Index

9/11 140–1, 142, 145, 148, 171, 172, 175, 261, 329 Western Australia 428 1540 Committee Legislative Database on Weapons of Mass Australian Defence Act (1903) 335–7, 338 Destruction 179 Australian Defence Assistance to the Civil Community (DACC) Abdeli, Sélim 266 337–8 accountability see oversight/accountability Australian Defence Force (ADF) 332, 335–8 ACPO see Association of Chief Police Officers Australian Defence Force Aid to Civilian Authorities (DFACA) ACRC see Korea, Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights 337–8 Commission Australian Defence Force Regulations 337 ADF see Australian Defence Force Australian Federal Court 286 Afghanistan 286, 329, 331, 343 Australian (AFP) 38–9, 285, 340, 428, 429, 439 AFP see Australian Federal Police Revised Death Penalty Guidelines 38 Africa 74 Australian Institute of Police Management (AIPM) 436 Agreement for the Suppression of the White Slave Trade (1904) Australian ‘Joint Operations Command and the Australian 25 Defence Force Warfare Centre’ 340 AIPM see Australian Institute of Police Management Australian Parliamentary Joint Committee on Airbnb 56–7 (APJCLE) 147 Ajevski, M 5 Australian Strategy Policy Institute 342 Al-Qaeda 189, 343 Austria 174, 180, 262, 263, 356, 360, 384, 391, 396, 397, 401, Albanian Ombudsman 451 448 Alegre, S 279 Ayling, J 197 AlphaBay 247 American Civil Liberties Union 339 Balkan states 179 AML see Anti-Money Laundering Bangladesh 338 Amnesty International 340, 342 Basic Principles for the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Andalib-Goortani 105n Enforcement Officials (BPUFF) 102 Anderson, DM 66 Bayer, M 23 Andreas, P 23, 24, 194, 197 Bayley, DH 76, 410 Anglo-American system 67–9, 86 Beatrix Park, Schiedam 118 Angola 384, 385, 391, 396, 400 Beck, U 255 Angolan 396 Belfast Agreement (1998) 52 Anti-Domestic Violence Law (China, 2016) 377 Belgian Criminal Code 37 Anti-Money Laundering (AML) 247 Belgian Standing Police Monitoring Committee (Committee Anti-Social Behaviour Orders (ASBOs) 117 P) 451 Anti- Act (Canada, 2001) 136, 140 6, 37, 70, 174, 180, 220, 263, 312, 329, 357 Anti-Terrorism Act (China, 2016) 377 BeNeLux 18, 20 APA see Association of Police Authorities Bennett Moses, L 303 APEC see Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Benyon, J 18 APJCLE see Australian Parliamentary Joint Committee on Law Big Data 306, 315, 322, 324 Enforcement bin Salman, Prince Mohammed 79 Apple computers 230–1 Bishop, M 196 Arab Spring (2010) 256 Bittner, E 292, 301 Arar, Maher 282 Björk, M 92 Argentina 286 Blackler, J 165 ASBOs see Anti-Social Behaviour Orders Blakesley, C 274 Ashworth, A 197 Block, L 19, 23 Asia 26, 74, 454–5 Bloss, WP 139 Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) 340 BMZ see German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) 95 and Development Association of Police Authorities (APA) 95 Boateng, FD 75 asylum seekers 40 Boister, N 23 Australasia 280 Bologna Declaration (1999) 401, 404 Australia 38–9, 182, 248, 330, 331–2, 335–8, 340–1, 357, 423, Bond, Derek 35–6 428–9, 430, 431–2, 436–7, 439–40, 455 border policing 9–10 New South Wales Police Force 428, 430 ambivalences 259–60 Northern Territory Police Force 428 background 255–7 Queensland Police Service 428 concluding remarks 268–9 South Australia Police 428 crimmigration and 258–9 Victoria Police 428 globalization and 257–60 Victoria Special Operations Group (SOG) 340, 341 migrant criminalization 261–2

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militarization of 259 Natunen v Finland (2009) 137 scattered security checks 264 Omar Khadr 286 265–6 Osman v (1998) 128 Germany 266–7 Padilla v Kentucky (2010) 184 264–5 R (B) v DPP (2009) 128 security assemblages 259 R v Halliwell (2012) 115–16, 118 surveillance/counterterrorism strategies 261–2 R v Nuttall & Korody (2016) 156 and note temporary reintroduction of permanent checks 263 R v Stagg (1994) 118–19 visa policies 258 Roman Zakharov v Russia (2015) 321 see also Schengen Agreement Rush v Commissioner of Police (Bali 9 case, 2005/6) 38–9, Bosnia & Herzegovina 180 285–6 Bowling, B 21, 22, 191, 194 Szabo and Vissy v (2016) 7–8, 321 BPUFF see Basic Principles for the Use of Force and Firearms Van Colle v United Kingdom (2012) 128 by Law Enforcement Officials Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co v Sawyer 343–4 Bradley, D 411 CBRN see chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear Brake, Tom 101 CCF see Statue of the Commission for the Control of Interpol files Brazil 381, 383, 388, 397, 400 CCLEO see Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials Brazilian Federal Police 383 CCP see Communist Party of China Brexit 80, 129 Central America 65 Bribe Payers Index 27 Central Police Training and Development Authority (CPTDA) British Association of Women Police 357 388 British Civil Contingencies Act (2004) 332 centralized policing 70, 88 British model 94–6 Centre for Evidence Based Policy, George Mason British Transport Police 100 University (USA) 416 Broadhurst, Commander 101 CEPOL see European Police College Brodeur, J-P 59 CETS see Convention, on Laundering, Brogden, M 87 Search, Seizure and Confiscation of the Proceeds from Brown, C 88 Crime and on Financing of Terrorism Brown, J 357 Chainalysis 247 Brown, L 88 Chan, J 303 Brown, Michael 339 Charlie Hebdo attack (2015) 233 Budapest Convention on Cybercrime (2017) 322 Chauvin, 191 180 chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) materials Bullock, K 410 177 Bush, George W 331, 342 Cheyenne Indians 67 Chilcot inquiry (2016) 342 Caless, B 196, 199 Chile 330 Canada 16, 27, 51–2, 54, 64, 67–8, 80, 86, 87–8, 89–90, 136, China see People’s Republic of China 137, 139–40, 182, 240, 248, 278, 279, 281, 282, 285–7, Chinese policing 292, 329, 338, 381, 388, 397, 400, 455 abuse of power 372 Canadian Charter 285 CCP Social Department 365 and note Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1984) 139, 282 community policing 373 Canadian Civil Assistance Plan 331 concluding remarks 377–8 Canadian Command 331 evolution post-1997 372–3 Canadian Commission for Public Complaints Against the current frameworks 373–5 and notes RCMP (CPC) 103 Framework Opinions on Some issues Concerning Canadian Defence Policy review 331 Comprehensively Deepening the Police Reform (2015) Canadian Office of the Independent Police Review Director 375 (OIPRD) 103 future 375 Canadian Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) 103 challenges/obstacles 375–6 Canadian Public Work Protection Act 103 important issues 376–7 Canadian Royal Commission 282–3 historical developments 364–5 Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) 102, 282 evolution in post-Revolution era (1976-1978) 368–9 Canadian Supreme Court 285 lawless era/lessons from Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) Cape, E 124 367–8 Carapiço, H 191, 199 new China/new policing (1949-1965) 365–7 and notes Caribbean 74 policing in transitional society 369–70 cases policy and the Law (post-1978) 370–1 Brogan v United States (1998) 159 Marxist theory 363 and note DSD and NBV v The Commissioner of Police for the People’s Police Regulations (1957) 373 Metropolis (2014) 128 Police Act (1957) 371 ex parte Bennett (1993) 116 Police Law (1995) 371, 373 ex parte Chinoy (1992) 37–8 police power/law in China 363–4 Govell v the UK (998) 137 Shanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Security Department 365 and Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire (1989) 127–8 note Khan v the UK (2001) 137 Yan’an Police Force 365 and note Kopp v Switzerland (1997) 137 see also People’s Republic of China (PRC) Lotus 278 CHIS see covert human intelligence source

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Christie, G 283, 284 on Personal Data Protection (Convention 108) (1981) 306, Christie, N 64 307–8, 320, 323 CITES see Convention on International Trade in on the Prevention of Terrorism (2005) 173 Endangered Species European Committee on Crime Problems 216 100, 101 Gender Equality Strategy (2014-2017) 351–2 civil law 65, 66 Human Rights Commissioner 451 CJEU see Court of Justice for the Practical Guide for the use of data in police sector 323 CNDS see France, Commission Nationale de la Déontologie de Recommendation on Operational Police Processing of la Sécurité Personal Data (1987) 306–7, 308–9 Cockayne, J 56 adopted in 2018 311–12 Cockbain, E 412, 414 outdated/restrictive 210–11 Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials (CCLEO) 102 principles 309–10 COE see Council of Europe counter-terrorism 171 Colombia 238 border surveillance 262 colonial system 74–6, 81–2, 87 concluding remarks 186 Colonial Police Service 75 cybercrime 235–6, 242 Inspector General of Colonial Police 75 implementation of EU agenda 174 Commission for Control of Interpol Files 312 international legislation/influence on domestic law 171–7 common law 64–5, 66 main pillars of EU Counter-Terrorism Strategy 175 Communist Party of China (CCP) 364–5, 368–9 national implementation of international norms 177–81 communist policing 71 role of police/law enforcement in 181–2 USSR/PRC comparisons 71–4 UN General Secretary’s Action Plan (2016) 173 Community-Oriented Policing (COP) 2, 46n see also terrorism complaint systems 449–50 Counter-Terrorism Internet Referral Unit (CTIRU) 233 Conference of the Parties (COP) 217–18 Court of Justice for the European Union (CJEU) 256, 264, 265, CONTEST strategy (UK, 2009) 185 266, 267, 268 Continental Europe, policing 69–70 covert human intelligence source (CHIS) 161 Continental Europe legal, tradition 64–5 CPC see Canadian Commission for Public Complaints Against continuing professional development (CPD) 112 the RCMP contract security companies 48 CPD see continuing professional development Conway, V 143 CPI see Corruption Perception Index cooperation CPIA see Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act against organized crime 199–200 CPLPRC see Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic anti-terrorism 39–40 of China bilateral 196 CPS see Crown Prosecution Service breaches of human rights 35–9 CPTDA see Central Police Training and Development Authority criminal investigation 19 Crawford, A 49–50 expansion into formal/informal 19–21 Crelinsten, R 184 federal 28, 35 Criminal Case Review Commission 127 international levels 17–18, 24–8 criminal investigation judicial/police agreements 19 background 111–13 legal literature on 23–4 European Convention on Human Rights 127–9 money laundering measures European jurisprudence and the UK 123–7 global 209–15 historical evolution 119–23 regional 215–18 Human Rights Act 127–9 multilateral 18 police discretion 113–14 regional 18, 28, 34–5, 215–18 Rule of Law 114–19 technical assistance 19 Act (UK, 2003) 37 theories 21–3 Criminal Justices (Offences Relating to Information Systems) upholding public order 19 Bill (Ireland, 2016) 238 COP see Community-Oriented Policing; Conference of the Criminal Law (Finland, 2008) 184 Parties Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act (CPIA) (UK, 1996) Copenhagen Criteria (1993) 195, 401, 402 37, 112, 116, 122, 123, 124, 130 Copenhagen EU summit (2002) 92 Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China Corruption Perception Index (CPI) 27, 456 (CPLPRC) (2012) 160 Coughlan, S 279 Critchley, TA 67 Council of Europe (COE) 200, 208, 209, 216, 306, 322 Crosby, S 129 Code of Police Ethics 351–2 Cross-Channel 18 and note, 20 Committee of Experts on the Evaluation of Anti-Money Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) 119, 123, 126, 127 Laundering Measures and the Financing of Terrorism CSIS see Canadian Security Intelligence Service (Moneyval) (1997) 217 CTC see European Counter-Terrorism Coordinator Conventions 191 CTIRU see Counter-Terrorism Internet Referral Unit on Cybercrime (2001) 231, 237–9, 242 Currie, R 279 on Human Rights 351 cyber-terrorism 235–6, 242 on Laundering, Search, Seizure and Confiscation of the cyber-threats 240 Proceeds from Crime and on Financing of Terrorism cybercrime 41, 112, 130, 131, 177, 201, 207, 228, 229, 299, 304 (CETS) (2005) ( Convention) 191n, 199, 216– bitcoin industry 229 17, 218, 222 Budapest Convention (2017) 322

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characteristics 234–6 DNA profiles 118, 129, 292, 293, 309, 316 child sex offenders 229, 236–7, 242 Doody, J 176 Chinese support for cooperation 377 double criminality principle 313 concluding remarks 248–9 Douglas, Justice William 343–4 conviction rates 236 Dowley, M 139 criminalisation of online conduct in national jurisdictions DPPBs see District Policing Partnership Boards 236–7 Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) 247 harmonisation of legislation 240–2 Dutch national Intelligence Model 142 legal frameworks 237–40 Dyn attack (2016) 235 and note cyber-dependent 235 cyber-enabled 235 East Europe 10, 354 definitions 239 East Midlands Policing Academic Collaboration (EMPAC) 415 disrupting, dismantling, taking down networks 232 East Timor 340 drugs 229 Eastern Europe 26 harmonisation of legislation 240–2 EAW see European Arrest Warrant lack of commitment/consensus to manage 238–40 EC3 see European Cybercrime Centre legal frameworks 237–40 ECAB see EU Agency for Law Enforcement Co-operation offline offences transferred to cyberspace 230 (Europol), Criminal Assets Bureau threats to personal integrity of individual online activities 230 ECHR see European Convention on Human Rights transnational 234 ECJ see European Court of Justice love bug worm (2000) 236 ECRIS see European Criminal Records System PetrWrap ransomware attack (2017) 236 ECTC see European Counter-Terrorism Centre Russian spyware 236 ECtHR see European Court of Human Rights WannaCry ransomware attack (2017) 236 ECTS see European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System UN overview of legislation 241 Ecuador 281–2 undercover operations 247–8 ECVET see European Credit System for Vocational Education see also Internet; virtual spaces and Training cyberspace 228 EDU see European Drugs Unit defining 229 EEW see European Evidence Warrant see also virtual spaces 330, 384, 385, 391, 396, 400 448, 449 396 Eichmann, Adolf 286 DACC see Australian Defence Assistance to the Civil EIO see European Investigation Order Community EJMP see European Joint Master Programme Damaska, M 121, 125 Elliptic 247 Darknet 228, 229, 230, 231, 237, 242, 243, 245, 246, 247, 249 Emergency Response Coordination Centre (ERCC) 177 Darko, IN 75 EMPAC see East Midlands Policing Academic Collaboration data exchange 316–17 EMSC see European Migrant Smuggling Centre data protection Emsley, C 6 background 306–7 Engel, R 414 EU Directive (2016) 314–15 ENP see European Network of Policewomen in large EU IT systems 317–19 ENQA see European Association for Quality Assurance personal data 320–4 EPPO see European Public Prosecutors Office Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act (UK, 2014) 179 EPPs see European Public Prosecutors Davies, H 412, 416 EQF see European Qualifications Framework De Lint, W 95 ERCC see Emergency Response Coordination Centre De Londras, F 176 Eric Garner protest (New York, 2014) 92 DEA see Drug Enforcement Agency Estonia 240, 356, 448 Dean, G 455 ETA see Euskadi Ta Askatasuna Deflem, M 194 ETIAS see European Travel Information and Authorisation Deibert, RJ 229 System Deleuze, G 194 EU see European Union Delhi Special Police (DSP) 383 EU Action Plan on Combating terrorism (2006) 175 demonstrations see protests/demonstrations EU Agency for Law Enforcement Co-operation (Europol) 36, Den Boer, M 20 37, 40–1, 146, 201, 234, 246, 247, 248, 307, 319, 360 Den Hengst-Bruggling, M 142 Convention (1995) 30, 31 Den Xiaoping 368–9 Criminal Assets Bureau (ECAB) 222 Denmark 29, 174, 182, 236, 246–7, 263, 403, 448, 450 cybercrime 232 Departments of Public Prosecution 33 Financial and Property Crime Unit 222 DFACA see Australian Defence Force Aid to Civilian gender equality 348 Authorities Regulation (2016) 31, 201 dialogue policing 92–4, 100 EU Charter on Fundamental Rights (2007) 7, 137, 177, 353 communication 93 EU Civil Protection Mechanish 177 initiation 93 EU Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters mediation 93 (2000) 31, 137 negotiation 93 EU Cybercrime Convention Committee 322, 323 sensing 93 EU Directives 242 District Policing Partnership Boards (DPPBs) 53 on combating terrorism (2015) 176, 180

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Data Protection for Police and Criminal Justice Authorities European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Training 403 (2016) 307, 314–16, 318–19, 323, 324 European Union (EU) 11, 16, 27, 30, 37, 80, 124, 170, 190, 200, Equal Treatment (2004) 353 215–16, 233, 242, 279, 306, 352–4, 401, 403 on Money Laundering (2015) 176, 219, 242 European Year of Equal Opportunities for All (2007) 353 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and Europol see EU Agency for Law Enforcement Co-operation protecting its victims (2011) 198 Eurostat 348 EU Framework Decision on combating terrorism (2002/2008) Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) 189 176 and note, 178, 180 evidence-based policing EU Fundamental Rights Agency 323 background 407–8 EU Fundamental Rights Charter 352 challenge of 410–12 EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) (2016) 314–15, co-producing evidence 413–14 317 embedded research model 418–19 EU high-level expert group (HLEG) 322–3 police-academic collaboration 414–15 EU information systems 180 research-based practitioner model 417–18 EU Joint Action and Framework Decision (2002) 198 tailored dissemination 416–17 EU Judicial Cooperation Unit (Eurojust) 36, 37, 40, 126, 127, concluding remarks 419–21 222–3, 307, 318 contesting 412–13 EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (2015) (Te-SAT) 179 description of 408–9 EU Treaty on the Functioning of the EU 352 importance of 408–9 EU-Lisa 317 missing persons responses 419 Eurodac 180, 318 and note origins 409 Eurojust see EU Judicial Cooperation Unit police research 408–9 European Arrest Warrant (EAW) 40, 123, 125, 202, 279 presentation of research evidence (EMMIE) 417–18 European Association for Quality Assurance (ENQA) 402 procedural justice elements 418 European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) 146, 180, UK toolkit 416–17 403 extraterritorial policing European Code of Police Ethics 7 background 272–3 European Commission 263, 353–4 bilateral/multilateral agreements 277–80 European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental concluding remarks 287–8 Freedoms (ECHR) (1950) 37, 38, 117, 123, 124, 127–9, criminal jurisdiction 273–7 160–1, 199–200, 320, 351 indigenous territories 282–5 European Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism (1977) legal foundations 273–7 173 subject to the Rule of Law 285–7 European Counter-Terrorism Centre (ECTC) 41 who they are/what they do 280–2 European Counter-Terrorism Coordinator (CTC) 186n extremist 181 European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) 128, 137, 185, 277, 321 Facebook 232, 233, 244 European Court of Justice (ECJ) 123 Falconi, G 201, 203 European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training Far-Eastern systems 66, 76–7, 81 (ECVET) 402 comparisons 77–8 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) 402 FATF see Financial Action Task Force European Criminal Records System (ECRIS) 202 FBI see Federal Bureau of Investigation European Cybercrime Centre (EC3) 41 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) 35–6, 230–1, 245, 247, European Drugs Unit (EDU) 31 281, 339 European Evidence Warrant (EEW) 40, 41 ‘Carder Profit’ operation 247–8 European FBI 201 Fenton, Mark 105n European Freezing Order 40 Field, B 281 European Investigation Order (EIO) 31–2, 41, 125, 199 Fiji 330 European Joint Master Programme (EJMP) 404 Fijnaut, C 6 European Migrant Smuggling Centre (EMSC) 41 Financial Action Task Force (FATF) 27, 190–1, 217, 225 European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction 403 considered prime example of effective states coordination 211 European Network of Policewomen (ENP) 354–5, 356 criticisms 211 176, 177, 402 formation 209–10 European Police College (CEPOL) 33, 40, 80, 403, 404 money laundering offence 209–12 European Police Exchange Programme 403 Moneyval as associate of 217 European Police Office 31 original mandate 210 European Protection Order (EPO) 125 Recommendations 210 and note, 211, 212 European Public Prosecutors (EPPs) 33, 307, 319 revisions/widening of scope 210–11 double hat position 33 financial flowssee illicit financial flows European Public Prosecutors Office (EPPO) 32–3, 127, 319 Financial Intelligence Units (FIUs) 180, 219 European Qualifications Framework (EQF) 402 Finland 29, 178, 356, 384, 391, 393, 396, 401 European Recognition Manual for Higher Education Institutions Finnish National Action Plan for the Prevention of Violent 402 Radicalisation and Extremism 181 European Social Charter (1961) 351 Fisher, H 120 European Strategy for Combating Radicalization and Fisher, Nicola 101 Recruitment to Terrorism (2005) 175 FITs see UK Forward Intelligence Teams European Travel Information and Authorisation System FIUs see Financial Intelligence Units (ETIAS) 307, 318 Five Eyes Law Enforcement Group 248

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Five-O app 57 Global South 255 Fleming, J 417 globalization 255, 257–60, 280 Fosdick, Raymond 69 Goldstein, H 410 Foucault, M 106n Google 244 Foucher, M 268 Gothenburg EU summit (2001) 92, 99 France 27, 37, 38, 40, 70, 174, 179, 180, 182, 220, 232, 236, detention 99–100 256, 265–6, 276, 312, 329, 330, 332, 338, 355–6, 383, disruption 100 389, 398, 401 protocols 100 Code of Criminal Procedure 265 Greater China 18 Commission Nationale de la Déontologie de la Sécurité Greece 179, 448, 450 (CNDS) 449 Group of 7 27 Gendarmerie 70 GSOC see Irish Republic, Garda Síochána Ombudsman Ministry of Defence 70 Commission Ministry of the Interior 70 Guantanamo Bay 286 Police Aux Frontières (PAF) 265 Guattari, F 194 Police Nationale 70 Gundhus, H 255, 258, 411–12 Franco, General 335 Franko, K 255, 258 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the French National Police 395 Event of Armed Conflict (1954) 26 FRONTEX see European Border and Coast Guard Agency Hall, A 95 Fulcher, Steve 116, 118 Halliwell, Christopher 115–16, 129 Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) 403 hard law 8 Fyfe, NR 417 policing of money laundering 218–23 Hauck, P 197 G7 Paris Summit (1989) 190 Hausa 247 Garland, D 413 Havel, Vaclav 125 GCA see Global Cybercrime Agenda Hayes, Chris 147 GDPR see EU General Data Protection Regulation Head, M 332 Geary, R 88, 89 Heath, M 94 gender Heidegger, M 292 background 346–7 Henderson, S 414 concluding remarks 359–60 Henry, A 413 Council of Europe Conventions/Code of Police Ethics 351–2 Her Majesty’s Crown Prosecution Service Inspectorate equality legislation in practice (HMCPSI) 122 international level 358–9 Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary (HMIC) 94–5, 102, national level 355–8 122, 130, 437, 453 European Union equality/discrimination measures 352–4 Adapting to Protest: Nurturing the British Model of Policing importance of equality/diversity 347 (2009) 94 international initiatives 354–5 Higher Regional Court of Karlsruhe 199 lack of balance in public police organizations 348 Hills, A 280 in England & Wales 349 Hitler, Adolf 330, 335 in EU 348 HLEG see EU high-level expert group in US 348–9 HMCPSI see Her Majesty’s Crown Prosecution Service leadership positions 346 Inspectorate representation of women/types of assignment 346–7 HMIC see Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary staged approach 356–7 Hobsbawm, E 86 United Nations focus/recommendations 349–51 Hoebel, EA 67 240 Home Affairs Select Committee 101 German Aviation Security Act (2005) 334 home policing 87 German Basic Law 333, 334 Hong Kong 75, 290, 292, 304 German Criminal Code 266 Independent Police Compliant Council 455 German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Police Commission 455 Development (BMZ) 192 HRA see Human Rights Act German Federal Police (Bundespolizei) 266, 355 Hufnagel, S 23, 199 German Security Policy and the Future of the Bundeswehr human rights 102, 130, 216, 400 White Paper (2016) 333–4 breaches of 35–9 Germany 27, 70, 163, 174, 180, 182, 199, 201, 236, 256, 262, erosion of 341–3 263, 266–7, 331, 333–5, 360, 381, 383, 389, 397, 398, ombudsman 450 401 Human Rights Act (HRA) (1998) 102, 111, 123, 125, 127–9 GETEX mission (Joint Terrorism-Defence Exercise) (Germany, human trafficking 25, 198, 299, 303 2017) 333 Hungary 181, 263, 448, 449, 450 Ghana 75, 238 Hussein, Saddam 342 Gibney, M 277 Gilmore, B 218 I-Checkit 29 Global Cybercrime Agenda (GCA) 239–40 Iberian-American Police School (IBERPOL) 400 Global North 255, 260, 267 IBERPOL see Iberian-American Police School Global Programme against Money Laundering, Proceeds of ICC see International Criminal Court Crime and Terrorist Financing 214–15 ICCPR see International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

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Iceland 29, 70, 177 United Kingdom 141–2 ICJ see International Court of Justice United States 138–9 ICPC see International Criminal Police Commission concluding remarks 148–50 ICTR see International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda contextualising 143 ICTs see information communication technologies ILP brand 144 ICTY see International Criminal Tribunal for the former legislative clarity 144–5 Yugoslavia mission creep 145–6 ICVS see International Crime Victim Survey professional competence 146–7 IDG see International Deployment Group silver bullet 148 IGAI see , General Inspector of Internal Administration controlling 136–7 IGOs see intergovernmental organisations higher-level norms 137 illicit financial flows methodologies 135–6 background 207–8 ‘need to know’ 149 and note concluding remarks 225–6 professionalization of 148–9 defining 208–9 skills 149 EU ‘hard’ criminal law measures 218 subsidiarity 138 challenges 221 tactical convergence 136 Directives 219–22 and note intergovernmental organisations (IGOs) 280 Eurojust 222–3 International Conference of Data Protection and Privacy Europol 222 Commissioners 312 strengthening regulation 221–2 International Conference on Preventing and Controlling Money- two-pronged approach 218–19 Laundering and the Use of the Proceeds of Crime (UN, follow the money approach 224 1994) 212 global standard for control of 209–15 International Convention for the Suppression of the money laundering 176, 179 Counterfeiting of Currency (1929) 24 EC Directive 176, 219, 242 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist EU ‘hard’ criminal law in policing of 218–23 Financing (1999) 27 FATF and 209–12 International Court of Justice (ICJ) 277 Global Programme against 214–15 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) information network (IMoLIN) 214 102, 337, 341–2 measures against 176–7 International Crime Victim Survey (ICVS) 77 Palermo Convention 212–14 International Criminal Congress (Vienna, 1923) 398 UN International Conference (1994) 212 International Criminal Court (ICC) 9, 126, 193, 277, 281 regional control of 215–18 International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC) 28, 398 UK implementation of measures 223–5 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia IMF see International Monetary Fund (ICTY) 9, 126, 277, 281 IMO-LIN International Money Laundering Information network International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) 277, 281 179 International Deployment Group (IDG) 340 IMoLIN see International Money-Laundering Information International Human Rights 273, 277 Network International Maritime Organisation 25 in-house security organizations 48 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 27 Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland International Money-Laundering Information Network (‘Patten Inquiry’) 52–3 (IMoLIN) 214 Independent Police Complaints Commission for England and international policing Wales (IPCC) 114, 127, 449, 453 background 16–17 India 64, 74, 160 and note, 338, 381, 400 concluding remarks 39–41 Director General of the Narcotics Control Bureau 160 cooperation practice 27 Human Rights Commissions 454 definitions/terminology Lok Ayukts 454 cross-border 18–19 National Vigilance Commission 454 formal/informal 20–1 State Vigilance Bureaus 454 international policing 17–18 74, 389 policing 19–20 Indigenous territories vertical/horizontal arrangements 20–1 Canada 282–4 human rights breaches 35 Solomon Islands 283 mistaken identity 35–6 Indonesia 10, 38–9, 330, 338 national rules 38–9 Anti-Corruption Commission 454 procedural right 36–8 National Commission of Human Rights 454 implementation of UN Conventions 27–8 Ombudsman 454 legal regulation/practice 28 Indonesian National Police (INP) 38, 39 bilateral 28–9 information communication technologies (ICTs) 241, 453 EU cooperation model 30–3 information technology (IT) 317–19 liaison officer strategy 29 INP see Indonesian National Police Nordic cooperation model 29–30 intelligence-led policing (ILP) 134, 135 prohibition regimes 24 cases 138 anti-corruption 27 Canada 139–40 cultural goods 26, 40 Netherlands 142–3 finance 27 Nordic states 140–1 narcotics 26

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piracy/privateering 24, 25 Know Your Customer (KYC) 247 slavery 25–6 Knutsson, J 412, 414 wildlife trade 26–7, 40 Koers, J 19 regional cooperation 34–5 Koper, CS 300, 301, 410, 414 theories 21–2 Korea functionalist approach 23 Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights Commission (ACRC) 455 international relations/public administration approach 22–3 National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) 455 legal approach 23–4 Korody, Amanda 156 and note sociological approach 22 Kowalewski, D 71 subcultural approach 22 Kruisbergen, EW 143 International Strategy of Cooperation in Cyberspace (China, KYC see Know Your Customer 1016) 241 International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 239 448 internationally protected persons (IPP) 104 Internal Security Office 450 Internet 11, 50, 51, 57, 176, 177, 180, 228, 230, 232–3 Law Commission of Canada 281 see also cybercrime; virtual spaces Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act (LE[CO])(NSW, Internet of Things 322 1997) 161–2 Interpol 20, 28–9, 40, 215, 245, 359, 360, 398–9 law/legislation 86th Congress (Beijing) 377 comparative systems 63–6 Red Notice 35–6 civil law 64–5, 66 rules on processing of data (2011) 312–13 common law 64, 66 Statute of Commission for the Control of Interpol’s files communist/socialist 65, 66 (CCF) (2017) 313–14 hybrid 65 Investigatory Powers Act (2016) 142 indigenous 64, 65–6 Ip, EC 9 religion 64 IPCC see Independent Police Complaints Commission for definition/applicability 1 England and Wales effect on policing 3 IPP see internationally protected persons as form of codification of policing 2–3 IRA see Irish Republican Army influence on international policing of organized crime 193–9 Iran 78, 338 interaction between police/law 3–5 Iraq 329, 331, 342, 343 law enforcement norms 1 Iraq War 146 legal framework 3 Ireland-Piper, D 275, 280 procedural 119–20 Irish Republic 70, 174, 180, 220, 238, 356, 448, 450, 456 substantive 119 Garda Síochána Ombudsman Commission (GSOC) 450 transitional impact 3 Police Ombudsman 450, 456 Le Touquet Treaty 40 Irish Republican Army (IRA) 189 leadership ISIS see Islamic State of Iraq and Syria background 423–4 Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) 189 Fast Track programmes (UK) 433 Islamic system 65, 66, 78–9 High Potential Development Scheme (UK) 433 Israel 286, 338 legislation/accountability Italian police 395–6 in Australia 439–40 Italy 27, 163 and note, 174, 202–3, 236, 329, 330, 356, 383, in UK 437–8 389, 401 in US 438–9 ITU see International Telecommunication Union recruitment, selection, development 432–3 in Australia 436–7 Jackson, JD 125 in UK 433–4 Jacobsson, K 193 in US 434–6 Japan 27, 76–8, 80, 81, 331, 338, 384, 385, 391, 396, 455 similarities/distinctions across nations 440–1 National Police Agency 76 Leaf, M 279 National Public Safety Commission 385 Lebanon 331 Japanese National Police 396–7 Lee, SY 77 JITs see Joint Investigation Teams Legal Resources on International Terrorism database 172 Johnston, L 45, 55 Lewis, N 147 Joint Investigation Teams (JITs) 24, 31–2, 36–7, 40, 213–14 Leyland, P 129 Jones, T 138 liaison officers (LOs) 29, 40, 89–90 Joutsen, M 64 Libya 276, 277 Liechtenstein 199 Kehl 266 Lithuania 240, 448 Kelling, GL 4 living law 8 Kelsen, H 274–5 history of policing 8 Kennedy, Mark (Mark Stone) 101, 166n national police legislation 10–11 Kerrigan, D 75 non-state policing actors 10 Khadr, Omar 286 policing culture 8–9 Khrushchev, Nikita 65 transnationalization of policing 9–10 kidnap 115–16, 191, 210n, 281, 334, 343 Loader, I 45, 53, 57–8, 426 Killingray, D 66 Lockerbie 276–7, 278 Klockar, C 46 London G20 (2009) 94, 100–1

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denial 102 Evaluation of Anti-Money Laundering Measures and the detention 101–2 Financing of Terrorism protocols 102 Monkonnen, E 88 Long Range Acoustic Device (LRAD) 91–2 and note 177 LOs see liaison officers Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts LRAD see Long Range Acoustic Device Against the Safety of Civil Aviation (1971) 276 Lum, CC 300, 301, 410, 414, 416 Moore, MH 4, 90 Luxembourg 174, 199, 356 MOU see Memoranda of Understanding MPS see Service Maastricht Treaty see Treaty on European Union MTV Network/Viacom 244 McBarnet, D 8 Murphy, C 139, 144 McCarthy, J 88, 89 Mussolini, Benito 335 Macedonia 177, 451 Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters Act (1987) Mackenzie, S 413 (Commonwealth) 39 McLean, Jeremy 157–8 Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties 195 Macleod, R 88 Myanmar (Burma) 10, 64, 330 McNeil, G 281 McNulty, Tony 183 Nadelmann, E 23, 24, 194, 197 McPhail, C 88 Naím, M 196 Madrid bombings (2004) 182 Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (India, 1985) Maguire, M 121 160 Malaysia 78 narcotic substances/drugs 210 Malaysian Airline MH17 277 Australian-Bali case 38–9 263, 448 Darknet surveillance 246–7 Mann, S 50, 332 Dutch-UK joint investigation into 36–7 Manning, PK 147, 301 formation of European Drug Unit 31 Manwaring-White, S 88 global trade in 190 Mao Zedong 65, 73, 77 Indian legislation 160 Marx, GT 4 money laundering and 27, 190 Mauritania 330 organized crime 30 Maxwell Confait 120 sting operation 158 May, Theresa 129, 244 UN Office 144, 172, 193, 209 Melki, Aziz 266 Vienna Convention 26, 209, 210, 212, 217, 222 Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) 29, 39, 278 war on 166, 191 Metropolitan Police Act (UK, 1829) 2, 424 National Action Plan for the Prevention of Violent Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) 94, 100, 130 Radicalization and Extremism (Finland, 2016) 185 National Public Order Intelligence Unit (NPOIU) 101 National Crime Agency 130 Metropolitan Toronto, Anti-Racism, Access and Equity National Crime Agency (NCA) 224, 225 Committee 51 National Performance Framework (Scotland) 224–5 Mexico 16 National Police Improvement Agency (NPIA) 95 MI5 130 National Police of 390 Microsoft 233, 244 National Public Order Intelligence Unit (NPOIU) 101 Middle East 172, 256, 341 National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) 89 migrants NCA see National Crime Agency criminalization of 261–2 Neapolitan Camorra (mafia association) 202 crisis 257 Netherlands 6, 36, 70, 118, 136, 142–3, 174, 231, 256, 262, policing 10, 256 264–5, 277, 290, 356, 448, 450 policy 79–80 Aliens Decree 264 surveillance 261–2 Aliens Law 264 militarization of policing Court of Auditors 453 background 329–30 Defence Sector 347 expanded powers/potential conflicts 333 Inspectorate for Public Order and Safety 453 police-military separation breached (Germany) 333–5 Mobile Security Monitor (MSM) 264–5 possible cause of conflicts (Australia) 335–8 National Police 347 rise of paramilitary policing 338–41 Ombudsman (social legitimacy) 453 international trend 330–3 Police Academy 415 rising social tensions 341–4 Police Complaints Committee 453 war on terror 341–3 State Criminal Investigation Department 449 Miller, JC 67 State Investigation Service 453 Miller, S 165 Third Computer Crime Legislation (2016) 231 miscarriages of justice (MOJ) 114, 118, 120–2 New South Wales (Australia) (NSW) 161–2, 428, 429 Mitsilegas, V 218, 261 Special Weapons Operation Squad (SWOS) 340 Mobile Security Monitor (MSM) see Netherlands, Mobile Tactical Response Group (TRG) 340–1 Security Monitor New Zealand 248 MOJ see miscarriages of justice Neyroud, P 411, 415 money laundering see under illicit financial flows NGOs see non-governmental organisations Money Laundering Regulations (UK, 2017) 224 NHRC see Korea, National Human Rights Commission Moneyval see Council of Europe, Committee of Experts on the Nickell, Rachel 118–19

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Nicolaidis, K 279 evaluation/outlook 455–6 Nigeria 65, 74, 78 police accountability 445–6 Nixon, C 411 police ethics 444–5 non-governmental organisations (NGOs) 27, 355, 455 police legitimacy 446–7 Nordic countries 20, 29–30, 140–1, 179, 182 police oversight 447 Nordic Control Agreement (NPCA) 29, 30 police powers 444 Norris, C 121 North Africa 256 PACE see Police and Criminal Evidence Act North America 16, 47, 280, 304 Padavic, I 393 Northern Ireland 52–3, 68, 174, 180, 220, 238, 356, 448, 450, 456 PAF see France, Police Aux Frontières Police Ombudsman (PONI) 450–1 Pakistan 65, 330, 381, 388, 400 Police Service 451 Federal Investigation Agency 383 Northwest Mounted Police (NWMP) 87–8 Police Service 389 Norway 29, 174, 177, 182, 263, 356, 415 Palermo Convention see United Nations Conventions, against NPCA see Nordic Passport Control Agreement Transnational Organized Crime NPIA see National Police Improvement Agency Paraguay 238 NPOIU see National Public Order Intelligence Unit paramilitary policing 70, 338–41, 384 NSW see New South Wales (Australia) Parker, C 46 Nutley, S 416, 417 Parrish, A 278 Nuttall, John 156 and note Passenger Names Record (PNR) 175 NWMP see Northwest Mounted Police Patriot Act (US, 2001) 139 Patten, Christopher 52 O’Callaghan, Sian 116 Patten Inquiry see Independent Commission on Policing for Occupy Movement (2011) 92 Northern Ireland OECD see Organization for Economic Cooperation and PCCs see Police and Crime Commissioners Development PEEL assessments (UK) 437 Ognall, Sir Harry 118 Peel, Sir Robert 2, 383 OIPRD see Canadian Office of the Independent Police Review Peelian Principles 424–6, 427 Director penitentiary policing 10 OLAF see Organisation for the Fight Against Fraud People’s Republic of China (PRC) 65, 77, 240, 330, 338 Olympic Games (Munich, 1972) 334 Beijing Public Security Bureau of Military Management 368 Olympic Games (Sydney, 2000) 331 comparison with USSR 71–4 ombudsman systems 449, 450–1, 454, 456 function/structure of police 71–2 OMC see Open Method of Coordination party membership/loyalty 72 Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) 102 police priorities 73 Open Method of Coordination (OMC) 193 role of law 72 Operation Glencoe (G20 policing, 2009) 101–2 Criminal Law (1979) 370 OPP see Ontario Provincial Police Criminal Procedure Law (1979) 370 O’Reilly, C 75 Cultural Revolution 65, 73, 367–8 Organisation for the Fight Against Fraud (OLAF) 32 founding/development 365–7 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Gang of Four 73, 368 (OECD) 192, 210, 226 Great Leap Forward 65, 73 Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials Law on People’s Police (1995) 73 in International Business Transactions 27 Mass Line 73 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Ministry of Justice 371 144, 174, 179, 354 Ministry of National Security 371 organized crime Ministry of Public Security (MPS) 72, 365, 367–8, 369, 371, approaches culminating in legal convergence 200–3 373 background 189 Ministry of Supervision 73 clash of EU member states 201–2 re-education through forced labour 372 concluding remarks 203–4 regulations 366 and notes, 370 and note dominant international norms 189–93 Rule of Law 73 influence of international policing on legal norms 193–6 Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress 369 mafia model 202 State Council 369 merits of legal convergence for policing 199–200 Supreme People’s Court 371 Palermo Convention 24, 27–8, 159, 190, 198, 212–13 Supreme People’s Procuratorate 371 policing domains/legislative norms 196–9 see also Chinese policing OSCE see Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe personal data over-policing 3–4 law enforcement authorities/secret services 320–1 oversight/accountability processing 321–4 background 443–4 Peru 238 comparative perspective 447–9 Peterke, S 197 civil/citizen oversight 452–3 Pew Research Analysis 78 complaint systems 449–50 Philippines 338 independent oversight systems 451 PIF Directive on the Fight Against Fraud to the Union’s mixed models of oversight 453–4 Financial Interests by Means of Criminal Law (2012) 33 ombudsman systems 450–1 Pinkerton, Allan 46n oversight in Asia 454–5 Pinochet, General 330, 335

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PIP see Professionalising Investigative Process Police Act (UK, 1997) 136 Pittsburgh G20 (2009) 92 Police and Crime Commissioners (PCCs) 68, 430, 453 plural policing 12 Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) (UK, 1984) 111, 115, broad consensus between UK/Canada 54–5 118, 120–2, 124, 129, 130, 163n Canadian state/non-state suggestions police legislation appoint city representatives 52 strategy of governance 5 develop annual policing plan 52 constitutionalization 5–6 develop/update inventory of resources 51–2 empowerment 7–8 establish policing budget 52 institutionalization 6–7 Safety and Security Committee 51 legitimation 6 support for local community 51 standardization 7 challenges 45 Police Reform and Social Responsibility Act (UK, 2011) 453 concluding remarks 59 police research see evidence-based policing legitimate providers of 48–50 Police Service of Northern Ireland 53 Northern Ireland proposals 52–3 policing 45–6, 134–5 annual Policing budget negotiations 53 centrality of dominion 96 District Policing Partnership Boards 53 changing nature of 79–81 Policing Board 43 comparative 66–7 origins 49 concluding remarks 81–2 principles underpinning governance 57–9 global types 67–79 democratically/legally accountable 58 concluding remarks 59 fair treatment of police workforce 58 conquest/migration 79–80 level playing field 58 definition/concept 46–8 meeting legitimate public needs 58 knowledge needs 412 politics of allocation 58 about how to put into practice 413 politics of human rights 58 about problems 413 politics of recognition 58 about what works 413 pursued with integrity 58 about whom to involve 413 safety and security issues 58 about why action is required 413 use of independent body 58 mandates, sovereignty, oversight 85–6 within Rule of Law 58 merits of legal convergence against organized crime 199–200 regulation/governance 51–7 militaristic lines 145–6 challenges of transnational commercial security 55–6 national structures 381–5 nodal 57 proactive online 245–7 plural/multiplex models 57 similarities/distinctions 424, 429–32 social media-based, ground-up, client-based involvement Australia 428–9 56–7 UK 424–6 UK proposals 53–4 US 427–8 see also policing virtual space 232–4 PMO see Canadian Prime Minister’s Office see also plural policing PNR see Passenger Names Record PONI see Northern Ireland, Police Ombudsman 174, 220, 236 POP see problem-oriented policing police Portugal 74, 75, 383, 385, 389, 400, 401 development/adaptation 87–8 General Inspector of Internal Administration (IGAI) 449 discretion 113–14 Portuguese National Police 396 discretionary powers 2, 3 Portuguese Public Security Police 395 ethics 444–5 POST see US Commission on Peace Officer Standards and expanded military powers/potential conflicts with 333 Training in Australia 335–8 Pound, R 121 in Germany 333–5 Powell, A 412 fraud squad 153 PRC see Peoples’ Republic of China influence on legislation process 4–5 pre-crime 155–6, 183–4 intervention 85 pre-industrial policing 67 jurisdiction 2, 3–4 PREVENT framework 185 knowledge of legislation 5 privacy v security paradigm 306 legitimacy 446–7 security industry 10, 48–9 as long arm of the state 1–2 problem-oriented policing (POP) 68 powers 321–4, 444 Professionalising Investigative Process (PIP) 112–13, 130 rights, privileges, immunities 3 prohibition regimes 24–8 role in counter-terrorism 181–2 Prokos, A 393 surveillance of 4 Protection of Freedoms Act (UK, 2012) 185 three pillars protests/demonstrations 86–7 limited/controlled interventions 4 anti-global 93–4 publicly accountable 4 case studies 99–105 subject to rule of law 4 command and control 91 vice squad 153 dialogue model 92–4 Police Act (Finland, 1995) 184 escalated force model 88–9 Police Act (UK, 1861) 383 flexible/dynamic model 94–6

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micro-management model 91 RNM see Royal Netherlands Marechaussee strategic incapacitation 90–2 Road Traffic Act (1988) 153 zero tolerance/quality of life 91 Roberti, Franco 203 Prüm Treaties 307, 316–17 Roberts, P 123 public order policing 85–6 Robinson, J 201 case studies 99 Rohozinski, R 229 EU Summit Gothenburg (2001) 99–100 RoL see Rule of Law G20 London (2009) 100–2 181, 448, 450 G20 Toronto (2010) 102–5 Rowe, P 332 conceptualization of 97 Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) 67–8, 102, 140, 282, concluding remarks 105–6 285, 383 divergent convergence, risk, trust 96–8 Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure (UK, 1982) 120 escalated force model 88–9 Royal Netherlands Marechaussee (RNM) 264 explanatory strategies 86–7 Royal Ulster Constabulary 53 command and control 90–2 rule of compliance 4 dialogue policing/Scandinavian model 92–4 Rule of Law (RoL) 58, 67, 68, 114–19, 129, 130, 216, 285–7, flexible and dynamic/British model 94–6 330, 424 pushing, shoving, negotiated management/liaison 87–90 Russell, AL 145 strategic incapacitation 90–2 Russia 236, 238, 240, 330, 338 intelligent control 95–6 Ryan, A 125 multi-dimensional model 98 San Bernardino attack (2016) 230–1 QCET see Queensland Community Engagement Trial 238 Queensland Community Engagement Trial (QCET) 418 Sassen, S 258 Saudi Arabia 78 Radicalization Awareness Network (RAN) 180, 233 Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of RAN see Radicalization Awareness Network Vice 78–9 RCMP see Royal Canadian Mounted Police Sharia law 78 Reagan, Ronald 89, 191 SBC see Schengen Borders Code Reagan, William Vance 158 Scandinavian model 92–4 recruitment & training Special Police Tactics (SPT) 93 background 380–1 Schengen Agreement (1985) 255, 257, 260, 402 common curriculums 404 and note Schengen Area 256, 403 concluding remarks 404–5 concluding remarks 268–9 cross-national cooperation/harmonization 398–404 intra-Schengen border zones 256 in-school 380 and note, 381, 385, 386, 387, 388–9, 390, clear framework for policing 267–8 391–3 and note, 394, 395, 397–8, 405 policing 257–8 lowest ranks scattered security checks 264–7 assumptions 387–8 temporary reintroduction of permanent border checks 263 in civil law systems 389–90 mobility/movement 257, 258, 260–1 contradictions/discussions on 393 surveillance of migrants 261–2 development of schools 385, 387 visa/asylum policies 260 in paramilitary systems 390 see also border policing required minimum education level/training duration 386, Schengen Borders Code (SBC) (2013) 174, 256, 257, 262, 267 387, 391–2 Schengen Convention (1990) 37, 153, 268 national policing structures 381–5 Schengen Evaluation System 269 need for better education/training 394 Schengen Implementing Convention (1990) 265 on-the-job 380 and note, 381, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 393 Schengen Information System (SIS) 32, 180, 202, 260, 307, and note, 397, 405 317–18, 402 over-education 392 Scherrer, A 191 senior ranks Schwartz, RD 67 assumptions concerning 394 Schweingruber, D 88 in civil law systems 394, 395–7 Scotland 69, 224–5, 276, 277, 290 connections with military academies 394–5 Scottish Institute for Policing Research (SIPR) 414–15, 420 in European Union 395–6 Seattle Independent Media Center 90 in federal constitutional regimes 397–8 secret services 320–1 higher-than-average education levels 394, 398 security issues 55–6, 85 length of training 395 in China 366 and notes, 370–1, 374n outside Europe 396–7 cross-border 63 transparency/accountability 398–404 privacy v security paradigm 306 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (RIPA) (UK, 2000) 136, Senior Investigating Officers (SIOs) 112, 115–16 141, 160, 161 and notes, 163 177 Reichel, PL 65 serious crime 313 Reiner, R 8–9, 45 Serious and Organised Crime and Police Act (UK, 2007) 126 religious legal tradition 64 Shaffer, G 279 religious policing 78–9 Sharia law 78 Rijken, C 23 Shearing, C 57 RIPA see Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act Sheptycki, J 18, 21, 22, 280

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Sherman, L 409 Swedish Framework Decision on Simplifying the Exchange of ‘Silk Road’ (online illegal marketplace) 229, 246, 248 Information and Intelligence between Law Enforcement Singapore 77, 455 Authorities of the Member States of the European Union Single European Act (SEA, 1985) 30 (2006) 196 SIOs see Senior Investigating Officers Swedish Initiative 307, 316–17 SIPR see Scottish Institute for Policing Research Swedish National Police Board Report (2010) 93 SIRENE Manual 403 Switzerland 70, 174, 199 SIS see Schengen Information System SWOS see New South Wales (Australia) 448, 450 Szyszczak, E 193 263 Smith, T 124 Taiwan 304 social media 232, 233, 244, 295, 299 Tasmania Police 428, 431–2 soft law 8, 193, 208–9 Taylor, RW 145 SOG see Australia, Victoria Special Operations Group TCS see transnational commercial security Solomon Islands 329, 340 Te-SAT see EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report Somalia 78 technology South Africa 35–6, 81, 357 background 290–1 South America 65 body-worn cameras 293–4 South Korea 77, 80 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) 295, 297, 304 Spain 174, 220, 356, 383, 389, 401 Compstat-like meetings 294, 304 Spanish National Police 395 Computer-Aided Design (CAD) 292, 295 Spapens, T 23 computer-assisted systems 293 Sparrow, M 407, 408, 412, 419 concluding remarks 304–5 Special Investigative Police Powers Act (Netherlands, 2014) crime management enhancement 295–6 136, 143 crime mapping 294 Special Police Tactics (SPT) 93 enhanced crime scene analysis 294–5 Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) teams 303, 359 evaluation of 298–9 SPT see Special Police Tactics extend human senses 292 Stagg, Colin 118–19 HOLMES/PULSE 295 Statute of the Commission for the Control of Interpol files information flow 297–8 (CCF) 313–14 and note information use 300–1 Stead, PJ 67 long-term consequences 292 Stenning, P 51, 55 Management Information System (MIS) 295 Stevens, John 426 material aspects for citizen/ officer 292 Stoddart, Jennifer 140 mobility support 292 Stolen and Lost Travel Documents (SLTD) database 29 national/international dimensions 295 Strasbourg 266 permit gathering/processing data 292, 293 Sudan 78 predictive policing 296–7 Suharto, General 330, 335 primary police technology as verbal 291–2 surveillance 1, 4, 161, 321 research topics 303–4 in Australia 161 smartphones 295 in Canada 140 social media 295, 299 counter-terrorism 262 sources of resistance 302–3 covert 153–4, 159–60 and note, 161, 163, 177, 230, 233, 242, training innovations 292 243, 309 units omitted in evaluations 301 cyberspace 230, 232, 233, 243, 245, 246–7 value of 291 in Denmark 246–7 weapons 294 effectiveness 178 Telegram 242 in EU 141, 242 telephone taps 37 Gothenburg Report 100 terrorism 30, 39–40, 59, 189, 256 human rights/anti-democratic 39, 292, 296, 297n, 302 anti-money laundering measures 176–7 independent oversight 321 background 170–1 intelligence-led policing 134, 135, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142 concluding remarks 186 legislation 7–8 cyber-terrorism 235–6 liaison strategies 96 cybercrime 230–1 migrants/border areas 259, 262–3 definition 171–2 misuse of police powers 105 erosion of civil liberties/human rights 341–3 in Netherlands 142 EU Directives concerning 176–7 public order problem 99 Europol assessments 177 security issues 183–4 Global Programme against 214–15 technologies 294, 295, 302 international conventions 173 transboundary 171 Internet policing 232–3 in UK 94, 137, 141, 161n lack of research 170 in US 139 legal initiatives 170–1 Surveillance Devices Act (NSW, 2007) 161 legal-comparative perspective to policing 179 SWAT teams see Special Weapons and Tactics look out requests 282 29, 37, 70, 86, 174, 182, 220, 238, 263, 356, 384, 391, migrant surveillance 261–2 401 political perspectives 170

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preventing 183–5 on Drug Trafficking (1988) 24 regional conventions 173 on the High Seas (1958) 25 troop deployments 334–8 on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 26 see also counter-terrorism; war on terror on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Terrorism Bill (UK, 2008) 183 Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property TFEU see Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (1970) 26 Thailand 330 on Narcotic Drugs (1961 & 1972) 26, 399 Thatcher, Margaret 89 on Psychotropic Substances (1971) 26, 399 Tilley, N 144–5, 410 on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects (UNIDROIT, Tomlinson, Ian 101 1995) 26 Tong, S 196, 199 for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Tonga 340 Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (1949) 25 Tools and Resources for Anti-Corruption Knowledge (TRACK) UN Declaration against Corruption and Bribery in International 400 Commercial Relations (1996) 400 Toronto G20 (2010) 102–3 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation denial 104–5 (UNESCO) 26 detention 103–4 UN General Assembly (UNGA), Resolutions on terrorism 172 Toronto Police Service (TPS) 92, 104 UN International Code of Conduct for Information Security TPS see Toronto Police Service (2015) 240 TRACK see Tools and Resources for Anti-Corruption Knowledge UN International Code for Public Officials (1996) 400 training see recruitment & training UN International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 9 transnational commercial security (TCS) 55–6 UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODOC) 144, 193, 400 Transparency International 27, 456 Independent Quality Assessment of Evaluation Reports Trauner, F 191 (2016) 400 Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty) (1992) 31, 401 Terrorism Prevention Branch 172 Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) UN Police (UNPOL) 193 (1957) 127 UN Security Council 28, 172, 276–7, 278 Treaty of Lisbon (2009) 123, 127, 175, 221, 242, 320 Counter-Terrorism Committee 172 TREVI Acquis 30–1 gender equality/considerations 349–51 TREVI Group of Ministers 30–1 resolution on Foreign Fighters (2014) 180 TRG see New South Wales (Australia) (NSW), Tactical UN Slavery Convention (1926) 25 Response Group UN Special Rapporteur 86, 102 Trinidad and Tobago 75 UNCAC see UN Convention against Corruption troop deployments 329, 330–44 undercover policing 3–4 65, 177, 338, 356, 389, 390, 393 in Australia 161–2 Turkish National Police 396 background 153–4 Twitter 232, 233, 244 concluding remarks 166 cybercrime 247–8 Uber 56–7 discretion/wearing of uniforms 153 UK College of Policing 115, 122–3, 430 in Italy & Germany 163 and note Code of Ethics 437 legal landscape 164 UK Computers Misuse Act (1990) 237 moral management 165–6 UK Court of Appeal 113 variations 164–5 UK Financial Intelligence Unit (UKFIU) 224 norms for 166 and note UK Forward Intelligence Teams (FITs) 95 performance targets 158 and note UK 430 Pitchford Inquiry 164n UK Independent Office for Police Conduct 449 policy/purpose UK Public Order Act (1986) 95 community safety 155n UKFIU see UK Financial Intelligence Unit debates concerning 156 236, 277 entrapment/coercion 157–8 UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 195–6 infiltration 157 UN see United Nations information/intelligence gathering 156–7 UN Basic Principles for the Use of Force and Firearms by Law investigator impropriety 157 Enforcement Officials 340 pre-emption, pre-caution, pre-crime 155–6 UN Charter 278 regulating UN Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials (1979) controlled operation 162 399, 400, 452 exemption from liability model 158, 161–2, 163 UN Congress on the Prevention of Crime and Treatment of foundations of approaches 163–4 Offenders (2000) 237 negative liberty model 158–9 UN Conventions 24 positive authority model 158, 159–61 against Corruption (UNCAC) 24, 27 public authority/case law 162–3 Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic scandals concerning 156 and note Substances (Vienna Convention) (1988) 26, 209, 210, strategic options 153–4 217, 218, 222, 399 surveillance activities 7–8 against Torture 282 training 164 and note against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) (Palermo in United States 162–3 and note Convention) (2000) 24, 27–8, 159, 190, 198, 212–14, use of deceit 154–5 219, 222, 239, 399 against individuals 154–5

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community level 154 public/private 232–3 Mr Big techniques 154, 157 concluding remarks 248–9 sting operations 154, 157–8 defining 229–30 use of disguise jurisdictional dilemmas 233–4 abandonment of 154 law enforcement 230–1 covert surveillance 153–4 non-traceable/hidden networks 230, 231 UNDOC see UN Office on Drugs and Crime physical infrastructures 229–30 UNESCO see UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural plural investigation/monitoring 243–5 Organisation balancing proactive policing/criminal activities 246–7 UNIDROIT see UN Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported data traffic 245–6 Cultural Objects proactive online policing 245–6 United Kingdom 27, 36, 37–8, 40, 64, 86, 88, 141–2, 179, 180, undercover operations 247–8 182, 202, 223–5, 232, 240, 248, 276, 292, 329, 356, 357, positive/negative values 230 398, 403, 423, 424–6, 430, 431, 433–4, 437–8 public/private actors 229 United Nations (UN) 19, 85–6, 170, 209, 278, 349–51, 355, see also cybercrime; Internet 369 VIS see Visa Information System United Press International 334 Visa Information System (VIS) 180, 307, 318, 402 United States 17, 27, 35–6, 46–7, 64, 67, 68, 80, 88, 137, 138–9, Vitale, A 91 159, 162–3, 171, 179, 182, 236, 240, 248, 276, 281–2, 286, 329, 338–40, 341, 348–9, 357, 382, 383, 388, 397, Wales 69, 74, 88, 124, 160, 388, 400, 423, 430, 453 400, 423, 427–8, 431, 434–6, 438–9 Wall Street Journal 339 UNODC see UN Office on Drugs and Crime Walsh, DPJ 143 UNPOL see UN Police Walter, I 416 UNTOC see UN Convention against Transnational Organized war on drugs 166, 191 Crime war on organized crime 166 US Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training war on terror 138–9, 166, 171, 261, 329, 332, 341–3 (POST) 388–9 Wardak, A 78 US Department of Justice 144 Warner, C 89 US Federal Law Enforcement, Operation Hyperion 248 Warsaw Convention see Council of Europe, Convention on US Northern Command 331 Laundering, Search, Seizure and Confiscation of the US Posse Comitatus Act 331 Proceeds from Crime and on Financing of Terrorism US President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Warsaw Pact countries 65, 80 Administration of Justice Report (1967) 391 Washington Post 331 US President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing 427 Watson, D 75 USSR Webb, M 285 Campaign against Parasites 73 Weber, M 302 cheka 71 Weisburd, D 411, 415 comparison with PRC 71–4 Westphalian model 10, 85 function/structure of police 71–2 WhatsApp 242 party membership/loyalty 72 Whelan, C 332 police priorities 73 Williams, CA 6 reform of systems 73 Willis, J 300, 301 role of law 72 Wingrove, J 417 Comrades’ Courts 65, 73 Wong, K 366 People’s Guard 73 Worboys, John 128 Tsarist Secret Police 71 World Bank 27 World Organisation 25 Van Dijk, J 191–2 World Trade Organisation (WTO), Seattle meetings (1999) 90 Van Munster, R 193 World Values Survey 363 Vermeulen, G 23 Vienna Convention (1988) see United Nations Conventions, Xi Jin-ping 377 Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Yorkshire Ripper murders 128 Vietnam 78, 330, 455 YouTube 232, 233 virtual spaces background 228–9 Zander, M 123 challenges of policing 231–2 Zedner, L 197

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