lib- world, which in 1900 was almost entirely Catho- eration theology is a movement seeking new ar- lic. The continent has a general concept of God ticulation. Evangelicals would be wrong to dis- and the Bible, of the Virgin Mary, and of Jesus miss it, for as long as a majority of people live in Christ (particularly his passion story). With cer- poverty, Christians of all stripes will attempt to tain notable exceptions, such as Uruguay and Ar- speak for the poor. gentina, Latin America is God-conscious and fa- Latin Catholic leaders are grappling with the vorable to Christianity in the broad sense of the new rules on an open religious playing field, a word. new experience for them. While Catholicism in However, probing deeper into the worldview, Europe and North America has lively religious most Latins are presuppositionally spiritistic. pluralism, this is not yet the case in Latin Amer- This is particularly true of the pre-Columbian ica. Pope John Paul II has made twelve trips to peoples, who for centuries worshiped their na- the region, has labeled evangelicals as “sects,” ture gods. Even with nominal conversion to Ca- and has challenged his Church to affirm Catholic tholicism, their basic Worldview is spirit-con- doctrine and reevangelize the continent. trolled. Africa-originated spiritism is widespread, The Evangelicals. The Protestant gospel ar- but in particular most visible in the Macumba rived in Latin America in five movements. The and Umbanda cults of Brazil (see also Latin first wave came with the new settlers in the early American New Religious Movements). Some nineteenth century from northern Europe: Ger- 35% of Brazilians are active spiritists, and partial many, Holland, France, and Britain. A short-lived practitioners raise that population to 60%. Lutheran Welser colony settled in Whether they come from the lowest social class from 1528 to 1546, and French Huguenots tried or the movie stars or leading politicians, spiritism to establish from 1555 to 1557 a Brazilian base. 57 Latin America

These colonists brought their Protestant faith, Today we witness the fifth wave of Latin Amer- but largely kept it to themselves, and tended to ican evangelical, autochthonous churches. A worship in their European language within the good number are massive, but most are smaller immigrant and trade communities. Even some in size. They are autonomous, contextualizing “Protestant pirates” got involved and helped set- theology and missiology, with most forming their tle what became the three Guianas. Early in the own national and international denominations. It nineteenth century Moravians immigrated to this might be safe to estimate that they represent 30 New World and established churches and com- percent of all Latin evangelical churches. In Mex- munities. We honor the great Bible colporteurs, ico City they represent 55 percent of the such as James Diego Thomson, Joseph Monguiar- churches, in Lima 37 percent, and in Guatemala dino, and Francisco Penzotti, agents of the Brit- 25 percent of all churches. Mostly independent ish and American Bible Societies, for their Neo-Pentecostal (charismatic) churches, they are unique ministry, which for some meant Martyr- generally led by strong centralizing leaders who dom. have emerged from the ranks of committed laity. The second wave began in the early to The focus is on emotional, celebratory worship mid-nineteenth century, when the major denomi- and preaching, with a strong emphasis on evan- nations from Britain and the United States estab- gelism and church planting even beyond national lished churches and educational/social institu- borders. They have been charged with being a tions throughout the continent. During this Protestant version of Latin popular religiosity. period the Latin political context was changing, Undoubtedly, they challenge all other variants of the religious influence of Spain diminishing, and Latin . commerce with England and northern Europe Growth in Numbers. How much have Latin growing stronger. All of this favored a new reli- American evangelical-Protestant churches grown gious opening, though in some countries persecu- in recent years? One measure comes from com- tion was experienced.­ paring data in the 1993 edition of Patrick John- Europeans focused primarily on the Southern stone’s Operation World with those from the 1986 Cone nations, but the United States denomina- edition. But it is impossible to justify all terms tions spread throughout the region. Early on the and statistics. Essentially the Protestant Comity agreements guided territorial expansion. churches have grown from a total community of Churches were established in every country. roughly 50,000 in 1900 to an estimated 64 mil- However, some of these denominations gradually lion in 1997 (see also Núñez and Taylor). developed a primary social and educational em- Data from 1993 reveal the diversity of evangel- phasis, and today these historic denominations ical strength in these 19 nations, with numbers represent classic Latin Protestantism, but their in percentage of total population: Argentina, 7.5 churches are not growing. percent; Bolivia, 8.5 percent; Brazil, 18.9 per- The third wave came with the arrival of North cent; Chile, 27.1 percent; , 3.4 percent; American and European Faith Missions. Even Costa Rica, 9.8 percent; Cuba, 2.7 percent; Do- D. L. Moody and Ira Sankey ministered in Mex- minican Republic, 5.8 percent; Ecuador, 3.7 per- ico City in 1894. These new societies sent thou- cent; El Salvador, 20.8 percent; Guatemala, 22.1 sands of cross-cultural missionaries with evange- percent; Honduras, 10.1 percent; Mexico, 5.1 listic and church-planting passion as early as percent; Nicaragua, 16.3 percent; Panama, 16.1 1890; Bible institutes were started to train pas- percent; Paraguay, 5.5 percent; Peru, 6.8 percent; tors and evangelists; Christian radio and publish- Uruguay, 3.5 percent; Venezuela, 5.1 percent. For ing ministries expanded. The churches grew with the continent the total is 11.1 percent. Using the vibrancy in almost every nation, and today they 1997 population total of 472 million, the esti- represent the majority of non-Pentecostal/charis- mated 15 percent of evangelicals generates a matic evangelicals on the continent. force of some 64 million believers. The fourth wave came shortly after the Asuza A measured guess suggests there are some Street Revival (1906), for inherent in that Spirit 300,000 evangelical churches in Latin America. movement was its empowered commitment to Perhaps only 25 percent of them have a formally world evangelization with new distinctives. Pen- trained pastor-leader. Some 75 percent of the tecostal denominations arrived and grew, and churches are Pentecostal-charismatic, and 25 some of the historic churches were swept into percent non-Pentecostal/charismatic. But these new movements—Chilean Methodists split churches of both categories are growing as long and the Methodist Pentecostal Church of Chile as they evangelize actively. The largest percent- was formed. Every Pentecostal denomination in ages of evangelical populations are found in Gua- the United States established its Latin counter- temala, Chile, Brazil, and El Salvador; the lowest part, although some of them may now be larger in Mexico, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Uruguay, than the “parent” body. In Brazil alone there are and Paraguay. over 15 million affiliated with the Assemblies of Some Clarifying Items Regarding Religious God. Terminology. In Latin America the words “Protes- 58 Latin America tant” and “evangelical” are generally used inter- fested locally, nationally, and continentally. changeably, with preference for the latter. The Whether subtle or open, it pits Pentecostal terms “Pentecostal” and “charismatic” sometimes against Pentecostal, charismatic against charis- describe the same reality, but at other times “Pen- matic, Pentecostal against charismatic, and tecostal” is used more of the older denominations, non-Pentecostal versus charismatic, non-Pente- like Assemblies of God or Church of God. “Charis- costal against non-Pentecostal, traditional de- matic” has a broad use that runs from Spirit-filled nomination against Third Wave church. CON- Catholics to independent churches of Pentecostal ELA (The World Evangelical Fellowship persuasion. Perhaps 75 percent of all Latin evan- related regional body) has the potential to unite gelicals would consider themselves charismatic or evangelicals on a continental basis, but it awaits Pentecostal. But all Latin charismatics consider visionary leadership that understands the nature themselves also “evangélicos!” The concept of “re- and influence of national and regional fellow- newal” or of a “renewed church” seems to apply ships and will provide crucial services to the to the charismatic theology and practice that is churches. Meanwhile, a few national movements moving through non-Pentecostal denomina- will increasingly and effectively impact their na- tions—such as Baptist, Methodist, Brethren, and tions. independent non-Pentecostal. It is fair to state Third, the tension between relevancy and bibli- that Latin evangelical churches characterized as cal Contextualization versus the superspiritual- “practicing supernaturalists” are the ones demon- ization of the faith. A hermeneutical struggle is strating growth and vibrancy. Their worship is found in every Christian community: How is strong, utilizing the spectrum of instruments, Scripture to be applied and experienced in a rad- with words and music now primarily written by ically changing Latin American society? Chris- Latins. tians must be equipped to face the insidious ene- Whither Latin American Evangelicals? This mies filtering in through Secularism (the is a unique continent-wide moment for Latin rejection of a theistic point of reference); materi- evangelicals, attempting to speak for transcen- alism (consumer society and massive debt); Mo- dental absolutes in a world of Relativism, politi- dernity (glorification of technology and “prog- cal neoliberalism,­ philosophical Postmodernism, ress”); and now the surprisingly rapid invasion of and moral deconstructionism. While Latin evan- postmodernity with its deconstructionist influ- gelical leaders rejoice in their numerical growth, ences (questioning of technology and “progress,” they also express profound concern about its the newer religious pluralism, rejection of tran- health, citing shallow ethical depth, the moral scendental truth). relativism, the emphasis on emotional celebra- Latin theological leaders, pastors, and those tion more than authentic community, and the preparing for ministry must be equipped for the growth of biblical illiteracy in both pew and pul- challenge of ongoing contextualization in light of pit with devalued biblical study and exposition. historical needs and the new ideological face of Here is a series of issues in dialectical tension Latin America. The Latin American Theological that will mark the future of Latin evangelicals. Fraternity has done a valiant job in this area. All First, the battle between profound renewal and leaders and believers must be equipped to con- maturity versus nominalism and cultural evan- front the evil powers of the occult, so openly and gelicalism. Numerical growth is thrilling to influentially influencing the entire spectrum of many, encouraging to all, even though statistics society. are imprecise. But the hard questions must be Fourth is the effective equipping of leadership asked: “What is church?” “What is growth?” for ministry versus informal volunteerism. Most “What about the problem of ‘former evangeli- Latin formal educational delivery systems are cals’?” Internal weaknesses and open heresies— costly to create, fund, staff, and produce gradu- from other regions as well as Latin species—seep ates. They do have their strategic place but need into the churches and sap their vitality. The serious self-examination. Few formal institutions churches must face head-on the crisis of the dis- offer program degrees beyond the master’s de- integrating Latin family structure and articulate gree. Most Latins travel to the United States or better answers in light of urbanism and modern Europe for doctoral study. In this critical time lifestyles. The Spirit of God must renew stagnant for the Latin churches, women and men with the evangelical churches. Studies in Costa Rica and highest credentials and strongest gift mix are Chile have documented the disturbing percent- needed. Formal schools serve a very small seg- age of “former evangelicals.” Some have re- ment of church needs, and in the gap more and turned to the Catholic fold and others have more smaller programs or training alternatives moved into privatized religion or even nonbelief. are emerging. There are two major entry points Second, the struggle between evangelical mu- to ministry in Latin America; one coming tual acceptance and interdependency versus iso- through formal theological study and the other lationism and critical divisionism. A limited emerging “on the march” of regular lay ministry. sense of unity in the Latin churches is mani- How these two currents relate to and influence 59 Latourette, Kenneth Scott each other in the future will profoundly shape field ministry phase, which requires adequate su- the Latin churches. pervision, shepherding, and strategizing. The fifth tension is the involvement in the cri- Eighth, and finally, is the spirit of interdepen- ses of society and political governance versus dent partnership versus control and neopaternal- forms of spiritualized isolationism. For decades ism by expatriate organizations. Many interna- evangelicals eschewed political involvement as tional organizations have vested interests in part of the devil’s work. This has radically Latin America, whether they be funding bodies, changed, with a number of evangelicals now in denominations, parachurch organizations, or the political arena. But the jury is mixed on this foreign mission agencies. Control must pass to involvement, for some Christian politicians have Latin grassroots, and decisions must be made by sold their integrity and yet crassly serve their de- those directly affected by the decisions. On the nominational interests. Some Latins want to es- continent more and more expatriate missionar- tablish evangelical parties, though these have no ies serve under Latin leadership. Expatriate mis- hope of winning elections. Too many evangeli- sionaries from all nations continue to be wel- cals in politics are naive, have been manipulated, comed, provided they come with the genuine or lost their spiritual convictions while in power. spirit of servanthood and serve where they are In part this has come from the absence of spiri- truly needed in light of global missiological pri- tual accountability as well as inadequate pastoral orities. The fact is that many international mis- ministry to public servants. sion organizations are searching for their iden- Sixth is the polarized polemics between Catho- tity and role in Latin America today, particularly lics and evangelicals versus mutual respect. with the emphasis on the non-Latin unevange- Catholic leaders know they are losing influence lized nations and people groups. and space in Latin America, and this has created Summarizing. Latin America is a multihued an internal crisis for the hierarchy. The Roman continent facing an uncertain future in the global Church is adjusting to the new religious plural- and borderless economy. Its God-given vast natu- ism. And some evangelicals still suffer from the ral and human resources have yet to be devel- ghetto mentality of a persecuted minority. But oped and wisely utilized, although political con- the fact is that evangelicals are still being perse- ditions are healthier today than ever before. cuted for their faith, whether the Chamula Indi- National, regional, and continental development ans of southern Mexico (religious persecution) will take place as genuine political reform is insti- or the Quechua believers in Peru (political perse- tutionalized in a way that truly grapples with the cution). The spiritual/social value called hispani- causes and characteristics of an ever-prevalent dad (which identifies Latins intrinsically as Cath- poverty and social crises. Within this textured olics) has created other conflicts on the context we find the evangelical churches and continent. leadership facing unique challenges, and empow- North Europeans and North Americans must ered by the Spirit they will impact their world. not confuse their Catholicism with that of Latin William David Taylor America. These are two different models, and to impose experience and expectations of the first Bibliography. M. Berg and P. Pretiz, Spontaneous upon Latin evangelicals is wrong. Combustion: Grass-Roots Christianity Latin American Seventh is the tension between monocultural Style; E. L. Cleary, and H. Stewart-Gambino, eds., Con- evangelization versus cross-cultural mission, flict and Competition: The Latin American Church in a Changing Environment; E. Dussell, ed., The Church in whether national or international, continental or Latin America, 1492–1992; The Economist Intelligence intercontinental. The number of evangelical Unit, Economist Country Profiles; G. Gustavo, A Theol- churches with cross-cultural vision is still low. ogy of Liberation: History, Politics and Salvation; rev. ed. This must change as they are challenged bibli- P. Johnstone, OW; D. Martin, Tongues of Fire: The Ex- cally and then mobilized to broader mission. In plosion of Protestantism in Latin America; E. A. Núñez Latin America, church-based missions will con- and W. D. Taylor, Crisis and Hope in Latin America: An tinue to carry the day, but leaders must break old Evangelical Perspective, rev. ed.; D. Stoll, and V. Bar- molds and attitudes. Missiological literature rard-Burnett, eds., Rethinking Protestantism in Latin must be developed by Latin writers and theolo- America. gians, as well as by the practitioners. Latin-driven movements and organizations, Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1884–1968). Amer- such as COMIBAM (Cooperation of Missions of ican church historian of global Christianity and Iberoamerica), must be supported as they mobi- missionary to China. Born in Oregon City, Ore- lize beyond emotionalism and create the impera- gon, Latourette received his B.A. and Ph.D. from tive missions infrastructure for the movement to Yale University. While at Yale he joined the Stu- be truly visible and viable. This challenge focuses dent Volunteer Movement and the Yale Mis- on three areas: the precandidate phase of screen- sion, to which he committed himself for mis- ing, primarily by the local church; the prefield sionary service in China. He served in China training (informal and formal) phase; and the from 1910 until 1912, at which time he was inva- 60 Martin, William Alexander Parsons lided home. After teaching at Reed College and Bibliography. A. Hastings, BDCM, p. 387; F. Renault, Denison College, Latourette returned to Yale in Cardinal Lavigerie, Churchman, Prophet, and Mission- 1921, succeeding H. P. Beach as the D. Willis ary. James Professor of Missions. He served Yale over the next thirty-two years, retiring in 1953. Livingstone, David (1813–73). Scottish pioneer Among his many professional activities Lato- missionary and explorer in Africa. Born in Blan- urette served as president of the American Soci- tyre, Scotland, he left school at age ten, but a ety of Church History, the American Historical profound spiritual experience made him resolve Association, the American Baptist Convention, to become a medical missionary, convinced that and the Association for Asian Studies. Addition- the God who had called him would see him past ally, he was an active participant in ecumenical all the daunting obstacles. He qualified in medi- affairs. cine, trained in theology, and in 1840 set out for Latourette’s greatest legacy was a single idea, South Africa under the London Missionary Soci- controversial at the time, that Christianity was a ety. Aiming to reach “the smoke of a thousand multicultural global movement continuing to villages” where no missionary had ever been, he grow and expand in the midst of the secularism penetrated ever farther north, beyond the Kala- of the modern world. Latourette was a pioneer of hari Desert. There the only foreigners were Arab a truly global approach to church history. He and Portuguese traders, and Boers who believed sought to develop his ideas in a series of publica- the Africans had no souls and exploited them mercilessly. Livingstone had to contend with tions. His three hundred articles and thirty drought, fever, wild animals, superstition, and books, including two multivolume histories, es- slavery, which he called the open sore of Africa tablished Latourette as one of the most prolific and helped stamp out. He learned languages, church and mission historians of the twentieth treated medicine men with courtesy as having century. something to teach him, got to know the African Mark Shaw mind as few did, and recommended the training Bibliography. W. R. Hogg, ML, pp. 416–27; K. S. of national workers to relinquish their depen- Latourette, The History of Christian Missions in China; dence on Europeans. idem, History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 vols.; In 1852 he began a six-thousand mile journey idem, Beyond the Ranges: An Autobiography. that took nearly four years. He headed the gov- ernment’s Zambesi Expedition (1868–74), after Lavigerie, Charles Martial Allemand (1825– which he advocated the use of Lake Nyasa in 92). French cardinal, founder of the White Fa- honorable trade to make slave dealing unprofit- thers, and missionary to Africa. Lavigerie was able. On furlough in 1867 he electrified a distin- ordained as a priest in 1849 and took two doctor- guished Cambridge audience. “I direct your at- ates (1850 and 1853) before teaching at the Sor- tention to Africa,” he said, “I go back . . . to try to bonne. While there he also accepted the director- make an open path for commerce and Christian- ship of the Oeuvre des Ecoles d’Orient. His ity. Do you carry out the work I have begun.” travels in that capacity providing disaster relief From this developed the Universities’ Mission to in Lebanon and Syria in 1860 solidified in him a Central Africa—an Anglo-Catholic society that heart for missionary work. owed much to a Scottish Congregationalist. His On November 11, 1866, while serving as explorations brought him both secular acclaim bishop of Nancy, Lavigerie dreamed he was in a and criticism from some missionary circles, but strange land with dark-skinned people speaking whether explorer or missionary Livingstone al- a language he did not understand. One week ways had right priorities. The Lord’s “Lo, I am later he received a request to allow his name to with you alway” was “the word of a gentleman of be submitted for the vacant archbishopric of Al- the most sacred and strictest honor.” When Liv- giers. He agreed, was appointed to the post, and ingstone died in what is now Zambia his atten- installed in 1867. Immediately he instituted a dants bore his body 1,500 miles to the sea, and policy of the regeneration of Africa by Africans. one of them was present at the funeral in West- His African work was characterized by vision, minster Abbey. energy, and drive. In 1868 he founded the White J. D. Douglas Fathers and in 1869 the Missionary Sisters of Bibliography. W. G. Blaikie, The Personal Life of Our Lady of Africa as missionary societies to David Livingstone; T. Jeal, Livingstone; C. Northcott, carry out his African vision. He was elevated to David Livingstone: His Triumph, Decline, and Fall; A. C. the position of cardinal in 1882, and given the Ross, Livingstone: The Scot and the Doctor; G. Seaver, title archbishop of Carthage and primate of Af- David Livingstone: His Life and Letters. rica in 1884. In this capacity he waged a vigor- ous international campaign against slavery until Martin, William Alexander Parsons (“Wap” his death on November 26, 1892. Martin, 1827–1916). American missionary to A. Scott Moreau China. Born in Livonia, Indiana, on April 10, 61 Martyn, Henry

1827, Martin was raised in a family with a strong journal, inspired many students and missionar- missionary zeal. In his last year at New Albany ies in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Theological Seminary he decided to be a mission- Jim Reapsome ary to China. In 1849, he was accepted as a mis- Bibliography. D. Bentley-Taylor, My Love Must Wait: sionary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Mis- The Story of . sions. Martin’s first publication was his translation of the Bible into the dialect of . His Evidence Martyrdom. The role of martyrdom in the ex- of Christianity proved to be a popular religious pansion of the church is the common thread that text in China, Japan, and Korea. Realizing that links the church of all ages with its suffering Sav- the Qing officials and Chinese literati needed to ior. Tertullian, third-century leader in the church know international law to restrain continuing of North Africa, wrote to his Roman governors in European encroachment, Martin translated and his Apology, “As often as you mow us down, the published Henry Wheaton’s Elements of Interna- more numerous we become. The blood of the tional Law (1864). Between 1869 and 1894 he Christians is seed.” But martyrdom is not unique taught at and administered the Tong Wen Col- to Christianity. People have sacrificed their lives throughout the ages for a variety of reasons. To lege, an advanced institute for the study of West- define the distinctive meaning of Christian mar- ern knowledge. From 1872 to 1875 he also edited tyrdom requires investigation of the Bible and the Zhongxi Wenjianlu, a monthly magazine in- church history. troducing modern science and technology. Definition. The word martyr is an English Among his works on and con- word transliterated from its Greek equivalent temporaneous events are the Hanlin Papers: Es- (martyrus). It is closely associated with the word says on the History, Philosophy, and Religion of witness as used in the Scriptures. The Old Testa- the Chinese (1880, 1881, 1894) and The Awaken- ment Hebrew equivalent is moed, which is used ing of China (1907). Through his life and work, in reference to the place where God establishes Martin established himself not only as a mission- his covenant with his people. ary, but also as a source of reform ideals for the In the New Testament, the ideas of truth and Chinese gentry. He died in Beijing at the age of Scripture are integrated into the verb form mar- eighty-nine after sixty-six years of service for the tureo. Jesus uses it to establish his witness as Chinese. m truth (Matt. 26:65; Mark 14:63; Luke 22:71). Timothy Man-kong Wong John the Baptist links Jesus, truth, and Scrip- Bibliography. R. Covell, W. A. P. Martin: Pioneer of ture. Luke speaks of witness to the whole world Progress in China; W. A. P. Martin, A Cycle of Cathay, (Acts 1:8). 3d ed. The word martyr also extends its meaning to include Christ-like values, such as faithfulness, Martyn, Henry (1781–1812). English missionary truth, witness, and lifestyle. Eventually, even to India and Iran. Born in Cornwall, England, he “death-style” is subsumed. The first Christian-era graduated from Cambridge. After rebelling martyr known is Stephen (Acts 7) who, interest- against God, he followed in the train of David ingly, was put to death by “witnesses” for his wit- Brainerd and William Carey. Their missionary ness. In Revelation 3:14, the last word is given work motivated him to launch a brief but highly concerning Jesus Christ who is “the faithful and significant career in India and Iran. He emulated true witness.” The word does away with any dis- Brainerd’s deep levels of piety and Carey’s hard tinction of what a true believer might live and labor in Bible translation. Martyn fell madly in die for. Death does not stop the witness given. It love, but maintained his vow of celibacy for the merely adds an exclamation point of truth, faith- sake of becoming a missionary. After becoming fulness, and love for the glory of God. It is the an Anglican priest, he signed on with the East supreme witnessing act. Neither personal gain India Company as a chaplain and went to India nor personal opinion provides the motive for in 1805. There he met Carey, who started him in such a death. Bible translation work. He had to serve the Church Growth and Martyrdom. Tertullian workers and their families for his employer, but also wrote, “For who, when he sees our obsti- he fervently pursued preaching at military nacy is not stirred up to find its cause? Who, posts—which included Indians—starting when he has inquired, does not then join our schools, and translating the New Testament into Faith? And who, when he has joined us, does not Arabic, Persian, and Urdu, the three primary lan- desire to suffer, that he may gain the whole grace guages of the Muslim world. of God?” Current estimates are that roughly Although he was not in good health, he sailed 150,000 Christians are martyred each year, down to Iran to do further translation work. He tried from a peak of 330,000 prior to the demise of to make it back to England overland, but died in communist world powers. Some project that the Turkey. His model of sacrificial devotion, and his numbers will increase to 600,000 by a.d. 2025, 62 Medical Mission Work given current trends in human rights abuses and Reformed Church in America as well as a physi- growth of militant religious systems. cian. His granddaughter, Ida Scudder, one of 42 Those inflicting contemporary Christian mar- missionaries in four generations of that family tyrdom include political regimes with count- who collectively contributed more than eleven er-Christian agendas (e.g., official atheistic pow- hundred years of missionary service, founded the ers, such as China and the former Soviet Union); Vellore Medical College in India in 1900. Edith sociopolitical regimes enforcing religious restric- Brown, an Englishwoman, laid the foundation for tions (e.g., Egypt, Sudan); ethnic tribal regimes the first Asian women’s medical school, Ludhiana bent on eliminating minorities (e.g., Sudan, Christian Medical College, and Peter Parker, the Rwanda, and Burundi) and religious regimes first American missionary to China in 1834, (e.g., Muslim countries in which Sharia is the of- started a modern teaching hospital. By 1933 six of ficial legal system). China’s twelve medical schools were financed by Conclusion. Martyrdom will continue to be as- missionary societies. sociated with the progress of gospel proclama- In the mid-twentieth century there were many tion until the Kingdom of God is established. prominent missionary physicians, particularly in Jesus said, “Do not suppose that I have come to Africa. served with the World- bring peace to the earth. I did not come to bring wide Evangelization Crusade in the Congo and peace, but a sword” (Matt. 10:34). The sword was during the bloody civil war was raped and beaten not to be used by his disciples against others, but repeatedly by Simba Rebels who occupied the could be expected to be used against them. Paul Nebobongo mission compound where she said, “All this is evidence that God’s judgment is worked. , who worked at the Wasolo right, and as a result you will be counted worthy mission station in the Ubangi Province of Congo, of the kingdom of God, for which you are suffer- was captured and tortured before being killed in ing” (2 Thess. 1:5). Finally, as Augustine wrote in the streets of Stanleyville. Carl Becker, who spent City of God: “Despite the fiercest opposition, the nearly fifty years in the Congo under the Africa terror of the greatest persecutions, Christians Inland Mission, was perhaps best known for his have held with unswerving faith to the belief that compassionate treatment of four thousand resi- Christ has risen, that all men will rise in the age dent patients at an 1100-acre leprosy village in to come, and that the body will live forever. And the early 1950s. Stanley Browne, a boy with an this belief, proclaimed without fear, has yielded a encyclopedic memory from a modest south Lon- harvest throughout the world, and all the more don home, became one of the world’s leading when the martyr’s blood was the seed they specialists in leprosy control and prevention. The sowed.” Salvation Army Nurses’ Fellowship, born out of the blitz in bomb-scarred London during the J. Ray Tallman Second World War, rapidly grew to become an Bibliography. R. Daniel, This Holy Seed; S. Berg- international organization. Their midwives trav- man, Martyrs: Contemporary Writers on Modern Lives of eled by bicycle or paddle-boat or trudged on Faith; J. Hefley and M. Hefley, By Their Blood: Christian foot. Payment for services might be “a love-gift Martyrs of the Twentieth Century; WCE. of an egg, or a posy of wild flowers, or maybe a handful of grain” (Carr, 1978, 30). Between 1850 Medical Mission Work. The term “medical mis- and 1950 there were more than 1,500 medical sion” originally referred to a medical post, such missionaries from Britain alone serving in the as a clinic or dispensary for the poor, which was developing world (Aitken, Fuller, and Johnson, supported by a Christian congregation. By the 1984, 158). middle of the nineteenth century, the meaning of Issues in Medical Missions. The place of the term had broadened, referring primarily to medical missions in the larger context of world the medical branch of Protestant overseas mis- missions has been repeatedly examined. Mission sions which paralleled the rapid growth of medi- societies, particularly those formed by churches cal science (Grundmann, 1997, 184). in Great Britain and Europe in the nineteenth The literature of medical missions, including century, had as their highest priorities spreading the publications of the mission societies which the gospel through evangelism and educating in- proliferated during the nineteenth century, was digenous populations through schools. Medical dominated by biographical accounts of physicians missionaries were “to be first preachers, then and nurses who were compelled by the urgency of medical men, if time remained for that” (Gel- human suffering and the desire to fulfill the Great fund, 1984, 19). Nevertheless, a characteristic Commission. John Thomas joined William Carey feature of this evangelical movement became the in India in 1773 and fought the practices of aban- establishment of health services where none ex- doning sick babies to death by exposure and the isted. The 1928 International Missionary Coun- burning of Hindu widows on the funeral pyres of cil meeting in Jerusalem clearly stated that their dead husbands. The first American medical “Medical work should be regarded as in itself an missionary, John Scudder, was a minister of the expression of the spirit of the Master, and should 63 Medical Mission Work not be thought of as only a pioneer of evangelism child health, promotion of food supply and or as merely a philanthropic agency” (Lowe, proper nutrition, prevention and control of en- 1886, 18). More recently compassionate minis- demic diseases, and education. Emphasis was tries, such as medical missions, have been de- placed on coordinating efforts with other sectors scribed as part of holistic ministry which “de- of community and national development that im- fines evangelism and social action as functionally pact health, such as housing, communications, separate, relationally inseparable, and essential public works, and agriculture. MAP Interna- to the total ministry of the Church” (Yamamori, tional, a Christian relief and development organi- 1997, 7; see also Holistic Missions). zation, and the Christian Medical Society led Financially maintaining institutions built in missions and medical ministries policymakers in the pioneering phase of medical missions has the development of a declaration identifying how been increasingly difficult. Mission hospitals ac- the Alma-Ata conference might affect the struc- cepting government subsidies forfeited in princi- ture of Christian health care ministries. This fa- ple their religious freedom and ability to operate cilitated the movement of the medical missions autonomously. National churches and govern- community away from hospital-based ministries ments, however, have often not been able to as- and toward community-oriented ministries. The sume the burden of these institutions, particu- Christian Medical Commission in Geneva, larly that of paying staff salaries. through its influential Contact magazine, encour- Adequate staffing for hospitals has been a pe- aged the development of holistic integrated rennial concern. Frenetic levels of activity in health programs throughout the world. overcrowded facilities have often characterized David Van Reken has described the progres- mission hospitals and dispensaries because of sion of medical missions as moving from the pi- the pressing human need they address with lim- oneer doing phase through a teaching era in ited resources. Predictably, there is a high level which training schools were founded, and into of exhaustion, burnout, and turnover among the an enabling period. In this final phase doing and staff due to the medical work, staff experience teaching continue, but goals of community devel- frustration at the lack of time for spiritual minis- opment, national rather than mission ownership try, family priorities, and personal rejuvenation. and leadership, collegial rather than teacher-­ The appropriateness of technology for health student relationships, and sustainable indige- care services is a key issue. Remote hospitals nous growth are emphasized (Van Reken, 1987, with irregular power supplies often seek and re- 6). quest sophisticated medical equipment for ra- Another trend is an increase in short-term diology services, surgery, intensive care units, medical missions with agencies such as Medical and laboratories. Government and mission funds Group Missions, in which participants provide disproportionately support institutions rather service in their areas of specialization or as edu- than health promotion at the community level. cators. Early retirement and mid-career job Additionally, physicians functioning as surgeons changes have also resulted in professionals pur- or family practitioners soon come to realize that suing second careers as medical missionaries. the sicknesses they are treating could be better Tent Making Mission, receiving compensation addressed through adequate sanitation, a clean for work done in the field, is also a trend, as are water supply, and good nutrition. group practices for physicians in the U.S. which Political instability, antagonistic postures to- are structured to encourage their staff to engage ward Christian ministries by governments and in medical missions. Board certification is in- religious groups such as Islam, the inability of creasingly normative, as is a master’s degree in institutions to significantly impact morbidity public health. Continuing education conferences and mortality rates in their areas of service, and are provided annually by the Christian Medical difficulties in integrating health ministries with and Dental Society, alternately held in Malaysia affiliated local churches are all significant issues and Africa. in medical missions (Van Reken, 1987, 16–19). The future of medical missions increasingly Directions and Trends in Medical Missions. lies in partnering with the church, as God’s cho- An important influence on medical missions was sen channel for the restoration of wholeness and the International Conference on Primary Health the transformation of society, and in promoting Care, held in the former U.S.S.R. in 1978 at Al- effective community-based health care, ma-Ata, which focused global attention on health grounded in the discipline of public health, care at the community level. It defined primary which genuinely impacts morbidity and morality health care as that which is accessible, accept- able, affordable, and linked to community initia- rates while encouraging positive health behav- tives. Further, primary health care included pre- iors. ventive, promotive, curative, and rehabilitative Evvy Campbell aspects and focused on clean water, adequate Bibliography. J. T. Aitken, H. W. C. Fuller, D. John- sanitation, immunization programs, maternal/ son, The Influence of Christians in Medicine; S. G. 64 Melanesia

Browne, Heralds of Health: The Saga of Christian Medi- predictable wave of settlers driven by commerce cal Initiatives; I. Carr, Tender Loving Care: The Salvation and opportunity. A surprising outcome of Cook’s Army Nurses’ Fellowship at Work; Y. Cheung, Mission- exploration of Australia, New Zealand, and the ary Medicine in China: A Study of Two Canadian Protes- islands of the Pacific came in response to his tant Missions in China Before 1937; D. E. Fountain, Health, the Bible, and the Church; C. Grundmann, journals which became the reading material for DMTHP, pp. 184–87; M. Gelfund, Christian Doctor and a generation of young Christians destined to be Nurse: The History of Medical Missions in South Africa part of the Great Century of Missions. The ear- from 1799–1976; J. C. Hefley, The Cross and the Scalpel: liest missionaries to the South Pacific were part New Directions and Opportunities for Christian Health of the London Missionary Society (LMS) group Care Ministries: A Declaration and Study Guide; arriving in Tahiti in 1797. One of the young J. Lowe, Medical Missions: Their Place and Power; R. A. Christians who studied Cook’s journals was Tucker, FJIJ; M. Yates, In Central America and the Ca- John Williams, a man destined to impact not ribbean with Medical Group Missions: Mission-Dollar only the islands of Polynesia, but to take the Vacations; D. E. Van Reken, Mission and Ministry: Christian Medical Practice in Today’s Changing World gospel as far as Vanuatu in Melanesia. Williams’ Cultures; WHO/UNICEF, Primary Health Care: Report of commitment to including indigenous missionar- the International Conference on Primary Health Care Al- ies in his outreaches characterized Melanesian ma-Ata, USSR, 6–12 September 1978; T. Yamamori, missions in the early days. Furthering the Kingdom Through Relief and Develop- Following the early thrust of the LMS in Mela- ment: Where and How Is It Happening? nesia were the English Methodists who entered Tonga and Fiji in the mid-1820s. Melanesia. Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polyne- spread rapidly through Tonga and Fiji initially sia are the three major groupings of islands in and from there to other islands of Melanesia.­ The the Pacific. The islands of Melanesia from east to Roman Catholic missions arrived in Tahiti in west include Norfolk Island; Fiji; Vanuatu; New 1836 and in the Melanesian islands of Fiji and Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands; the Solomon New Caledonia in the years from 1840 to 1851. Islands and the Santa Cruz Islands; New Guinea Another thrust of missions came from the Angli- (Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya), the Admi- cans in New Zealand and the work of George ralty Islands, and the Bismarck and Louisiade Selwyn, the first Anglican bishop and founder of archipelagos. The year 2000 estimated combined the Melanesian Mission. Other missions ap- population of the islands exceeds 6 million. peared in Melanesia during this period including Due to the rugged terrain of many of the islands the Presbyterians who primarily focused on Van- and the vast distances of water between them, uatu. By the decade of the 1870s, New Guinea Melanesia is one of the most diverse regions in became a significant target for a host of missions the world. It is estimated that in excess of a thou- beginning with the LMS in 1871 and the Sacred sand languages exist in the New Guinea region Heart Fathers from France in 1884. Within a few alone. Melanesian societies are based on kinship years, the Neuendettelsau Mission (1886) and the and by comparison to other areas of the world, Rhenish Missionary Society (1887) established are small-scale, ranging from as few as seventy on works in the northern part of the island which the smaller islands to several thousand in the New was under German rule. Missions to The Solo- Guinea Highlands. Traditional economies were mon Islands appeared during this same period. based on rudimentary agriculture, hunting, fish- One of the significant missions to reach the Solo- ing, and indigenous wealth which included pri- mon Islands was the South Seas Evangelical Mis- marily pigs and portable valuables. Trade net- sion (formerly the Queensland Kanaka Mission). works were established between the islands by The period from 1900 to 1942 was one of sig- means of deep sea canoes which navigated the nificant expansion of missions in Melanesia. Pacific and through inland waterways and bush Major efforts were launched by Protestant tracks linking the populated areas. groups including the Lutherans, Anglicans, The diversity of Melanesia encompasses their Methodists, and Congregationalists as well as traditional religious beliefs and practices. In gen- new works by interdenominational faith mis- eral, however, Melanesian religions are theistic in sions such as the Unevangelized Fields Mission that they emerge from a belief in a god. One over- and the German Liebenzell Mission. The Roman all effect of the widespread theistic religions with Catholic missions continued to expand and de- their solid commitment to the centrality of rela- velop throughout the region. The Seventh-Day tionships was that Christianity spread rapidly. Adventists entered Melanesia establishing works Although some contact with Western explor- in a number of islands. The end of this period of ers took place prior to the second half of the active expansion coincided with the war in the eighteenth century, the major movement was a Pacific. direct result of the voyages of the British ex- Following the war, news of the isolated islands plorer, Captain James Cook from 1772 to 1779. full of unevangelized peoples reached the ears of With the opening of Australia as a colony, the the churches in the West. The result was a resur- expansion of the British Empire brought the gence of new missions, particularly those of the 65 Micronesia specialized ministries such as Missionary Avia- part and straddling the equator. Then, spread tion Fellowship and the Summer Institute of from east to west are the islands of the former Linguistics. Smaller independent missions also U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific—the Marshall dotted the Melanesian landscape, particularly Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia of those from North America. This growth and ex- Kosrae, Pohnpei, Chuuk (Truk), Yap; and Palau pansion of missionary efforts continued through (Belau); and the Northern Marianas Islands the early 1980s. The early characteristic of a (Rota, Tinian, Saipan). In the westernmost part, partnership between indigenous and expatriate the island of Guam, an unincorporated territory missionaries was less a feature of the rapidly ex- of the United States, completes the list of Micro- panding missions in the twentieth century. One nesian islands. It is an island world composed of important attempt at greater cooperation in mis- over 2,000 islands scattered over 3 million square sions was the formation of the Evangelical Alli- miles of the Pacific with a population of over ance which established combined works in edu- 260,000. cation, medicine, and the Christian Leaders In 1852, American Board of Commissioners Training College in Papua New Guinea. for Foreign Mission (ABCFM) missionaries, as- The growth of churches in Melanesia paral- sisted by newly trained Hawaiian couples, en- leled the periods of missionary expansion. The tered the eastern part of Micronesia (Marshalls, beginnings of church independence were seen in Kosrae, and Pohnpei) and established small is- Tonga and Samoa as early as 1885, but did not land churches. Within the first twenty years mis- reach Melanesia until the Methodist Church sionaries on Pohnpei reached farther west to the worked through the issues of finance and control Chuuk Islands with the help of local servants of in Fiji during the first decade of the twentieth Christ. Roman Catholic missionaries reached the century. Other churches followed a similar pro- western parts of Micronesia (Guam and the cess of growth and independence. Northern Marianas) in the late seventeenth and A number of challenges and opportunities face the early part of the eighteenth centuries. They the churches and missions of Melanesia at the eventually established churches on Yap and end of the twentieth century. The more serious Palau, and throughout the rest of the Microne- challenges include widespread nominalism, a sian islands. lack of adequate resources to deal with the chal- ABCFM missionaries and Hawaiian co-work- lenges of modernity, particularly among the ers evangelized the northern islands of Kiribati youth; tribalism which undermines the church’s (Gilberts) in 1857, while the southern islands ability to demonstrate reconciliation; and a need were reached by English missionaries of the to develop more leaders to address the theologi- London Missionary Society as the islands had cal issues unique to Melanesia. As with any pe- become part of an English Protectorate and later riod of great challenge, great opportunities are an English Crown Colony. also present. One of the most dynamic situations In 1898, after Spain lost the Spanish-American is the resurgence of interest in missions among War, the United States took over Guam. The rest the evangelical churches of Melanesia. This of the Micronesian islands became a colonial movement began in the early 1980s and culmi- possession of Germany. Thus, in 1906, German nated in a South Pacific missions conference Protestant missionaries of the Liebenzeller Mis- held in Suva, Fiji, in 1989. One result of the con- sion (former German branch of the China Inland ference was the launch of “The Deep Sea Canoe,” Mission) entered the eastern part of Micronesia a combined mission movement designed to in place of the American missionaries. They pro- bring Melanesians back into an active role in ceeded to strengthen the existing churches and world missions. to evangelize the unreached islands west of Douglas McConnell Chuuk. During World War I, Japan took over Mi- cronesia from Germany. They replaced German Bibliography. C. W. Foreman, The Island Churches of the South Pacific; D. Hilliard, God’s Gentlemen: A missionaries with workers from the Protestant History of the Melanesian Mission, 1849–1942; K. S. La- Church of Japan. In the 1920s and 1930s the Jap- tourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, vol. anese government allowed German missionaries 5; Melanesian Institute, Point; G. W. Trompf, Melane- to return to the islands, but they placed them sian Religion; C. J. Upton, EB, 5:864–70; D. L. under severe restrictions as the islands were for- Whiteman, Melanesians and Missionaries. tified for war. The U.S. liberation of Micronesia during World War II ended the Japanese control Micronesia. Polynesia, Micronesia, and Mela- and initiated an American administration in the nesia comprise the three major divisions of the islands as the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific large Pacific Ocean. It is located north of the Islands. This allowed missionaries from the orig- equator in the western part of the Pacific. Geo- inal American Board to return to the eastern part graphically, Micronesia includes the large island of Micronesia. Further, German missionaries nation of Kiribati (formerly Gilbert Islands, a who had survived the war were allowed to con- British protectorate) located in the easternmost tinue their work under the auspices of the Amer- 66 Micronesia ican Board. These missionaries joined their ef- change their island status from a U.S. territory to forts to regather island Christians and to rebuild a commonwealth. their lives and their churches. During this crucial transition period, the mis- The United States brought its educational, sionaries assisted the island churches in develop- monetary, and postal system to the islands of Mi- ing their leadership through local training pro- cronesia. They also provided health care and a grams, centralized pastoral schools, as well as political program that led the war-torn islands overseas education in Bible colleges and semi- into a period of restoration and growth. Vigorous naries. This has resulted in self-governing and training programs by the United States equipped self-supporting island churches in the past islanders with needed skills to rebuild the islands twenty-­five years. The mission boards (American and explore new forms of democratic govern- Board/UCC and Liebenzell) still assist with some ment. With proper training, they wrote their own funding and personnel at the request of the Constitutions and democratically elected their churches. own forms of governments at the municipal, The traditional island churches are also chal- state, and national levels. In the early 1960s, lenged by other Christian organizations establish- elected leaders from each island group formed ing their ministries. The Assemblies of God, the the Congress of Micronesia and a national gov- Seventh-Day Adventists, the Independent Bap- ernment in cooperation with the U.S. adminis- tists, Youth with a Mission, Campus Crusade, and tration. However, over the past twenty years, more recently the Salvation Army have become each island group has elected its own style of active on various island centers. The Jehovah’s government, thus ending a united Micronesia Witnesses, the Mormon Church, and the Baha’i and resulting in the various island nations: the are also offering their services to the Microne- Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated sians. States of Micronesia (FSM) made up of the four Over the past twenty-five years, enormous Island States of Kosrae, Pohnpei, Chuuk, and changes have challenged the island traditions and Yap; the Republic of Belau (Palau); and the Com- cultural values. Subsistence farming and fishing is monwealth of the Northern Marianas. giving way to a cash economy. Communal living All of these young island nations, except the and sharing of resources is being taxed by a Northern Marianas, have chosen to maintain greater emphasis on the individual. Overseas their close ties with the United States through a travel and education, movies, TV (cable, CNN), unique arrangement with the United States, videos, and other mass media bring incredible called the “Compact of Free Association.” Under challenges to the island people and their cultural this compact, the United States provides the is- values. Elementary and high school education for land nations with needed funding for their inter- all island young people adds to the culture change nal development. They also have freedom to deal facing families, communities, and churches. with their internal affairs and are allowed to Drugs, alcohol, and a promiscuous lifestyle chal- enter the United States without a visa. In ex- lenge the island communities. change, the United States receives options on Rural–urban drift due to education, jobs, and land use for United States military purposes. The adventure has drawn the young educated elite United States also assumes the responsibility for from their islands to the crowded administration the defense of the area. The people of Northern centers of Micronesia, often leaving the very Marianas elected an even closer bond with the young and the older ones back on their islands. United States, the status of a “commonwealth,” Guam, within easy access of most of the islands, allowing them to receive greater benefits, espe- has become the most attractive urban center for cially U.S. citizenship. islanders from the central and western part of Mi- The island of Guam, “unincorporated terri- cronesia. Since the “Compact of Free Association” tory” of the United States and located within the was ratified in the early 1980s, Micronesian citi- western part of Micronesia, provides the United zens have unrestricted entry into the United States with one of the most forward bastions of States. Thus, Guam, Hawaii, and the United defense in the vast Pacific Ocean. There is a large States have become home to many Micronesians. U.S. military presence on Guam. The Organic For example, a recent estimate claims that over Act of Guam (1950) by the U.S. Congress desig- 9,000 Chuukese have migrated to Guam. nated the island as an “unincorporated territory” Chuukese churches have attempted to provide of the United States, giving its people, the pastoral care for their people on Guam. In addi- Chamorros, U.S. citizenship without the privi- tion, many Chuukese have settled in Hawaii and lege of voting for the president of the United various parts of the United States. They have be- States. As the “Hub of the Pacific,” Guam has be- come a significant people group, among whom come the home for many Micronesians, Asians, evangelistic and pastoral work is being done. and U.S. citizens. The island has also become the The continuous cultural change over the years “honeymoon capital” for Japanese newlyweds. In has also sparked the rise of “nativistic move- recent years, Chamorros have been seeking to ments” (Palau and Chuuk) that urge a return to 67 Middle East cultural values and practices rejected and ne- century Armenia had became the first Christian- glected by generations of island Christians. ized kingdom followed, early in the fourth cen- These movements have challenged the churches tury, by the Roman Empire. Within two hundred to become more sensitive to the unmet needs of years after the death of Christ, Syrian Christians islanders. Also, the persistent animistic prac- were carrying the faith into the Persian Empire tices, involving local medicine and magical assis- and across the steppes of Central Asia. In addi- tance of various kinds through contact with an- tion to the tradition that St. Thomas visited cestral spirits and traditional powers, challenge South India, there is another account, dating to island Christians to demonstrate the all-suffi- the third century, of his visit to northwest India ciency of Jesus Christ. (what is now Pakistan). Earliest evidence of One of the most important roles for the island Nestorian missionary activity in the ancient Chi- churches in Micronesia today is to be the pro- nese capital Chang’an dates to 635. phetic voice of God to the elected leaders of the Missionary dynamism did not endure. Con- island nations; to provide a cohesive community tributing to this decline was the internal political of faith and values for island Christians in the and theological splintering of Christianity. How- face of rapid cultural change; and to demon- ever, in terms of the transformation it brought to strate to many islanders in meaningful Power the religious geography of the Middle East, the Encounters the all-sufficiency of the Lord Jesus major factor was the rise of Islam. During the Christ and the power of the gospel. period from the hijrah, or emigration of the Herman Beuhler Prophet and his family from Mecca to Medina in 622 to his death in 632, Muhammad created a Middle East. Since World War II, the lands from religious community held together by his per- the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian sonal presence and authority. Though it lasted Gulf have been called the Middle East. Other only ten years, Muhammad’s public mission had designations include the Levant and Near East. an impact similar to that of Jesus. After his Though the geographic perimeters vary, the Mid- death, his family and closest relatives by mar- dle East consists of the states or territories of the riage transformed this community into a politi- Arabian Peninsula, Cyprus, Iran, Iraq, Israel, cal and military empire. Within thirty years, the Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Turkey. At rule of the patriarchal caliphate stretched west the core, religiously, it is a largely Islamic world. through the richest provinces of North Africa However, more than 8 million Christians live in halfway to the Atlantic Ocean, east into Asia, and the region. Despite the fact that massive emigra- north to the eastern shores of the Black Sea. Ex- tion of Christians has eroded the strength of cept for Asia Minor, Muslims ruled all of the an- Christianity in some areas, notably Palestine, cient Christian Roman Empire in Asia. overall the Christian population is growing. Nonetheless, there remained a significant Christian presence in the region goes back to Christian minority population throughout the establishment of the first church in Jerusalem on Middle East. Especially where large Arab Chris- Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit came upon the tian populations were involved, notably in what is disciples of Jesus (Acts 1–2). From that epicenter now Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and the gospel was to spread to Judea, Samaria, and Yemen, Muhammad’s successors granted immu- the ends of the world (Acts 1:8). Earliest Christi- nity from forcible conversion. For non-Arabs, in anity in the Middle East thus had a missionary what is now Iran or Turkey, Christianity remained dynamic. Within the lifetime of Jesus’ first fol- as a tolerated minority, often in a sort of religious lowers, Christianity spread to Africa, where nota- ghetto and subject to special taxes. ble Christian populations have continued to Gradually over the next three centuries Chris- thrive in Egypt and Ethiopia despite the rise of tianity in Asia went into decline. Under the Uma- Islam in the seventh century; to Europe; and yyad Caliphate (661–750) and ‘Abbasids (750– eastward. Christians were first so-named at An- 1258), a numerically large body of Christians tioch (Acts 11:26). Although surviving docu- persisted faithfully, but its missionary possibili- ments provide too slender a base to support ties were curtailed and its long-term survival was some claims made about the expansion of Chris- in doubt. The world of Islam also experienced tianity in Asia during the lifetimes of Jesus’ apos- splintering, and ancient centers of civilization tles, an early tradition is that Thomas carried the came under the sway of new Islamic political gospel to India and established seven congrega- empires. These forced conversion to Islam all tions along the Malabar coast. across Asia with the exception of the Middle Christianity spread through the Hellenistic East. The Nestorians in China disappeared, and world, largely tending to follow trade lines and the Thomas Christians of southern India were attracting converts in the great urban centers of isolated as a minority-caste community. the Roman Empire such as Antioch, Ephesus, Still Christianity survived under medieval Is- Corinth, and Rome. Although conversion to the lamic rule. From the perspective of Asian history new faith was uneven, by the end of the third as a whole, the most distinguishing feature of the 68 Middle East period was the fall of the Arabs and triumph of ample of preaching first to the Jew (Rom. 1:16), the Turks. There are, of course, other perspec- the London Society for Promoting Christianity tives, most notably that of European history among the Jews (Church Mission to Jews, or which tends to highlight the brief, failed inter- Church’s Ministry among the Jews), founded in vention known as the Crusades. The first cru- 1808 as an offshoot of the London Missionary sade began in 1095 with a call by Pope Urban II Society, was the first of some twenty-three such to the Christian rulers of western Europe to res- societies in Britain alone. Many of these con- cue the Holy Land from the Turks. This led to tinue to the present. The London Society sent the creation of a Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, which Reverend Joseph Wolff (1796–1862), a converted lasted in various forms from 1099 until the fall of Jew, to undertake various exploratory journeys, Jerusalem in 1187. Properly speaking, the story leading to the start of a medical ministry in Jeru- of the succession of Crusades to restore Chris- salem in 1824. tian control of the Holy Land belongs to the his- Elsewhere, in 1818, the Church Missionary So- tory of the Western church. However, they did ciety (CMS) sent a party of five missionaries to leave their mark on the churches of the Middle Egypt. The American Board of Commissioners East. Negatively, they heightened the breach be- for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) established work tween Eastern and Western Christianity, and in Beirut in 1823. Notable work was done in the tended to unite Eastern Christians, Jews, and area of translation of the Bible into modern Ara- Muslims in their disenchantment with arrogant bic and establishment of the Syrian Protestant Western Christians. Positively, they contributed College, which became the American University to the renaissance of European life, in part of Beirut in 1920. The American Board also began through the introduction of new architectural work in Turkey in 1831. The Reverend William forms and learning to Europe. They also contrib- Gordell settled in Constantinople. The educa- uted to the emergence of two new Catholic mis- tional work gradually extended to other centers in sionary orders, the Dominicans and Franciscans. Asia Minor and Armenia. In terms of conversions, The Castillian Dominic (1170–1221) sent however, numerical growth came from adherents preaching friars to the Middle East with a sense of the ancient Eastern churches as, perhaps re- of mission shared by the Franciscans, to strive to gretfully or unwisely, the mission formed a new heal the divisions of Christianity and to reach Protestant denomination. In Iran, Henry Martyn, out in faithful evangelistic witness to Muslims. en route to England from service in Calcutta, Among the early Dominican missionaries, Ray- India, between 1806 until 1811, worked on a Per- mond Martin (1230–84) became a notable sian version of the New Testament until his death scholar of Islam. Francis of Assisi (1182–1226), at age thirty-one, having baptized one convert. never reached the Middle East. However, his per- Missionaries with the ABCFM who opened a sta- sonal mission to Egypt impressed Muslims. His tion at Urmia in 1835 concentrated on adherents model of sincere Christian witness inspired Is- of Eastern Christianity, with the same results as lamic rulers to allow Franciscans to remain in noted in Turkey. By contrast, Swiss missionaries the region, often as custodians of the Holy Sites. of the Basel Mission, who settled in Tabriz in Between the fourteenth and eighteenth centu- 1813, concentrated on contact with Muslims. ries, Christian missionary activity in the Middle Among its missionaries, Karl Pfander completed East was limited. Early in this period, the best- in 1829 the Mizan-al-Haqq (Balance of Truth), a known missionary was the Spanish layman, Ray- book which helped pioneer a more tolerant ap- mond Lull (c. 1235), who sought to convince the proach to Muslims, with an inner understanding Western church of the vital need for peaceful of Islam not characteristic of earlier missionaries. missionary work among Muslims. During his This approach began to bear fruit under the min- preaching journeys to Tunis and Algeria in North istry of an Irish Anglican Robert Bruce, who spent Africa, and to Cyprus, he was attacked, arrested, ten years in the and, like Martyn, obtained and expelled many times. He met a martyr’s permission to spend a year in Iran on his way death by stoning in Tunis. back from furlough in Britain to improve his The Reformation period of the sixteenth cen- knowledge of Persian and of Islam. His year’s stay tury, which witnessed the creation of new Roman extended to two, and in 1871, as he prepared to Catholic missionary orders and some initial Prot- leave for India, nine Muslims with whom he had estant outreach, quickened the pulse of Christian studied Islam in asked for baptism. He re- evangelistic activity and awakened interest in mained in Iran and was joined by another CMS work among Jews and Muslims. However, virtu- missionary with a background in India, Edward ally no effort to evangelize in the Middle East fol- Craig Stuart. Their ministry bore fruit when the lowed from this. It remained for the evangelical first Persian, Hassan Barnabas Dehquni-Tafti, awakening of the late eighteenth century to gen- was consecrated Anglican bishop on April 25, erate missionary activity in the region. 1961. In the nineteenth century, Protestants under- One additional nineteenth-century initiative is took several initiatives. Animated by Paul’s ex- worthy of note. Even as Christianity arose in Jeru- 69 Middle East salem under the unitive ministry of the Holy that Jews would return to their ancient home- Spirit, Jerusalem was the setting of an ecumenical land. By the nineteenth century, many Chris- initiative between 1841 and 1886. In 1841 the tians, influenced by a dispensational hermeneu- Church of England and Prussian Evangelical tic (see Dispensationalism), expressed an Union jointly established the Protestant bishopric accepting attitude toward the desire of many di- in Jerusalem. The first bishop, Michael Solomon aspora Jews to return to the Holy Land and initi- Alexander, was a converted Jewish rabbi. He ated political activity promoting restoration of served from 1842 to 1845. His successor, Samuel Jews to the Holy Land. In effect, Christian Zion- Gobat, a French-speaking Swiss Protestant who ism preceded the emergence of political Jewish had served the Church Missionary Society in Zionism, an ideological instrument for mobiliz- Ethiopia, was bishop for thirty-three years, from ing international patronage for a Jewish home- 1846 to 1879. His tenure proved controversial in land in the Holy Land. In Britain, Canada, and such areas as liturgy, missionary strategy, and re- the United States, Christian Zionists have exhib- lations with local political and religious authori- ited considerable activity and influence, antici- ties. When his successor, Joseph Barclay, died pating Christ’s second coming by the end of the suddenly after less than two years in office, the second millennium of the common era. Chris- joint undertaking collapsed, and the British Arch- tian Zionists welcomed the Balfour Declaration, bishop of Canterbury appointed a successor on a which, on November 2, 1917, promised the Jews purely Anglican basis. The demise of the Jerusa- a national home in Palestine; capture of Jerusa- lem episcopacy in 1886, due to conflict in Jerusa- lem a few weeks later; establishment of the Brit- lem and imperial politics in Europe, contributed ish mandate of Palestine after World War I; ap- to the continued breach between the Anglican and pointment of a Jew, Herbert Samuel, as the first Lutheran churches and the splintering of the High Commissioner; Jewish emigration to the Christian community in the Holy Land. Prosely- Holy Land; organization of Jewish para-military tizing activities among Eastern Christians and forces; creation of the State of Israel in 1948; re- failure to establish any viable Jewish Christian unification of Jerusalem under Israeli control in community among the local inhabitants further 1967; and the response of the world community weakened Christian witness in the Holy Land. to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Christian This initiative contributed in some measure to the Zionists still engender fervent support for the continued failure on the part of Western Chris- State of Israel. The intimate linkage between tians to rethink attitudes toward Eastern Chris- Christian Zionism and political decision-making tians and the people of Israel. remains a political factor in Western diplomacy The religious awakening of interest in the Mid- related to the Israeli-Arab and Israeli-Palestinian dle East coincided with the decline of the Otto- conflicts. man Empire and an awakening of European im- As the era of Western influence in the region perial ambitions in the region. At times, waned after mid-nineteenth century, involve- ecclesiastical and political rivalries often contrib- ment by indigenous Christians in the wider so- uted directly to conflict, starting with Napoleon cial and religious life of Middle East has in- Bonaparte’s invasion of Egypt in 1798. In 1847, creased. Despite the great diversity of the region, the Roman Catholic Church revived the Latin it is possible to make a few generalizations. On Patriarchate under French auspices. This in turn the whole, the social influence of Christians is attracted Russian interest, allegedly in support of disproportionate to their numbers throughout Orthodox authorities, and contributed in some the region. Generally, they are better educated measure to the outbreak of the Crimean War in than the Muslim majority. They are prominent 1854. Struggle among European imperial powers in commerce, education, and the professions. for control of the region intensified in the after- Christians fare relatively well economically and math of the collapse of the are less likely to number among the poorest of after World War I. the poor. Where Islamic law prevails, and in the The lands of the Bible have extraordinary sig- State of Israel, Christians are generally tolerated nificance for Christians, Jews, Muslims, and the provided there is no missionary activity from tiny community of Samaritans as well as for outside. In countries where so-called Islamic other religious communities such as the Baha’i fundamentalism is particularly strong, or reli- and Druze. Interest in and care for the Holy gious nationalism particularly strident, as in Land have long characterized major streams of Iran since 1979, Christians have suffered perse- Christian spirituality. Pilgrimage has been a cution. Christians exercise considerable political major manifestation. Another has been Christian power of Cyprus, which remains partitioned, Zionism, a phenomenon first expressed during and in Lebanon, where they once formed a ma- the sixteenth century. Especially within the An- jority of the population. Religiously, the Chris­ glican and Calvinist traditions, some Protestants tian churches remain fragmented, notwithstand- began to read the Bible in such a way that they ing the longings of ordinary Christians to live as expected, as a prelude to Christ’s second coming, one body, including gestures to promote unity, 70 Millennial Thought such as the pilgrimage of the Roman Catholic tion, receiving its most important formulation in Pope Paul VI in January 1964, and the encoun- the work of Daniel Whitby (1638–1726). Accord- ters he had with Benedictos I, Greek Orthodox ing to Whitby, the world was to be converted to Patriarch of Jerusalem, and Athenagoras I, Ecu- Christ, after which the earth would enjoy univer- menical Patriarch of Constantinople. sal peace, happiness, and righteousness for a Paul R. Dekar thousand years. At the close of this period, Christ would return personally for the last judgment. Bibliography. Y. Ben-Arieh, The Rediscovery of the Perhaps because of its agreement with the views Holy Land in the Nineteenth Century; R. B. Betts, Chris- tians in the Arab East. A Political Study; S. P. Colbi, A of the Enlightenment, postmillennialism was ad- History of the Christian Presence in the Holy Land; J. S. opted by the leading Protestant theologians of the Conway, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 1 (1986): 127– era. New England Puritans, continental pietists, 46; K. Cragg, The Arab Christian. A History in the Mid- and evangelical revivalists of the eighteenth cen- dle East; R. T. Handy, ed., The Holy Land in American tury all encouraged the emphasis on millennial- Protestant Life 1800–1948. A Documentary History; ism. One of the most outstanding missionary N. A. Horner, A Guide to Christian Churches in the Mid- spokespersons of this period, Jonathan Edwards dle East; S. M. Jack, Journal of Religious History 19 (1703–58), was a devoted postmillennialist. (December 1995): 181–203; S. H. Moffett, A History of During the nineteenth century, premillennial- Christianity in Asia. ism again attracted attention. This interest was fostered by the violent uprooting of European Millennial Thought. Belief in the earthly reign political and social institutions caused by the of Christ before the end of the world and the French Revolution. Later in the century millen- eternal state. The most notable form of this doc- nial enthusiasm found renewed support in the trine is Premillennialism, which claims that the Plymouth Brethren Movement. J. N. Darby Lord will return before the golden age and is (1800–1882), an important Brethren leader, ar- based on certain key passages of Scripture, in- ticulated the dispensationalist understanding of cluding Daniel 7–11, Ezekiel 37–39, Matthew 24, millennialism. Its name comes from the practice 1 Thessalonians 4, 2 Thessalonians 2, and espe- of dividing history into a series of ages, usually cially Revelation 20. There are two other major seven in number, which culminate in the millen- views, Postmillennialism, which states that the nium. A distinction is made between ethnic Is- Lord will return after the millennium and Amil- rael and the church, and there is to be a tribula- lennialism, which states that the language of tion period at the end of the church age caused Scripture is too figurative to suggest that there by the Antichrist. After these events, Christ will will be a literal reign of Christ on earth. return and rule the world for a thousand years Although these interpretations have never with the help of the saints. This belief, popular- been without adherents in Western Christianity, ized by the Scofield Reference Bible, the Bible In- in certain periods a particular outlook has pre- stitute movement, popular evangelists, and mass dominated. During the first three centuries of media preachers, has become the dominant es- the Christian era, premillennialism appears to chatology of American fundamentalists. have been the dominant eschatological interpre- Despite the development of Dispensationalism, tation. In the fourth century, when the Christian postmillennialism was the great dynamic for church was given a favored status under the em- much of the missionary enthusiasm of the nine- peror Constantine, the amillennial position was teenth century. America, many claimed, was the accepted. The millennium was reinterpreted to agent of God to bring in the last times. Timothy refer to the church. The famous church father, Dwight (1752–1817) anticipated the day when Augustine, articulated this position and it be- not a single Catholic cathedral, mosque, or pa- came the prevailing interpretation in medieval goda would be left standing. Other spokesper- times. sons also merged the language of Manifest Des- Despite the fact that the Protestant Reformers tiny with millennialism and dreamed of the accepted Augustinian eschatology, their emphasis conquest of the world under the same laws and on a more literal interpretation of the Bible and social characteristics as the Anglo-Saxons who identification of the papacy with Antichrist called would control all of North America. It was this attention to the prophetic Scriptures. Later schol- confidence that led John R. Mott to publish The ars especially in the Reformed tradition such as Evangelization of the World in This Generation J. H. Alsted (1588–1638) and Joseph Mede (1586– (1900) and inspired the famous World Mission- 1638) revived premillennialism. During the sev- ary Conference in Edinburgh (1910). enteenth century their view was shared by many However, the new age did not come and more of the leaders of the Puritan Revolution in En- of those involved in the missionary movement gland. However, with the restoration of the Stuart adopted a premillennial view. Rather than trying kings this opinion was discredited. to bring God’s kingdom to earth, they turned to As premillennialism waned, postmillennialism winning individuals to Christ and preaching the became the prevailing eschatological interpreta- gospel as witness to all nations so that Christ 71 Miracles in Mission will return. Two world wars, genocide, economic evangelism” and miracles in evangelism, does depression, the rise of pluralism, the success of not hold miracles necessary for evangelism. He liberalism, and the privatization of religion in a sees proclamation of the gospel as the “heart and secular society convinced them that only a su- soul” of evangelism. pernatural, cataclysmic return of Christ would The Miraculous and Healing. God has used help the world. Yet changes in dispensational healing to reveal the truth of his message doctrine, a renewed emphasis on the Spirit of throughout history. The Lord has healed through God by charismatic groups, and the concept of the prophets (2 Kings 5:1–16), Jesus (Mark 1:40– reaching whole groups of people with the gospel 41; John 4:46–54), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), continue to encourage the postmillennial view. New Testament believers (Acts 14:3), and Chris- Despite the lively debate over the millennium tian missionaries today. God continues to per- there is no divergence of opinion among Chris- form miracles of healing, both to meet the phys- tians as to the fact of Christ’s coming. ical needs of suffering people and to reveal the Robert G. Clouse truth of his message. Bibliography. R. G. Clouse, The Meaning of the Mil- Belief in divine healing in no way prohibits lennium. Four Views; R. G. Clouse, R. V. Pierard, and using modern medicine and using modern medi- R. Hosack, The Millennial Manual; J. A. DeJong, As the cine does not indicate a lack of faith in God’s Waters Cover the Sea: Millennial Expectations in the power to heal. Missions today should allow God Rise of Anglo-American Missions 1640–1819; E. L to speak both through modern medicine and Tuveson, Redeemer Nation: The Idea of America’s Mil- God’s direct healing action. lennial Role; T. P. Weber, Living in the Shadow of the The Miraculous and Deliverance. Demons (evil Second Coming: American Premillennialism (1875– 1925). spirits, powers) exist and harm, but do not pos- sess in the sense of owning, human beings, whether believers or unbelievers. Jesus and New Miracles in Mission. Contemporary mission en- Testament Christians expelled demons from per- deavor cannot and should not seek to avoid the sons (Matt. 8:28–34; Mark 5:1–20; Acts 5:16; subject of supernatural power and the miracu- 16:16–18). Contemporary missionaries face ex- lous. Neither, on the other hand, should missions panding needs and opportunities to oppose evil today become obsessed with or distressed over spirits who demonize persons. Deliverance from the power and activity of evil beings under Sa- evil spirits has become a growing phenomenon tan’s control, nor over those who teach about them. The Bible teaches Christ’s victory over all among evangelical missionaries. Demons who attack people can be expelled and rendered pow- the Powers (authorities), Principalities (rulers), dominions, and demons (1 Cor. 2:6; 15:24; Eph. erless through God’s power (see also Demons, De- 1:15–23; Col. 1:15–20, 2:15; 2 Thess. 2:8; Heb. monization; Exorcism; and Spiritual Warfare). 2:14). Mission today needs to rest assured that The Miraculous and Other Manifestations. God still can and does work miracles. Miracles today are evidenced in tongues, knowl- Areas of Interface between the Miraculous edge, visions, and other areas (1 Cor. 12–14). and Mission. Missions interface with the mirac- These manifestations, questioned by some, indi- ulous in evangelism, healing, deliverance, and cate to others the direct action of God. Mission- other areas. aries must deal honestly and directly with these The Miraculous and Evangelism. All evange- manifestations. lism is miraculous but in missions today individ- Principles Relating to Missions and the Mi- uals and groups are opened to the gospel in ways raculous. Several principles relate to miracles that can only be miraculous. The history of and missionary work. First, missionaries should Christianity is replete with accounts of people welcome the aid of miracles and other manifes- movements that obviously were instigated and tations of Signs and Wonders in missionary promoted by the Holy Spirit. ministry. In regard to supernatural power and Some contemporary missionaries consider the miraculous, missionaries must be careful warfare prayer and the “binding” of territorial never to be materialists, disbelieving in supernat- spirits as a major method in evangelistic activi- ural powers, nor magicians, thinking supernatu- ties. C. Peter Wagner defines Territorial Spir- ral powers can be controlled by ritual (see its as members of the hierarchy of evil spirits Magic). who, delegated by Satan, control regions, cities, Second, missionaries must affirm that mira- tribes, people groups, neighborhoods, and other cles, signs, and wonders are not necessary for social networks and inhibit evangelistic break- evangelism or other missionary work. The Holy through. John Duncan and Edgardo Silvoso re- Spirit continues to grant evangelistic fruit where count how, in Argentina, after prayer, fasting, there are no outward signs of miracles. Signs and confession, and confronting territorial spirits, wonders can, however, be instrumental in help- the Lord granted a marvelous gospel break- ing people become more willing to hear the gos- through. John Wimber, who believes in “power pel. 72 Moravian Missions

Third, missionaries must accept that healing is cation (founding three schools), conferences, not always God’s plan for every person. God and publishing. Saving souls was his highest aim speaks through suffering as well as through heal- in life. He said: “I look upon this world as a ing. Missionaries should not, therefore, promise wrecked vessel. God has given me a lifeboat and healing as God remains sovereign in granting said to me, ‘Moody, save all you can.’” healing. Timothy K. Beougher Fourth, missionaries must also remember that Bibliography. L. Dorsett, A Passion for Souls: The power resides in the gospel itself, not in miracles Life of D. L. Moody; S. N. Gundry, Love Them In: The (Rom. 1:16; 1 Cor. 1:18). Missionaries must be Life and Theology of D. L. Moody; W. R. Moody, The Life certain never to make miracles seem imperative of Dwight L. Moody. for missionary effectiveness. They must remem- ber that miracles, like all other Christian deeds, Moon, Charlotte (“Lottie”) (1840–1912). Amer- must glorify God rather than calling attention to ican missionary to China. Born into an aristo- humans. When miracles are used to bring fame cratic Southern family in Scottsville, Virginia, and notoriety to humans, these “signs” are not of she and her younger sister, Edmonia, became the God. Christians may be seen doing miracles but first single women missionaries to northern never be doing miracles to be seen. China for the Southern Baptist Mission (1873– Finally, missionaries should remember that 1912). Converted in 1858 revivals, “Lottie” joined miraculous events are not always of God. Pha­ her lifelong Presbyterian friend, Anna Safford. raoh’s magicians did signs (Exod. 7:10–22) as did They taught and, in 1871, established their own Satan (2 Thess. 2:9). Jesus declared that false girls’ school in Cartersville, Georgia. When op- prophets would perform miracle (Matt. 24:24). portunities for single women to become mission- Missionaries must beware of counterfeit mira- aries opened, both women changed careers and cles. Missionaries must remember that signs and became Chinese missionaries. Moon arrived in wonders function to convey truth, especially di- the Shandong city of Tengzhou in 1873. vine compassion. The purpose of signs is that Personal discipline, institutional loyalty, and people apprehend the message the signs bring generous hospitality characterized her relatively rather than dwell on the signs themselves. stable missionary career. Competent in Chinese Ebbie C. Smith and sensitive to the Chinese cultural restraints Bibliography. C. E. Arnold, Ephesians: Power and on women’s roles, she made friendship a means Magic; idem, Powers of Darkness; D. Bridge, Signs and to evangelism. Working at first in girls’ schools Wonders Today; J. Dawson, Taking Our Cities for God; in Tengzhou (1873–85), Moon later moved to the N. Geisler, Signs and Wonders; P. G. Hiebert, Anthropo- town of Pingtu, and became the first single logical Reflections on Missiological Issues; D. Powlison, woman missionary to open a Chinese station Power Encounters; E. Rommen, ed., Spiritual Power without any other support. Her work in the area and Missions; T. M. Warner, Spiritual Warfare; C. P. Wagner, Engaging the Enemy; C. P. Wagner, and F. D. resulted in the development of over thirty inde- Pennoyer, eds., Wrestling with Dark Angels. pendent Chinese congregations. During the anti-Qing revolutionary years, the septagenarian Moon’s unselfish generosity led Moody, Dwight Lyman (1837–99). American her to suffer from malnutrition with those evangelist. Born in Northfield, Massachusetts, at around her. Colleagues discovered her condition age seventeen he began working in a Boston only too late. She died, emaciated and incoher- shoestore, where he was converted through the ent, during the initial days of a voyage to North witness of his Sunday school teacher, Edward America for medical treatment. She has been Kimball. He moved to in 1856 and de- idealized among Southern Baptists for her sacri- veloped a successful shoe business. In 1858, he ficial act of love; yearly Christmas offerings for organized a Sunday school, which eventually foreign missions is taken in her name. One esti- grew into what is now Moody Memorial Church. mate claims that these offerings have come to In 1860, he devoted himself full-time to city mis- nearly $1.5 billion by 1995. sionary work through the YMCA. During the Lauren Pfister Civil War he ministered to soldiers. Between 1865 and 1869, he served as the president of the Bibliography. C. Allen, The New Story; Chicago YMCA. In 1871, following the great Chi- idem, A Century To Celebrate: History of Women’s Mis- cago fire, he began his career as a traveling reviv- sionary Union; I. Hyatt, Our Ordered Lives Confess. alist. He was joined by Ira Sankey and together they ministered effectively throughout Great Moravian Missions. The Moravians had their Britain from 1873 to 1875, returning to America roots in a small band of refugees, spiritual de- as celebrities. scendants of the fifteenth-century Hussite move- Moody held evangelistic campaigns in virtually ment, who settled on the estate of Count Nicho- every major city in America. His influence was las von Zinzendorf near Dresden in 1722. They far-reaching, not only in evangelism but in edu- named their settlement Herrnhut, the “Lord’s 73 Moravian Missions watch.” Others from various church traditions South Africa and in 1742 baptized the first black joined them. Zinzendorf had been raised in a pi- converts. Soon he was expelled by the Dutch. etist home, and made a deep commitment to After the first three missionaries to Greenland Christ as a youth. At the University of Halle he had experienced near starvation, sickness, and was a founder of the Order of the Mustard Seed, the hostility of the people, they signed a cove- one of whose stated purposes was “to carry the nant, vowing never to leave their posts, adding, gospel to those beyond the sea.” “We came hither resting on Christ our Saviour, in As the community grew, there was dissension whom all the nations of the earth shall be over various issues, including its relationship to blessed.” Three years later as he heard the story the State Lutheran Church. In 1727 Zinzendorf of Jesus in Gethsemane, newly translated into his called them to unity with the principle that own language, the first native Greenlander was “Herrnhut­ shall stand in unceasing love with all converted. children of God in all churches, criticize none Moravians worked among a number of indige- . . . to preserve for itself the evangelical purity, nous American tribes, often incurring the enmity simplicity, and grace.” of both European colonists and other Indians. At After weeks of teaching from 1 John, prayer, Gnadenhutten, Pennsylvania, a number of Indi- and fasting, the group experienced its Pentecost ans and missionaries were massacred. Moravi- on August 13, 1727, and was knit together by a ans went to the West Coast of Africa, Ethiopia, mighty visitation of the Holy Spirit. In February and Algeria, to Kurds in Persia, and to Lapland- 1728 Zinzendorf introduced plans for evange- ers in the far north. Several were imprisoned in lism in the West Indies, Greenland, Turkey, and St. Petersburg. Others went to Ceylon, hoping to Lapland. Twenty-six people made a covenant to establish missions to the East Indies, Mongolia, pray for the mission and to go forth immediately and Persia. Their vision was worldwide. when called. A chain of prayer around the clock They studied medicine, geography, and lan- was inaugurated that lasted one hundred years. guages, and were sent out only with a strong The Moravians became a unique fellowship of sense of call, validated by the community. Their laity and clergy, men and women, with the message was clear. “Tell them about the Lamb of spread of the Christian message the major objec- God till you can tell them no more,” Zinzendorf tive of the whole group, not just a minority. exhorted. So was their motive. “May the Lamb While they married and had families, in many receive His due reward for what He suffered on respects they were monastic in their discipline the cross,” two Moravians shouted as they bade and obedience, willing to go anywhere in mis- farewell to friends and family. They took what- sion. Their purpose was twofold: to take the gos- ever jobs were available and formed self-support- pel to those who had not heard, and to bring re- ing communities. Their pattern of life com- newal and unity to churches that had grown mended the gospel and consequently won many. cold. This small community furnished over half They were not to seek glory for themselves. The the Protestant missionaries in the eighteenth missionary was to be content to suffer, die, and century. be forgotten. In 1732 Leonhard Dober and David Nit­ They taught slaves to read, cared for widows schmann left on foot for , their mea- and orphans, nursed the sick, and translated the ger possessions on their backs and thirty shil- Scriptures and other Christian literature into lings in their pockets, on their way to the West many languages. They encouraged converts to Indies. The missionaries were expected to make become teachers and elders. their own way and support themselves. By 1740 Moravian missions among people of existing 68 had gone; by 1760 the number had grown to churches in Europe and North America focused 226. A report in 1739 mentioned 16 locations on renewal and unity but were usually met with where they served in Asia, Africa, North Amer- suspicion and rejection by church leaders. Even ica, and Asia, in addition to several areas in Eu- so, Zinzendorf warned against establishing rope, including the Baltic states and Russia. Moravianism, encouraging converts to remain in They often went to the hardest places and their own churches. In Latvia, for example, five worked with the most oppressed people, perse- thousand nominal Lutherans were converted, vering despite terrible suffering. Over fifty adults forming Herrnhutten fellowships in the existing and children died the first few years in the West church. Indies and Surinam. Work with the slaves As part of the broader eighteenth-century brought opposition from the planters and the movements of revival, the Moravians played a Dutch clergy. When missionaries were impris- major role as a catalyst to revival and missions. oned on St. Thomas, slaves gathered outside the They were the first church to recognize their ob- prison to hear their message and sing with them. ligation to the Jews. Their influence on the Wes- Eight hundred were converted. leys is well known. Spangenburg met John Wes- Called a fool by the European settlers, George ley in Georgia and asked if he knew Jesus Christ. Schmidt established the first mission station in Wesley could not answer with certainty. Back in 74 Müller, George

London in 1738 prior to Wesley’s “heart warm- later effective missionary work in China. Clearly, ing” experience, Peter Boehler taught that he his attribution as “Father of Protestant Missions could know the assurance of salvation. The in China” is well deserved. Basel and Leipzig Missionary Societies, the J. Barton Starr Methodist missionary enterprise, and the Lon- Bibliography. M. Broomhall, Robert Morrison: A don Missionary Society were all stimulated and Master-Builder; E. A. Morrison, Memoirs of the Life and to some extent guided by the Moravians. In 1792 Labours of Robert Morrison, D.D., 2 vols. William Carey cited their example when he pro- posed the formation of the Baptist Missionary Mott, John Raleigh (1865–1955). American mis- Society. The Moravians continue as a relatively sionary promoter and ecumenical leader. Born small denomination in the United States and Eu- into a Methodist family in Sullivan County, New rope. Well over half their members are located in York, he graduated from Upper Iowa and Cornell Africa and Latin America. universities, was converted during his student Paul E. Pierson days, and pledged himself to missionary service Bibliography. W. M. Beauchamp, Moravian Journals (1886). He was a YMCA secretary (1888–1915), co- Relating to Central New York, 1745–66; J. T. and K. G. founder and chair of the Student Volunteer Hamilton, History of the ; A. J. Louis, Movement (1888–1920), prime mover in establish- Zinzendorf, The Ecumenical Pioneer. ing the World Student Christian Federation (1895), and chair of the World Missionary Con- Morrison, Robert (1782–1834). English pioneer ference (Edinburgh, 1910). Mott traveled two mil- missionary to China. Born in Morpeth, England, lion miles enthusiastically, his motto, “With God he entered Hoxton Academy in London in 1803. anywhere, without him, not over the threshold.” The following year the London Missionary Soci- He acquired an immense knowledge of the mis- ety appointed him as a missionary. For the next sionary enterprise worldwide, encouraging stu- two and a half years, he studied at the “Mission- dents and fieldworkers and setting up national ary Academy” at Gosport, as well as studying councils of churches. In 1923 a Japanese Christian medicine, astronomy, and Chinese. He arrived in leader called him “father of the young people of Canton on September 6, 1807. the world.” John R. Mott was adept at spotting Living in Canton and Macao for the next twen- and nurturing recruits, was much respected by po- ty-seven years except for two years in En­gland, litical heads at home and abroad (he once spoke to Morrison saw his main calling as preparing the three U.S. presidents—Taft, Coolidge, Wilson—in way for future missionaries. He served as inter- a day), labored tirelessly for prisoners of war and preter for the East India Company (beginning in Orphanage Mission Work, and could extract large 1809) and for two British government missions donations from the American rich (Rockefeller to China. But in fulfillment of his calling, Morri- funds established the Missionary Research Li- son and his colleague William Milne completed brary). He was chair of the International Mission- and published the Bible in Chinese in 1823. He ary Council (1921–41) and presided over the Jeru- also authored nearly forty other works in Chi- salem Missionary Conference (1928). In 1935 a nese and English, plus many articles in periodi- future archbishop of Canterbury declared, “He led cals. Other than the Bible, his best-known publi- us then; he leads us still.” In 1946 he shared the cation was his six-volume A Dictionary of the Nobel Peace Prize; in 1948 the newly formed Chinese Language (1815–22). World Council of Churches named him honor- Morrison and Milne also established the An- ary president. But the Methodist layman who had glo-Chinese College in Malacca in 1818, with the declined prestigious academic and political posts dual purpose of providing Chinese-language wanted to be remembered simply as an evangelist. training for future missionaries and educating His many works included The Evangelization local boys, a number of whom played significant of the World in This Generation (1910) and Ad- roles in later Chinese history. dresses and Papers (6 vols., 1946–47). Recognized by scholars as a leading Sinologue, J. D. Douglas Morrison remained at heart a missionary fulfill- Bibliography. B. Mathews, John R. Mott, World ing his calling to prepare the way for others. His Citizen; C. H. Hopkins, John R. Mott, 1865–1955: A plea to the American Board of Commissioners Biography. for Foreign Missions led to the appointment of as the first American Müller, George (1805–98). German faith mis- missionary to China. One of his earliest co-work- sions advocate and founder of orphanages. Born ers, Leang Afa [Liang Fa], became known as the in Prussia, Müller was converted and awakened “first Chinese evangelist.” While he had fewer to missions while a university student at Halle. than a dozen converts directly attributable to his He went to England to do mission work among work, Morrison gave his life in the conviction the Jews and there joined the renewal movement that he was laying the necessary groundwork for within British Protestantism that became the 75 Nevius Method

Plymouth Brethren. He ended his connection The Nevius Method is still valid, though not as with the London Society for Promoting Christi- well implemented as it should be. For example, anity among the Jews and served as pastor in many church leaders of the developing nations Teignmouth, where he established his lifelong in the Third World are heavily dependent on fi- practice of accepting no salary, instead trusting nancial assistance from foreign missionary agen- God for his needs. In 1832 he moved to Bristol, cies. This dependence does not help the growth where he lived the rest of his life. In 1834 Müller of the national church. The principles of indige- founded the Scriptural Knowledge Institution nous missions outlined by Nevius are needed for Home and Abroad with the purposes of es- today just as they were in the late 1800s in order tablishing day schools, Sunday schools, and to strengthen indigenous local churches and adult schools for teaching the Bible, distributing speed the evangelization of each nation. Bibles, and supporting mission work. Müller Bong Rin Ro achieved fame for founding the Bristol Orphan- Bibliography. C. A. Clark and A. Charles, The Korean age Mission Work. His greater contribution, Church and the Nevius Method; L. G. Paik, The History however, was the example of his life of faith and of Protestant Missions in Korea, 1832–1910; B. R. Ro prayer. He determined not to ask for support and and M. Nelson, eds., Korean Church Growth Explosion. instead prayed for the needs of the orphan homes and missions, trusting that God would Nommensen, Ludwig Ingwer (1834–1918). meet those needs without his prompting others Danish missionary to Indonesia. The son of a to give. By the end of his life, Müller had built dike-lock attendant, Nommensen was born on five orphanages; cared for 120,000 children; the island of Nordstrand in Schleswig. Escaping preached in forty-two countries; raised a quarter injury despite a serious accident, he decided to million pounds for missions; and raised almost become a missionary and joined the Rhine Mis- 2.5 million pounds altogether—all by faith. sionary Society in Barmen. In 1862 he traveled to Donald R. Dunavant Barus on the northwest coast of Sumatra. In Bibliography. A. T. Pierson, George Müller of Bristol 1864 he began work among the Toba Batak, who and His Witness to a Prayer Hearing God. were independent of the Dutch crown colony. His respect for indigenous social structures earned Nevius Method. In June 1890 the Presbyterian him trust, as did his desire to win the people in Mission in Korea invited John Nevius and his their own language with a humble and patient at- wife, missionaries in China, to give a series of titude. messages on Nevius’s book, The Planting and De- In 1874 Nommensen translated Luther’s Small veloping of Missionary Churches. Though the Ne- Catechism into the Batak language, followed by viuses were only in Korea for the two-week mis- the New Testament in 1878. He also allowed the sionary conference, the Nevius Method was Batak a church polity that was contextually ori- adopted by the missionaries as the primary means ented. In 1881 Nommensen became director of to reach Korea for Christ. Many attribute the the Rhine Mission to the Batak. When he ex- rapid growth of the Korean church to the consis- tended his efforts to include the southern coast tent application of the Nevius Method in Korea. of Lake Toba, church growth advanced so rap- There are nine principles of indigenous church idly that entire clans were baptized. Nommensen development in the Nevius Method, including an was awarded an honorary doctorate by the theo- emphasis on personal evangelism through wide logical faculty of the University of Bonn for his itineration; the development of congregations services as the leader of the Batak church, and in that are self-supporting, self-propagating, and 1911 he received the Officer’s Cross from the self-governing; the need for systematic Bible Royal Dutch Order of Orange-Nassau. Nom- study for every Christian; strict discipline in the mensen died in 1918 in Sigumpar in Sumatra. noninterference in lawsuits; and general help for Rolf Hille those in economic need. The heart of the Nevius Bibliography. N. DeWaard, Pioneer in Sumatra: The Method, the three-self formula of indigenous Story of Ludwig Nommensen; L. Schreiner, Mission mission work, is well known in modern missions Studies 9:2 (1992): 241–51. strategy (see Indigenous Churches and Three- Self Movement [China]). Oceania. Oceania is one of the most Christian- Resulting from consistent application of the ized areas of the world. In a brief period of two Nevius Method, the Korean church has estab- hundred years, Christianity has spread across lished itself as a church which places a high em- the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Consisting phasis on personal evangelism, self-support (tith- of approximately 25,000 islands, Oceania ex- ing), self-propagation (Christianization of Korea tends from Easter Island on the east to Palau on Movement), self-government (strong denomina- the west; from Hawaii and the northern Mariana tions), and systematic Bible study and prayer Islands on the north to Australia and New Zea- (cell-groups). land on the south. 76 Oceania

Traditional society in Oceania is usually di- into Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji. The Mormons vided into four main cultural areas: Polynesia, began in present-day French Polynesia in 1844, Micronesia, Melanesia, and Australia (Aborigi- and the Seventh-Day Adventists came to the Pa- nes). The original hunting-and-gathering peoples cific around 1890. of Australia and Melanesia came in the first of After recovering from the effects of the French several major waves of migrations from South- Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, the Catholic east Asia at least forty thousand years ago. Later, Church in France began sending members of people with an agricultural way of living popu- newly founded missionary societies to the Pacific lated Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, as in the 1830s. The Congregation of the Sacred their boating skills allowed them to traverse im- Hearts of Jesus and Mary, or Picpus Fathers, mense distances of open waters. Beginning at worked in the eastern area of Oceania, and the the end of the eighteenth century, settlers and Marists in the central. On many of the islands migrants from Europe and other parts of the where Protestant missionaries had already begun world would soon form the majority of the popu- working, there was competition between Catho- lations of both Australia and New Zealand lics and Protestants. However, Christianity was (whose original people, the Maoris, were Polyne- established through the initial contacts of Catho- sian). Also, large numbers of indentured planta- lic missionaries in such places as the islands of tion laborers from India went to Fiji, and Filipi- Mangareva and the Marquesas of present-day nos, Japanese, and Chinese came to Hawaii. French Polynesia, and in Wallis and Futuna of The first organized mission work in Oceania western Polynesia. itself was done by Catholic Spanish missionaries The history of Christianity in Oceania in the and Filipino catechists in Guam and other Mari- nineteenth century is unfortunately scarred by ana Islands in the seventeenth century, and by tensions between Protestant and Catholic mis- Spanish missionaries from Peru in Tahiti in the sionaries and churches. This situation was aggra- following century. However, the first major mis- vated even further as competing colonial govern- sionary movement was the fruit of the eigh- ments eventually began sweeping over the Pacific teenth-century evangelical revival in Britain— and in varying degrees favored “their own”— sparked by such great preachers as Whitefield France the Catholics and Britain the Protestants. and Wesley. Through his influence and financial Around 1850, primary missionary efforts support, Thomas Haweis convinced his fellow began shifting to western Oceania, especially co-founders of the London Missionary Society Melanesia. In contrast to Polynesia where Chris- (LMS) to establish their first mission in the Pa- tianity was often accepted en masse with the cific. Their own ship, the Duff, carried thirty mis- conversion of their king or other hereditary lead- sionaries in 1797 to Tahiti, the Marquesas, and ers, missionaries faced a much different situa- Tonga. Tahiti, although abandoned for a short tion in Melanesia, consisting of many, smaller time in 1808, would become the base for the competitive social and linguistic units with a LMS—“the first sustained Christian missionary more fluid style of achieved leadership by elders, activity in the South Sea islands” (Gunson, 1978, or “big men.” In addition to these linguistic and 12). John Williams, their most famous mission- cultural challenges, a number of missionaries ary of this early period, and others sent out Poly- died due to sickness and attacks by the islanders, nesian evangelists, who “laid the foundation for who often identified the missionaries with the the evangelization of Oceania” (Douglas, 1986, behavior of labor-recruiters, traders, and colo- 23). nial officials—the great wave of outsiders “invad- The LMS was soon joined by others. An evan- ing” their world and forcing them to jump di- gelical Anglican mission was established in 1814 rectly from the Stone Age into modern times. by the Church Missionary Society (CMS) in While their intentions and approaches were very New Zealand under the direction of Samuel different, missionaries and Christianity admit- Marsden, who greatly influenced the early stages tedly played a significant role in the phenome- of evangelical missionary work throughout Oce- non of social change (cf. Whiteman). ania. CMS established the first mission among Within this Melanesian context, the Anglican the Maoris of New Zealand and stimulated fur- Church of New Zealand in 1849 initiated the suc- ther missionary outreach by the Anglican cessful Melanesian Mission under George Sel- churches of New Zealand and Australia. wyn’s innovative leadership. Presbyterian mis- Congregational missionaries from the Ameri- sionaries of the late evangelical revival in Scotland can Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis- began in the 1850s in the Melanesian islands of sions in Boston arrived in Hawaii in 1820 and New Hebrides (present-day Vanuatu). Due to his eventually expanded into Micronesia. English widely read autobiography, John Paton became Methodists of the Wesleyan Missionary Society their most famous missionary. Around 1875, established a base in New Zealand in 1820, and George Brown established the first missionary ef- contributed to the missionary movement from fort of Australian Methodists in the Bismarck Ar- Tahiti and Hawaii westward across the Pacific chipelago, with Fijian and Samoan Methodists 77 Orphanage Work in Christian Missions also joining them. The Missionaries of the Sacred This relative tranquility was shattered in 1942 Heart (MCS), another Catholic congregation from as Oceania was engulfed in the turmoil of World France, came to this area in 1882. In that same War II. While some of the islands were only used year, the interdenominational Queensland as military bases, others became combat zones. Kanaka Mission began its work among Solomon A large number of islanders and missionaries Islands sugar plantation workers in Australia, and died due to the war. Besides the upheaval to then in 1904 changed its name to South Sea daily life (including missionary and church activ- Evangelical Mission and, based on the China In- ities), events surrounding the war triggered land Mission model, extended its missionary out- shock waves of tumultuous social change reach to the Solomon Islands. throughout the Pacific, which often led to the New Guinea, the largest island in Oceania, was dramatic phenomenon of adjustment move- the last to be approached by missionaries. By the ments (cf. Forman, 1982, 154–63; see also Cargo end of the nineteenth century, only the coastal Cults). area had been touched. Appropriately the LMS, In the political arena, no sooner had colonial the pioneer missionaries of the Pacific, began on rule shifted in some islands through postwar ne- the south coast in 1871, and MSC on Yule Island gotiations, then there were initial steps toward in 1885. When the British established a protec- political independence. A stronger call for torate on part of New Guinea in 1884, it was the church independence followed and missionaries first case in Oceania of a colonial government in general took a more supportive backseat role. taking the initiative to invite missionaries—in The Pacific Council of Churches was established this case, the Methodists and Anglicans from in 1966. Also, many new religious groups were Australia. Germany annexed the northeastern entering Oceania after World War II (cf. Ernst). part of the island in 1884 and one Catholic and By 1980, most of the larger churches of Ocea- two Protestant missionary agencies came from nia had achieved independence and were send- Germany: the Society of the Divine Word, Rhen- ing missionaries to other parts of the world. For ish Missionary Society, and Neuendettelsau Mis- example, the churches with an LMS background sion Society. are now joined together through the Council for By 1900, Christianity was just beginning in World Mission. The Pacific is probably “the most Melanesia, but in the rest of Oceania national solidly Christian part of the world” (Forman, churches for whole island groups were estab- 1982, 227), out of which “the regional concentra- lished and sent out their own missionaries. Pa- tion of evangelicals in the Pacific (17.6% of the cific islanders played a major role in the world Christian population) is the highest worldwide” missionary movement (cf. Tippett), as did the (Ernst, 1994, 11). However, Pacific Islander young immigrant churches of Australia and New Christians are facing new challenges today as Zealand. each generation strives to respond to the contin- As for the issue of mission and politics, mis- ual call of God’s mission. sionaries in eastern and central Oceania had ar- Roger Schroeder rived before the colonial powers and were very Bibliography. J. A. Boutilier, D. T. Hughes, and S. W. influential in precolonial political developments. Tiffany, eds., Mission, Church and Sect in Oceania; Most missionaries did not initially favor colonial L. M. Douglas, ed., World Christianity: Oceania; M. annexation, but many later changed this stance. Ernst, Winds of Change: Rapidly Growing Religious Eventually, Tonga would be the only island na- Groups in the Pacific Islands; C. W. Forman, The Island tion to avoid colonial rule. In Melanesia, mis- Churches of the South Pacific: Emergence in the Twenti- sionaries for the most part arrived after colonial eth Century; J. Garrett, To Live among the Stars: Chris- annexation. tian Origins in Oceania; idem, Footsteps in the Sea: The years between 1900 and 1942 marked a Christianity in Oceania to World War II; N. Gunson, Messengers of Grace: Evangelical Missionaries in the period of relative stability for most island peo- South Seas, 1797–1860; C. Miller, ed., Missions and ples and churches and it has even been called Missionaries in the Pacific; A. R. Tippett, The Deep Sea “the high point in the life and influence of South Canoe: The Story of Third World Missionaries in the Pacific Christianity” (Forman, 1982, 11). Al- South Pacific; D. L. Whiteman, Melanesians and Mis- though colonial rule had somewhat curtailed the sionaries: An Ethnohistorical Study of Social and Reli- earlier influence of the church in island societies gious Change in the Southwest Pacific. in eastern and central Oceania, other influences from outside the area were not too intrusive. Orphanage Work in Christian Missions. Per- Movements toward establishing independent haps no other work in Christian missions has churches began in Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji. At commanded so deep an emotional response to this same time, Christian missionary efforts were people as has care for children who have no slowly but steadily making progress in Melane- place to call their home. The plight of Korean sia. The most significant newcomer to the mis- children during and after the Korean conflict sionary field during this period was the Assem- (1949–51) and the work of Robert Pierce on their blies of God. behalf not only raised the awareness of Western 78 Pierson, Arthur Tappan

Christians to parentless children there, but also strategy in the book. The same can be said of was the primary impetus for the establishment Thomas Gamble’s description of the establish- of World Vision International. ment of George Whitfield’s Bethesda (House of The beginnings of orphanage work in Chris- Mercy). Here you find no hint of winning people tian missions, however, extend much farther to Christ through philanthropy. Rather, you find back into the history of Christian missions. In- work springing from the well of deep compas- deed one could cite more than seven hundred sion for the plight of children and others. references in Scripture concerning children as Thomas N. Wisely an indication of their importance to God, and Bibliography. T. Gamble, Bethesda: An Historical hence to the religion that would spring from Sketch of Whitefield’s House of Mercy; N. Gaston, George worship of him. A representative text of Jesus is Muller and His Orphans; M. S. LaBaree, A Child in the known to many people. He said, “Let the little midst; A. T. Pierson, George Muller of Bristol; M. Wang, children come to me, and do not hinder them, Precious Jewels. for the kingdom of heaven belongs to such as these” (Matt. 19:14). Palmer, Phoebe Worrall (1807–74). American Throughout the early history of the church revivalist. Phoebe Worrall was born in New York Christian compassion focused upon the plight of City to Methodist parents, her father having been children. A representative sermon/essay by Cot- converted under John Wesley’s ministry. In ton Mather reflects this emphasis and is likely 1827, she married Walter Palmer, a New York the source for the term “orphanage.” In his essay physician. She did evangelistic work in the slums (c. 1711) he spoke of orphanages as “orphanotro- of New York, founded the Hedding Church there, pheism,” as “the care taken in the divine Provi- and in 1850 established the Five Points Mission, dence for children when their parents forsake a forerunner of later settlement houses. In 1835, them.” Need for such care was caused by the ter- she began the “Tuesday Meeting for the Promo- rible conditions of the Industrial Revolution tion of Holiness” and soon became a leading when parents were thrown into debtors’ prisons spokesperson for Holiness Theology. Her eigh- and children were forced to work in crude facto- teen books include Promise of the Father (1859), ries, leaving many children without homes or and what was her most significant work, The parents (see Pierson, also Gaston). Way of Holiness (1843). She also edited the Guide Elsewhere on the globe, orphanages did not to Holiness periodical from 1864 to 1874. Palmer develop until the nineteenth century due in large modified Wesley’s doctrine of perfectionism by part to the lack of any need for them. Asia, Af- arguing that sanctification was instantaneous rica, and Latin America were mostly nonindus- upon one’s complete submission at the altar. God trial regions, depending upon agriculture but would then send a baptism of the Holy Spirit, with high infant mortality rates. The need for which empowered the believer to live a life of ho- children and stable cohesive social structures liness and witness effectively. She participated in provided a relatively secure social and family ar- over three hundred revival meetings throughout rangement for them, except for conditions of the United States, Canada, and Great Britain. war. This picture changed with the coming of in- She also was heavily involved in humanitarian dustrial economies and the establishment of causes and in the struggle for women’s rights, urban centers. but is best known for her emphasis on holiness. China is a case in point. There, feudal wars Timothy K. Beougher and terrible climatic conditions (famine, floods, Bibliography. H. E. Raser, Phoebe Palmer: Her Life etc.) left families economically impoverished and and Thought; C. E. White, The Beauty of Holiness: malnourished and children homeless. To meet Phoebe Palmer as Theologian, Revivalist, Feminist, and these conditions missionaries, often women, Humanitarian; R. Wheatley, The Life and Letters of Mrs. took up the burden, established homes, or sim- Phoebe Palmer. ply took in a wandering child, and then another and another, until finally an orphanage, de facto, Pierson, Arthur Tappan (1837–1911). American was founded (see Wang). minister, theological writer, and missionary The words “strategy” and “missionary method” spokesman. Hailed as the greatest popularizer of seem oddly out of place when speaking of or- missions of his age and one who revolutionized phanages in missionary work. Such terms ap- missionary literature, he was born in New York pear crass and manipulative, giving the appear- City and educated at Hamilton College (1857) ance of “using” pain and loss for the purposes of and Union Theological Seminary, New York proselytism. Nor do such terms reflect the spirit (1860). After ordination in the Presbyterian of such efforts. Mary Schauffler LaBaree writes Church, he served pastorates in Binghampton with a keen intellect and deep feeling and convic- and Waterford (N.Y.), Detroit, and Philadelphia tion about the plight of children in Persia, and until 1889. An extended stay in Great Britain had the significance of her work and ministry is un- him preaching at the Metropolitan Tabernacle of surpassed. Yet, there is not a hint of missionary C. H. Spurgeon for a period of two years and lec- 79 Pietism turing at New College (Edinburgh). From 1895 listeners to erudite sermons that focused more on to 1901, he was the president of A. J. Gordon’s fine points of doctrine than edification. Spener Missionary Training School (now Gordon Col- encouraged the formation of small groups for lege, Wenham, Mass.). prayer, Bible study, and the reading of devotional Pierson sustained a lifelong commitment to works. This concept of the church within the world evangelization. For twenty-four years he church, which was not intended to be divisive, was the editor of The Missionary Review of the spread widely within and beyond Germany de- World, spoke at numerous conferences promot- spite bitter criticism. In 1675 Spener published ing missions, and wrote extensively on the sub- an introduction to a new edition of Arndt’s work. ject. In 1886, at the D. L. Moody sponsored con- In Pia Desideria (Pious Desires) he called for the ference in Mount Hermon, New York, Pierson reform of Christian society through six means: gave a keynote address on missions to a group of (1) more extensive use of the Scriptures; 251 students from 89 colleges across the country. (2) greater participation by the laity; (3) the prac- From this the Student Volunteer Movement tice of love in everyday life; (4) an attitude of love arose in 1888, along with its watchword “the in controversies; (5) stress on piety as well as evangelization of the world in this generation.” scholarship in theological schools; and (6) theo- Pierson’s address “God’s Providence in Modern logical education that taught that preaching was Missions” was later revised and published in vol- to save souls, not just demonstrate scholarship. ume 6 of The Fundamentals. Among Pierson’s Thus pietism focused on the need for conversion, protégés were such mission giants as Robert E. commitment, and personal trust in Christ, an au- Speer, John R. Mott, and Samuel Zwemer. thentic Christian life, and the ministry of the Author of over fifty books, Pierson is best re- laity. membered as one of the original editors of the The Lutheran orthodoxy of the day denied that Scofield Reference Bible (1909), and author of the Great Commission was still in effect. Mission such mission-related books as George Müller of belonged to God, who needed no human helpers Bristol, The Crisis of Missions, The Miracles of (see Lutheran Missions). Furthermore, there Missions, Forward Movements of the Last Half was no place for mission structures. Thus mis- Century, and God and Missions Today. sionary work was seen as unnecessary and even Walter A. Elwell suspect. Earlier in the century Baron Justinian von Weltz had appealed to the Lutheran Church Bibliography. D. L. Pierson, Arthur T. Pierson; J. K. in Germany to undertake missionary work. He Maclean; Dr. Pierson and His Message; D. L. Robert; was called a fanatic and rejected. Pietism, on the ML, pp. 28–36. other hand, reaffirmed the Great Commission as universally valid and taught that Christians must Pietism. Along with Puritanism and the move- accept responsibility for proclaiming the gospel ments to which they gave birth, pietism led to to all persons everywhere. the first Protestant missionary effort and became August Hermann Francke (1663–1727) became the catalyst for the wider Protestant missionary the second leader of the movement. Through the movement of the following centuries. An effort efforts of Spener he was appointed professor of to continue and deepen the work of the Refor- theology at the University of Halle in 1691, and mation, pietism focused on the renewal of the became pastor of the church in nearby Glaucha Christian life at a time when Lutheran orthodoxy the following year. He believed that converted emphasized belief in correct doctrine alone. and transformed individuals would renew the Seeking the conversion of individuals, the re- church and society. He was instrumental in es- newal of the church, and the transformation of tablishing schools for poor children including society, the movement had arisen in German Lu- girls, as well as an orphanage. His vision also led theranism shortly after the Thirty Years’ War left him to focus on world mission. He established a the country in a disastrous situation physically, Bible institute to print and distribute Bibles in- economically, and spiritually. Poverty, ignorance, expensively. This was the first institution with and violence were common, and class distinc- the goal of bringing the Scriptures to every part tions were great. of the world. His projects were supported by Philip Spener (1635–1705) is generally consid- faith alone and became the model for the or- ered the founder of pietism, but it had a number phanages of George Müller in Bristol, England, of roots in Germany and elsewhere. Johannes which then became the model for the faith prin- Arndt’s True Christianity (1606–9) was significant, ciple of the China Inland Mission. and as a student in Strasbourg, Spener was influ- Francke’s mission involvement was extensive. enced by Puritan and Reformed writers. Ap- He sent Henry Muhlenberg and others to the pointed as senior pastor in Frankfurt in 1666, North American colonies, where they organized Spener found the church in a deplorable state. Lutheran churches among German immigrants. Drunkenness and immorality were common He sent missionaries to the Baltic states, where among the laity, who were expected to be passive they worked for the renewal of Lutheran com- 80 Pietism munities. Pietist influence was important in sponded with Anglicans, including the arch- bringing a deeper life to the churches in the bishop of Canterbury, and the New England Scandinavian countries as well and would be the Congregationalist leader Cotton Mather. Their source of most Scandinavian mission societies. correspondence went beyond denominational In 1706, influenced by his pietist chaplain, controversies and focused on the need for world King Frederick IV of Denmark decided to send evangelization. Anton Boehm, a court preacher missionaries to his colony in Tranquebar, India. in London, translated pietist writings and was Two young men from the University of Halle, influential in the expansion of the missionary vi- Bartholemaeus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich sion of the Anglican Society for the Propagation Plütschau, agreed to go. Plütschau returned in of Christian Knowledge (SPCK). The SPCK 1711, but Ziegenbalg remained, with one brief made Ziegenbalg and Francke corresponding visit to Europe, until his death in 1719. This was members, and a Copenhagen/London/Halle Alli- the first Protestant missionary effort outside of ance for Mission was formed. Francke also Europe, with the exception of the Calvinist mis- showed interest in mission to North American sion to Brazil in 1555. Despite the hostility of the Indians. Thus pietism was the first Protestant Danish community and its chaplains, the higher movement that focused both on mission and on Indian castes and Roman Catholics, and harass- ecumenical ­relationships. ment from the governor, Ziegenbalg accom- Further influence of pietism came through the plished much during his short life. His mission- Moravians, who served as an even wider catalyst ary approach anticipated many methods that for mission. Pietism along with Puritanism also came later. He established schools to educate laid the foundation for the eighteenth-century Christian children and develop leadership. In the evangelical awakenings in North America, Brit- belief that Christians needed the Scriptures in ain, and the continent. These awakenings broad- their own language, he translated the New Testa- ened the Protestant missionary movement (see ment and part of the Old into Tamil before he Great Awakenings). Theodore Frelinghuysen, a died. He was convinced that missionaries needed Dutch Reformed pietist, was the initial leader of to understand the Worldview and religious be- the first Great Awakening, which began in New liefs and practices of the people. Thus he wrote Jersey in 1726. That movement spread to New on aspects of Hinduism. As a pietist, his aim was England in 1734 and up and down the Atlantic personal conversion, but he also worked to estab- coast under its better-known leaders, Jonathan lish an Indian church with its own pastors. The Edwards, Gilbert Tennent, and George White- first Indian pastor was ordained in 1733. About field. It would eventually lead to the founding of sixty missionaries went from Halle to India the American Board of Commissioners for For- during the eighteenth century, and the work was eventually taken over by the Anglican Society for eign Missions (ABCFM) in 1810. Susanna Wes- the Propagation of Christian Knowledge. ley was motivated to a deeper Christian­ life The influence of pietism on the total mission- through reading the accounts of the Dan- ary movement was great. Ziegenbalg’s visit to Eu- ish-Halle missionaries in India. As a result, she rope in 1714 resulted in the establishment of the began to spend an hour each week with her chil- College of Missions in Copenhagen, where Mora- dren, John and Charles among them, to nurture vian missionaries would later study, and the them in their Christian faith. The influence of founding at Halle of the first Protestant student the Moravians on the conversion and subsequent mission movement, the Order of the Mustard ministry of John and Charles Wesley is well Seed. This was led by Nicolas Ludwig von known. Zinzendorf, who later became the leader of the The wave of revivals on both sides of the Atlan- Moravians (see Moravian Missions). All of this tic in the eighteenth century led to the establish- activity built on Francke’s vision for mission, ment of a number of missionary societies and to which encompassed the whole world. He believed the Great Century of Mission. In Britain the that the earth would eventually be transformed Baptist Missionary Society (1792), the London through godly people serving God and their Missionary Society (1795), the Scottish societies neighbors, proclaiming Christ, and working to re- in Edinburgh and Glasgow (1796), the Church lieve poverty and oppression. His concern for the Missionary Society (1799), the Religious Tract poor and emphasis on education as a means of Society (1799), and the British and Foreign Bible social transformation were outgrowths of his the- Society (1804) were formed. On the Continent ology. The intellectual and spiritual leader of mis- the Netherlands Society (1797), the Basel Mis- sions, he was the first to inspire Christians in Eu- sion (1815), and the Berlin Missionary Society rope to pray for and support missionaries, a (1824) were established. These early Protestant radically new concept at that time. missionary societies could all trace their roots in Because of its focus on conversion and heart one way or another back to the pietist impulse religion rather than theological controversies, that came from Halle. pietism was broadly ecumenical. Francke corre- Paul E. Pierson 81 Polynesia

Bibliography. J. Aberly, An Outline of Missions; three children to Tonga, Tahiti, and the Marque- D. Brown, Understanding Pietism; G. Sattler, God’s sas. Four were ordained and the rest were arti- Glory, Neighbor’s Good; J. A. Scherer, Gospel, Church sans, reflecting the influence of Thomas Haweis and Kingdom. who believed Polynesians needed to be civilized in British ways as part of their evangelization. Polynesia. Polynesia covers a vast triangular The missionaries were ill-prepared. Of the ten area of the Pacific Ocean stretching from Hawaii taken to Tonga in April 1797, three were killed, in the north to New Zealand in the southwest and one “went native,” and the remainder abandoned Easter Island in the east. The term “Polynesia” the mission in 1800. refers to the “many islands” settled by people In Tahiti, where they arrived on March 5, who originated in Asia and began entering the 1797, the missionaries were confronted by a so- Pacific from west to east c. 1000 b.c. Described as ciety undergoing political and religious turmoil, “Polynesians” by nineteenth-century scholars, the in which they were valued for giving access to people were great seafarers who shared a com- European goods rather than the Christian mes- mon linguistic and cultural heritage which took sage. Progress in learning Tahitian was slow, on distinctive characteristics as they separated most of the missionaries abandoned their work, and migrated to different areas. Societies were and communication and support from England ruled over by chiefs who inherited status and were difficult. Pomare II, a leading chief, re- rank, although this varied from the significant quested baptism in 1812, but this was delayed kingdoms like Tonga and Hawaii, to large tribal until 1819 because of missionary anxiety about units in Tahiti and small tribes in atoll settle- his behavior. Literacy and the printed text, par- ments. Warrior traditions were strong and in- ticularly the Bible, People Movements, Power ter-tribal conflicts in the pursuit or defense of Encounters, the surrender of idols, and the in- mana, prestige or power, were frequent. Religious fluence of chiefs were important in the rapid beliefs varied with “departmental gods” promi- movement of Tahitians toward Christianity after nent in eastern Polynesia while Tongans and Sa- 1815. Similar developments occurred elsewhere moans gave more significance to local spirits. in Polynesia. Christianity spread through Tahiti While there were common features and names within Polynesian mythology and cosmology, and the surrounding islands, often through in- they were accented by particular emphases and digenous agency. Missionaries, in cooperation influenced by geographical location. Rituals and with the chiefs, attempted to control moral and practices were clearly defined and priests or spe- political behavior through codes of law and were cialists gave leadership in both spiritual and often disappointed at what they called “backslid- practical areas of life. Sacred spaces were set ing.” aside as places for rituals with, in some areas, The expansion of Christianity throughout the special buildings. Concepts such as tapu, with its Pacific owes a great deal to John Williams who sense of holy or sacred, could be applied to peo- began at Moorea in 1817 and shifted to Raiatea ple, places, and behavior and influenced the in 1818. He emphasised morality and the acqui- whole of life. Polynesians believed in an after-life sition of practical skills like carpentry and where the spirits of the dead lived, although for boat-building and attacked what he saw as Pa- Tongans this was limited to those of high rank. cific indolence. Visitors from Rurutu were re- There was no sense of punishment and rewards. turned with two Raiatean teachers to their home There was a close relationship between people, island where they effected the conversion of the land, and the sea. their people. In 1821 Williams took two Raiate- The first European contact with Polynesia was ans, Papeiha and Vahapata, to Aitutaki in the made by voyagers such as Magellan (1521), Cook Islands where by 1823 they had achieved Mendaña (1567–68, 1595), and Quiros (1606). Al- quick success. Papeiha was taken to Mangaia in though motivated by Christian as well as materi- 1823 but was withdrawn after a hostile recep- alistic ambitions their impact was limited. Dutch tion. Williams then took him to Rarotonga and in the seventeenth century and French and Brit- when Papeiha was visited in 1825, the mission- ish explorers in the eighteenth century, notably ary was astonished at the progress he had made. James Cook, mapped the Pacific and through Two teachers were taken to Mangaia in 1824 and their writings made its islands and people better within a few months many had accepted Christi- known in Europe. anity. Williams, Charles Pitman, and their fami- This new knowledge, combined with the eigh- lies went to reside in Rarotonga in 1827. Wil- teenth-century evangelical revivals in Great Brit- liams began translating the Bible into Cook ain, created considerable interest in the evangeli- Island Maori and introduced a code of laws. zation of the Pacific. The London Missionary With limited resources he built the Messenger of Society, founded in 1795, chose the Pacific as its Peace and with it was actively involved in visiting first sphere of work. In 1796 they dispatched the other islands, stationing islanders, and giving Duff with thirty missionaries, five wives, and them support. Aaron Buzacott started a theolog- 82 Polynesia ical institution, Takamoa, on Rarotonga in 1839 tance of Christianity in most areas resulted from to train “native agents.” indigenous evangelism, the impact of literacy, In 1839 Williams visited the Wesleyan mission- power encounters, people movements, and the aries, Turner and Cross, in Tonga and it was significant role of chiefs. Missionaries intro- agreed that the Methodists should concentrate duced strict observance of Sunday, encouraged on Tonga and Fiji and the LMS would take re- peacemaking between tribes, and codes of law sponsibility for Samoa. Accompanied by Fauea, which blurred the distinction between church a Samoan, Williams went to Samoa where he and state. Indigenous movements such as Ma- was well received by Malietoa, the leading Sa- maia in Tahiti and Sio Vili in Samoa and the re- moan chief. Tahitian teachers were left in Ma- vival of traditional customs such as tatooing in- lietoa’s care. When Williams returned to Samoa dicate that the acceptance of Christianity did not in 1832 with additional teachers, he was im- always meet the missionaries’ expectations. pressed with the progress. In 1834 the first Euro- Catholic beginnings in Polynesia were closely peans, Platt and Wilson, were stationed in associated with French missionary expansion Samoa. A training institution was established at and drew a hostile reaction from the Protestant Malua in 1844. The New Testament in Samoan missionaries. Eastern Polynesia was assigned to was completed in 1848 and the Old Testament in the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus 1855. and Mary. Missionaries were landed at Tahiti in Attempts by Williams to land teachers at Niue 1836, the Marquesas in 1839, the Cook Islands in in 1830 resulted in the first of several rejections. 1894. The Society of Mary entered Western Poly- In 1846 two Niueans, Peniamina and Fakafi- nesia under the leadership of Bishop J. B. F. tiniu, who were converted in Samoa, returned to Pompallier in 1837. Pierre Bataillon quickly con- Niue and in 1849 Paulo, a Samoan, joined them. verted Wallis (Uvea) and, after the murder of W. G. Lawes, the first European resident mis- Pierre Chanel on Futuna in 1841, the people ac- sionary, arrived in 1861 and by 1868 he had cepted Catholicism. Returning Tongan Catholics translated the New Testament. Initial LMS en- from Wallis and disaffected anti-Methodist fami- deavors in the Tokelau islands in 1858 also met lies became the basis of “Lotu Popi,” Tongan Ca- with opposition and the first missionaries, a tholicism, and their first resident priests arrived Tokelauan converted in Samoa and two Samoan in 1842. The Vicariate of Western Oceania was teachers, were accepted in 1861. set up in 1842. Catholic missionaries arrived in LMS teachers from Tahiti arrived in Tonga in Samoa in 1845. Tokelauns were introduced to 1822, the same year that Walter Lawry and his Catholicism at Wallis and took it back to their wife Mary, the first Methodist missionaries, set- own people in 1861. tled on Tongatapu. Lawry abandoned Tonga in Missionary activity in Polynesia had ambigu- 1823, but in 1826 John Thomas and John ous colonial connections. Only Tonga retained Hutchinson resumed the Methodist work. The its independence. Shirley Baker, a Methodist baptisms of leading chiefs, Aleamotu’a in 1830, missionary (1860–79) who drafted the country’s Taufa’ahau in 1831, and Finau in 1832 and a re- Constitution, together with the King established vival in Vava’u in 1834 encouraged the rapid ac- the Free Church of Tonga in 1885 which sepa- ceptance of Christianity. There was some resis- rated from the Wesleyans who retained links tance among rival families which resulted in civil with the Australasian Conference until their re- war. Methodists promoted the first code of laws union in 1924. The French protectorate accepted in 1839 and the recognition of Taufa’ahua, as by Tahitian chiefs in 1842 emerged out of French King George Tupou I in 1845 consolidated the naval intervention in support of Catholic mis- Methodist dominance in Tonga. sionaries. George Pritchard, British consul in Ta- Despite the agreement with the LMS over hiti and former LMS missionary, was deported Samoa, “Lotu Tonga,” or Christianity in a Meth- in 1844 because of his attempts to provoke Tahi- odist form, had already reached Samoa through tian opposition to the French. a chief who had been in Tonga before Williams’ Seventh-Day Adventists and Latter Day Saints first visit. Peter Turner was sent to oversee Meth- (Mormons) also entered Polynesia in the nine- odism in Tonga in 1835, but following LMS pro- teenth century. Protestants throughout Polyne- tests was withdrawn in 1839. Support from Ton- sia, Samoa apart, maintained a Comity policy gans ensured the continuation of Samoan trying to avoid competition. Anglican church Methodism and in 1857 the Australasian Meth- members in Tonga, recruited by a disenchanted odist Conference sent Martin Dyson to superin- Shirley Baker, were taken over in 1902 by Alfred tend this work. George Brown joined him in Willis, former Bishop of Hawaii, but their group 1860 and made a notable contribution. A district remained small. training college was started in 1864 and in 1868 Some one thousand Polynesian missionaries, was transferred to Lufilufi and called Piula. starting from Williams’ visit to the New Hebrides Protestant beginnings in the Pacific were (Vanuatu) in 1839, as catechists, teachers, and marked by initial opposition but the rapid accep- ministers, along with their wives, made signifi- 83 Postmillennialism cant contributions to the evangelization of Mela- that is—will be christianized at a future, pres- nesia. Their training was limited, although Tupou ently unknown time. Christ will return at the end College in Tonga under James Moulton reached of the millennium, an age of unknown duration high standards. Indigenous ministry was pro- marked by justice and peace. The new age will moted by Protestant missions although control of not be essentially different from the present and the church remained in the paternalistic hands of will come about as more people are converted to European missionaries and missionary societies Christ. The postmillennialist view is the only one until well after the Second World War. of the three significant eschatologies based di- The LMS churches gained their independence rectly on the charter of Christianity, the Great in the Cook Islands in 1945, in Samoa in 1962, Commission (Matt. 28:19–20), interpreting it not and in Niue in 1972. LMS work in French Poly- only as a command, but also as a promise and as nesia was taken over by the Paris Evangelical prophecy. Missionary Society in 1863 and gained its full The roots of modern Protestant world mis- independence in 1963. Samoan Methodism be- sions lie to a great extent in the work of Calvin- came an autonomous Conference in 1964. Ton- ist, Puritan, postmillennial preachers in England gan Methodism separated from the Australian and America, as well as that of Lutheran, pietist, Conference in 1970 and its first indigenous pres- postmillennial pastors in Germany. ident, Sione “Aminaki Havea,” was elected in The first modern Anglo-Saxon missionaries 1971. Samoa and Tonga became Catholic dio- (preaching to indigenous American Indians) ceses in 1967 and Pio Taofinu’u, a Samoan, were motivated by a Calvinist, postmillennial bishop of Samoa in 1968 and a cardinal in 1973. hope. That postmillennial expectations led to the Patelesio Finau, a Tongan, became bishop of his establishment of practical missionary activity is homeland in 1972. true not only for Calvinist Anglicans, Presbyteri- Christianity has penetrated all aspects of life ans, and Congregationalists, but also for Calvin- throughout Polynesia and in its different denom- ist Baptists such as William Carey whose major inational forms contributes to the identity of work, “An Enquiry into the Obligations of Chris- both people and their country. Daily family wor- tians . . .” (1792), initiated the final awakening of ship, both morning and evening, and participa- Protestant missions. Postmillennial expectations tion in services throughout the week and partic- can be discovered in the sermons held at the ularly on Sunday are the norm for village life in founding of the London Missionary Society in most parts of Polynesia. Churches have made 1795, of the New York Missionary Society in notable contributions to education at the pri- 1797, of the Glasgow Missionary Society in 1802, mary and secondary levels and through theologi- and to a certain extent of the Church Missionary cal institutions. Society in 1799. Many Calvinist mission leaders Considerable pressure is placed on small Pa- such as John Eliot, Alexander Duff, David Liv- cific societies by forces such as nuclear testing, ingstone, Henry Martyn, Rufus Anderson, and external migration, secularization, the impact of Henry Venn expressed a postmillennial hope. television, economic pressures, and material val- American and British revival movements were ues. The division of Christianity as a result of pen- seen as the first indications of a wider wave of tecostal and fundamentalist groups and the prolif- conversion, expected to soon engulf the whole eration of groups such as Latter Day Saints and earth. Not only Jonathan Edwards, but also En­ Jehovah’s Witnesses challenge small communi- glish (Isaac Watts, Philipp Doddridge) and Scot- ties. Polynesian Christianity, however, finds vi- tish theologians (John Willision, John Erskin) brant expression in song and dance and the lan- related postmillennial hope to revival and to the guage of Pacific peoples. Through migration idea of missions. Polynesian Christianity is significant in New Zea- The close relationship between postmillennial- land, Australia and the west coast of the United ism and missions can be traced through the ideas States. of the Reformed Puritans of America and En­ Allan K. Davidson gland back to the optimism of the Reformed Bibliography. C. W. Forman, The Island Churches of theologians John Calvin, Ulrich Zwingli, the South Pacific; J. Garrett, To Live Among the Stars: Theoldor Bibliander, Martin Bucer, Peter Martyr, Christian Origins in Oceania; idem, Footsteps in the and Theodor Beza, even though none of them ex- Sea: Christianity in Oceania to World War II. pressed a postmillennial system. This had, how- ever, already occurred in the Reformation period Postmillennialism. Postmillennialists believe in England, then by leading Puritan theologians that the kingdom of God is already being realized such as John Cotton, John Owen, Matthew in the present age through the proclamation of Henry, and Samuel Rutherford. For all of these the gospel and the saving influence of the Holy Reformed thinkers since the Reformation, the Spirit. As a result, the whole world—the majority kingdom of God still had a long period of time of the members of all nations including Israel, before it, in contrast to the immediate expecta- 84 Power Encounter tions of the end of the world of Lutheran ortho- Millennium and the Future of Israel: Puritan Eschatol- doxy. ogy 1600–1660. It is therefore not surprising that postmillenni- alism, with its emphasis on reaching all peoples Power Encounter. The term “power encounter” with the gospel, has been integrated only into was coined by Fuller missiologist Alan Tippett to Reformed confessions of faith (Calvin’s Genevan label an event commonly experienced by the peo- Catechism, 268–270, Larger Catechism of West- ples of the South Pacific as they converted to minster, 191, Congregationalist Savoy Declara- Christianity. Tippett noted that people usually tion 1658, art. 26.5). Postmillennialism offers the had come to Christ in large groupings (“People best explanation as to why the dogma of double Movements”) soon after a major confrontation predestination should not detract from missions that tested the power of their ancestral gods but supports them. against that of the Christian God, resulting in an Rufus Anderson was the first theologian to obvious victory for the latter. These encounters again emphasize the love for the lost as motiva- were reminiscent of the scriptural encounters be- tion for missions rather than postmillennial ex- tween Moses and Pharaoh (Exod. 7–12) and be- pectations, even though he clearly expressed a tween Elijah and the prophets of Baal (1 Kings postmillennial belief. As late as 1909, W. O. 18). Carver observed that the postmillennial view was South Pacific peoples were (and are) keenly still the most influential motivation for missions. aware of the presence, activity, and power of spir- Not until the end of the First World War did its. Their leaders were openly committed to the postmillennialism lose its preeminence. Follow- gods of their islands. They credited these gods ing Hudson Taylor it had, in the area of world with providing protection, food, fertility, and all missions, however, been gradually superseded by other necessities of life for them. But they also Faith Missions, which were strongly influenced lived in great fear of their anger and vengeance. by Premillennialism. To challenge the ancestral gods was unthinkable A missionary-minded postmillennialism for most South Pacific peoples. Nevertheless, in strongly emphasizing Old Testament Law became turning to Christ, often after years of weighing the prominent in Calvinist circles since the 1970s consequences, it was chiefs and priests, those who through the Christian Reconstruction movement, knew the gods and their power best, who chose to best represented by Kenneth L. Gentry’s book The challenge them. In doing so, they wagered that Greatness of the Great Commission. the Christian God had greater power than their Similar developments can be observed in Ger- gods and cast themselves completely on him for man-speaking evangelical missions, for Philipp protection from the revenge of their gods. Jakob Spener, and August Hermann Francke, A typical power encounter would involve a priest or chief, speaking on behalf of his people, the founders of German Pietism and its growing publicly denouncing their allegiance to their missions movement, based their activities on god(s) in the name of Jesus and challenging the postmillennial ideas. All of Spener’s works, in- god(s) to do something about it. When the god(s) cluding his major work Pia desideria (pious could not respond, the victory belonged to Jesus wishes) are characterized by expectations of a and large numbers of the people usually con- better future. He radically rejected the pessimis- verted. As Tippett noted, power-oriented people tic orthodox Lutheran interpretation of history require power proof, not simply reasoning, if including the expectation of Christ’s immediate they are to be convinced. return. Postmillennialism maintained its domi- The value and validity of an approach to evan- nant position in German pietism until Johann gelism that involves power confrontations is Albrcht Bengel began to combine premillennial- widely accepted today in missiological thinking ism with postmillennialism by teaching the idea and practice, since it is recognized that most of of two millennia. His pupils then completely re- the peoples of the world are power-oriented. Cur- jected postmillennialism in favor of premillenni- rent theorists, however, have expanded Tippett’s alism and taught that missions should not be original concept to include healing and deliver- carried out until the millennium (for example, ance from demons as power encounters. They Johann Tobias Beck [1804–71]). Many state see Jesus’ ministry as including numerous such church mission societies, such as the Basel Mis- power encounters. These encounters are usually sion (Theodor Oehler and , less spectacular than those Tippett described but, for example) continued to think in a postmillen- it is argued, qualify as genuine power encounters nial context. since they involve the pitting of the power of God Thomas Schirrmacher to bring freedom against the power of Satan to Bibliography. C. L. Chaney, The Birth of Missions in keep people in bondage. Furthermore, such America; K. L. Gentry, The Greatness of the Great Com- “signs and wonders” frequently result in the con- mission; I. Murray, The Puritan Hope: Revival and the version of families and even larger groups who Interpretation of Prophecy; P. Toon, ed., Puritans, the accept the healing or deliverance as demonstrat- 85 Power Ministries ing the presence and power of God. There is, have been trained by Westerners in Western-ori- however, some difference of opinion over ented institutions. whether such encounters should be planned or Both of these mind-sets were seriously chal- simply taken advantage of when they occur. lenged by evangelical leaders over the final two It is important to note that conversion through decades of the twentieth century. As a result ces- power encounter does not assure that the move- sationism has weakened in popularity. The major ment will be stable and enduring. Throughout work reflecting this is Jack Deere’s Surprised by the Scriptures we see that people can observe the Power of the Spirit (1993). Changes in West- God’s mightiest demonstrations of power but ern worldview are taking place more slowly ex- soon go right back to the gods who were de- cept in circles influenced by the charismatic feated. Thus it was both after Moses defeated movement, by the New Apostolic Reformation, Pharaoh and Elijah defeated the prophets of by missiologists, and by the New Age. The book Baal. So it has been in many of the power events which has been influential in helping evangeli- in the South Pacific and elsewhere. As always, cals think through the paradigm shift is the crucial dimension in conversion is what hap- Charles H. Kraft’s Christianity with Power: Your pens after the turning, whether people feed and World View and Your Experience of the Supernat- grow in their new relationship with Jesus Christ ural (1989). A consequence of this is that evan- or neglect it and let it die. gelical mission leaders, although not in one ac- Charles H. Kraft cord, are much more open to power ministries as a component of mission strategies than they Bibliography. C. H. Kraft, Christianity With Power; have been in the past. Of the many facets of M. G. Kraft, Understanding Spiritual Power; A. R. Tip- power ministries now being advocated and used pett, People Movements in Southern Polynesia; C. P. by evangelical missionaries, six may be noted as Wagner, Confronting the Powers. areas of particular significance. Supernatural Signs and Wonders. Jesus sent Power Ministries. Proactive involvement in his disciples out to preach the gospel of the king- power ministries has not been characteristic of dom of God accompanied by healing the sick, evangelical missions until recently. Two mind- casting out demons, and raising the dead. He sets which have been widespread among tradi- told them that, by the power of the Holy Spirit, tional evangelicals, including evangelical missi- they could expect to do even greater works than ologists, have made them very cautious about he did. In the framework of Third Wave think- participating in ministries that call upon the ing, John Wimber’s Power Evangelism (1993) has Holy Spirit to manifest outwardly the kinds of been very influential in this area. power ministries prominent in the Gospels and Prophecy. A frequent experience of the apos- Acts. (1) The first mind-set is the doctrine of ces- tles was to hear God speaking direct words to sationism, which postulates that certain gifts of them for instruction or admonition or comfort. the Holy Spirit which were in use by the apos- The gift of prophecy is mentioned in the lists of tles and first-century church leaders had been spiritual gifts in Romans 12 and 1 Corinthians given to the church only until the New Testa- 12. Recently, beginning particularly in the 1980s, ment canon had been completed at the end of many evangelicals have begun to accept not only the apostolic age, at which time they ceased and the gift of prophecy, but also the contemporary are no longer to be expected in the church. The office of prophet. Two works have been particu- power ministries being introduced into evangel- larly helpful in moving evangelicals out of the ical missiology today would be included, for the assumption that God does not exhibit any revela- most part, in the list of gifts which are thought tory activity today, namely, Wayne Grudem’s The to have ceased, and therefore cessationists could Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today not accept the validity of contemporary power (1988) and Jack Deere’s Surprised by the Voice of ministries. (2) The second mind-set among tra- God (1996). ditional evangelicals is a worldview suffering Strategic-Level Spiritual Warfare. Taking se- from what missiologist Paul G. Hiebert called riously the biblical assertion that a major obsta- the Flaw of the Excluded Middle. The Western cle to world evangelization is the fact that Satan, worldview, strongly influenced by scientific ra- the god of this age, has blinded the minds of un- tionalism, has a difficult time comprehending believers (see 2 Cor. 4:3–4), a number of evangel- just how the supernatural powers of the invisi- icals have argued that he does this by means of ble world can and do affect daily life of human dispatching high-ranking demonic beings, some- beings. The non-Western worldview deals with times referred to as Territorial Spirits, to keep such powers on a daily basis, and therefore is cities, nations, people groups, religious blocs, much more in tune with assumptions made by and other social networks in spiritual darkness. Old Testament and New Testament writers than They attempt to follow the lead of the apostle are many Westerners. Exceptions to this among Paul, who asserts that we do not wrestle against Third World leaders are generally those who flesh and blood but against principalities and 86 Premillennialism powers of darkness (Eph. 6:12). Under the guid- of the millennial kingdom vary according to dif- ance of the Holy Spirit, they use the weapons of ferent interpretations of the Bible. Although var- Spiritual Warfare, principally intercession, to ious interpretations of the second coming have neutralize these powers to the greatest extent existed throughout church history, modern pre- possible in order to prepare the way for the har- millennialism emerged during the mid-1800s vesters who are the missionaries, the church from British and American movements to inter- planters, the pastors, and the evangelists. The pret biblical prophecies literally. major apologetic for strategic-level spiritual war- While millennialism of different types has en- fare is C. Peter Wagner’s Confronting the Powers couraged missionary activity, premillennialism (1996), while the contrary position is expounded became a hallmark of evangelical missions from in Clinton Arnold’s 3 Crucial Questions about the late nineteenth century on. Prominent Amer- Spiritual Warfare (1997) (see also Powers, The) ican pastors, including A. B. Simpson, A. T. Pier- and Chuck Lowe’s Territorial Spirits and World son, A. J. Gordon, Dwight L. Moody, Martin Evangelization (1998). Wells Knapp, and C. I. Scofield, concluded from Spiritual Mapping. Prayer directed against their study of the Scriptures that preaching the the forces of the invisible world is seen to be gospel worldwide was vital preparation for more powerful if it is accurately targeted. The as- Christ’s second coming. With the second coming sumption is that the more we can discover about believed imminent, believers felt compelled to the devices of Satan (see 2 Cor. 2:11), the more evangelize non-believers, both to save all the vulnerable he and his forces become, and the souls they could before Christ’s return cut off op- less he will take advantage of us. Spiritual map- portunities for salvation, and to fulfill the condi- ping is said to be to the intercessor what X-rays tions outlined for his return in Matthew 24:14, are to the surgeon. One of the leading figures in “And this gospel of the kingdom will be preached advocating spiritual mapping is George Otis Jr., in the whole world as a testimony to all nations, whose principal works are The Last of the Giants and then the end will come.” Premillennial sup- (1991) and The Twilight Labyrinth (1997). port for missions gained a wide audience Identificational Repentance. Corporate re- through YMCA and Christian conventions, Bible pentance has been recognized as a principal studies, periodicals, and the best-selling book weapon of spiritual warfare. The enemy fre- Jesus is Coming (1878) by Chicago businessman quently keeps people blinded to the gospel be- William E. Blackstone. Jesus is Coming sold over cause unremitted corporate sins, both past and a million copies in forty-eight languages. present, provide what is the equivalent of a legal Premillennial thinking not only encouraged right for the powers of darkness to afflict whole verbal proclamation in denominational missions populations. Present generations can identify like the Presbyterians and Baptists, but it caused with and repent for corporate sins of their ances- the formation of numerous faith missions and tors, removing the legal right of the enemy and independent agencies from the 1880s to the pres- opening the way for the healing of national ent. Premillennialists tended to focus their ener- wounds, and for the expansion of God’s king- gies on evangelism rather than on teaching, dom. The chief textbook describing this principle medicine, or other aspects of Protestant mis- is John Dawson’s Healing America’s Wounds sions. Nondenominational faith missions such as (1994). the Africa Inland Mission and the Central Amer- Prayer Evangelism. While prayer has always ican Mission stressed cross-cultural evangelism played a role in the process of evangelization, among specific groups such as Jews, the un- some have felt that the potential power of prayer reached interiors of Africa and Asia, or nominal as a proactive evangelistic tool has been un- Catholic lands. When Pentecostalism emerged in derutilized. The major work arguing that prayer the early twentieth century, its adherents also ad- can be used as an evangelistic methodology, opted premillennial motivations for missions. rather than simply as a back up to other method- Early Pentecostals believed that the Holy Spirit ologies, is Ed Silvoso’s That None Should Perish had endowed the gifts of tongues to complete the (1994). task of world evangelization in preparation for C. Peter Wagner the second coming. For example, the Azusa Street Revival (1906–13) under pastor William J. Premillennialism. Belief that Jesus Christ will Seymour sent Pentecostal missionaries around return to earth in glory, ushering in a thou- the world (see Pentecostal Movement). sand-year reign of peace, after which a new During the twentieth century, premillennial- heaven and earth will replace the old ones, as ism remained a powerful motivation for world foretold in the Book of Revelation. The exact na- evangelization. For example, the Oriental Mis- ture of events such as the battle between the sionary Society (see OMS International) under forces of righteousness and the forces of Satan Charles and then Lettie Cowman stressed house- (the battle of Armageddon), the “rapture” of be- to-house evangelism of every villager in Japan, lievers to meet Christ in the air, and the features and later “Every Creature Crusades” in Latin 87 Reformation and Mission

America, hoping to proclaim the gospel to the their Anabaptist contemporaries have been entire world before Jesus’ return. Cameron praised for their missionary activity. This over- Townsend, founder of the Wycliffe Bible Trans- simplification distorts the true picture. Mission lators, believed that translating the Bible into in the Reformation was complex, and its form every language would help finish world evangeli- depended primarily on one’s understanding of zation and hasten the second coming. Founding the church. Luther adopted the medieval model student participants of the Urbana Missionary of a territorial church, with the prince taking the Conventions (1946) sought to complete the leadership of its reformation. Thus mission was Great Commission in preparation for the second seen as the re-establishment of the church in a coming. Premillennial motivations for mission given area on the foundation of Reformation the- received worldwide recognition when in 1974 ology and structure (see Lutheran Missions). three thousand evangelical leaders adopted the Calvin’s model was similar (see Calvinism). The Lausanne Covenant, which became a basic state- Anabaptist view of the church led to a different ment of faith for evangelical missions. The last understanding: all, Catholics and Protestants article of the Lausanne Covenant states, “We be- alike, are called into communities of adult bap- lieve that Jesus Christ will return personally and tized believers that are separated from the state. visibly, in power and glory, to consummate his Another factor was the rejection of monasti- salvation and his judgment. This promise of his cism by Protestants for theological reasons, even coming is a further spur to our evangelism, for though monastic communities had been the pri- we remember his words that the Gospel must mary vehicle of mission since the fourth century first be preached to all nations. We believe that (see Monastic Movement). This left Protestant the interim period between Christ’s ascension churches with no adequate structure for mission and return is to be filled with the mission of the beyond their own territories. As Lutheranism people of God, who have no liberty to stop be- and Calvinism struggled to survive in the chaotic fore the End” (see also Lausanne Movement). situation, the process of reformation and mis- As evangelicalism and Pentecostalism spread sion was mixed with politics and war. Many rul- throughout the non-Western world, many indig- ers accepted or rejected Protestantism for politi- enous Christians adopted premillennial motiva- cal motives, while others did so out of deep tions for missions, such as those expressed at the religious conviction. COMIBAM (Congreso Missionero Ibero Ameri- The ideas of the Reformers were spread first of cano) missions conference of Latin American all through their writings, taken from one part of evangelicals in 1987. Just as in the late 1800s Europe to another by scholars, but also by mer- when many American evangelical Christians chants and tradesmen who visited Reformation hoped to evangelize the world by the year 1900, centers and spread the new ideas. The most sig- an idea captured in the slogan “the evangeliza- nificant missionary activity of Lutherans and tion of the world in this generation,” so also in Calvinists took place through former students at the late 1900s evangelicals worldwide sought to Wittenberg or Geneva. Lutheranism was estab- complete the task of world evangelization by the lished in areas where the rulers accepted it, and year 2000. Under international leadership, the Bible translation was important in the process. AD 2000 and Beyond Movement held a series of This was true in the Scandinavian countries. global consultations to encourage “A Church for Hans Tausen, a leader of the Reformation in Every People and the Gospel for Every Person by Denmark, translated the New Testament in 1524. the Year 2000.” The idea of planting a church in Johannes Bugenhagen led the reorganization of every people group by the year 2000 carried pre- the Danish Church. The Reformation was intro- millennial overtones for many who believed that duced into Iceland by Oddur Gottskalkson, who world evangelization was a prerequisite for the translated the New Testament in 1540. Olaf and second coming. Lars Petersson were the leaders of the movement Dana L. Robert in Sweden. Michael Agricola led the Reforma- tion in Finland, translating the New Testament, Bibliography. D. Bryant, The Hope at Hand; J. A. the Psalms, and some of the prophets. Matthias Carpenter and W. R. Shenk, eds., Earthen Vessels. American Evangelicals and Foreign Missions, 1880– Devay began his ministry in Hungary in 1531, 1980; J. A. De Jong, As the Waters Cover the Sea. Millen- and along with Ganos Erdosy translated the New nial Expectations in the Rise of Anglo-American Mis- Testament into Magyar. Others took the Lu- sions 1640–1810; G. E. Ladd, The Blessed Hope. A theran Reformation to Poland, Moravia, and the Biblical Study of the Second Advent and the Rapture; Baltic states. All of them had studied in Ger- T. Weber, Living in the Shadow of the Second Coming. many, most of them in Wittenberg. American Premillennialism 1875–1925. Calvin was more intentional in encouraging mission. In some areas Calvinism became the re- Reformation and Mission. Sixteenth-century ligion of the state; in other areas local churches Lutherans and Calvinists have been criticized for were established amidst Persecution. Pastors showing little or no interest in mission, while were trained in Geneva and sent as missionaries; 88 Revival, Revivals many were martyred. The 161 pastors who went Definition. The word “revival” means to wake from Geneva to the Reformed churches of up and live. The basic idea of revival is the re- France were a Protestant counterpart to the So- turning of something to its true nature and pur- ciety of Jesus. The movement was taken to the pose. It is a special movement of the Spirit of Low Countries by Protestants fleeing from perse- God in which he renews the hearts of believers. cution in France. In 1561 Guido de Brès, who Earle Cairns defines revival as “the work of the had studied in Geneva, drafted the Belgic Con- Holy Spirit in restoring the people of God to a fession, which bound together the congregations more vital spiritual life, witness, and work by in the Low Countries. Calvinism exerted signifi- prayer and the Word after repentance in crisis cant influence on English Protestantism through for their spiritual decline” (1986, 22). refugees who studied in Geneva and Zurich The following points summarize this under- during the reign of Mary (1553–58) and then standing of revival. First, revival comes from took Reformation ideas back to Britain after her God. It is a work of the Holy Spirit. Second, re- death. John Knox established Presbyterianism in vival primarily affects believers, those who have Scotland; others laid the foundations of Puritan- already experienced spiritual life. Third, revival ism. The only Protestant mission outside of Eu- presupposes declension. Fourth, prayer and the rope in the sixteenth century was the Calvinist Scriptures are central in bringing and sustaining mission to Brazil in 1555, which eventually revival. Fifth, revival brings change, most specif- ended in betrayal and martyrdom. ically renewed spiritual life and witness. Isaiah’s The Anabaptists, beginning in Zurich in 1525, “revival” experience, described in Isaiah 6:1–8, spread their faith as they fled from persecution. serves as a paradigm for genuine revival. Isaiah They also intentionally sent out missionaries to encountered the presence of God and God’s holi- many areas of western Europe: southern Ger- ness overshadowed everything else. Isaiah recog- many, upper Austria, Moravia, Hungary, and the nized his sin and need for cleansing. This sense Low Countries. Many of their greatest leaders, of brokenness in the presence of a holy God is an including Jacob Hutter and Balthaser Hubmaier, important characteristic of genuine revival. In were burned at the stake. The Hutterites sent out Isaiah 5, we read of Isaiah pronouncing “woes” scores of missionaries, some designated as ser- on others six different times. He could clearly see vants of the Word, while others were ordinary the sin in others’ lives, and in his role as prophet brethren. Perhaps the most effective Anabaptist he forthrightly said, “Woe to you.” Yet when leader was Menno Simons, baptized as an adult overcome by a deep awareness of God’s holiness, in 1535; traveling widely in the Low Countries Isaiah is not pointing his finger at anyone else. and northern Germany, he organized communi- All he can say is, “Woe is me!” ties of believers. The Mennonite churches take When believers find themselves in the pres- their name from him. ence of a holy God during a time of revival, they Although the Reformers can be criticized for become acutely aware of even the smallest sin. an inadequate ecclesiology with little place for When God powerfully makes his presence mission in their church structure, they did lay known, anything out of keeping with his holiness the theological foundation for the later mission- is immediately brought to the surface. Sins ary movement. Calvin affirmed that God wills to which have been tolerated or excused as “little offer the gospel to all peoples without exception. things” are suddenly brought to light and the The Reformers also encouraged a considerable fear of exposure pales in comparison with the amount of missionary activity within western need for confession and cleansing. It is after conviction, repentance, and God’s Europe even as they struggled for survival. With cleansing that joy comes (cf. Ps. 51). Conviction the exception of the Calvinist expedition to Bra- followed by confession and repentance leads to a zil, Protestants would not be involved in mission freedom and joy in the experience of forgiveness. outside of Europe until the Puritans went to Na- Joy comes through God’s cleansing and ulti- tive Americans in the seventeenth century. mately leads to service. Paul E. Pierson The realization of being convicted and then Bibliography. C. P. Clasen, : A Social cleansed by a holy God will make one eager to History, 1525–1618; New Cambridge Modern History, respond in gratitude to the Lord’s call: “Here am vol. 2; H. J. Grimm, The Reformation Era, 1500 to 1650; I—send me!” Isaiah is available to God to be J. T. McNeill, The History and Character of Calvinism. used however God chooses. When the burden of unconfessed sin is lifted there is freedom and Revival, Revivals. The term “revival” means dif- willingness to serve. ferent things to different people. It has been used Distinguishing between Revival and Revival- to describe renewed spiritual life, a series of ism. Revival, seen as a synonym for spiritual evangelistic meetings, unbridled religious emo- awakening, should be distinguished from reviv- tionalism, wild frontier religion, and fanaticism. alism, which is generally identified with promi- How should the term be used? nent evangelists and mass evangelistic crusades 89 Revival, Revivals focused on reaching the lost with the gospel. De- faith in Christ. Second, revival also has impacted spite a close relationship between revival and missions through the raising up of laborers to go outreach, revival should not be seen as the same to the harvest fields of the world. As the Isaiah 6 thing as Evangelism or revivalism. Confusion passage reminds us, a revived Christian is a has resulted from using the terms “revival” and Christian who has been reawakened to mission. “revival meeting” for settings designed for One can point to several examples from church preaching the gospel to the lost. One could drive history to illustrate this point. by two different churches and see the following In the 1720s a powerful movement of revival signs: “Revival every Sunday night!” and “Revival began in Germany under the leadership of Count every night except Sunday!” Given this confused Nicholas von Zinzendorf that resulted in a usage of the term “revival,” one could be led to major missionary thrust for decades to come. the absurdity of saying, “We had a revival, but no The Moravian missionary movement began in one was revived!” 1732 with the sending out of two missionaries. Yet even though revival and evangelism are dif- During the next 150 years the Moravians would ferent in nature (as revival primarily deals with send out over two thousand missionaries to vari- God’s people whereas evangelism focuses on un- ous foreign fields. Among those influenced by believers), they both flow from the same source— Moravian missionaries was John Wesley. the Holy Spirit. During times of revival, people Wesley, along with George Whitefield, be- call on the name of the Lord to be saved. Workers came key leaders in the eighteenth-century evan- are raised up to go to the harvest fields of the gelical awakening in Great Britain. In addition to world. An awakened church is an evangelistic thousands of persons being converted, many or- church. An awakened believer is an evangelistic ganizations were formed to promote Christian believer. When revival truly comes, evangelism work in Great Britain and beyond. These groups will follow. Revival reminds us that methods, as included The Religious Tract Society (1799), The important and helpful as they are, must always British and Foreign Bible Society (1804), the remain secondary in importance to the presence London Missionary Society (1795), the Church and power of the Holy Spirit in the life of believ- Missionary Society (1799), and The Baptist Mis- ers. sionary Society (1792), which sent out William Revival and Missions. Revival has had a pro- Carey as its first missionary. The astonishing found impact on missions. First, tens of thou- missionary advance in the late 1700s and early sands have come to faith in Christ in great 1800s can be directly attributed to spiritual sweeping movements of the Holy Spirit around awaking. the globe. John Eliot’s ministry among Native In 1806, the famous Haystack Prayer Meeting Americans in Massachusetts and the Plymouth took place at Williams College in Massachusetts. Colonies from 1647 to 1670 saw extraordinary Samuel J. Mills, a freshman at the college, helped results through periods of revival. From 1837 to lead a group of five students who were praying for 1843 a movement of revival swept Hawaii, with revival on the campus. Being forced to seek shel- estimates as high as 20 percent of the population ter under the side of a large haystack during a being converted to faith in Christ. The 1858 storm, Mills challenged the others to join him in “Prayer Revival” saw scores of persons con- the task of taking the gospel to Asia. “We can do it verted, with estimates as high as one million if we will,” he said. He led the group in prayer, converts in the United States alone. Other coun- providing the impetus for what would eventually tries which saw many come to faith in Christ become an unprecedented thrust in foreign mis- during this period were Ireland, England, Scot- sions. Mills would soon play a major role in the land, Wales, South Africa, Scandinavia, Switzer- founding of the American Board of Commission- land, Germany, and Canada. ers for Foreign Missions (1810), the American The year 1860 saw revival in South India, the Bible Society (1816), and the American Coloniza- Ukraine, South Africa, and the Netherlands, tion Society (1816). Thus, a plaque at the site of while the following year a powerful awakening the Haystack Prayer Meeting bears the inscrip- took place in Jamaica. The awakening of 1903 tion, “The Birthplace of American Foreign Mis- and following saw thousands converted in Wales, sions.” the United States, China, Denmark, Finland, Ger- Other mission societies were formed during many, Korea, , Russia, Germany, and this period, including the New York Missionary Sweden. East Africa had a tremendous period of Society (1798), the American Baptist Foreign revival from 1927 to 1935, as did China from Mission Society (1814), the Methodist Episcopal 1927 to 1937, Ethiopia from 1936 to 1948, Indo- Foreign Mission Society (1819), the American nesia from 1953 to 1971, and Canada in 1971–72. Tract Society (1826), and the American Home This brief survey does not even begin to tell Missionary Society (1826). Awakenings at numer- the full story. Numerous other examples could be ous schools and colleges during this period re- cited of periods of awakening around the world. sulted in large numbers of students going to the During times of revival, thousands have come to mission field under the auspices of these newly 90 Ricci, Matteo formed societies. Missionaries were sent to exist- tions described in Matthew 24:5 and in Revela- ing fields, and new works were started in places tion 6–17 would become a reality. But out of this such as Hawaii, Indonesia, and Madagascar. adversity people’s thoughts would be turned to Following the 1858 Prayer Revival, a world- God. Many would acknowledge their need of a wide interdenominational student missionary Savior. movement began to flourish. In 1886, the Stu- The revival would sustain believers through dent Volunteer Movement was founded. This their affliction and bring them to the true beauty movement heightened missions awareness and of holiness. The church would be purified and over the next several decades helped recruit empowered for ministry. There would be a great some 20,000 students who went forth to serve on number of conversions as people cried out to the the mission field. Other significant organizations Lord. The revival would prepare the way for the that grew out of the 1858 Revival include the return of Christ as Matthew 24:14 would be ful- China Inland Mission (see Overseas Missionary filled (see End Times). Fellowship) and the African Inland Mission. In summary, while there is no consensus on The revival of 1904 and following brought the the likelihood of a coming world revival or on its call of missions to many, including E. Stanley timing in relation to other prophetic events, cer- Jones. Touched by a revival while a student at tainly the prospects of such a great revival is a Asbury College in 1905, Jones committed himself summons to pray for such a work of revival to go to India as a missionary. Jones was not around the world. alone in sensing God’s call to missions. As many Timothy K. Beougher as ten thousand missionaries went overseas from college campuses as a result of this awakening. Bibliography. E. E. Cairns, An Endless Line of Splen- This period also saw the beginnings of the Pen- dor: Revivals and Their Leaders from the Great Awaken- tecostal Movement with the Azusa Street Re- ing to the Present; R. E. Coleman, The Coming World vival. Pentecostal and charismatic groups con- Revival; W. Duewel, Revival Fire; R. H. Glover, The tinue to have a growing impact on the scene of Progress of World-Wide Missions; K. J. Hardman, Sea- sons of Refreshing: Evangelism and Revivals in America; worldwide missions (see Pentecostal Missions). I. Murray, Revival and Revivalism: The Making and While many other examples could be cited, this Marring of American Evangelicalism, 1750–1858; J. E. brief survey demonstrates the significant impact Orr, The Event of the Century: The 1857–58 Awakening; revival has had upon the missionary enterprise. R. O. Roberts, Revival! It would not be an exaggeration to characterize the history of the modern missions movement as Ricci, Matteo (1552–1610). Italian Jesuit scholar the story of revival. When genuine revival comes, and pioneer missionary to China. Ricci pio- believers are reawakened to their evangelistic neered in and Nanjing (1583–1601) and social obligations. Mission efforts are a nat- before receiving permission to reside in Peking. ural fruit of revival. Ricci mastered Chinese language, culture, litera- A Coming World Revival? Having briefly ture, institutions, and government and further traced through history the impact of revival on acculturated by adopting the prestigious attire of missions, we now look to the role that revival might play in the future of missions. While some a Confucian scholar. biblical scholars believe conditions in the world His books on Western science in Chinese were will continue to get worse and we cannot expect highly acclaimed and his “Great Map of Ten a great revival during the end times, others be- Thousand Countries,” annotated in Chinese, lieve in the strong possibility of a coming world opened the Chinese to globalism heretofore un- revival. This revival would result in multitudes of known. people responding to the gospel message and Ricci rejected Buddhist notions of rebirth but would raise up a host of workers for that great accepted “original” Confucian thought as essen- harvest of souls. tially monotheistic and consistent with Christian The Bible is clear that the Great Commission morality. His apologetic work, The True Meaning will one day be fulfilled. There will be persons of the Lord of Heaven (1603), made use of Confu- from “every nation, tribe, people and language” cian terms to argue for and illustrate the Chris­ gathered around the throne, worshiping the tian faith. In his view traditional ancestor wor- Lamb of God (Rev. 7:9). While factors such as ship was not idolatrous but this was sharply how one views the millennium, tribulation, and disputed by Dominicans and Franciscans, lead- rapture will influence one’s interpretation of ing to the “Rites Controversy,” which was finally these events (see Eschatology), many believe the decided by Clement XI (1704, 1715) against Ric- church will see a universal outpouring of the ci’s position. Holy Spirit in the days ahead. This coming world At his death advances were modest: eight for- revival could take place in the midst of great suf- eign priests, eight Chinese lay brothers, missions fering. The situation in the world and in the in four cities, and 2,500 “neophytes.” His grave church would go from bad to worse. The condi- was the gift of the emperor himself, a testimony 91 Roman Catholic Missions to his stature as one of the most respected reli- tion, the success of their work was greatly ham- gious figures ever to come from the West. pered by the cruelty with which the indigenous James F. Lewis peoples were treated by the conquerors. But the native people did have their champions in men Bibliography. A. C. Ross, A Vision Betrayed: The Je- like Antonio de Montesinos and especially Bar- suits in Japan and China, 1542–1742. tolomew de Las Casas, who worked for fifty years to convince the Spanish of the indigenous Roman Catholic Missions. Roman Catholic people’s humanity and their need for basic Missions and Mission Theology Before Vatican human rights. Evanglization was also hampered II. It was only in the context of the Counter-­ by missionary attitudes that demeaned the local Reformation in the sixteenth century that the cultures and insisted that converts adopt a Euro- term “ missions” came to be used to designate pean lifestyle. In an effort both to protect the in- the Catholic Church’s activity of preaching the digenous population from exploitation by the gospel. The early Jesuits used the term to de- colonists and to form them in Christian living, scribe efforts (1) to revive and nurture faith villages or “reductions” were developed in which among Catholics, (2) to win back Christians who people could live in Christian community. These had become Protestant, and (3) to convert to communities were developed especially by the Christianity those who had not yet been bap- Jesuits, who founded some twenty-three settle- tized. During this period the political expansion ments in Paraguay in the seventeenth century. of Europe to Asia and Latin America by the While life was peaceful in such communities, Roman Catholic kingdoms of Portugal and Spain their weakness lay in failure to develop a sense was intimately linked to missions in the third of initiative and independence among the peo- sense of the term. ple. Until the system met its nemesis in the eigh- Augustinians, Dominicans, and Franciscans teenth century, not one candidate was brought accompanied the explorers of the Philippines forward for priesthood, nor one order of women early in the sixteenth century, and relatively religious founded. quickly and with little opposition the majority of In the sixteenth century, missions were di- the population was baptized. Missionaries saw rected by the Portuguese and Spanish monarchs little of value in Filipino culture, however, and and the missionary orders. While this had a imposed European doctrinal formulations and number of advantages (royal protection, ready religious practices. Such a tabula rasa approach means of travel, financial assistance), the grave to evangelization was taken also in India, both disadvantages of mixing political interests and with the “Thomas Christians” found there, and trade with mission work, rivalry between the or- with new converts as well. The Jesuit Francis ders, and a limited pool of missionaries Xavier also shared this attitude, although, unlike prompted Rome, as it was centralizing all of Ca- other European missionaries, he stressed the im- tholicism in the wake of the Council of Trent, to portance of preaching and instruction in the place all missionary activity under a new curial local language. When Xavier traveled to Japan, body—the Congregation for the Propagation of however, he was so impressed by the level of civ- the Faith. Established in 1622, its aims were to ilization and natural goodness of the Japanese free missionary work from the stranglehold of that he abandoned this tabula rasa approach in Spain and Portugal, to create dioceses and pro- favor of one of Accommodation, wherever possi- mote local clergy, and to recruit diocesan clergy ble, to local customs. This more “inculturating” to balance personnel from the religious orders. approach was also championed by Alessandro In a famous set of instructions in 1659, the Con- Valignano, who first came to Asia as a Jesuit vis- gregation urged that missionaries should not de- itator in 1579. Valignano strongly supported the stroy what is good in a culture: “What could be work of Matteo Ricci in China, who advocated more absurd than to transport France, Spain, the development of a Chinese Christianity, com- Italy, or some other European country to China? plete with the possibility of venerating ancestors. Do not bring these, but the faith.” As missionaries from other orders began to work It was in this spirit that Robert de Nobili min- in China, however, such broad-minded accep- istered in India in the first half of the seven- tance of Chinese culture was opposed, and in teenth century. Influenced by the methods of 1742 any kind of adaptation was condemned at Ricci, he determined to immerse himself in In- the conclusion of the famous “Rites Contro- dian culture. He avoided eating meat and wear- versy.” ing leather shoes, wore the robe of the Indian By the mid-sixteenth century the conquest of holy man, mastered classical Tamil, and at- Latin America was complete, and with conquest tempted to recast traditional Christian teaching came Franciscan and Dominican—and eventu- with illustrations from the Indian classics. Any- ally Jesuit—missionaries. While the missionaries one converting to Christianity need not abandon were for the most part sincere, and made efforts the many Indian cultural practices that de Nobili to learn local languages and provide basic educa- deemed inessential to Christian life. Although 92 Roman Catholic Missions blessed with considerable success, de Nobili was in the Catholic Church in general, and in its mis- not without his critics, and in 1703 all his meth- sionary efforts in particular. Napoleon’s humilia- ods were condemned by the Roman legate tion of the pope at the end of the eighteenth cen- Charles Tournon. tury ultimately created a movement of papal In what is now Vietnam, Alexander de Rhodes support and religious renewal throughout the made two significant contributions to mission- whole church. In 1814 the Jesuits were reestab- ary work. First, he formed a company of cate- lished, and other orders discovered new life. In chists, laymen whom he trained to give both reli- addition, the nineteenth and early twentieth cen- gious instruction and medical assistance. In lieu turies saw the foundation of more new orders of of an indigenous Vietnamese clergy, such action men and women dedicated to missionary work assured that Christianity would be taught skill- than had any previous era. These included the fully and accurately. Second, Rhodes developed a Sisters of Saint Joseph of Cluny (1805), the Ob- way to write Vietnamese using the Roman alpha- lates of Mary Immaculate (1816), the Marists bet, and set Christian doctrine in the ordinary (1817), the Congregation of Mary Immaculate language of the people. By 1658 it was estimated (1862), the Mill Hill Fathers (1866), the Comboni that there were 300,000 Christians in Vietnam. Missionaries (men, 1867; women, 1872), the So- Between 1645 and 1700 the Capuchins bap- ciety of the Divine Word (1875), Sisters of the tized 600,000 people in the region of the Congo Precious Blood (1885), and the Catholic Foreign and Angola, and from 1700 on the average an- Mission Society of America (Maryknoll, 1911). nual number of baptisms was 12,000. The reason The beginnings of large-scale lay participation in for this, it seems, was a rather lax policy of bap- missionary work can be traced back to Pauline tism. Elsewhere in Africa, by 1624 the Jesuits Jaricot, who in 1817 founded the Society for the had some twenty missionaries working in the Propagation of the Faith. The society solicited Zambezi region, and the Dominicans and Augus- prayers, disseminated information, and collected tinians had stations on Africa’s east coast, but funds for missionary support. the involvement of the missionaries in various As the nations of Europe entered a new age of tribal wars slowed progress considerably and Colonialism, they welcomed, for the most part, strengthened the impression that to become missionaries of all sorts to help in education and Christian was to accept the sovereignty of Portu- health care. While Catholics and Protestants gal. Despite heroic efforts, no real commitment often pioneered in their own missionary areas, was made to learn local languages or cultures, they occasionally competed, shamefully, against and there was little attempt to follow easy bap- one another. Missionary efforts in Africa flour- tism with extended catechesis. ished, despite the hardships of the climate. Both In the seventeenth century, France began to China and Japan opened up once more for mis- exert its influence beyond Europe, particularly in sionaries under the pressures of the colonial North America. The first group of Jesuit mission- powers. Korean Catholicism struggled to grow, aries was sent to Canada in 1632, and in 1639 but was severely hampered by persecution at Ursuline Marie de l’Incarnation and several com- mid-century. Such legendary figures as Peter panions were the first women missionaries to Chanel and Father Damien participated in the Canada. Work was slow and hard; the indige- evangelization of the South Pacific. nous people treated each other and the mission- In this great missionary era, however, there aries with terrible cruelty, and many missionar- was little creative thinking. Nineteenth-century ies lost their lives, among whom were Jesuits Catholic theology, with few exceptions, was in- Isaac Jogues and Jean Brebeuf and the layman spired by the false universalism of Neo-Thomism. Jean de la Lande. The Jesuit missionary Pierre Loyalty to the papacy did indeed revitalize the Marquette is especially known for his explora- church, but also made it Eurocentric and, like tions of the Upper Midwest. the colonial powers, derogatory of local culture. The great effort of Roman Catholic mission Any kind of adaptation was seldom considered, work beyond Europe faltered gravely in the eigh- and local vocations to priesthood and religious teenth century. The influence of Portugal and life were, in the main, rarely encouraged. Spain began to diminish as Holland’s and Brit- A sign of renewal in Roman Catholic mission ain’s grew; the Roman decisions regarding Chi- theology was the publication of five major mis- nese ancestral rites precipitated a persecution in sion encyclicals in the twentieth century, in- China; the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773 ef- spired no doubt by the emergence of the Social fected the withdrawal of several thousand mis- Sciences and the pioneering missiological work sionaries from Asia and Latin America; the of Josef Schmidlin, André Seumois, and Pierre French Revolution and its persecution of the Charles. Maximum illud (Benedict XV, 1919) church virtually dried up the sources for French taught the need to be sensitive to local cultures missionaries. and called for the training of local clergy; Rerum It is rather astonishing, therefore, that the ecclesiae (Pius XI, 1926), while likewise calling nineteenth century was to see an amazing revival for a local clergy, also affirmed the pope’s role in 93 Roman Catholic Missions global evangelization and enlisted bishops as pri- commodated to their spiritual and material situ- mary agents in the task. In Evangelii praecones ation.” (1951) and Fidei donum (1957), Pius XII stressed Some months after the publication of Redemp- the supranationality of the church, and called for toris Missio, two Vatican congregations issued the development in Africa. John XXIII’s 1959 “Dialogue and Proclamation,” a document which Princeps pastorum laid the groundwork for Vati- attempts to explain more fully the church’s views can II. of non-Christian religions and its efforts to inter- From Vatican II to the Present. The Second act with adherents of those faiths. The complexi- Vatican Council (1962–65), the most important ties of religious Pluralism are to be explored by event of the Catholic Church in the twentieth means of dialogue, a Christian message is not to century, thoroughly rethought the theology and be imposed in this situation, for sincere persons practice of mission. The “Dogmatic Constitution are “saved in Jesus Christ and thus already share on the Church” (Lumen gentium, 1964) defines in some way in the reality which is signified by and describes the council’s teaching on the the kingdom.” Proclamation, on the other hand, church’s identity, its organization, and its author- is based on solid biblical material; here the integ- ity. In highlighting the universality of Christ, the rity of the gospel demands avoidance of Syncre- Catholic Church is also defining itself as “the tism. Dialogue and proclamation must eventually universal sacrament (sign) of salvation.” It come together. The gospel message needs to be senses a “special urgency” in the task of “pro- included at some point in the practice of dia- claiming the gospel of Christ to every creature.” logue so as to provide the belief and faith called The “Dogmatic Constitution” is noteworthy for for in all Christians. two particular reasons, the first being the ways Contemporary Roman Catholic Mission The- in which the Catholic Church continues to define ology. Contemporary Roman Catholic mission itself in terms of a hierarchical structure (chap. theology revolves, then, around several interre- 3) in spite of using the terms “mystery” (chap. 1) lated themes. The first theme is that of procla- and “the People of God” (chap. 2) as controlling mation, which holds the permanent priority in images of the contemporary church. The second mission. Proclamation is rooted in the witness of Christian action and authentic Christian living, is the way in which the Catholic Church identi- and blossoms into communication of the word fies itself in relation to other religious and nonre- (by a variety of media) only after discerning the ligious realities. It is not clear whether the “Dog- presence of and listening to the Spirit in a partic- matic Constitution” intends to identify the ular context. people of God with the Catholic Church exclu- The second theme, interreligious Dialogue, is sively, but it is clear that the traditional rubric recognized today as an integral element of mis- “outside the church there is no salvation” is cited sion that finds its deepest justification in the dia- in a rather nuanced way. It is certainly ironic, at logue with which God effects salvation. While least from an evangelical point of view, that the proclamation is concerned with presenting groundwork is then laid for articulation of vari- Christ, dialogue seeks to discover him in other ous ways in which members of non-Christian re- faiths, ideologies, and secular situations, and ligions and even atheists can have a relationship calls for mutual conversion and transformation. with the church, even unconsciously (chaps. 14– Dialogue is like proclamation, however, in that it 16). It is encouraging to note, nevertheless, many entails both nonverbal and verbal witness to the statements of the Great Commission and of the reality of Christ. obligation of all disciples of Christ to use their Inculturation, the third theme, finds its theo- individual abilities in the urgent task of global logical roots in the doctrines of the incarnation, evangelization. sacramentality, catholicity, and revelation. Like The biblical principles of a theology of mission interreligious dialogue, inculturation looks for are outlined in the council’s “Decree on the Mis- the presence of God in human life and culture— sionary Activity of the Church” (Ad gentes, 1965), and so goes beyond the former models of adapta- the foundation of which is that “the pilgrim tion; like proclamation, on the other hand, it church is missionary by its very nature.” The calls for renewal and refinement of the human in first paragraphs of the decree include a thor- the gospel’s light—and so is always somewhat oughly biblical reflection on the trinitarian basis countercultural in intent. In theological articula- for mission, showing that the activity of preach- tion, liturgical expression, and questions of ing the gospel needs to be approached—even in church order, not only the classical sources of Western culture—with different strategies. The Scripture and tradition need to be taken into ac- evangelical will be uncomfortable with the juxta- count, but also those elements (culture, location, position of a particularist understanding of sal- social changes) that make up present human ex- vation and the assertion that “all people have a perience. Pope John Paul II has characterized ‘mysterious’ relationship with the church inculturation as the center, means, and aim of (which) enlightens them in a way which is ac- the new effort of evangelization. 94 Scottish Mission Boards and Societies

In the last several decades the theme of libera- ism, anti-intellectualism, nihilism, and social tion has emerged as central in theological reflec- abuse. Although areas of disagreement are ac- tion on the church’s mission. While mission has knowledged, there is little theological reflection, almost always been involved in some kind of with the unfortunate result of some oversimplifi- charitable or developmental work, current think- cation and confusion. In the main, three issues ing would push beyond to ways of changing the need further investigation and discussion: the underlying unjust and oppressive structures that significance of the Protestant Reformation, the keep people poor. Working for justice and inte- criteria for membership in the body of Christ, gral liberation has been called constitutive of and the scope of the Great Commission as a man- gospel proclamation, and inculturation is re- date that engages all believers in Christ in all garded as impossible without immersion in the parts of the globe. It is certainly good and right reality of the poor and treating their religion— that such discussions have taken place; in the fu- popular Christianity or non-Christian faith— ture, however, provision should be made for the with utmost seriousness and respect. inclusion of those who can contribute signifi- Finally, the church’s mission is more and more cantly from the theological and biblical disci- recognized in contemporary theological reflec- plines. tion as trinitarian in both origin and aim. Mis- Steven B. Bevans and John Nyquist sion is rooted in the God who is radically with and for humanity, and who calls humanity to be- Bibliography. W. M. Abbott, ed., The Documents of come partners in the divine work of reconciling Vatican II; W. R. Burrows, Redemption and Dialogue: all of creation. God does this in the warp and Reading “Redemptoris Missio” and “Dialogue and Proc- lamation”; C. Carlen, ed., The Papal Encyclicals, 1939– woof of history (Spirit) and in the concreteness 1958; C. Colson and R. J. Neuhaus, eds., Evangelicals of history (Jesus); humanity does this most con- and Catholics Together: Towards a Common Mission; W. sciously by aligning with God’s activity in the Jenkinson and H. O’Sullivan, eds., Trends in Mission. missional community of the church. The entire Toward The 3rd Millennium: Essays in Celebration of church is called to mission, and so laity as well Twenty-Five Years of SEDOS; R. Latourelle, Vatican II: as clergy and religious are to minister actively in Assessment and Perspectives 25 Years After (1962–1987), the world. 3 vols.; B. Meeking and J. Stott, eds., The Evangeli- Contemporary Roman Catholic mission theol- cal-Roman Catholic Dialogue on Mission, (1977–1984); ogy is greatly influenced by contacts with other K. Muller, Mission Theology: An Introduction; J. A. Christian churches, Orthodox, conciliar, and Scherer and S. B. Bevans, eds., New Directions in Mis- evangelical. “Christian Witness—Common Wit- sion and Evangelization I: Basic Statements (1974– 1991). ness” (1980), a joint agreement between the Vat- ican and the World Council of Churches, ex- plores ideas for ecumenical cooperation in Scottish Mission Boards and Societies. Scot- global evangelization and witness. A contribu- land’s contribution to world mission is related to tion to the ongoing discussions between concil- its experience of mission at home, the role of di- iar Protestants and Roman Catholics, this docu- aspora Scots in other parts of Britain and around ment affirms certain perspectives on the church, the world, and its changing circumstances as a defines the characteristics and results of effective nation whose history is integral with that of Eu- witness, and even proposes various situations in rope. It is also affected by its Celtic and Calvinist which common witness can take place. heritage and marked commitment to education. The Evangelical-Roman Catholic Dialogue on The evangelization of Scotland was associated Mission (ERCDOM) took place over eight years with Celtic monasticism and new orders in the (1977–84). The discussions demonstrated that medieval period. By the 1500s responsibility for evangelicals and Roman Catholics can talk to- mission had shifted to rulers. Scots had limited gether about issues of great importance without opportunities, rulers in no position to extend engaging in the usual polemics. The record of their territory, no missionary orders, and closed these meetings shows both integrity and candor monasteries. Nevertheless the Confession of regarding issues that have long divided the two 1560, and the Westminster Confession and its groups. While there was considerable agreement catechisms, allowed for world mission. In 1698 a on some of the basic points, there remains much doomed attempt at colonization in Central that separates. “Evangelicals and Catholics To- America included Church of Scotland ministers gether” (1994) represents a more recent attempt with a missionary mandate. In 1723 Robert Mil- in North America to identify areas of common lar of Paisley’s History of the Propagation of concern to evangelicals and Roman Catholics Christianity called for mission to pagans. By the and proposes strategies for future cooperation. 1740s the Society in Scotland for the Propaga- The document demonstrates that there is much tion of Christian Knowledge (founded in 1709) in common between the two groups, particularly supported work among North American Indians when it comes to “cobelligerence,” that is, a com- as well as charity schools in the Scottish High- mon commitment against, for example, Relativ- lands. Education and a bias toward English were 95 Scudder, Ida Sophia common to both. Its annual sermons show Scots be left to them. Scots missionaries offered the thinking about mission into the 19th century. best of their own experience of salvation, and ar- In 1842 the Cambuslang Revival inspired a call ticulated theologies, which took other religions for prayer which helped form the backdrop to seriously. A proclivity for higher education often the Baptist Missionary Society, founded in En- included an appreciation of artisan skills. gland in 1792. Scots were active in the formation John Wilson engaged in polite debate with of the Missionary Society in London in 1795 (see Hindus. became the most import- Council for World Mission) and provided many ant Sinologist of the nineteenth century. J. N. of its directors and some of its most notable mis- Farquhar talked in terms of fulfillment—Christ sionaries including David Livingstone, John as the Crown of Hinduism. Mary Slessor Philip, and James Legge. In 1796 the General As- achieved in Africa what was still difficult for sembly of the Church of Scotland declined in- women in Britain. The World Missionary Con- volvement, but theology students debated the ference (Edinburgh 1910) had a strong Scottish needs of the non-Christian world. Local societies flavor. James Hastings’ Encyclopedia of Religion were formed in many places. The Glasgow and and Ethics can be seen as a missiological state- Edinburgh societies supported their own mis- ment. Today the Board of World Mission of the sionaries for a time. By 1800 there was little to Church of Scotland maintains links with mission show for the expenditure of money and lives. fields and offers training back in Scotland. The Later success depended on persistence, the les- Council for World Mission, formerly the LMS, sons of experience, and the opening up of new has links with the Congregational Union in Scot- opportunities, particularly after mission in India land and provides a model of post-colonial mis- became legal in 1813. In the early 1820s student sion partnership. Roman Catholics share in mis- societies were founded in all four Scottish uni- sion overseas through Catholic orders and versities. through the Scottish Catholic International Aid In 1824 the Church of Scotland took steps to Fund. engage in missions as the national church. By John Roxborogh 1830 Alexander Duff was headmaster of the Bibliography. E. G. K. Hewat, Vision and Achieve- Church of Scotland’s school in Calcutta. That ment 1796–1956. A History of the Foreign Missions of year there were in Edinburgh, along with Bible the Churches United in the Church of Scotland; D. Mac- societies, the Scottish SPCK and the Scottish kichan, The Missionary Ideal in the Scottish Churches; Missionary Society, societies connected with the S. Piggin and J. Roxborogh, The St. Andrews Seven; CMS, the LMS, Moravians, as well as others di- A. F. Walls, DSCHT, pp. 567–94. rected at Jews and for the abolition of slavery. Visiting missionaries, publications, correspon- Scudder, Ida Sophia (1870–1960). American dence, and systematic fund raising nurtured in- missionary to India from the Reformed Church terest. in America. Born in India, she greatly resisted The 1830s were a peak of Scottish recruitment continuing in the tradition of her famous Ameri- into the LMS. By the 1840s overseas mission was can missionary medical family yet became a re- an accepted, though not central, dimension of nowned pioneer in medical mission work. What Christian identity. After the Disruption of 1843 began in 1895 with a vision to meet the medical those who left the Church of Scotland for the needs of women in India grew into an interna- Free Church were replaced. Livingstone’s exam- tionally acclaimed medical institution in Vellore. ple as an explorer missionary calling for “Christi- Initially establishing a hospital and medical anity, commerce and civilization” in Africa was training institution for women, Ida initiated widely heeded. The Edinburgh Medical Mission- “Roadside” clinics that grew into a highly orga- ary Society began in 1841. nized system of mobile clinics. In 1959 alone, Duff’s belief that a Christian worldview would “roadside” treatment was extended to 92,756 pa- demolish Hinduism captured people’s imagina- tients. Gifted as a fundraiser, she founded a med- tion in Scotland at least, but Hinduism proved ical school for women in 1913 that was later resilient. Missionaries who preferred vernacular transformed in 1938 into a coeducational institu- education to English were vindicated in the long tion. Her most daring challenge, the Christian run. Duff’s vision that missions were the chief Medical College and Hospital, stands among end of the Christian church, and his occupancy leading international institutions. of the first chair of mission studies anywhere, set Besides the mobile dispensary, Scudder intro- up by the Free Church of Scotland in 1867, give duced a medical college for women, a college of him a place in history. The chair did not last. The nursing, mobile eye camps, neurology and neu- elder Duff lacked the magic of his youth, mission rosurgery departments, a cardiothoracic depart- was no longer in question, and future problems ment, a rehabilitation center for leprosy patients, were not envisaged. Given the belief that mission heart surgery, a mental health center, and a rural should be integrated with other theological disci- hospital. Her legacy of commitment to service, plines, it was not difficult to believe it could also training, and research for the needs of India con- 96 Student Mission Work tinues today. She died in 1960 greatly honored earned the praise of Methodist bishop James M. by the people whom she served. Thoburn, who also penned the introduction to Roberta R. King her Autobiography (1893). After years spent in Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, American Protestant evangelism, she went to Africa and worked with Women in World Mission; A. Brouwer, Reformed Church , Methodist bishop to Africa. Re- Roots; N. Hardesty, Women Called to Witness; D. Luid­ turning to the United States in 1890, she spent ens, Into all the World; D. C. Wilson, ML, pp. 307–15; her remaining years caring for orphaned African idem, Dr. Ida: The Story of Dr. Ida Scudder of Vellore. American children in Harvey, Illinois. Her labors provided a role model for women ministers in Simpson, Albert Benjamin (1844–1919). Cana- AME and Methodist churches. Both African dian missions motivator and founder of the Americans and whites honored Smith’s spiritual Christian and Missionary Alliance. Born of Scot- zeal, devotion to ministry at home and abroad, tish Presbyterian parents, he sensed a call to and calls for justice. preach when he was a teenager, and went on to Gary B. McGee Knox College, Toronto. His first missionary in- terest sprouted during these years. During his Bibliography. M. H. Cadbury, The Life of Amanda Smith; N. A. Hardesty and A. Israel, Spirituality & So- ministry in Louisville, Kentucky, he maintained cial Responsibility; M. W. Taylor, The Life, Travels, La- interest in overseas work through the Evangeli- bors, and Helpers of Mrs. Amanda Smith, the Famous cal Alliance. In 1878 Simpson had a dream that Negro Missionary Evangelist. drove him to commit himself to world missions. Unable to go overseas himself, he became a mis- Student Mission Work. Ever since Daniel and sions motivator and moved to Thirteenth Street his three friends were taken from their home- Presbyterian Church in New York City. After he land and placed in the court of King Nebuchad- started an independent church, Simpson in 1887 founded the Christian Alliance as a home mis- nezzar of Babylon, students have had an active sion agency and the evangelical Missionary Alli- role in being missionary witnesses in foreign cul- ance as a foreign society. Ten years later they tures. Students often have the enthusiasm and formed the Christian and Missionary Alliance. freedom to move easily into other cultures with Simpson’s view of missions was simple: focus on the gospel. Furthermore, as in Daniel’s time, stu- Jesus Christ. Christ must be preached to the dents have the abilities and educational qualifi- world, at home and abroad; Christ must be ap- cations that make their presence in a foreign cul- propriated for Christian living and service. Simp- ture both acceptable and desirable to the host son developed the Fourfold Gospel: Christ as culture. Consequently it is not surprising that savior, sanctifier, healer, and coming king. He many of the great missionary initiatives in the stressed both the urgency of world evangeliza- last few hundred years have come from students. tion and the cooperation of all Christians to do In the early seventeenth century, seven law stu- it. dents from Lubeck, Germany, committed them- Jim Reapsome selves to world missions while studying in Paris. At least three of them went to Africa, including Bibliography. A. B. Simpson, Missionary Messages; Peter Heiling, who spent twenty years in Abys- A. W. Tozer, Wingspread: Albert B. Simpson—A Study in Spiritual Attitude. sinia (Ethiopia) where he translated the Bible into Amharic and eventually died as a martyr for the cause of Christ. Smith, Amanda Berry (1837–1915). African American evangelist and missionary to India and The great Moravian missionary movement Africa. Born a slave in Long Green, Maryland, began in the student days of Count Nikolaus she married in 1854 and was converted two Ludwig von Zinzendorf, who, while studying, years later. Following her husband’s death during formed the Order of the Grain of Mustard Seed, the Civil War, she took up residence in Philadel- which had as one of its purposes “to carry the phia, where she married James Smith, an or- gospel of Christ to those overseas who had never dained deacon at the historic Bethel AME yet heard the message.” Much of modern world- Church. wide missionary movement can be traced to the While visiting Green Street Methodist Episco- hearts of those students who gathered together pal Church, Smith was “sanctified” under the to pray for world evangelism. ministry of prominent Holiness leader John S. Charles Wesley helped form the “Holy Club” at Inskip. After James’ death in 1869, she became a Christ Church College in Oxford in 1726. This popular Holiness evangelist known to many as group became involved in reaching out to the the “Singing Pilgrim.” Her twelve years of over- poor and those in prison. Subsequently in 1735, seas ministry began with a visit to England in Charles and his brother, John, joined in a mis- 1878. She then traveled to India as an indepen- sionary effort among indigenous Americans in dent faith missionary, where her endeavors Georgia. It was a continuation of their desire to 97 Taylor, William know God better which began in their student made commitments to be actively involved in the days at Oxford. world mission of the church. One of the most influential pastors in England In the 1950s other organizations focused on during the early 1800s was Charles Simeon. He students came into being. Campus Crusade, The had become a believer in Christ during his stu- Navigators, The Fellowship of Christian Athletes, dent days at Cambridge. After graduation he was Youth for Christ, Youth With a Mission, Opera- ordained to the ministry and served at Holy Trin- tion Mobilization, and many other parachurch ity Church in Cambridge for fifty-four years. It groups are actively involved in student missions was during these times that he influenced hun- projects. Church groups and most Christian col- dreds of students to know Christ and to serve leges send thousands of young people overseas him throughout the world. The British and For- in short-term missions teams every summer. eign Bible Society began in Cambridge in 1811 One other dimension of student missions is and the strongly missions-oriented Inter-Varsity the tremendous impact on world missions of Fellowship of England traces its roots directly to campus revivals in the United States. Jonathan Simeon and student work at Cambridge. Edwards observed that the First Great Awaken- Students in America were also key to mission- ing had its greatest impact “chiefly among the ary vision and commitment. In 1806 a group of young.” David Brainerd was one such young per- students at Williams College in western Massa- son at Yale who committed his life to the evange- chusetts met two afternoons each week to pray. lization of Native Americans. In the revival of One such meeting was particularly dedicated to 1904–8, E. Stanley Jones was a student at As- pray that students would have an increased in- bury College who committed his life to going to terest in foreign missions. However, the students India in missionary service. It has been esti- got caught in a thunderstorm and sought refuge mated that perhaps as many as 10,000 to 15,000 under a haystack. There they prayed and the re- students went overseas from this awakening. sult was the first student missionary society in In 1950, revivals at places like Asbury College America. According to Kenneth Scott Lato- and Wheaton College were dramatic. At Wheaton urette “It was from this Haystack Meeting that 39 percent of the class of 1950 devoted at least the foreign missionary movement of the part of their lives to full-time Christian ministry. churches of the United States had an initial main Another wave of revivals took place in 1970 with impulse.” at least 130 colleges, seminaries, and Bible Later in that century, in 1883, the Princeton schools being touched by unusual spiritual activ- Foreign Missionary Society was formed by stu- ity and commitment. The Wheaton revival in dents and in 1885, 251 students from eighty-nine 1995 has had a significant impact on students colleges in the United States attended a confer- praying for greater involvement in world mis- ence at Mt. Hermon with D. L. Moody. A direct sions. result of this conference was the formation of It is difficult to fully assess all of the dimen- the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign sions of student mission work. However, it is not Missions in 1888. Its famous watchword was difficult to observe that students have had and “the evangelization of the world in this genera- will continue to have a significant role in world tion.” It is estimated that in the next fifty years missions. In our current “information age,” stu- more than twenty thousand students became ac- dent status provides access to all parts of the tive missionaries as a result. world. The most endearing qualities of students, In 1936 a new missionary thrust developed though, are their spiritual commitment and zeal among students with the leadership of Robert for the kingdom of God. They are not yet en- McQuilkin, founder and president of Columbia trenched in institutions and genuinely share the Bible College. This new movement became the freshness of their faith with those who do not yet Student Foreign Missions Fellowship and spread know Jesus. They accept the multicultural reali- rapidly to scores of primarily Christian colleges ties of the world without the prejudice of previ- in the United States. Later, in 1945, the SFMF ous generations. They have great passion and became the missionary arm at Christian schools compassion for those in need and are ready for a for InterVarsity Christian Fellowship. This full commitment to career missionary service. merger formed the backdrop for the first IVCF– SFMF international student missions convention Robert A. Fryling held at the University of Toronto in 1946. Two Bibliography. T. Beougher and L. Dorsett, Accounts years later the convention was held at the Uni- of a Campus Revival; R. Coleman, The Coming World versity of Illinois at Urbana, where it has been Revival; D. Howard, Student Power in World Evange- held since then on a triennial basis and become lism; D. McKenna, The Coming Great Awakening. known simply as “Urbana.” During the fifty-year history of Urbana, nearly 200,000 delegates have Taylor, William (1821–1902). American author attended these missionary conventions and ap- and missionary in Africa and Latin America. Tay- proximately 125,000 of these delegates have lor served as the second Methodist Episcopal 98 United States Mission Boards and Societies missionary in California (1849–56) before em- (1901) and The Person and Work of the Holy barking on a global career, during which crucial Spirit (1910). He also wrote many articles for The roles were played in the development of Method- Fundamentals (1910–15), a work that mirrored ism in Australia, India, England, the Caribbean, Torrey’s conservative theological beliefs. Latin America, and Africa. On the basis of his Timothy K. Beougher experience in South Africa, he developed (1866) Bibliography. R. Martin, R. A. Torrey: Apostle of Cer- the theory of “Pauline Missions.” The central tainty; G. T. B. Davis, Torrey and Alexander. themes of the theory were that the results of mis- sion were equal with all of the sending churches United States Mission Boards and Societies. and that they should be self-supporting, self-gov- Intercultural mission activities supported by erning, and self-propagating (see Indigenous church groups in the United States were already Churches). The most complete statement of this underway among Native Americans in the late theory was Pauline Methods of Missionary Work 1700s. The first organization established in the (Philadelphia, 1879). United States for overseas mission work was ini- After being forced by the Methodist Episcopal tiated in 1810 by the General Association of Con- Missionary Society to cease functioning as a mis- gregational Churches in Massachusetts and was sionary, he went to Chile, where he established called the American Board of Commissioners the Methodist Episcopal Church. Seeing the need for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). This action was for more “Self-Supporting” missionaries, he es- taken, not without some misgivings, in response tablished a sending agency, the “Building and to a petition presented by several students, in- Transit Fund,” to help Wesleyan/Holiness mis- cluding Samuel J. Mills, Adoniram Judson, and sionaries get to the mission field. Despite the an- Luther Rice, from Andover Seminary. These and tagonism of the Missionary Society, he was several other students also volunteered to be elected “Missionary Bishop” in 1884 and sent to ABCFM’s first missionaries. Africa, where he established churches in Liberia, In 1816 the first specialized service mission Congo, Angola, and Mozambique. Taylor became agency not part of a denomination, The Ameri- a model and inspiration for much of Wesleyan/ can Bible Society, was formed. It united several Holiness missions. Many of the “Taylor” mission- local societies by pastors and laymen represent- aries became Pentecostal after 1906, and he ing several denominations “to disseminate the served as a theorist for early Pentecostal missions, Gospel of Christ throughout the habitable especially in Europe. world.” Most of the organizations in this period, David Bundy however, were denominational, with the Method- Bibliography. D. Bundy, Methodist History 27:4 ists (1820), Episcopalians (1821), Dutch Re- (1989): 197–210; idem, Methodist History 28:1 (1989): formed (1823), Presbyterians (1837), and others 2–21; idem, ML, pp. 461–68; J. Paul, The Soul Digger: or mounting overseas mission efforts. The mission- The Life and Times of William Taylor. aries of these agencies usually worked in the coastal areas. Torrey, Reuben Archer (1856–1928). American During this early period “auxiliaries” began to evangelist and educator. Born in New Jersey, he be formed by women to supplement financially graduated from Yale College and Yale Divinity and in other ways encourage missionaries. Ini- School, and later studied at German universities tially only married women, whose primary duty in Leipzig and Erlangen. He was ordained to the was to be that of a “missionary wife,” were sent ministry in the Congregational Church in 1883 out. But by 1835 the Baptists had sent three sin- and served churches in Ohio and Minnesota. In gle women missionaries to Burma. However, 1889, D. L. Moody named him superintendent of after one of them died of jungle fever in less than the Chicago Evangelization Society (now Moody eighteen months, the board was reluctant to Bible Institute), a position he held until 1908. send more single women. In 1861 the Woman’s From 1894 to 1906, he also served as pastor of Union Missionary Society was founded. Its the Chicago Avenue Church (later renamed board consisted of women from several evangel- Moody Memorial Church). He traveled world- ical denominations and its focus was sending wide from 1902 to 1906, carrying out evangelis- single women to be missionaries among women. tic crusades throughout Canada, Europe, Asia, Following this, separate women’s boards were Australia, and New Zealand, as well as in major organized by many denominations and in less cities in the United States. He founded the Mon- than thirty years women constituted 60% of the trose (Pennsylvania) Bible Conference in 1908. missionary force. From 1912 to 1924, he served as dean of the By the 1880s new agencies came on the scene Bible Institute of Los Angeles (BIOLA). He also desiring to go beyond the more accessible coastal served as pastor of the Church of the Open Door regions to reach those who had not yet heard. in Los Angeles from 1915 to 1924. He wrote over For example, the U.S. branch of the China Inland forty books, including How to Work for Christ Mission (now OMF International) followed its 99 Valignano, Alessandro

British counterpart in focusing on the inland ter- of missionary and mission support organizations ritories of China. The movement that became the appeared. Recruitment at the college student Christian and Missionary Alliance sent out over level was again a significant factor. As the SVM three hundred workers within a five-year period turned inward, an ongoing student mission con- to regions without churches. Many missions vention was organized by the InterVarsity Chris- started in the later 1800s were not related to a tian Fellowship under the direction of J. Christy single denomination but drew personnel and sup- Wilson Jr. in 1946. Student ministries of Campus port from churches of different denominations. Crusade for Christ, The Navigators, and others In 1886 Dwight L. Moody conducted a month- also presented the challenge of world evangeliza- long Bible study for 251 students from 89 col- tion. This resulted in thousands becoming mis- leges. The gathering was organized by Luther sionaries. Wishard, the national secretary of the YMCA In 1974, the people group approach became who possessed a world vision. From that confer- widely known after the Lausanne Congress on ence grew the Student Volunteer Movement World Evangelization. There an Unreached Peo- (SVM) which began asking college students to ples Directory was made available as a start in the sign a declaration card stating “It is my purpose, needed worldwide research and a plenary pre­ if God permit, to become a foreign missionary.” sentation called for continuing the transition to By 1891, the year of the SVM’s first national stu- an unreached peoples approach. dent missionary convention, 321 had responded In the late 1990s the long-term Protestant mis- and sailed overseas. sion force sent overseas by U.S. boards and agen- In the early 1900s there was a renewed empha- cies stands at a little over 33,000 men and sis on the work of the Holy Spirit by Pentecostal women. Short-term personnel serving terms of 1 and other believers. In 1914 the General Council to 4 years is around 6,500. With the opening of of the Assemblies of God was organized with one Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, of the purposes being a united effort for world personnel involved in short-term service of less evangelism. By 1918 there were 73 overseas mis- than a year grew dramatically to over 63,000 by sionaries on the roster of the General Council. 1996. They and other Pentecostal mission agencies John A. Siewert continued to grow and had a significant impact Bibliography. B. L. Goddard, The Encyclopedia of in Latin America and other areas. Modern Christian Missions; D. J. Hesselgrave, Today’s The first Roman Catholic organization in the Choices for Tomorrow’s Mission; D. M. Howard, Student United States to send missionaries overseas was Power in World Missions; G. B. McGee, Called and Em- founded in 1911 in Maryknoll, New York. Prior powered, pp. 203–24; D. L. Robert, American Women in to that the United States was regarded as a re- Mission; J. A. Siewert and E. G. Valdez, eds., Mission ceiving mission field by the Roman Catholic Handbook 1998–2000; R. D. Winter, Perspectives on the Church and attention was focused on providing World Christian Movement, pp. B33–B44. churches for recently immigrated Catholics from Europe. The Orthodox Christian Mission Center, Valignano, Alessandro (1539–1606). Italian the official mission and evangelism agency of all missionary to Asia. Valignano, an Italian Jesuit, Canonical Orthodox churches in North America, was the Jesuit Visitor to the East, in charge of all was established in 1994. Prior to that some mis- Jesuit missionaries in East Asia. After spending sionaries had been sent by individual Orthodox some time in what is now India, Indonesia, and bodies. Malaysia, Valignano concentrated upon Japan In 1934 an additional dimension in missions and China. He was the dominant figure in Jesuit led to the formation of the Wycliffe Bible Trans- missions in Asia during the last quarter of the lators. This specialized service mission agency sixteenth century. was co-founded by W. Cameron Townsend, whose In an era of Christian missions characterized earlier experiences in Latin America had con- by insensitivity to local cultures, Valignano vinced him that the Bible needed to be translated crafted and implemented a missions policy that into the vernacular languages spoken by the encouraged adaptation to Japanese and Chinese tribal groups to overcome language barriers. At cultures. Valignano insisted that missionaries to the same time missionaries, such as Donald Mc- Japan master the language and observe local Gavran in India, recognized that social barriers customs. He promoted training of the Japanese also needed to be seriously considered for suc- for the priesthood, established theological train- cessful evangelism and church planting to take ing centers for the Japanese, facilitated the trans- place. This set the stage for viewing world evan- lation of Christian writings into Japanese, and gelization in terms of ethnolinguistic peoples and wrote the Japanese Catechism of Christian Faith, sociologically defined people groups (see Peo- a work in theology and apologetics that interacts ples, People Groups). with Buddhism. At the end of World War II in 1945, mission Valignano’s missions policy was also imple- boards and societies remobilized. Also new forms mented in China with remarkable success by 100 Williams, John

Matteo Ricci, but was later opposed by Francis- Clapham, where his father, John, was rector of cans and Dominicans who attacked it for al- Clapham parish, active in the Clapham Sect and legedly excessive accommodation to Chinese cul- a founder of the Church Missionary Society tural and religious influences. After an extended (CMS, 1799). Educated at Queens’ College, Cam- controversy, Rome ruled against the Valignano– bridge (M.A., B.D.), Venn served parishes at Hull Ricci approach in 1715. Valignano’s general ap- and Upper Holloway, London. He became honor- proach has been vindicated by twentieth-century ary clerical secretary of the CMS in 1841, serving missiology in its emphasis on proper Contextu- until 1872. Together with Rufus Anderson, Venn alization of the gospel. is recognized for his contribution to the theory Harold A. Netland of mission with the concept of the “three-selfs” and the “Indigenous Church.” Venn also lobbied Bibliography. J. F. Moran, The Japanese and the Je- suits: Alessandro Valignano in Sixteenth Century Japan; the British government on colonial policies A. Ross, A Vision Betrayed: The Jesuits in Japan and (curbing slave trade, vernacular education, China, 1542–1742; J. Schutte, Valignano’s Mission Prin- trade) and worked to accommodate the Anglican ciples for Japan. Church’s archaic episcopal system to the needs of the growing churches throughout the world. Veniaminov, Innocent (1797–1878). Russian As a leading evangelical he sought to moderate Orthodox missionary to Siberia and Alaska and trends such as the millennial views that gained founder of the Russian Orthodox Mission Soci- popularity after 1830 while resisting Anglo-Cath- ety. Innocent Veniaminov established a legacy olic and Broad Church influences. But mission unmatched by any other missionary figure in was his main preoccupation. A prodigious Russian history. He worked for forty-five years as worker, he conducted correspondence with hun- missionary priest and bishop in Alaska and East- dreds of missionaries all over the world, drafted ern Siberia, translated the Bible and liturgical scores of policy statements, and was the domi- services into Aleut and Thlingit, founded the nant influence in the work of the CMS, the larg- Russian Orthodox Mission Society, and became est British society, for a generation. metropolitan of the church in Russia. Wilbert R. Shenk Innocent was born in a small village of Siberia. Bibliography. W. Knight, Memoir of the Rev. As a married priest, he journeyed with his family H. Venn—the Missionary Secretariat of Henry Venn, to the new lands of Alaska in 1823. Early on he B.D.; W. R. Shenk, Henry Venn—Missionary Statesman; mastered and created an alphabet for the Fox- M. Warren, ed., To Apply the Gospel—Selections from Aleut language. His Aleut catechetical book, Indi- the Writings of Henry Venn; T. E. Yates, Venn and Victo- cation of the Way into the Kingdom of Heaven, be- rian Bishops Abroad. came a classic and was translated into Russian and Slavonic, going through forty-seven print- Williams, John (1796–1839). English missionary ings. This book sparked spiritual renewal and to the South Pacific. John Williams was born in missionary awareness in Russia. After ten years London and trained as a blacksmith. Aware of among the Aleuts, Innocent repeated the same ef- Captain Cook’s adventures, Williams responded fort of new translations among the Thlingit Indi- to a missionary challenge to the Pacific Islands. ans. John and his wife Mary were commissioned by In 1839, after the tragic death of his wife, In- the London Missionary Society in 1816. Arriving nocent was elevated as bishop of Kamchatka, the on the island of Eimeo, they studied the Tahitian Kuril and Aleutian Islands. He served as a mis- language and taught the gospel to a responsive sionary bishop for the following twenty-seven people. At the invitation of the king, Williams years in this diocese; and three new ones later sailed to Raiatea, where he built a cathedral, es- created in eastern Siberia. tablished a legal code, improved agricultural In 1868, Innocent became metropolitan of practices, and developed the sugarcane industry. Moscow and achieved a lifelong dream of found- Williams’ concern for the unreached led him to ing the Russian Orthodox Mission Society. Over form an indigenous missionary association dedi- the following decades, this Society sent hun- cated to reaching the Pacific Islands. Accompa- dreds of missionaries throughout Siberia, nied by local missionaries, Williams sailed to Alaska, Japan, China, and Korea. other islands, including Rarotonga and the So- Luke A. Veronis moan Islands, where the impact of the gospel again transformed the people. In assessing the Bibliography. P. D. Garrett, St. Innocent, Apostle to work Williams said, “There is not an island of America; M. Oleksa, Alaskan Missionary Spirituality; L. A. Veronis, Missionaries, Monks, and Martyrs: Mak- importance within two thousand miles of Tahiti ing Disciples of All Nations. to which the glad tidings of salvation have not been conveyed.” After a furlough in England, Williams and a group of missionaries from Venn, Henry (1796–1873). English missions ad- Samoa and England decided to reach the people ministrator and theorist. He was born in toward the west. It was on their arrival in Erro- 101 Women in Mission manga, New Hebrides, that Williams, the “Apos- worked in the early thirteenth century, was a re- tle to Polynesia,” and other missionaries were former where Christianity had forgotten the martyred on November 20, 1839. poor. She founded the Franciscan order of bare- Douglas McConnell foot nuns in Italy (ibid., p. 104). Women who chose to remain single served God through living Bibliography. J. Gutch, Beyond the Reefs: The Life of the cloistered life and were given the opportunity John Williams, Missionary. through the accepted ecclesiastical framework to proclaim the gospel. Women in Mission. Women have a long history In the Catholic tradition, priests, bishops, and of responding to God’s desire to use them in car- nuns built churches and hospitals and founded rying out his purposes on earth. From Miriam, schools and orphanages to establish the faith. the sister of Moses (Exod. 15:20; Micah 6:4), Women who experienced a call to mission first Deborah, a judge chosen by God to rule (Judg. had to join a celibate religious order. Catholic 45),­ and Huldah, a prophet carrying God’s mes- mothers were to have families as their primary sage (2 Kings 22:14–20; 2 Chron. 34:11–33) to responsibility. Not until the mid-twentieth cen- Catherine Booth of the Salvation Army, Mother tury could lay women freely participate in offi- Teresa in her ministry to the poor of India, and cial foreign missions with the full sanction of the Elisabeth Elliot, the great missionary writer, Church. Catholic sisters were the first trained God has chosen and empowered women to do nurses in the United States. They nursed the his bidding through the ages. wounded during the Revolutionary War and In Jesus’ day, women traveled from town to vil- founded some of the first American hospitals for lage with Jesus and the disciples, helping sup- the poor in the early nineteenth century. Mother port them out of their own means (Luke 8:13).­ Mary Joseph in the 1920s founded the Maryknoll They remembered Jesus’ words concerning his Sisters, who focused on direct evangelism, see- death and resurrection and were ready for their ing themselves fully participating in the church’s first assignment of telling the disciples the Good apostolic work. Six of the Maryknoll Sisters went News that Jesus had risen from the dead. to China as missionaries in 1921. In the early church, women were active in the The Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth mission of the church. In Philippi, the Lord century brought about changes in the role of opened Lydia’s heart in response to Paul’s words women in Christianity. The Reformers reempha- and, after she and her household were baptized, sized that women’s role is in the home and sup- she opened her home for believers to meet and portive of men. writes: “The re- grow in their faith (Acts 16:14­15, 40). Priscilla formers also subjected women to the confining was used by God to touch people in at least three perspective that their only recognized vocation different nations: Rome, Greece, and Asia Minor was marriage. With the dissolution of the nun- (Rom. 16:3­5; 2 Tim. 4:19). Priscilla’s name is usu- neries women lost their last chance of churchly ally listed before her husband’s in the biblical re- service outside the narrow circle of husband, cord and, since this is not common for that day, home and children” (1979, 91). Within Protes- it most probably indicates her importance in the tantism the problem then arose as to whether minds of the New Testament writers and her women had the right to respond to the prompt- prominence in the church. ings of the Holy Spirit to proclaim the Word of Many women were martyred for their love for God. Jesus in the first two centuries of Christianity. Ruth Tucker emphasizes that because women Santa Lucia of Sicily, who lived about a.d. 300, were restricted in serving in leadership within was involved in Christian charitable work. After the institutional church, they were attracted to marrying a wealthy nobleman, she was ordered responding to serving God in mission work, to stop giving to the poor; she refused and was where the limitations were less restrictive (1988, sent to jail. There she was persecuted and con- 9). This was due to the fact that mission leaders demned to death. Melania, coming from a focused on reaching a lost world for Christ. wealthy family in Rome with estates all around Though male leadership within the church has the Mediterranean, used her resources to give to limited how women can use their God-given gifts the poor and build monasteries and churches for at home, the urgency of fulfilling the Great Com- both men and women in Africa and in Jerusa- mission has required all available assistance. lem. Her missionary journeys started as she fled In the early days of the Protestant mission ad- from Rome during the invasion by the Goths in vance, most women who went to the field were a.d. 410. As a refugee, she and many other wives of missionaries. Many men even began women played an important role in this great looking for a wife to accompany them after they missionary movement. Some women were taken were appointed as missionaries. Women often as hostages to northern Europe, where they later felt a deep commitment to missions, but were re- married their captors and evangelized them quired to marry before they could fulfill their (Malcolm, 1982, 99–100). Clare, who lived and own missionary calling. Discerning male mis- 102 Women in Mission sionaries recognized that contact with women in was born. The first women’s sending board was most non-Western societies was impossible. So it the Women’s Union Missionary Society, an inter- was that the missionary wives not only managed denominational board founded by Sarah the home and children but developed programs Doremus in 1861. In quick succession, women of to reach local women and girls. Ann Judson, wife many denominational boards founded their own of Adoniram, demonstrated how wives not only female missionary organizations. cared for the family and ran a household in a A. B. Simpson, founder of the Christian and foreign country, but developed their own minis- Missionary Alliance in 1887, held and promoted try as well. Ann ran a small school for girls, did an open policy for women in ministry. He saw evangelistic work with the women, was a pioneer the issue as “one which God has already settled, Bible translator in two languages, and was the not only in His Word, but in His providence, by leading female missionary author of the early the seal which He is placing in this very day, in nineteenth century. Her letters and journals of every part of the world, upon the public work of their work with the Burmese inspired many in consecrated Christian women” (Tucker and Leif- the homeland to support missions and consider eld, 1987, 287–88). When criticized for his views, missions as a vocation. he strongly suggested, “Let the Lord manage the Single women were first sent to the field to women. He can do better than you, and you turn care for missionaries’ children and serve along- your batteries against the common enemy” side the missionary family. Little by little as op- (ibid, 288). This mission, along with many other portunities arose, single women missionaries Faith Missions in their zeal to reach the un- began to supervise women’s schools for nationals reached and focus wholly on evangelism, at- (Beaver, 1980, 59–86). Quietly they helped reach tracted women who were usually restricted from out to the local women who were secluded from regular theological education and ordination, society. In 1827, Cynthia Farrar responded to a but who felt strong calls to ministry and service field request from India for a single woman to and were willing to live in poverty and insecurity supervise the schools for national girls that had for the sake of the gospel. For the task of world been started by the mission and was appointed evangelization, the whole church was mobilized by the American Board, the first unmarried and women were welcomed to serve as evange- woman sent overseas as an assistant missionary lists. by any American agency. In 1839, Eliza Agnew By 1900, over forty denominational women’s went to Ceylon to serve as principal at an estab- societies existed, with over 3 million active lished boarding school for girls. She held that women raising funds to build hospitals and post until she retired forty years later. Many of schools around the world, paying the salaries of her students became Christians. She endeared indigenous female evangelists, and sending single herself to her students and visited former stu- women as missionary doctors, teachers, and evan- dents in their homes. gelists (Robert, 1996, 129). By the early decades of By 1837, when it became recognized by evan- the twentieth century, the women’s missionary gelical missions that female missionaries needed movement had become the largest women’s move- a more advanced level of training, Mount Holy- ment in the United States and women outnum- oke Female Seminary was founded by Mary bered men on the mission field by a ratio of more Lyon. The five basic areas of education included: than two to one (Tucker, 1988, 10). (1) religious, (2) benevolence, (3) intellectual, The fifty-year Jubilee of the founding of sepa- (4) health, and (5) service. Students at the semi- rate women’s mission boards was celebrated in nary were guided to develop a spirituality of 1910–11. College-educated women were leading self-sacrifice for the sake of the gospel and oth- the woman’s missionary movement at this time. ers. By 1887, Mount Holyoke had sent out 175 Results of the Jubilee included the collection of foreign missionaries to eighteen countries (Rob- over $1 million for interdenominational women’s ert, 1996, 93–104). Soon graduates from Mount colleges in Asia, the founding of the World Day Holyoke were involved in starting similar train- of Prayer, and the founding of the Committee on ing schools for women in many parts of the Christian Literature for Women and Children in world. Mission Fields (Robert, 1996, 256–71). The latter The Civil War in the United States became a provided reading material from a Christian per- catalyst for change in women’s role. Women spective, often in the form of magazines that en- were mobilized into benevolent activity on be- couraged indigenous Christian artists and writ- half of the soldiers. The death of the largest ers. The Jubilee also spearheaded the most number of men in American history created an successful ecumenical mission publication series entire generation of single women. Since denom- in American history. Of the twenty-one mission inational mission boards were still dragging study texts produced by the Central Committee their feet on sending single women to the field on the United Study of Foreign Missions from and the supply of committed women was greater 1900 to 1921, fourteen were written by women than ever, the Women’s Missionary Movement and one by a married couple (ibid., 257). Sum- 103 Xavier, Francis mer schools of missions were offered for training History of Their Thought and Practice; R. A. Tucker, leaders in the textbook material for teaching Guardians of the Great Commission: The Story of during the year. “In 1917, for example, nearly Women in Modern Missions; R. A. Tucker and twelve thousand women and girls attended twen- W. Liefeld, Daughters of the Church: Women and Minis- ty-five summer schools around the country. Mis- try from the New Testament Times to the Present. sion study, Bible study, pageants, and fellowship marked the summer schools” (ibid., 261). Xavier, Francis (1506–52). Spanish pioneer mis- Gradually from around 1910 to the time of the sionary in India and Japan. Born in a noble fam- Second World War, the institutional basis of the ily of northern Spain, Xavier studied philosophy women’s missionary movement was eroding and theology in Paris, where he came under the through the forced merger of women’s mission- influence of Ignatius Loyola and became a co- ary agencies into the male-dominated denomina- founder of the Society of Jesus in 1534. As the tional boards. Because of reduced giving from Society was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540, the local churches in the 1920s and pressure Xavier, a papal nuncio in the East and protected within denominations, the women’s missionary by the Portuguese king, embarked for Goa, movement was dismantled and the male-con- India. His work in the Portuguese Indies (1542– trolled general boards took the money raised by 49) resulted in establishing the mission appara- the women (ibid., 305). Though women have tus and baptizing the natives up to an estimated since had less place of genuine influence and 30,000 in Southern India. Through an encounter participation in administrative offices, board with a Japanese called Anjiro in Malacca, he fos- membership, and policymaking, the trend now is tered a vision for Japan and landed there in to include women. R. Pierce Beaver writes, “The 1549. Two years of activity among “the best peo- big problem is that of personal and congrega- ple yet discovered” marked a decisive entry of tional commitment, involvement, and participa- Christianity and counted 2,000 Christians. After tion in world mission. The greatest loss conse- returning briefly to India, he tried to enter China quent to the end of the distinctive, organized but died of fever on Sancian Island, off the Chi- women’s world mission movement has been the nese coast. decline of missionary dynamism and zeal in the Xavier pioneered modern missionary methods churches” (1980, 201). by advocating the study of the indigenous reli- Women have played an outstanding role in the gions, customs, and languages, the use of edu- modern missionary movement. Dana Robert cated national collaborators, and continuing pas- shows that women’s mission theory was holistic, toral care. with emphasis on both evangelism and meeting Tadataka Maruyama human needs (1996, xviii; see Holistic Mission). Women in mission have shown a deep commit- Bibliography. H. J. Coleridge, ed., The Life and Let- ters of St. Francis Xavier; L. Da Silva, St. Francis Xavier: ment to and concern for women and children. Apostle of the Indies. Education, medical work, and struggles against foot binding, child marriage, female infanticide, and oppressive social, religious, and economic Ziegenbalg, Bartholomaeus (1682–1719). Pio- structures were commonly the focuses of their neer German missionary to India. The son of a work. With their holistic approach to missions, grain seller, Ziegenbalg was orphaned at a very women were committed to healing. Thus Medi- early age. Influenced by his pietist upbringing, cal Missions were dominated by women for he went as a young man to study in Halle under many years. Women have been permitted great August Francke. In spite of his chronic stomach latitude in Christian ministry with their work disorders and subsequent failure to complete his ranging from Evangelism and Church Planting final examinations, he and Heinrich Plütschau to Bible Translation and teaching in seminaries. were selected for service in the Danish Mission. Since women were less involved in denomina- Following their ordination in Copenhagen, the tional activities and more focused on human two traveled to the Danish colony of Tranquebar, need, it was easier for them to be ecumenical- which they reached on July 9, 1706, after many ly-minded and risk cooperation for common pur- dangers. As the first Lutheran missionaries in poses. Women therefore often took the lead in South India, they became pioneers in the mis- founding ecumenical mission organizations. sionary effort there. Only five years after their Marguerite Kraft arrival Ziegenbalg completed his Tamil transla- tion of the New Testament. In spite of the hostile Bibliography. M. Adeney, Missiology 15 (1987): 323– attitude of the Danish governor, his work was 37; R. P. Beaver, American Protestant Women in World richly blessed. Ziegenbalg compiled a Tamil Mission: A History of the First Feminist Movement in North America; A. Glasser, Women and the Ministries of grammar and wrote scholarly works on such Christ, pp. 88–92; K. T. Malcolm, Women at the Cross- topics as Indian philosophy, religion, and the roads: A Path Beyond Feminism and Traditionalsim; caste system. He founded schools, orphanages, D. L. Robert, American Women in Mission: A Social and a seminary to train native teachers. 104 Zinzendorf, Nikolaus Ludwig von

Ziegenbalg’s efforts are noteworthy in that he The movement began with a unique outpour- held great respect for the culture of the Hindus ing of the Holy Spirit at Herrnhut in 1727. and stood for human dignity independent of Zinzendorf’s own missionary passion and vision race, status, and caste. Rejected for service as a melded with that of the Moravians. From initial deacon by the secretary of the Copenhagen Mis- benefactor he became the visionary, practical sionary Society, Ziegenbalg was dependent upon helper through his court connections, traveling support from churches and friends. Having mar- missionary, and the second bishop of the Mora- ried during his European furlough (1714–16), he vian church. All the while he maintained the in- became the father of two sons and died in 1719 tense personal piety and enthusiasm that grew in Tranquebar. out of his childhood faith. He was determined to Rolf Hille cling to the doctrine of redemption by the blood of Christ, and to lay the atonement as the foun- Zinzendorf, Nikolaus Ludwig von (1700–1760). dation of all other truth. His devotion flamed German father of Moravian missions. Nikolaus into missionary passion when he met a West In- Ludwig von Zinzendorf was a German Lutheran dian Christian servant, Anthony Ulrich, at the nobleman who, strongly influenced by the Pi- Danish court. His pleas for help ultimately were etistic movement, became the father of the eigh- heard by the Moravians. Under Zinzendorf’s teenth-century Moravian missionary movement. leadership, they sent out their first missionaries When he permitted a group of refugees from in 1732. Moravia to settle on his estate in Saxony in 1722, Jim Reapsome he had no inkling that from them the gospel Bibliography. J. R. Weinlick, Count Zinzendorf; J. R. would spread to Greenland, the West Indies, Weinlick and A. Frank, The Moravian Church Through North America, Central America, and Africa. the Ages.

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