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Word-final /l/ in the lyrics of British popular songs

Shinji Sato

1. 1 Introduction Lateral approximant /l/ in the English language is known to possess a variant, apart from what is called clear [l] and dark (velarised) [ɫ], which omits the tongue-tip contact with the alveolar ridge, in other words a vocalic variant. This phenomena is sometimes referred to as L-Vocalization.(Wells p.258) Findings concerning the proportions of velarised variant and vocalic one must be of interest to the students of the language in question. However, my past study (Sato 2005) indicated that distinguishing velarised variant from its vocalic counterpart with accuracy is extremely difficult and involves some problems.

1.2 Methodology A different approach has been taken in this study to investigate this issue, which is to examine the rhymes containing word-final /l/s. For example, if such pairs as tool – too and all - saw are meant for a rhyme just as pairs like tool – fool and all - call, it may indicate a vocalic variant for the /l/s in the former pairs. It might even signify zero realization, or the disappearance of phoneme /l/. At least it might imply that in the speaker’s mind the presence of those /l/s is not strong enough to compel him or her to supply words containing /l/s. Thus it may give some insight to the state of /l/ in the speaker’s mind. In other words, it is, in a sense, a study of the phonemic level in that it investigates whether /l/ in some context in some lexical items may have ceased to exist in some speakers’ mind, in contrast to the study of the variants on the

64 phonetic level actually realized by the speakers. The lyrics of popular songs are chosen for the materials for analysis as they generally contain rhymes which are suitable and convenient for such analysis. In addition, those rhymes are, needless to say, usually accompanied by the actual realization, that is, by singing, and the recorded materials are readily available for analysis. Thus, two levels of analysis are possible. However, the study of recorded sounds has not been done in this particular study. Hopefully it will be carried out in the following studies.

1.3 Material The lyrics of the popular songs whose writers were born from the 1940s to the 1990s are examined. These are divided into age groups, i. e. those born in the 1) 1940s 2)1950s 3)1960s 4)1970s 5)1980s and 90s.When the members of a band belong to different groups they are assigned to the one to which its main songwriter belongs. 724 songs of 50 artists (43 bands and seven solo singers) were analyzed. From the number of the songs included in the CDs or DVDs, the ones written by the others, that is to say, not by the songwriter(s) in question are appropriately excluded.

1.4 A note on the rhyme Apart from what is called ‘true rhyme’ or ‘perfect rhyme,’ for which the last stressed vowel and all the following sounds in the pair of words must be identical, there are a number of different types of rhyme. Among which, ‘assonance,’ which is the matching of vowels as in lake – gate, may have relevance to this study. For such a pair as fool – too may be meant for a true rhyme with a possible vocalic variant, or may be intended for assonance. Without confirming the writer’s intention such distinction with certainty would be impossible. Therefore in this study such rhymes and all the other rhymes are included as ‘the rhymes which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization.’

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Not all the rhymes examined in this study have one to one relation, that is to say, one lexical item may have more than one words which are meant to rhyme, e.g. all, call – law, cool – you, do etc.. this may have some influence on the figures shown in this study.

2. Analysis of the lyrics Under each artist’s name, following the title of the album and the number of the songs analyzed, the state of /l/ - /l/ rhyme is given. The description ‘all /l/ - /l/’ means that all the /l/ - /l/ rhymes found in the lyrics have the usual /l/ and /l/ structure as in all and hall. ‘Mostly /l/ - /l/’ means that one pair lacking /l/ in one word as in all and saw was found; and ‘generally /l/ - /l/’ indicates that more than one pair with this structure were detected.

2.1 The musicians born in the 1940s 2.1.1. Members: John Lennon (1940-80), Ringo Starr (1940- ), Paul McCartney (1943- ), George Harrison (1943-2001) The title of the album: The Beatles 1 (2000) The number of songs analyzed: 27 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.1.2 The Rolling Stones Members: Mick Jagger (1943- ), Keith Richards (1943- ) and others The title of the album: A Bigger Bang (2005) The number of the songs analyzed: 16 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

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2.1.3 Members: Ray Davies (1944- ) (main songwriter), Dave Davies (1947- ) and others The title of the album: The Kink Kontroversy (1965) The number of songs analyzed: 13 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: found (one example only) The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

Times will be hard, rain will fall And you'll feel mighty low (‘The World Keeps Going Round’)

2.1.4 Led Zeppelin Members: Jimmy Page (1944- ), Robert Plant (1948- ) and others The title of the album: Led Zeppelin II (1969) The number of the songs analyzed: 8 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: generally /l/ - /l/ The examples of the rhymes which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

If the sun refused to shine, I would still be loving you. If the mountains should crumble to the sea, there would still be you and me. Kind woman, I give you my all, Kind woman, nothing more. (‘Thank You’)

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I went to sleep last night, I work as hard as I can I bring home my money, you take my money, give it to another man I should have quite you, baby-a, oh, such a long time ago I wouldn't be here with all my troubles Down on this killin' floor (‘The Lemon Song ’)

2.1.5 Deep Purple Members: Richie Blackmore (1945- ), Ian Gillan (1945- ) and others The title of the album: The Compact Disc Anthology (Disc 1) (1998) The number of the songs analyzed: 12 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.1.6 Eric Clapton (1945- ) The title of the album: The Cream of Eric Clapton (1987) The number of the songs analyzed: 8 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.1.7 The Who Members: Pete Townshend (1945- ) (main songwriter) and others The title of the album: My generation – The Very Best of the Who (1996) The number of songs analyzed: 20 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/

The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization: The change, it had to come We knew it all along

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We were liberated from the fold, that’s all The world looks just the same And history ain’t blamed ‘Cause the banners all were flown in the last war (‘Won’t Get Fooled Again’)

2.1.8 David Bowie: (1947 - ) The title of the album: The Video Collection (1993) (Side 1) The number of the songs analyzed: 14 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: generally /l/ - /l/ The examples of the rhymes which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

This is Major Tom to ground control I’m stepping through the door And I’m floating in a most peculiar way And the stars look very different today (‘Space Oddity’)

The jean genie lives on his back The jean genie loves chimney stacks He’s outrageous, he screams and he bawls Jean genie let yourself go! (‘The Jean Genie ’)

Sailors fighting in a dance hall Oh man! look at those cavemen go It’s the freakiest show (‘Life on Mars?’)

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2.1.9 (1947 - ) (with Bernie Taupin b.1950) The title of the album: The Very Best of Elton John (1990) The number of the songs analyzed: 27 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

And its no sacrifice Just a simple word Its two hearts living In two separate worlds (‘Sacrifice’)

2.1.10 The Small Faces Members: Steve Marriott (1947 - 1991), Ronnie Lane (1946 - 1997) and others The title of the album: Ogdens' Nut Gone Flake (1968) The number of songs analyzed: 12 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.2. The musicians born in the 1950s 2.2.1 The Police Members: Sting (1951- ) and others The title of the album: The Very Best of Sting and the Police (1997) The number of the songs analyzed: 18 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.2.2 Members: Joe Strummer (1952 – 2002), Mick Jones (1955- ) and others

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The title of the album: The Essential Clash (2003) The number of songs analyzed: 38 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: generally /l/ - /l/ The examples of the rhymes which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

Yankee dollar talk To the dictators of the world In fact it's giving orders An' they can't afford to miss a word (‘I'm So Bored With the U.S.A.’)

Ring! Ring! It's 7:00 A.M.! Move y'self to go again Cold water in the face Brings you back to this awful place Knuckle merchants and you bankers, too Must get up an' learn those rules (‘The Magnificent Seven’)

The panorama of the city is wrong In fact the city seems to be gone! Burning rubber and smoke in my eyes There's a flat burning junkheap For twenty square miles! (‘Stop The World’)

You wanna play mind-crazed banjo

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On the druggy-drag ragtime u.s.a.? In parkland international Hah! junkiedom u.s.a. Where procaine proves the purest Rock man groove And rat poison The volatile molatov says- Straight to Hell (‘Straight to Hell’)

2.2.3 The Stranglers Members: Jean-Jacques Burnel (1952-), Hugh Cornwell (1949- ) and others The title of the album: The Greatest Hits 1977-1990 (1990) The number of songs analyzed: 12 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

Don't tell me lies You can't support I wouldn't believe you I wouldn't believe at all Even if I saw (‘Nice in Nice’)

2.2.4 Elvis Costello (1954- ) The title of the album: The Best of the First 10 Years (2007) The number of songs analyzed: 22

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/l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.2.5 Pet Shop Boys Members: Neil Tennant (1954- ), Chris Lowe (1959- ) The title of the album: The Hits (CD 2) (2003) The number of the songs analyzed: 17 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.2.6 The Damned Members: Brian James (1955- ) (main songwriter), Dave Vanian and others The title of the album: Damned Damned Damned (1977) The number of songs analyzed: 10 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostlyl /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

Be a man can a mystery man Be a doll be a baby doll It can't be fun not anyway It can't be found no way at all A distant man can't sympathise He can't uphold his distant laws Due to form on that today I got a feeling then I hear this call (‘Neat Neat Neat’)

2.2.7 Paul Young (1956- ) The title of the album: The Secret of Association (1985)

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The number of the songs analyzed: 5 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.2.8 Members: Johnny Rotten (1956- ) and others The title of the album: Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols (1977) The number of songs analyzed: 12 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

I jumped right over the wall I don't understand this bit at all This is like a movie show Cheap dialouge, cheap essential scenery I gotta go over the wall, I wanna go over the Berlin Wall Wave all day, we love the Berlin Wall I don't understand this bit at all I jumped right over the Berlin Wall People wave all day, come ovr the Berlin Wall I don't understand this bit at all Please don't be waiting for me (‘Holidays In The Sun’)

2.2.9 Members: (1958- ) The title of the album: The Jam Gold (2005) The number of the songs analyzed: 25 (Disk 1) /l/ - /l/ rhyme: generally /l/ - /l/

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The examples of the rhymes which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

In the city there's a thousand things I want to say to you But whenever I approach you, you make me look a fool (‘In the City’)

Why are you frightened – can’t you see that it’s you That ain’t no ghost – it’s a reflection of you Why do you turn away - and keep it out of sight Oh – don’t live up to your given roles There’s more inside you that you won’t show (‘Ghosts ’)

2.2.10 Kate Bush (1958- ) The title of the album: The Kick Inside (1978) The number of the songs analyzed: 13 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.3 The musicians born in the 1960s 2.3.1 Duran Duran Members: John Taylor (1960- ), Nick Rhodes (1962- ) and others The title of the album: Rio (1982 ) The number of the songs analyzed: 9 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

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2.3.2 U2 Members: Bono (1960- ) and others The title of the album: The Best of U2 1980 – 1990 (1998) The number of the songs analyzed: 15 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.3.3 Boy George (1961- ) The title of the album: The Best of Boy George and Culture Club (1993) The number of the songs analyzed: 12 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.3.4 Primal Scream Members: Bobby Gillespie (1962- ) and others The title of the album: Riot City Blues (2006) The number of the songs analyzed: 10 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

Stone cold Sally is a stubbled whore Her face is plastic, so is her soul She hates her body she is a he Striptease and Pre-teased, feelin diseased (‘Suicide Sally & Johnny Guitar’)

2.3.5 Wham! Members: George Michael (1963- ), Andrew Ridgeley (1963- ) The title of the album: The Best of Wham! (1997 )

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The number of the songs analyzed: 10 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.3.6 Pulp Members: Jarvis Cocker (1963- ) and others The title of the album: Hits (2002) The number of the songs analyzed: 10 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization: laugh along even though they’re laughing at you and the stupid things that you do because you think that poor is cool. (‘common people’)

2.3.7 The Stone Roses Members: Ian Brown (1963- ), John Squire (1962- ) and others The title of the album: The Very Best of The Stone Roses (2002) The number of the songs analyzed: 15 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/

The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

Did your bed and bookshelf go And run run run away These four walls saw the rise and fall

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And your midnight getaway Seems like there’s a hole In my dreams Or so it seems Yet nothing means anything Anymore (‘Elephant Stone’)

2.3.8 Oasis Members: (1967- )(main songwriter), (1972- ) and others The title of the album: Stop the Clock (2006) The number of songs analyzed: 18 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.3.9 Suede Members: Brett Anderson (1967- ) (main songwriter), Richard Oakes (1976- ) and others The title of the album: Singles (2003) The number of the songs analyzed: 18 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/

The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

It's the way you pick your clothes off the floor It's the way you scratch your skin when you yawn It's the t-shirts that you choose like you're in the Air Force

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Yeah the language that you use reacts like chemicals (‘Obsession’)

2.3.10 Blur Members: Damon Albarn (1968- ) (main songwriter) and others The title of the album: The Best of Blur (2000) The number of the songs analyzed: 17 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

You're taking the fun Out of everything You're making it clear When I don't want to think You're taking me up When I don't want to go up anymore I'm just watching it all (‘There's No Other Way’)

2.4 The musicians born in the 1970s 2.4.1 Franz Ferdinand Members: Alex Kapranos (1972- ) and others The title of the album: Tonight (2009) The number of the songs analyzed: 12 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: not found The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

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I typed your number into my calculator Where it spelled a dirty word When you turn it upside down You can turn my dirty world The bright way round (‘Twilight Omens’)

2.4.2 Travis Members: Fran Healy (1973- ) and others The title of the album: Singles (DVD) (2004) The number of the songs analyzed: 17 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.4.3 James Blunt (1974- ) The title of the album: Back To Bedlam (2004) The number of the songs analyzed: 10 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.4.4 Stereophonics Members: Kelly Jones (1974- ) and others The title of the album: Decade in the Sun (2008) The number of the songs analyzed: 20 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

People drinking on their own Push buttons on the phone

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Was I here once before Is that my voice on the phone That last drink on my own Did I ever leave at all Confusions familiar (‘Pick a Part That's New’)

2.4.5 The Darkness Members: Justin Hawkins (1975- ) and others The title of the album: Permission to Land (2003) The number of the songs analyzed: 12 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.4.6 Coldplay Members: Chris Martin (1977- ) and others The title of the album: Viva La Vida & Prospekt’s March (2008) The number of the songs analyzed: 20 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: generally /l/ - /l/ The examples of the rhymes which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

I used to rule the world Seas would rise when I gave the word Now in the morning I sleep alone Sweep the streets I used to own (‘Viva la Vida’)

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There's a wild wind blowing Down the corner of my street Every night there the headlights are glowing There's a cold war coming On the radio I heard Baby it's a violent world (‘Life In Technicolor ii’)

2.4.7 Kaiser Chiefs Members: Ricky Wilson (1978- ), Andrew White (1974) and others The title of the album: Yours Truly, Angry Mob (2007) The number of the songs analyzed: 13 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

Now You Said You Didn't Mean It You Threw Away The Book Of Rules You Thought That We Should Read It I Wouldn't Even Know How To (‘Everything Is Average Nowadays’)

2.4.8 Muse Members: Matthew Bellamy (1978- ) and others The title of the album: Haarp (2008) The number of the songs analyzed: 13 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

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2.4.9 The Libertines Members: Peter Doherty (1979- ) CarlBarât (1978 - ) and others The title of the album: The Best of The Libertines (2008) The number of the songs analyzed: 15 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: generally /l/ - /l/ The examples of the rhymes which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

Saw two shadowed men on the Vallance Road Said they'd pay me for your address Oh, I was so bold ...... And it's just like he's in another world He doesn't see the danger on show Now he'll end up like Joseph bloody in the hole (‘’)

On the bus the other day You could tell right from the start There's magic in all that you play But oh, can you play guitar boy Can you play guitar The truth is known the drums they roll Loop the loop on the old banjo (‘The Delaney’)

2.4.10 Maximo Park Members: Paul Smith (1979- ), Duncan Lloyd and others

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The title of the album: Our Earthly Pleasures (2007) The number of the songs analyzed: 12 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

What went wrong with you? I never took you for a fool But all it takes is a rumour, Now isn't it obvious? I'd love to clear the air But I can't bear to hear your voice It's tainted with his name, now isn't it obvious? (‘Nosebleed’)

2.5 The musicians born in the 1980s and 1990s 2.5. 1 Members: Johnny Borrell (1980- ) (main songwriter) and others The title of the album: Slipway Fires (2008) The number of the songs analyzed: 11 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: generally /l/ - /l/ The examples of the rhymes which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

When you could take me over Take it all Close that distance Smash that door

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Meet me somewhere Take my call One last time Before you crawl (‘Monster Boots’)

Now whose love will you take, prepare, With detachment, like famine food Ease into being with disgust and care Then smother by etiquette and your invented rules (‘Killing Casanova’)

2.5.2 Bloc Party Members: Kele Okereke (1981- ), Russell Lissack (1981- ) and others The title of the album: Intimacy (2008) The number of the songs analyzed: 11 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: Not found

2.5.3 Members: Antony Costa (1981- ) and others The title of the album: The (2004) The number of the songs analyzed: 7 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

Got a body like whoa Why you waitin over there let's roll

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Take it all the way to the top floor (oh ho) And let's get Bubblin' girl, Bubblin' girl (‘Bubblin’)

2.5.4 McFly Members: Tom Fletcher (1985- ), Danny Jones (1986- ), Dougie Poynter (1987- ) and others The title of the album: Radio:ACTIVE (2008) The number of the songs analyzed: 13 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/ The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

One more song before I've got to go I'm singing From the very bottom of my soul And hearing Every single word and every note I'm pleading Let me hear you sing it out once more With feeling (‘The Last Song’)

2.5.5 Members: (1986- ) (main songwriter), Jamie Cook (1985- ) and others The title of the album: Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not (2006) The number of the songs analyzed: 13 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

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2.5.6 Foals Members: Yannis Philippakis (1986- ) and others The title of the album: Antidotes (2008) The number of the songs analyzed: 14 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/ (only a few found)

2.5.7 The Rascals Members: Miles Kane (1986- ) (main songwriter) and others The title of the album: Rascalize (2008) The number of the songs analyzed: 12 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: not found

2.5.8 The View Members: Kyle Falconer (1987- ), Kieren Webster and others The title of the album: Which Bitch (2009) The number of the songs analyzed: 14 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: all /l/ - /l/

2.5.9 Cajun Dance Party Members: Daniel Blumberg, Robbie Stern, Max Bloom, Will Vignoles, and Vicky Freund The title of the album: The Colourful life (2008) The number of the songs analyzed: 9 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: not found

2.5.10 Milburn Members: Joe Carnall and others

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The title of the album: well well well (2006) The number of the songs analyzed: 13 /l/ - /l/ rhyme: mostly /l/ - /l/

The example of the rhyme which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization:

You've had one too many, low and behold You're telling the secrets that can't be told It feels so special, it feels so right But then you knock me back and I fall I fall to the floor (‘What You Could’ve Won’)

3. Summary The results of the analysis are shown in Tables 1 – 4 and Figures 1-5.

3.1 Differences according to age group (Table 1, Figure 1) Contrary to the author’s expectation, no sign of increase in the proportion of L-Vocalization in the younger age group was detected. Across all the age groups, the average percentage of the songs with the rhymes which might possibly reflect the influence of L-Vocalization was 4.83 percent. It is not possible to judge whether this figure is higher or lower as there is no comparable data available.

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Table 1 Songs with a possible vocalic variant by age group

Names Number of songs Number of songs analyzed with a possible vocalic valiant 2.1 The Beatles 27 0 The Rolling Stones 16 0 The Kinks 13 1 Led Zeppelin 8 2 Deep Purple 12 0 Eric Clapton 8 0 The Who 20 1 David Bowie 14 3 Elton John 27 1 The Small Faces 12 0 2.1 total 157 8

2.2 The Police 18 0 The Clash 38 4 The Stranglers 12 1 Elvis Costello 22 0 Pet Shop Boys170 The Damned 10 1 Paul Young 50 Sex Pistols 12 1 The Jam 25 2 Kate Bush 13 0 2.2 total 172 9

2.3 Duran Duran 9 0 U2 15 0 Boy George 12 0

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Primal Scream 10 1 Wham 10 0 Pulp 101 The Stone Roses 15 1 Oasis 18 0 Suede 18 1 Blur 17 1 2.3 total 134 5

2.4 Franz Ferdinand 12 1 Travis 17 0 James Blunt 10 0 Stereophonics 20 1 The Darkness 12 0 Coldplay 202 Kaiser Chiefs 13 1 Muse 13 0 The Libertines 15 2 Maximo Park 12 1 2.4 total 144 8

2.5 Razorlight 11 2 Bloc Party 110 Blue 7 1 McFly 131 Arctic Monkeys130 Foals 14 0 The Rascals 12 0 The View 14 0 Cajun Dance Party 90 Milburn 13 1 2.5 total 117 5

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Figure 1 Songs with a possible vocalic variant by age group (Numbers above each bar = percentage of songs with a possible vocalic variant) 5.56% 6 5.1% 5.23% 5 4.27% 3.73% 4

% % 3 2 1 0 the 40s the 50s the 60s the 70sthe 80s&90sthe 80s&90s

The years the musicians were born

3.2 lexical items and phonemic sequences preferred for L-Vocalization Table 2 shows the list of words judged to have a possible vocalic variant. The sequences of phonemes derived from these lexical items are represented in Table 3 and Figure 2. The sequence /ɔ:/ plus /l/ accounts for 41.46 percent, /u:/ plus /l/ 14.63 percent, and /əʊ/ plus /l/ 19.51 percent of all the sequences with a possible vocalic variant. In total the proportion of the sequences with back vowels (and a diphthong with its second element in the region of [ʊ]) is over 78 percent. Thus, it may be that the sequence of back vowels followed by [ɫ] (usually with back vowel resonance) contribute to the vocalization of /1/. Phonemes /ɔ:/ and /əʊ/ seem to be particularly merged in this context, i.e. in the environment of a following [ɫ]. As shown in Figure 3 - 5, /ɔ:/ plus /l/ has /ɔ:/or /əʊ/ as their counterparts in the rhyme. So does /əʊ/ plus /l/. On the other hand, /u:/ plus /l/ has only /u:/. All three consonant plus /l/ sequences have syllabic /l/.

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Table 2 Lexical items with a possible vocalic variant

lexical item number of entry all 8 world 5 fall 3 rule 3 call 2 fool 2 roll 2 soul 2 bawls 1 bold 1 chemicals 1 control 1 cool 1 crawl 1 doll 1 hall 1 hole 1 international 1 miles 1 roles 1 trouble 1 wall 1

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Table 3 Types of sequence with a possible vocalic vaｌiant

1. vowel plus /l/ type number of entry percentage /ɔ:/ plus /l/ 17 41.46% /əʊ/ plus /l/ 8 19.51% /u:/ plus /l/ 6 14.63% /ɜ:/ plus /l/ 5 12.19% /aɪ/ plus /l/ 1 2.43% /ɒ/ plus /l/ 1 2.43%

2. consonant plus /l/ type number of entry /b(ə)/ plus /l/ 1 2.43% /n(ə)/ plus /l/ 1 2.43% /k(ə)/ plus /l/ 1 2.43%

Figure 2 Types of sequence

/ɜ:/ plus /l/ 12.19%12% /ɔ:/ plus /l/ 41.46%42%

/u:/ plus /l/ 14.63%15% /əʊ/ plus /l/ 19.51%21%

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Figure 3 Counterparts of /ɔ:/ plus /l/

100% 90% 80% /əʊ/, 6 70% 60% /əʊ/ 50% 40% /ɔ:/ 30% /ɔ:/ , 8 20% 10% 0% 1

Figure 4 Counterparts of /əʊ/ plus /l/

100% 90% 80% 70% /əʊ/, 5 60% /əʊ/ 50% /ɔ:/ 40% 30% 20% /ɔ:/ , 3 10% 0% 1

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Figure 5 Counterparts of /u:/ plus /l/

100%

90% 80% 70% 60% 50% /u:/ 6 /u:/ 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1

3.3 Concluding remarks As mentioned in Introduction, this study tries to find out the present proportion of L-Vocalization (its proportion, proportional change etc.), and hence the state of phoneme /l/ and change in pronunciation of the English language. However, the total size of the data is somewhat too small to yield a balanced and accurate data. In addition such sociolinguistic factors as regionality, gender and socio-economic class etc. are not taken into account in this study. Hopefully following studies will supply enough data to throw some more light on this subject.

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Table 4 List of rhymes

2.1 with /l/ without /l/ fall low all more trouble ago, floor all war control door bawls go hall go, show worlds word

2.2 world word rules too miles eye international banjo all saw doll, all, call laws all, wall show fool you roles show

2.3 soul whore cool you, do fall, hole go chemicals floor, yawn, force all anymore

2.4 world word all before

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world word world heard rules to bold road roll banjo fool you

2.5 all, call, crawl door rules food roll whoa, floor soul go fall floor

References Barltrop, R. and Wolveridge, J. 1980. The Muvver Tongue. London: The Journeyman Press. Britain, David. (ed) 2007. Language in the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chambers, J. K., Trudgill, P. & Schilling-Estes, N. 2002. The Handbook of Language Variation and Change. : Blackwell. Crystal, David. 1997. A Dictionary of Linguistics & Phonetics, fourth edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Crystal, David. 2004. The Stories of English. Allen Lane. Dobson, E. J. 1968. English pronunciation 1500 – 1700, second edition. Oxford University Press. Foulkers, P. and Docherty, G. (eds) 1999. Urban Voices. London: Edward Arnold. Gimson, A. C. and Cruttenden, A. 2008. Gimson’s Pronunciation of English, seventh edition. London: Hodder Education. Jones, Charles. 2006. English Pronunciation in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth

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Centuries. Palgrave Macmillan. Ladefoged, Peter. 2001. A Course in Phonetics, fourth edition. Harcourt College Publishers. Ladefoged, Peter. 2003. Phonetic Data Analysis. Blackwell. Matthews, William. 1970. Cockney Past and Present. Detroit: Gale Research Company

Orton. H., Sanderson, S. & Widdowson, J. (eds) 1978. The Linguistic Atlas of . London: Croom Helm. Rees, D & Luke C.(eds) DK Encyclopedia of Rock Stars. 1996. London: Dorling Kindersley Roach, P., Hartman, J. & Setter, J. (eds) 2003. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. Sivertsen, E. 1960. Cockney Phonology. Oslo: Oslo University Press. Trudgill, P. and Hannah J. 2002. International English, fourth edition. London: Edward Arnold. Trudgill, P. 1999. The Dialects of England, second edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Wells, J. C. 1982. Accents of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wells, J. C. 2000. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, second edition. Pearson Education. Wright, Laura. 1996. Source of London English. Oxford University Press.