CHAUDHARY CHARAN SINGH UNIVERSITY

MEERUT COLLEGE, MEERUT

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

M. A. IInd SEMESTER

2019-21

AMERICAN LITERATURE

Song of Myself (1, 10, 14, 24), Out of Cradle – Walt Whitman

Brahma, Self Reliance – Emerson

Civil Disobedience – Henry David Thoreau

Mentor

Dr. Neelam Sharma H.O.D English Department, MCM Unit I - Song of Myself – Very short questions

Q1. Write is brief Whitman’s cocept of Democracy?

A1. Whitman envisioned democracy not just as a political system but as a way of experiencing the world. Whitman tried to be democratic in both life and poetry. He imagined democracy as a way of interpersonal interaction and as a way for individuals to integrate their beliefs into their everyday lives. “Song of Myself” notes that democracy must include all individuals equally, or else it will fall.

Q2. What is The Cycle of Growth and Death according to Whitman?

A2. Whitman’s poetry reflects the vitality and growth of the early United States. As a way of dealing with both the population growth and the massive deaths during the Civil War, Whitman focused on the cycles of individuals : people are born, they age and reproduce, and they die. Describing the life cycle of nature helped Whitman contexualize the severe injuries and trauma he witnessed during the Civil War – linking death to life helped give the deaths of so many soldiers meaning.

Q3. What is Whitman’s concept of individuality?

A3. Throughout his poetry, Whitman praised the individual. He imagined a democratic nation as a unified whole composed of unique but equal individuals. “Song of Myself” opens in a triumphant paen to the individual : “I celebrate myself, and sing myself”. Elsewhere the speaker of that exuberant poem identifies himself as Walt Whitman and claims that, through him, the voices of many will speak. In this way, many individuals make up the individual democracy, a single entity composed of myraid parts.

Q4. Explain Whitman’s style?

A4. The poetic structures he employs are unconventional but reflect his democratic ideals. Perception, rather than analysis, is the basis for this kind of poetry, which uses few mwtaphors or other kinds of symbolic language. Anecdotes are another favored device. Whitman largely avoids rhyme schemes and other traditional poetic devices. He does, however, use meter in masterful and innovative ways.

Q5. What does plant or grass symbolise?

A5. Throughout Whitman’s poetry, plant life symbolizes both growth and multiplicity. Rapid, regular plant growth also stands in for the rapid, regular expansion of the population of the United States. The title Leaves of Grass highlights another of Whitman’s themes: the beauty of the individual. Each leaf or blade of grass possesses its own distinct beauty, and together the blades form a beautiful unified whole, an idea Whitman explores in the sixth section of “Song of Myself.” Multiple leaves of grass thus symbolize democracy, another instance of a beautiful whole composed of individual parts.

Q6. What was the impact of The Civil War on Whitman’s poetry?

A6. The Civil War diminished Whitman’s faith in democratic sympathy. While the cause of the war nominal furthered brotherhood and equality, the war itself was a quagmire of killing. Reconstruction, which began to fail almost immediately after it was begun, further disappointed Whitman. His later poetry, which displays a marked insecurity about the place of poetry and the place of emotion in general (see in particular “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d”), is darker and more isolated.

Q7. When was Song of Myself first published? And what was its title?

A7. The poem had no title when first published in his collection, Leaves of Grass (1855). It was called A Poem of Walt Whitman, an American until he changeit in 1881 to Song of Myself.

Q8. What is the major literary symbol of Song of Myself?

A8. The major symbol is the first person personal pronoun. ‘I’ can be interpreted in four ways. The ‘I’ in the first is the representative man. It includes all the Americans in their social context with their heritage. Secondly it refers to the natural man who loafs and invites his soul, who lies down with animals since they are guided by instinct. Thirdly, the ‘I’ refers to the unique individual poet and his ‘self.’ Finally, it symbolises the biological race of man.

Q9. What are the main themes of Song of Myself?

A9. There are three main themes in Whitman’s epic poem: 1. The idea of the self 2. The self in relation to others 3. How the self relates to elements in nature and the universe

Q10. Writedown Whitman’s concept of self.

A10. His concept of self is a spiritual entry that can interact and flex with others and the cosmos, yet maintains a permanence that reflects the individual’s intellectual, spiritual, and artistic being. And it never ends: the “perpetual journey” is where our self confronts limitless time and limitless space, and we are products of ages past and future.

Q11. What is Whitman’s eroticism or treatment of sex?

A11. For Whitman, spiritual communication depends on physical contact, or at least proximity. The body is the vessel that enables the soul to experience the world. Therefore the body is something to be worshipped and given a certain primacy. Eroticism, particularly homoeroticism, figures significantly in Whitman’s poetry. The affection Whitman shows for the bodies of others, both men and women, comes out his appreciation for the linkage between the body and the soul and the communion that can come through physical contact.

Q12. Explain the following opening lines of song 1 of Song of Myself :

I celebrate myself, and sing myself, And what I assume you shall assume

A12. In the opening section of the Song of Myself the poet, in the manner of the epic poets, states the theme of his poem. He proudly exclaims. “I celebrate myself”. The “I” used throughout the poem has a dual significance. It refers to Walt Whitman, the common individual as also humanity in general. In the second sense “I” has a universal application, and the poet imagines a complete identity between himself and others. There is a merging and fusing of the individual and universal spirits.

Q13. How does Whitman establish his Americanness?

A13. Starting his mystical journey towards unity with the Divine the poet proudly declares his pride of beingAmerican. He is American in all his traits and charecteristics. His heart and mind are American, being born there “from parents the same, and their parents the same.” He promises to go on singing of American till his last breath.

Q14. Expain the last stanza :

Creeds and schools in abeyance, Retiring back a while sufficed at what they are, but never forgotten, I harbor for good or bad, I permit to speak at every hazard, Nature without check with original energy

A14. For the time being, Whitman declares, he will have no connection wiith religion, its saints, and philosophers of any kind. Their teachings are good in their own way, but at the moment, he would not like that they should interfere with his union with Nature. Nature should speak to him, he seeks, with all its pristine glory, energy and power.

Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking – Very short questions

Q1. Can this poem be compared to an opera?

A1. The poem is very melodious and rhythmic and may itself be compared to an aria (in opera, an aria is an elaborate melody sung by one voice). Its use of dactylic and trochaic meter is very appropriate in describing the motion of the sea waves and their meaning. In the firdt twenty lines theme of the poem is stated and the appropriate mood is evoked. This is the musical declaration in narrative and dialogue part of opera. After twenty two lines we have the recitative and aria which is an extended song in three sections. Into this form are introduced the suggestive images of the bired, the sea and old crone rocking the cradle. The communicated meaning is emotive and metaphorical.

Q2. Write down the symbolic meaning of the poem.

A2. The main symbol is the sea which rocks the cradle. The sea symbolic of maternity, of birth and love. The cradle is the symbol of continual movement and birth. Death is the savage old mother ; and the word “death” comes as he recollects the time when the sea reveals the rhythm of life and death. Death does not have terror, for it is the source of the bird’s song, of the boy’s tears, and of the poetry. There is the assertion of life in the face of death.

Q3. What features of an elegy do you find in this poem?

A3. As an elegy this poem has following features; death of some dear one, here the death of the female bird, as the main subject of the poem. Tthe nature too mourns on the death. In this poem, the sea is restless and thee moon is lagging behind on the seperation of the loving birds. The mourner laments and recalls the past happiness, the speaker tells us the past happy situations of the birds. As in elegy this poem too has the ending with the poet and the lone bird getting consollation through the realization that death is final and superior.

Q4. Whitman presents his attitude towards death in this poem. How?

A4. Through this elegy, Walt Whitman presents his attitude towards death through the medium of the he-bird. For Whitman, death is not the end of life, but the beginning of another form of life. It is true that death is superior and final, yet it can make us enter another phase of life. The body dies, but the soul continues in another form.

Q5. What does the title of the poem signify?

A5. The title of the poem itself is symbolic to the birth. Cradle is metaphorically a mother’s womb and at the same time, it can be a life which is rocked by the death. So, the title has dual meaning: one refers to birth from a mother’s womb and if the cradle is taken as the life, it refers to death.

Q6. What is the implied theme of the poem?

A6. the implied theme of the poem is the connection between grief and art. The poem vividly depicts the growing process of the boy from immaturity to maturity through his live experience of the love of the birds and the death of one bird. Any piece of art is created through frustrations and death only releases us from such frustrations.

Q7. What is the significance of time sequence in this poem?

A7. Whitman imaginatively recreates the childhood experience of a inquiring lad and also shows how the boy becomes a man, and the man, a poet. This time sequence is as much the essence of the poem as is the growth of the consciousness of the poet. Memory plays an important part in this dramatic development. First, the boy tries to absorb the moving song of the mockingbird. Later, the boy replaces the bird as a significant character in the drama. Whitman synthesise the substance of bird’s song with the secret emanting from the sea. The secret of life which he gets from the sea is the recurrent pattern of birth – death – rebirth.

Q8. When was the poem Out of Cradle Endlessly Rocking first published and what was the title of poem?

A8. The poem was first published in New York Saturday Press on 24th December 1859 titled “A Child’s Reminiscence.” It was included in Leaves of Grass in 1860 as “A word Out of the Sea.” In the 1871 edition the present title was used and final form was given in 1881.

Unit II – Self Reliance - Short questions

Q1. “Self-Reliance is the manifesto of Individualism.” Discuss this essay in the light of this statement.

A1. Introduction Emerson’s essay Self-Reliance is considered an authentic statement supporting individualism and transcendentalism. It is one of the most revolutionary essays of Emerson in that it deals with a controversial subject much discussed and dissected by discerning critics. Emerson’s Self- Reliance is corner-stone of his thought. It is the basic foundation of the new philosophy of life advocated by Emerson.

The Doctrine of Self-Reliance Emerson floats the idea that every man should be self-reliant because he has infinite resources at his hand. Man is directly inspired by God, the Over Soul. Therefore, self-reliance is God-reliance. Man is great only when he is inspired by the Divine Soul which inspires all human beings. Emerson stresses the view that every American should look to himself for spirituality. He must stand on his own feet. The student of divinity must dare to love God without any mediator.

The Doctrine of Over Soul Emerson’s individualism is to be seen in the perspective of the doctrine of Over-Soul. According to Walter Blair, “Emerson’s belief in self- reliance follows as the logical result of his doctrine of the Over-Soul. According to this doctrine, every man has something of the divine in his nature and is capable of establishing a direct relationship with the universal spirit.” Emerson was of the view that every man is capable of perceiving the highest truth- “we lie in the lap of immense intelligence, Which makes us receivers of it’s truth and organs of its activity.” Therefore, Emerson said, “Trust thyself : every heart vibrates to that iron string. Accept the place the divine providence has found for you.”

Emphasis on Individualism Emerson was an individualist. Hence he spoke emphatically of individualism in life. He advocated the development of the individual. For this approach he was considered even anti- social, one who was unconcerned with society because he said, “What I must do is all that concerns me not what the people think.” But that was not the cause with Emerson. In fact he was quite mindful of society. According to him a good society is made of good individuals. Hence the development of the individuals was a necessary requirement for the development of the individual was a necessary requirement for the development of society. He strongly believed that social salvation could be achieved only through the salvation of the individuals who compose society. Emerson asks the Americans never to imitate, but to maintain their individuality. He asks the people to recognize their abilities and never to doubt what they are capable of doing. He says in the essay, “Insist on yourself, never imitate. Your own gift you can present every moment with the cumulative force of a whole life’s cultivation, but of the adopted talent of another, you have only an extemporaneous, half possession. THat which can do best, none but his Maker can teach him.”

Freedom from Conformity A perfect individual is free from conformity. Self-reliance does not envisage any rigorous moral or religious following. There is no place for such things outside the individual. Emerson says that “such an individual is more or less perfect and, therefore, he needs no secular authority. Self- reliance alone constitutes character and the appearance of character makes the state or other outside authorities unnecessary.” Conformity is a hindrance to the grooming of individuality. People generally live after the world’s opinions, but Emerson says, “It is easy in the world to live after the world’s opinions; it is easy in solitude to live after our own; but the great man is he ho in the midst of the crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude.” In the essay Emerson speaks against conformity and stresses individuality. According to him, conformity scatters the force of the individual. He says, “It loses your time and blurs the impression of your character.”

Consistency - a Hinderance to Individuality Emerson also speaks against consistency and treats it as a hinderance to individualism. Consistency is a check to self-trust. Consistency is “a reverence for our past act or word” and it is to be avoided “because the eyes of others have no other data for computing our orbit than our past acts, and we are loath to disappoint them.” Emerson is of the view that a man should not hesitate in contradicting what he has said or done in the past. He says, “Suppose you should contradict yourself; what then? It seems to be a rule of wisdom never to rely on your memory alone, scarcely even in acts of pure memory, but to bring the past for judgement into the thousand-eyed present, and live ever in a new day.” About consistency Emerson observes, “A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a great soul has simply nothing to fo. He may as well concern himself with his shadow on the wall.”

Conclusion Thus, Emerson lays special stress on individuality in a man. An individual or a self-reliant man is self-sufficient. No history, no pastor any ancestor is his guide. Over-Soul is his chief guide and inspiration. A person possessing strong individuality says and does what the Over-Soul prompts him to do or say. It is the reason why he expresses different views on different occasions. Finally Emerson says, “A political victory, a rise of rents, the recovery of your sick, or the return of your absent friend, or some other favorable event, raises your spirits, and you think good days are preparing for you. Do not believe it. Nothing can bring peace to you but yourself. Nothing can bring you peace but the triumph of principles.”

Q2. Critically evaluate Emerson as the father of American transcendentalism. Or Examine critically Emerson’s transcendentalism in the light of his essay Self-Reliance. Or “Transcendentalism and individualism are the corner-stones of Emerson’s thought and the two are closely related.” Discuss.

A2. Introduction Emerson is popularly known as the Sage of Concord and the Father of American Transcendentalism. He was the founder of the Transcendental Club in Concord. His famous work Nature is considered as the Bible of Transcendentalism. In fact Emerson is acknowledged as the most influential figure in the history of American Transcendentalism. The essay Self-Reliance is an important document of the transcendental philosophy of Emerson. But before going into details of transcendentalism it is apt to understand this term in it’s basic aspects. Literally the word ‘transcend’ means ‘to go beyond’ . But here we are concerned with its philosophical connotation. In philosophical terms, this word denotes “the recognition in man of the capacity of knowing truth intuitively, or of attaining knowledge transcending the reach of the senses.” In more general terms, a transcendentalist is one who believes in the world beyond this world and in the world above that of the senses. The transcendentalist sees ‘the heart of things’ and experiences ‘oneness with God’. The transcendentalist advises men to rely on intuition, natural instincts and impulses rather than on authority outside himself or on tradition. Therefore the transcendentalist sees the inner things rather than the outer side.

The Growth of Emerson’s Transcendentalism By the time Emerson left the pu;pit in 1929 he had met Coleridge and Carlyle and under their influence he had begun to develop certain convictions about transcendentalism. At thi time he showed interest in philosophical matters which led him towards transcendental ideas. It was at this time that he wrote a poem titled Self-Reliance in which he expressed such ideas as man’s unity with God, Henceforth please God, for ever I forego The yoke of men’s opinion, I will be Light-hearted as a bird and live with God. When he returned from Europe to America in 1835, he showed tremendous interest in transcendental matters and became a member of the Transcendental Club to become a confirmed transcendentalist. At this time Emerson thought that reliance on introspection could give a universally valid conclusion that “every man’s nature is a sufficient advertisement to him of the character of his fellows.” Man is a spiritual representative of mankind and he is a self-chosen one. He follows the universal voice within his own heart and the voice of God. Hence he declared, “Nothing is of us. All is of God. The individual is always mistaken.”

Emerson’s Transcendentalism Emerson’s transcendentalism is seen in several facets. It asserts God is involved in the universe physically, intellectually and spiritually. Emerson’s transcendentalism was a reaction against Unitarianism. They thought that God being benevolent, man cannot sing against God. Man learnt to make himself happy only after Jesus instructed him. There was therefore no place for mysticism and had nothing to do with the existence of the soul. The transcendentalists rejected this idea, for they believed in the existence of the soul and they held that man has innate knowledge of the truth. Emerson’s transcendentalism was also influenced by the indian mystics. He was led to believe that reason of man “is not to be distinguished from the Divine Essence.” Man is infinite. He must surrender to the Over-Soul. Obedience to the Over-Soul is self-reliance.

Emerson says, “The universe is the externalization of the Soul.” Soul is the supreme thing that a man must try to comprehend. Man should know his Self, by knowing which he can know all. THis led Emerson to believe that the soul of God is within the soul of everyone. WHen one looks inwards he finds the Universal Soul. Emerson was of the view that “all things subsist, and do not die, but only retire a little from sight and afterwards return again.” He believes that “The simplest person, who in his integrity worships GOd, becomes God.” At another place Emerson expresses this idea in a different way, “From within or from behind, a light shines through us upon things and makes us aware that we are nothing and the light is all.” The Over-Soul is the unity of the matter and manifests itself in all elements of the universe.

Unit III – Civil Disobedience – Long questions

Q1. Write critical analysis of “Civil Disobedience

A1. Civil Government and Higher Law

In Civil Disobedience, Thoreau's basic premise is that a higher law than civil law demands the obedience of the individual. Human law and government are subordinate. In cases where the two are at odds with one another, the individual must follow his conscience and, if necessary, disregard human law. Thoreau prepared his lecture and essay on resistance to civil government in response to a specific event — the Mexican War, which was declared in May of 1846, and which was expected to result in the expansion of slave territory. He was not particularly inclined to devote much thought to political theory and reform. He writes in Civil Disobedience:

. . . the government does not concern me much, and I shall bestow the fewest possible thoughts on it. It is not many moments that I live under a government, even in this world. If a man is thought-free [free in his thinking], fancy-free, imagination-free, that which is not never for a long time appearing to be to him, unwise rulers or reformers cannot fatally interrupt him.

The search for understanding of universal laws forms the proper use of a man's time, energy, and intellect. Thoreau's antislavery and reform pieces do not diminish the significance of Transcendental exploration and discovery. They are specific reactions to what he sees as extreme events. They form an acknowledgment that inner exploration loses meaning if matters of conscience are overlooked in the process. Government enforces civil law by physical means, which are ineffectual in relation to moral issues.

Thoreau writes of government as "an expedient by which men would fain succeed in letting one another alone." Civil Disobedience is written in a relatively measured tone. Despite popular misinterpretation, Thoreau does not advocate the dissolution of government in it. He asks "not at once for no government, but at once a better government."

However, Thoreau does call for a government limited to decide those issues that it is fitted to consider:

. . . a government in which the majority rule in all cases cannot be based on justice, even as far as men understand it. Can there not be a government in which majorities do not virtually decide right and wrong, but conscience? — in which majorities decide only those questions to which the rule of expediency is applicable? Must the citizen ever for a moment, or in the least degree, resign his conscience to the legislator?

Moral issues must be decided by the individual and his conscience, not by the majority through government. The Mexican War, which Thoreau believes must be stopped, may be halted by individual action, but not through the political process. Civil Disobedience is a call for limited government. Through nonpayment of taxes (the withholding of support from a government that commits immoral acts), the individual protests the government's involvement in issues over which it has no proper jurisdiction. This constitutes a "peaceable revolution," not a violent one. Thoreau is still able to accept that government has its place: "In fact, I quietly declare war with the State, after my fashion, though I will still make what use and get what advantage of her I can. . . ."

Throughout Civil Disobedience, Thoreau presents government as useless in relation to moral issues. Voting is but an expression of majority sentiment, and lacks the power of timely action possessed by the individual. The political process results in the election of those who hold office — available men, who accept the process but are not necessarily guided by principle. Thus, the system perpetuates itself and degenerates over time.

Thoreau underscores the power of the individual to effect reform. He says of the government at the beginning of the Civil Disobedience, "It has not the vitality and force of a single living man. . . ." Later, he urges individuals to fulfill their moral responsibility by taking the action that most would prefer to relegate to external forces:

Reform will come only through the individual. Moral issues are the individual's concern. The individual's obligation is "to do at any time what [he thinks] right."

Thoreau expresses qualified optimism at the end of the essay, in his presentation of the evolution of government from absolute to limited monarchy to democracy, and in his suggestion that there may yet be a better form of government. There will never be a really free and enlightened State, until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power.

Although non-government may constitute this "more perfect and glorious State," Thoreau recognizes that the time has not come for its realization. Thoreau's vision of the relationship between man, God, and the state did not change, but his sense of the way in which individuals must resist institutionalized injustice evolved in response to specific national and local events. Materialism and the Simple Life

Thoreau writes in Civil Disobedience of corrupting materialism and of the simple life as its antidote. He states that those who "assert the purest right, and consequently are most dangerous to a corrupt State, commonly have not spent much time in accumulating property." The upright man is thus typically untainted by money. Thoreau presents the level of a man's virtue as proportionate to how much money he possesses — "the more money, the less virtue." Money makes difficult choices and the consideration of priorities unnecessary. It takes the "moral ground . . . from under [a man's] feet." As means increase, the opportunity to live meaningfully decreases. The rich man, Thoreau writes, "is always sold to the institution which makes him rich." There is a close connection between the rich and the government that their taxes support.

Thoreau comments on the difficulty of trying to live "honestly and at the same time comfortably in outward respects." He suggests that it is better "to hire or squat somewhere, and raise but a small crop, and eat that soon. You must live within yourself, and depend upon yourself, always tucked up and ready for a start, and not have many affairs."

Citizen's Duty Thoreau argues that each individual is responsible for creating the society they want to live in. "Let every man make known what kind of government would command his respect," he advises in Section 1. Rather than wait for reformers or elected representatives to make changes, citizens should make changes themselves. All people who want an end to slavery, for instance, should "at once ... withdraw their support, both in person and property, from the government." This disobedience is not only their right but their responsibility. The essay explains how Thoreau believes a model citizen must act. Despite his desire to be a "bad subject," Thoreau believes he is doing what is best for the country. Most significantly, he reverses traditional notions of citizenship and patriotism. Those who disobey unjust laws, he thinks, are the real "patriots" who "serve the State with their consciences." By contrast, soldiers and legislators serve the State only with their bodies.

Law Versus Conscience When law and conscience conflict, Thoreau believes no one should question which to choose. A society in which citizens are driven by their inner moral compasses will be a better place for everyone. Otherwise, he is not sure why individuals have consciences if not to guide them in difficult situations. Laws can change according to the interests of the group in power, a group chosen because it is "physically the strongest." Laws value efficiency and convenience: "a consistent expediency." Legislators are neither perfect nor considerate of their constituents' best interests. For example, Daniel Webster defends slavery because it is permitted in the Constitution, not because it serves the needs of the people. And the American government itself is only "a tradition, though a recent one." Thoreau is more interested in what he sees as universal, unchanging human needs, such as justice and freedom. He has faith that individual citizens can determine the right thing to do; they simply need the courage to do it.

State Abuse of Power Thoreau's frequent references to "the State" are an example of metonymy, or the use of a word to represent a larger, closely associated concept. By "the State," Thoreau means the American government on a federal and state level and, more broadly, any ruling institution of government. He refers, for instance, to a possible "free and enlightened State" he has imagined. In the United States, however, the State still wields its power without justice or wisdom. He offers several examples of State-sanctioned violence. Wars lead soldiers to their deaths, make men act against their own consciences, and cripple the invading nation. Enslaved people comprise one sixth of the American population, and the rest allow slavery to continue for the sake of "commerce and agriculture." Anyone who fights for justice is imprisoned and fined. The State is described as a "machine" that values "expediency" or efficiency above all. But Thoreau does not place all the responsibility for immorality with the powerful. If citizens felt empowered to question authority, Thoreau thinks, the State would not practice or condone injustice. The government can abuse power only with the approval of the governed: "It can have no pure right over my person or property but what I concede to it." He challenges readers to think the same way.

The Ideal Government According to Thoreau, an ideal governing body honors individual desires and needs, promotes justice above all, and respects dissenting voices. He quotes Confucius as saying, "Poverty and misery are subjects of shame" in a reasonable government: good leadership cares for its citizens. Thoreau identifies ways for the current leadership to improve. Although he does not oppose the idea of government or democracy, he believes U.S. democracy is not working as intended. He wants the ruling powers held accountable to the individuals they rule. He questions the effectiveness of elected representatives who make decisions on behalf of the people. Through his interrogation of American political systems, Thoreau challenges readers to imagine a political system that actually represents the desires of its citizens. How would this ideal government make laws? How would it act toward other nations? How would it differ from the current government?

Q2. Elaborate “Civil Disobedience” and the influence of Transcendentalism. A2. Henry David Thoreau (1815-62) was an American writer and philosopher with a strong belief in independence and self-reliance. His opposition to the interference of government with the life of the individual has led to suggestions that he was a proto-anarchist, though in truth Thoreau favoured a reduction in government rather than its absence altogether. His stance on these issues was laid out in his 1849 essay ‘Civil Disobedience’, in which he called for people to place more importance on following their own conscience than on the dictates of governments. Thoreau’s philosophy was greatly influenced by the movement of transcendentalism, which he first encountered through the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Transcendentalism believes that nature and people are inherently positive, and that people must follow their own understanding of what is right or wrong. Social constructs such as government or slavery interfere with this natural understanding and should therefore be disregarded. The individual owed it to themselves to oppose any such construct. The movement drew considerable inspiration from Indian religions and in his book Walden Thoreau wrote about the effect regularly reading the Hindu text, the Bhagavad Gita, had upon him. For Thoreau, the concept of transcendentalism was not merely a philosophical one; he was prepared to support his beliefs by carrying out acts of civil disobedience, such as refusing to pay taxes as a form of dissent regarding the Mexican War (1846-1848). Thoreau opposed slavery and social injustice; he argued against the Mexican War – fought over the state of Texas – because many who supported it were southerners hoping to gain greater territory for the slave-owning southern states. For him the war was unjust and should therefore be actively opposed. Thoreau’s political writings had little impact during his own lifetime, with contemporary readers taking more interest in his work on nature. However, ‘Civil Disobedience’ has proved highly influential on many engaged in civil rights and other such movements long after his death. As is often the case for great thinkers, his peers may have cared little for his work, but his influence would be felt many years after his death. Such great men as Gandhi and Dr. Martin Luther King would express how greatly they had been impressed by his work – some hundred years after his death. Transcendentalism did not endure beyond Thoreau’s own lifetime, but while the movement existed it counted well-known writers among its ranks, including Louisa May Alcott, Emerson, and the poet Walt Whitman. In fact, Emerson was a friend and mentor of Thoreau, and he and his work would have a great influence on the other writer. Emerson’s comments on religion caused outrage in some circles, although to contemporary eyes it is unsurprising that the movement set little store by the emphasis of religion on obedience and faith in a higher power. This was completely at odds with the transcendentalist belief in nature and the need of the individual to follow their own path. However, humanity tends to follow the status quo, and religion continues to possess a dominant influence on the United States, even in these supposedly more enlightened times. In many ways, he and the transcendentalist movement were ahead of their time. We are unlikely to see the end of our current form of government, yet elements of Thoreau’s assertion of self-sufficiency still exist, although not to the extent that he spoke of. We believe that people should provide for themselves, though we do not support the complete overthrow of our political system. Perhaps even now we are not ready for the personal responsibility that following Thoreau’s advocacy of ‘Civil Disobedience’ entails.

Q3. Write the summary of “Civil Disobedience”. A3. Thoreau's Civil Disobedience espouses the need to prioritize one's conscience over the dictates of laws. It criticizes American social institutions and policies, most prominently slavery and the Mexican- American War. Thoreau begins his essay by arguing that government rarely proves itself useful and that it derives its power from the majority because they are the strongest group, not because they hold the most legitimate viewpoint. He contends that people's first obligation is to do what they believe is right and not to follow the law dictated by the majority. When a government is unjust, people should refuse to follow the law and distance themselves from the government in general. A person is not obligated to devote his life to eliminating evils from the world, but he is obligated not to participate in such evils. This includes not being a member of an unjust institution (like the government). Thoreau further argues that the United States fits his criteria for an unjust government, given its support of slavery and its practice of aggressive war. Thoreau doubts the effectiveness of reform within the government, and he argues that voting and petitioning for change achieves little. He presents his own experiences as a model for how to relate to an unjust government: In protest of slavery, Thoreau refused to pay taxes and spent a night in jail. But, more generally, he ideologically dissociated himself from the government, "washing his hands" of it and refusing to participate in his institutions. According to Thoreau, this form of protest was preferable to advocating for reform from within government; he asserts that one cannot see government for what it is when one is working within it.