EFFECTS OF POPULATION INFLUX ON WETLANDS: CASE STUDY OF LUBIJI WETLAND NAMUNGOONA KAMPALA DISTRICT

BY NASRA MOHAMMED BEM134898/1 13/DU

A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE IN

ENVIROMENTAL SCIENCES OF KAMPALA

INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

JUNE, 2014 DECLARATION

I NASRA MOHAMMED do declare that this research report “Effects of population Influx on wetlands; a case study of Lubiji wetland Namungoona Kampala District” is my original piece of work and has never been submitted to any university or institution of higher learning as an academic research for any academic award, recognition or acceptance.

NASRA MOHAMMED

Si~......

1 APPROVAL

This piece of work has been supervised and approved by Ms. Katongole Hadijjah School of Engineering and Applied Sciences; Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences Kampala International University.

Si~atur~

Date.. .2 ~~

11 DEDICATION

I am dedicating this piece of work to my most beloved father Mubiru Said, my sister Munira Ally, and people who have been there for me like Tumwebaze Hasfah and Ssewanonda Mustafa for all the inspiration, love and care shown to me in this lifetime. May the Good Lord shower you with unending blessing.

111 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Heartfelt gratitude goes to God the almighty for the gift of life without which I could not possibly do anything.

Several people have offered advice, helped and encouraged me in the course of this study. I sincerely thank all of them.

Specifically, I thank Ms. Katongole Hadijjah who has taken the trouble to supervise this piece of work, been there at all times answering all the questions and correcting where necessary. Your guidance and discussions helped shape this particular work study. I greatly appreciate your availability and accessibility at all times. Thank you.

I also acknowledge the immeasurable contribution of the Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences in Kampala International University for the tireless inputs through the lecturers who have played a very important role in transforming towards my achievements. Thank you. May the Almighty God Bless you all!

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION APPROVAL DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv TABLE OF CONTENTS v LIST OF ACRONYMS LIST OF TABLES ix ABSTRACT

CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1 1.0. Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Problem statement 4 1.3 Purpose of the study 4 1.4 Objectives of the study 4 1.5 Research questions 5 1.6 Scope of the study s 1.6.1 Geographical scope s 1.6.2 Content scope 1.6.3 Time scope s 1.7 Significance of the study s 1.8 The scope of the study 6

CHAPTER TWO 7 LITERATURE REVIEW 7 2.0. Introduction 7 2.1 The concept of wetlands 7 2.2 Global statistic on wetlands Loss 7 2.3 The Benefits of Wetlands 8 2.4 Impact of population influx on wetlands within the country 11 2.5 Effects of Wetland Loss in Kampala 13 2.6 Ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands 15

v CHAPTER THREE .18 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .18 3.0 Introduction 18 3.1 Research Design 18 3.2 Population of the Study 18 3.3 Sampling techniques 20 3.3.1 Puiposive sampling 20 3.3.2 Simple random sampling 20 3.4 Sample Selection Size 20 3.5 Sources of data 21 3.5.1 Primary data source 21 3.5.2 Secondary data source 21 3.6 Procedures and instruments 21 3.6.1 Questionnaire 21 3.6.2 Observations 21 3.7 Validity and reliability 22 3.7.1 Validity 22 3.7.2 Reliability of instrument 22 3.8 Ethical Considerations 22 3.9 Data analysis 22 3.10 Limitations of the study 23

CHAPTER FOUR 24 DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDiNGS 24 4.1 Findings from responses about the background of respondents who participated in the sample 24 4.2 Findings from responses about the benefits of Wetlands in the country of Uganda 28 4.3 Findings from responses about the impact of population influx on the Lubigi wetlands ecosystem within Kampala 29 4.4 Findings from responses about the Ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands in the country 30

CHAPTER FIVE 32 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 32 5.0 Introduction 32

vi 5.1 Discussion .32 5.2 Summary of major findings 32 5.3 Conclusion 34 5.4 Recommendations 35 REFERENCES 37 APPENDIX I: Research questionnaires for respondents during data collection 39 APPENDIX II Interview guide 43

vii LIST OF ACRONYMS

NEMA National Environmental Management Authority

UWA Uganda Wildlife Authority

WWF World Wildlife Fund

MDGs Millenium Development Goals

UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Scientists

US United States

viii LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 .Shows the gender status, marital status, education background and age of the respondents.

Table 2.Shows the categories of respondents who participated in the sample.

Table 3.Shows the benefits of wetlands in the country Uganda,

Table 4.Shows the impact of population influx on wetland ecosystem within Kampala.

Table 5.Shows the ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands in the country.

ix ABSTRACT This study was all about examining the effects of population influx on wetlands by considering Lubigi wetland Narnungona Kampala district as case study. The researcher came up with four specific objectives which acted as research guidelines during data collection and these are: to investigate the benefits of Wetlands in the country, to assess the Impact of population influx on wetlands ecosystem within Kampala, to identify the Effects of Wetland Loss in the Kampala and to establish the Ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands in the country

Qualitative and quantitative research design was used in the study to ensure proper collection of data from the respondents; qualitative research was used by the researcher through asking broad questions and collects word data from participants. During sampling, the researcher considered 133 people who acted as respondents and these were got from the farmers within the area of

During data collection the researcher collected data from Government officials, Farmers and Business people. These were categorized in the following manner; 60 Farmers, 27 business people, 20 brick makers, fish famers and 13 government officials from different organizations such as NEMA, UWA among others who are the stake holders of wetlands in the country. Both Primary and secondary data sources were used as data collection sources, questionnaire, observation and interview data instruments were employed during data collection and data collected was analyzed using the SPSS and M-Excel as data analysis packages.

Findings shows that through questionnaires in the field, the researcher revealed a number of challenges faced in maintaining wetlands within the area of Namungona such as, settlement, construction, population increase among others, the following recommendations were made so as to curb the challenges faced in conservation of wetlands in Narnungona area, these were as follows; The government through the organization of National Environment Management Authority should put tight restrictions and regulations which could help in preventing people from destructing wetlands in the area of Kampala and the country in general. Valuation of wetlands in Kampala should be considered, the value of a wetland system to the earth and to humankind is one of the most important valuations that can be computed for sustainable development of wetlands within the country.

x CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1.0 Introduction This chapter deals with the background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, the scope of the study, significant of the study and the conceptual frame work.

1.1 Background Kampala’s population has been increasing from 50,000 in 1962 to 458,503 in 1980 to774,247 in 1991 to 1,208,544 in 2002 the most recent census. This has led to the rapid expansion of the city from the originally known seven hills to wetlands and valleys in a bid to accommodate the population. There is massive encroachment on wetlands and green belts for establishment of settlements and factories. Furthermore, Kampala’s position as the commercial and political seat of Uganda has influenced people to migrate from rural areas to the city in search of employment and ‘better standards of living’. There is thus need to extend social services and sustainable development initiatives in the rural areas to curb rural to urban migration. The study will explore the impact of population growth on the health of ecosystems and biodiversity in wetlands. The study will also emphasize wise use of ecosystems while maintaining their ecological character. (Omolo-Okalebo et al 2010) observed that Kampala became a city by the Royal Charter of September 28, 1962, with an estimated population of 50,000. By 1980, the population had increased to 458,503, and 774,241 in 1991, and 1,208,544 in 2002 (most recent census) at average annual growth rates of between 3.14 percent and 5.61 percent. In 1968 when the then municipalities of Kampala city, Kibuga (Mengo), Kawempe and Nakawa were merged into one administrative unit, there were differences in the pace of development (Ssebaana 2000). Generally, planning was confined to the original city boundaries. The city originally comprised of seven hills and most of the development concentrated in this area. As citizens migrated to the city to participate in trade and commerce, the population increased greatly encroaching on the city’s ecosystem. Today, many settlements have sprung up in wetland areas. Also, the city’s green belts are continually being allocated to investors for establishment of supermarkets, leisure parks and factories.

1 The city of Kampala is made of 172 square kilometers, a big fraction of which are swamps with an annual population growth rate of 5.6 1% (Nyakaana 2004). According to the Uganda Bureau of Statistics-UBOS (2002), 31 out of 172 square kilometres of the city are covered with wetlands. In addition, Kampala absorbs 40% of the national urban population and 4.9% of the national population (UBOS, 2002), Expansion of Kampala city and reduction in the green belt has increased the land surface (built up area) leading to constant flooding, increased runoff and silting of Lake Victoria through Nakivubo channel and its tributaries. The central focus of this paper is on the wetland ecosystem of Kampala, tree coverage, birds and animals and how these are affected by population increase. As a result of a high human population growth rate accompanied by increased demand for commercial and settlement land, encroachment on protected areas is still a major problem in the city. All these challenges are aggravated by man-made activities and it is mainly the poverty associated with rural to urban migration as well as government development policies which are the major cause of environmental degradation.

On Africa seen. Africa’s wetland ecosystems are estimated to cover more than 131 million hectares. They deliver a wide range of ecosystem services that contribute to human well-being such as nutrition, water supply and purification, climate and flood regulation, coastal protection, feeding and nesting sites, recreational opportunities and increasingly, tourism.

African wetlands are among the most biologically diverse ecosystems on the continent. They are home to over 2,000 known species of indigenous fish live in freshwaters of African wetlands. For example, the Zaire River Basin, probably the most diverse area in Africa for its fishes, has over 700 identified species of which 560 are endemic to the basin (Hails, 1996). African wetlands are also home to aquatic mammals, such as dolphins and manatees, as well as terrestrial mammals such as monkeys that live mangrove forests. They provide habitats for mollusks and a wide variety of insects, reptiles such as crocodiles, and amphibians. (Brazner et al 2000).

Livelihoods. Africa is an arid continent with the lowest river flow per unit area of any continental landmass. Most African countries outside of the rainforest zone receive little rain for most of the year. Wetlands, with their abundant supply of fresh water, generally fertile soils, and high productivity, therefore play a central role in the economy of all river basins and coastal zones. They provide fish, water for agriculture, household uses and transport.

2 Additionally, many distant communities as well as entire cities and regions benefit from wetlands. High mountain peatlands and paramos store the excessive runoff water from the mountains and glaciers thereby preventing flooding of lower lying areas, all across the river basin. Coastal wetlands such as mangroves absorb wind and swell waves, storm surges and tsunamis and withstand some degree of sea level rise, thereby protecting extensive inland areas from flooding and salt water intrusion.

Globally According to Prigent et al 2010, the area of the globe covered by wetlands (swamps, marshes, lakes, etc.) has dropped by 6% in fifteen years. This decline is particularly severe in tropical and subtropical regions, and in areas that have experienced the largest increases in population in recent decades. Marshes, lagoons, swamps and bogs are all types of wetlands -- regions where water is the main controlling factor for the environment and its plant and animal life. Although they cover less than 5% of Earth’s land surface, these areas play a key role in human activities, biodiversity, climate and the water cycle. Indeed, they produce one third of atmospheric methane, a major greenhouse gas. Moreover, these regions impact the transfer of continental freshwater to the sea and alter local weather by enhancing evaporation.

A better understanding of wetlands, their way of functioning and their variability and dynamics over time, are essential for assessing climate change and making sound recommendations for water resource management. Characterizing wetland distribution and quantifying seasonal and inter-annual variations across the globe is, however, a huge challenge.

By combining and simultaneously analyzing a large amount of data from different satellites, the researchers succeeded in developing the first mapping of wetlands and their temporal dynamics throughout the world over fifteen years. The first conclusion from this study is that the extent of wetlands varied greatly during any year, but also from one year to another, with strong modulation during El Niflo events. Moreover, between 1993 and 2007, scientists observed a 6% fall in wetland areas. This trend was particularly severe in tropical and subtropical regions. The highest declines are concentrated in the areas where the largest increases in human population have been recorded over the last two decades. (Keough et al 1999).

3 1.2 Problem statement

Kampala city of Uganda is densely populated due to several factors like birth rates increase, migration of people (both immigration and rural urban migration). Every day Kampala city in receiving people from different corners of the world and even within the country of Uganda, this is due to pull factors such as business purposes, tourism purposes. employment opportunities, better education facilities, accommodation facilities among others which have greatly attracted very many people to leave their areas and encroach in valleys and wetlands of Kampala for example in the area of Namungona. As a result of general increase in population growth, one of the ecosystems that has suffered great pressure is wetlands. There has been significant loss of wetlands and biodiversity in the area of Kampala especially in Lubiji wetland and Victoria shores where people have encroached them selves for settlement and industrial purposes, thus leading to the demise of wetlands within the area of Kampala.

As a result, this has influenced the researcher to come up with this kind of research topic (study) to investigate the factors contributing to the ever increasing loss of biodiversity and wetlands in Nainungona Kampala and to establish the way forwards to combat such factors so as to save, preserve and improve on the remaining parts of wetlands from being destructed by people within the area of Namungona-Kampala.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study was to assess the effects of population influx on wetlands by taking Lubigi wetland as a case study Namungona Kampala district

1.4 Objectives of the study

i. To investigate the benefits of Wetlands in the country

ii. To assess the Impact of population influx on wetlands ecosystem within Kampala

iii. To identify the Effects of Wetland Loss in the Kampala

iv. To establish the Ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands in the country

4 1.5 Research questions

i. What are the benefits of Wetlands on development of the country Uganda?

ii. What are the Impacts of population influx on wetlands ecosystem in Kampala?

iii. What are the Effects of Wetland Loss in Kampala?

iv. What are the Ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands in the country? 1.6 Scope of the study 1.6.1 Geographical scope

The study was conducted at Lubigi Wetland in the area of Namungona Lubaga division within Kampala district

1.6.2 Content scope

The study concentrated mostly on the effects of population influx and the impact of the increased activities on wetlands within Kampala by acknowledging Lubigi Wetland Namungona area Kampala district as a case study which is a nucleus for the research.

1.6.3 Time scope

The study took a period of three months to accomplish the whole process, therefore, the study commenced from the month of April to the month of June 2014.

1.7 Significance of the study

The study acts as a secOndary data source for new generation especially those who will depend on the already collected information to come up further research on the same topic

The study sensitizes the public about the dangers and challenges faced in the country as a result of wetland loss, thus encouraging them to conserve them

The study identified the ways of conserving and maintains wetlands in the country Uganda so as to foster its functions in the country

The study established the causes to wetland loss in the country and the ways of curbing the causes. Hence helping the Government to come up with measures which could be based on maintain wetlands in the country

5 1.8 The scope of the study

Independent variables Dependent variables

Population influx Quality of Wetlands Birth rate in the country Conducive climatic ______conditions Poverty level Influence of Rainfall Contraceptive methods Improved people’s standards Sensitization

Intervening variables Government policy

Peoples’ attitude

Conservation measures

The frame work includes different variables governing the study and these are: independent, dependent and intervening variables, independent variables includes Population influx, Birth rate in the country, Poverty level, Contraceptive methods and Sensitization which directly affect the existence of wetlands within the country Uganda and its existence helps in boosting conducive climatic conditions in the country.

Intervening variables includes Government policy, Peoples’ attitude and Conservation measures which affects both independent and dependent variables in one way or the other.

6 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0. Introduction This chapter includes the publications of the related literature; this shows quotations and recommendations of different Authors about the effects of population influx on wetlands in within the country Uganda and global analysis as well.

2.1 The concept of wetlands Wetland conservation is aimed at protecting and preserving areas where water exists at or near the Earth’s surface, such as swamps, marshes and bogs. Wetlands cover at least six per cent of the Earth and have become a focal issue for conservation due to the ecosystem services they provide. More than three billion people, around half the world’s population, obtain their basic water needs from inland freshwater wetlands. The same number of people relies on rice as their staple food, a crop grown largely in natural and artificial wetlands. In some parts of the world, such as the Kilombero wetland in Tanzania, almost the entire local population relies on wetland cultivation for their livelihoods. (U.S. EPA, 2009).

2.2 Global statistic on wetlands Loss According to Roulet, 2000) Wetland loss and degradation occur worldwide, sometimes at extremely high rates. In the conterminous US, 53% of wetlands were lost between the 1780s and 1980s, with Ohio and California losing 90% and 91% respectively. Estimated wetland loss in different parts of Canada ranges between 65% and 80%. In parts of Europe, Australia and New Zealand more than 50% of specific types of wetlands were destroyed during the twentieth century.

In Sumatra and Kalimantan, Indonesia, it is estimated that less than 4% of peatland, comprising undisturbed pristine peat swamp forests, remains, while 37% display varying degrees of degradation. Frequently-cited anthropogenic causes of wetland loss and degradation, include drainage for crop production and plantations, wetland conversion for fish production, conversion for logging, peat extraction, construction of canals, dykes, dams and levees, and commercial, residential and industrial developments, e.g. Natural causes include sea-level rise, droughts,

7 storms, and subsidence. Underlying drivers of wetland loss are socio-economic and political factors, such as population growth and financial policies. Most studies reporting wetland conversion are conducted for single locations. A more comprehensive analysis of the most important drivers of wetland conversion at a global scale is currently lacking. (Chmura 2003).

Processes of wetland loss and degradation undermine the capacity of wetlands to provide valuable ecosystem services to humanity. These include water supply, flood control, carbon storage, and maintenance of biodiversity, retention of sediment and nutrients, and recreation. Such services have both global significance and local value, and there is broad support for their conservation value, e.g. In land change studies, a distinction is often made between proximate causes and underlying driving forces, e.g. proximate causes are human activities or immediate actions at the local level that originate from intended land use and directly impact land cover. Underlying driving forces are fundamental societal processes, such as human population dynamics or agricultural policies that drive the proximate causes, either operating at the local level, or indirectly from a higher level. (Mosernan et al 2011).

2.3 The Benefits of Wetlands Wetlands play an integral role in the hydrologic cycle, and provide important ecosystem services that may include flood storage, water quality amelioration and enhancement, carbon storage, wildlife habitat, and buffers during periods of high water (NRC 1995). Economic benefits of wetlands include timber production, peat extraction, and recreation. Although littoral zones and wetlands make up only ~12% of the surface area of the Great Lakes, these zones are “hot spots” of primary and secondary production because of watershed inputs of nutrients and sediments (Brazner et al 2000). Coastal wetlands such as those in Saginaw Bay, and large estuaries such as Green Bay, Sturgeon Bay, and the St. Louis River Estuary support rich communities and unique plants, birds, and fish. Bogs and fens cover extensive areas in the northern Great Lakes region and contain a wide variety of acid-loving plants — the pitcher plant being among the most familiar, (Jude 1992, Pappas 1992, Brazner 1997).

Wetlands near the Great Lakes occur as three distinct types: fringing coastal marshes that are directly impacted by lake levels and wave action; riverine wetlands that are partially influenced by both lake and river; and protected lagoons or barrier beach systems that are hydrologically

8 connected to the lake via groundwater oniy (Keough et al 1999). Where they have not disappeared, coastal marshes in the southern part of the Basin, particularly on Lake Erie and southern Lake Ontario, have been extensively diked to protect them from water level fluctuations. Inland wetlands are even more diverse, and span the gradient from entirely precipitation-driven (e.g., bogs) to systems stabilized by both surface and groundwater contributions (e.g., riparian wetlands). Changes in lake water levels in the past thousands of years have had huge impacts on the wetlands by exposing or inundating vast expanses of shoreline (Booth et al, 2001).

Water

Wetlands are a key factor in the global water cycle and in regulating local water availability and quality. They contribute to water purification, denitrification and detoxification, as well as to nutrient cycling, sediment transfer, and nutrient retention and exports. Wetlands can also provide waste water treatment and protection against coastal and river flooding. For example, The Catskill / Delaware watershed provides about 90 per cent of the water used by New York City citizens. In 1997, a study showed that building a new water treatment plant would cost between US$6 and US$8 billion, whereas ensuring good water quality through measures to reduce pollution in the watershed would only cost US$1.5 billion. This study led to programmes to promote the sustainability of the watershed. (Chmura 2003).

Food Security

According to Roulet 2000, Wetlands play a key role in the provision of food, and habitats and nurseries for fisheries. One example is the Arnu Darya delta in Uzbekistan where Intensification and expansion of irrigation activities left only 10 per cent of the original wetlands. Yet a pilot restoration project initiated in the delta - with the support of community, govermnent and donors

- led to increased incomes, more cattle, more hay production for use and sale, and an increase in fish consumption of 15 Kilogrammes per week per family.

Employment provision

Wetlands can be important tourism and recreation sites and support local employment. For example In the Ibera Marshes in Argentina, conservation-based tourism activities have revived the economy of Colonia Carlos Pellegrini, near the Ramsar Site “Lagunas y Esteros del Iberá”,

9 creating new jobs and allowing local inhabitants stay employed in the town rather than migrate to cities to look for work. Around 90 per cent of the population now works in the tourism sector. In order to favour local employment, the site managers provide local rangers and guides with training on working with guiding tourists. In addition, local communities receive support to establish municipal nature trails. (Mossman et al 2011).

Climate change

Wetlands provide climate regulation, climate mitigation and adaptation, and carbon storage - for example in peatlands, mangroves and tidal marshes. Peatlands cover 3 per cent of the world’s land surface, about 400 million hectares (4 million km2), of which 50 million hectares are being drained and degraded, producing the equivalent of 6 per cent of all global Carbon Dioxide emissions. While vegetative wetlands occupy only 2 per cent of seabed area, they represent 50 per cent of carbon transfer from oceans to sediments, often referred to as ‘Coastal Blue Carbon’. (Nyakaana 2004).

Water purification

According to Diaz and Rosenberg 200, Nutrient Retention. Wetlands cycle both sediments and nutrients balancing terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. A natural function of wetland vegetation is the up-take and storage of nutrients found in the surrounding soil and water. These nutrients are retained in the system until the plant dies or is harvested by animals or humans. Wetland vegetation productivity is linked to the climate, wetland type, and nutrient availability. The grasses of fertile floodplains such as the Nile produce the highest yield including plants such as Arundo donax(giant reed), Cyperus papyrus (papyrus), Phragmites (reed) and Typha (cattail, bulrush).

Reservoirs of biodiversity

Wetland systems’ rich biodiversity is becoming a focal point at International Treaty Conventions and within the World Wildlife Fund organization due to the high number of species present in wetlands, the small global geographic area of wetlands, the number of species which are endemic to wetlands, and the high productivity of wetland systems. Hundred thousands of animal species, 20,000 of them vertebrates, are living in wetland systems. The discovery rate of fresh water fish is at 200 new species per year. (Moseman 2012).

10 2.4 Impact of population influx on wetlands within the country According to U.S. EPA, 2009, Converting wetlands through drainage and development have contributed to the issue of irregular flood control through forced adaption of water channels to narrower corridors due to loss of wetland area. These new channels must manage the same amount of precipitation causing flood peaks to be [higher or deeper] and floodwaters to travel faster.

Water management engineering developments in the past century have degraded these wetlands through the construction on artificial embankments. These constructions may be classified as dykes, bunds, levees, weirs, barrages and dams but serve the single purpose of concentrating water into a select source or area, Wetland water sources that were once spread slowly over a large, shallow area are pooled into deep, concentrated locations. Loss of wetland floodplains results in more severe and damaging flooding. Catastrophic human impact in the Mississippi River floodplains was seen in death of several hundred individuals during a levee breach in New Orleans caused by Hurricane Katrina. Ecological catastrophic events from human-made embankrnents have been noticed along the Yangtze River floodplains after the where the middle of the river has become prone to more frequent and damaging flooding including the loss of riparian vegetation, a 30% loss of the vegetation cover throughout the river’s basin, a doubling of the percentage of the land affected by soil erosion, and a reduction in reservoir capacity through siltation build-up in floodplain lakes. (Tilman 1999).

Groundwater replenishment

According to Keough et al 1999, The surface water which is the water visibly seen in wetland systems only represents a portion of the overall water cycle which also includes atmospheric water and groundwater. Wetland systems are directly linked to groundwater and a crucial regulator of both the quantity and quality of water found below the ground. Wetland systems that are made of permeable sediments like limestone or occur in areas with highly variable and fluctuating water tables especially have a role in groundwater replenishment or water recharge. Sediments that are porous allow water to filter down through the soil and overlying rock into aquifers which are the source of 95% of the world’s drinking water. Wetlands can also act as recharge areas when the surrounding water table is low and as a discharge zone when it is too high. Karst (cave) systems are a unique example of this system and are a connection of

11 underground rivers influenced by rain and other forms of precipitation. These wetland systems are capable of regulating changes in the water table on upwards of 130 metres (430 ft). Groundwater is an important source of water for drinking and irrigation of crops. Over 1 billion people in Asia and 65% of the public water sources in Europe source 100% of their water from groundwater. Irrigation is a massive use of groundwater with 80% of the world’s groundwater used for agricultural production. Unsustainable abstraction of groundwater has become a major concern. In the Commonwealth of Australia, water licensing is being implemented to control use of the water in major agricultural regions. On a global scale, groundwater deficits and water scarcity is one of the most pressing concerns facing the 21st century. (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000) The sheer number of people who live and work near the coast is expected to grow immensely over the next 50 years. From an estimated 200 million people that currently live in low-lying coastal regions, the development of urban coastal centers is projected to increase the population by 5 fold within 50 years. The United Kingdom has begun the concept of managed coastal realignment. This management technique provides shoreline protection through restoration of natural wetlands rather than through applied engineering. (Brazner et al 2000).

Introduced hydrophytes in different wetland systems can have devastating results. The introduction of water hyacinth, a native plant of South America into Lake Victoria in East Africa as well as duckweed into non-native areas of Queensland, Australia, have overtaken entire wetland systems suffocating the ecosystem due to their phenomenal growth rate and ability to float and grow on the surface of the water.

Biodiversity loss occurs in wetland systems through land use changes, habitat destruction, pollution, exploitation of resources, and invasive species. Vulnerable, threatened, and endangered species number at 17% of waterfowl, 38% of fresh-water dependent mammals, 33% of fresh water fish, 26% of fresh water amphibians, 72% of fresh water turtles, 86% of marine turtles, 43% of crocodilians and 27% of coral reef-building species. (Brazner 1997).

The impact of maintaining biodiversity is seen at the local level through job creation, sustainability, and community productivity. A good example is the Lower Mekong basin which runs through Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Supporting over 55 million people, the sustainability of the region is enhanced through wildlife tours. The US state of Florida has

12 estimated that US$ 1.6 billion was generated in state revenue from recreational activities associated with wildlife. Sustainable harvesting for medicinal remedies found in native wetlands plants in the Caribbean and Australia include the Red Mangrove Rhizophora mangle which possesses antibacterial, wound-healing, anti-ulcer effects, and antioxidant properties. (Chmura, 2003).

Over-fishing is the major problem for sustainable use of wetlands. The field of aquaculture within the fisheries industries is eliminating mass areas of wetland systems through practices seen such as in the shrimp farming industry’s destruction of mangroves. Aquaculture is continuing to develop rapidly throughout the Asia-Pacific region specifically in China with world holdings in Asia equal to 90% of the total number of aquaculture farms and 80% of its global value. Threats to rice fields mainly stem from inappropriate water management, introduction of invasive alien species, agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, and land use changes. Industrial-scale production of palm oil threatens the biodiversity of wetland ecosystems in parts of south-east Asia, Africa, and other developing countries. Exploitation can occur at the community level as is sometimes seen throughout coastal villages of Southern Thailand where each resident may obtain for themselves every consumable of the mangrove forest (ftmelwood, timber, honey, resins, crab, and shellfish) which then becomes threatened through increasing population and continual harvest. Other issues that occur on a global level include an uneven contribution to climate change, point and non-point pollution, and air and water quality issues due to destructive wetland practices. (Roulet 2000).

2.5 Effects of Wetland Loss in Kampala

Wetlands act as the biological “kidneys” of the landscape by filtering out any water that would otherwise directly run into a water system (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000). The loss of wetlands can cause the change in water chemistry of major water systems that those wetlands would otherwise filter out. With increasing transmissions from cars, fertilizer and pesticide use, and animal grazing there are increasing number of pollutants entering our waterways. These pollutants are changing the natural balance of nutrients in our lotic systems and having long-term consequences on the function and community composition of those systems (Ribaudo et al 2001).

13 One of the most well known cases of upstream water nutrient loading having a major effect on downstream water sources occurs in the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. Nutrients from fertilizer used on farmland and large amount of sediment from erosion are being washed directly into streams and rivers. Without wetlands, which would filter out these components from the water, the nitrate, phosphorus, bacteria, and sediment carried by stream and river systems in the Midwest, run into the Mississippi River? These pollutants ultimately flow into the Gulf of Mexico, having drastic negative effects on the ecosystem, the principal effect being hypoxia (Rabalais et al 1999, Moore et al 2001).

When large amounts of limiting nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus leech out of soils and into water systems, the growth of primary producers, such as algae and phytoplankton, increases. This is due to an increased carrying capacity from the widespread availability of these limiting nutrients. In spring and summer months, when there are optimal amounts of sunlight, there is an explosion of growth and masses of algae and phytoplankton float on the surface of the water where the nutrients lie. The oxygen produced by these plants remains on the surface of the water. Eventually, the algae and phytoplankton fall to the benthic layer, where a layer of dead organic matter accumulates. Due to the tremendous quantity of this organic material, the decomposer bacteria population explodes. (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000).

As the bacteria decompose the dead algae and phytoplankton, they use massive amounts of oxygen, ofien depleting the water of it to a point where nothing can live without severe stress or fatal effects. This is how hypoxia occurs. The technical definition of hypoxia is water with less than 2 milligrams per liter of dissolved oxygen. In the Gulf of Mexico, hypoxic conditions cover areas the size of Connecticut and make the water uninhabitable by any aerobic organism, not only affecting fisheries throughout the Southern United States, but also the entire Gulf of Mexico ecosystem (Rabalais et al 1999).

Stream and river chemistry and morphology have been altered drastically as a result of wetland loss and visa versa. Rivers, streams, and wetlands work as integrated ecosystems to maintain stability and function. There are several types of wetlands, including riparian, fringe, and instream wetlands, all of which function to protect and provide nutrients to neighboring streams and rivers (Mitsch 1995). Studies have shown that the effects of rip arian zone loss are so great, that the morphology of even large rivers, such as the Mississippi River, can change drastically.

14 Since 1780, 26 million acres of wetland have been drained and destroyed on the bank of the Mississippi, resulting in a loss of 25, 800,000 acres of water surface area that functioned as a hydrologic sink (Mitsch 1993, Rabalais et al 1999).

Wetland and forest riparian zones provide streams and rivers with organic material, such as leaves, that make up the waterway~s greatest resource of nutrients (Mitsch 1993). Flora, macro- invertebrates, and vertebrates rely on the area around them for nutrients and food: the riparian area is a source of energy, like the sun, in the trophic cascade. Without riparian organic matter, these lotic ecosystems have no nutrients to support the diverse life that they host.

Wetland loss has been associated with the direct loss of species diversity due to destruction and lowered recruitment of infringing vegetation communities and displacement of fauna (Davis and Froend 1999). Biodiversity is important in an ecosystem in that it is the multitude of organisms in a system, each having their own role, that drive the ecological processes (Tilman 1999). The loss of wetlands may end with a loss of flora and fauna, which not only support human interests, but also contribute to the health of other ecosystems, such as streams and rivers. The loss of flora is especially devastating in an ecosystem because primary producers, such as wetland plants, are the basis of any ecosystem. The effects of the loss or lowered recruitment of these plants ripples throughout the trophic ladder: fauna that depend on wetland plants as a source of food or shelter perish or migrate, resulting in the loss of fauna that are predaceous, and so on (David and Froend 1999).

2.6 Ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands Wetlands have historically been the victim of large draining efforts for real estate development, or flooding for use as recreational lakes. Since the 1 970s, more focus has been put on preserving wetlands for their natural function yet by 1993 half the world’s wetlands had been drained. Wetlands provide a valuable flood control function. Wetlands are very effective at filtering and cleaning water pollution, (oflen from agricultural runoff from the farms that replaced the wetlands in the first place). To replace these wetland ecosystem services enormous amounts of money had to be spent on water purification plants, along with the remediation measures for controlling floods: dam and levee construction. (Diaz & Rosenberg 2008).

15 Balancing wetland conservation with the needs of people

According to Moseman 2012, Wetlands are vital ecosystems that provide livelihoods for the millions of people who live in and around them. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) called for different sectors to join forces to secure wetland environments in the context of sustainable development and improving human wellbeing. A three-year project carried out by Wetlands International in partnership with the International Water Management Institute found that it is possible to conserve wetlands while improving the livelihoods of people living among them. Case studies conducted in Malawi and Zambia looked at how dambos wet, grassy valleys or depressions where water seeps to the surface can be fanned sustainably to improve livelihoods. Mismanaged or overused dambos often become degraded, however, using a knowledge exchange between local farmers and environmental managers, a protocol was developed using soil and water management practices.

Valuation The value of a wetland system to the earth and to humankind is one of the most important valuations that can be computed for sustainable development. A guideline involving assessing a wetland, keeping inventories of known wetlands, and monitoring the same wetlands over time is the current process that is used to educate environmental decision-makers such as governments on the importance of wetland protection and conservation (Mosernan et al 2011).

Inventory

Baggs & Richardson 2012, Developing a global inventory of wetlands has proven to be a large and difficult undertaking. Current efforts are based on available data, but both classification and spatial resolution have proven to be inadequate for regional or site-specific environmental management decision-making. It is difficult to identify small, long, and narrow wetlands within the landscape. Many of today’s remote sensing satellites do not have sufficient spatial and spectral resolution to monitor wetland conditions, although multispectral IKONOS and QuickBird data may offer improved spatial resolutions once it is 4 m or higher. Majority of the pixels are just mixtures of several plant species or vegetation types and are difficult to isolate which translates into an inability to classify the vegetation that defines the wetland. Improved remote sensing information, coupled with good knowledge domain on wetlands will facilitate expanded efforts in wetland monitoring and mapping. This will also be extremely important

16 because we expect to see major shifis in species composition due to both anthropogenic land use and natural changes in the environment caused by climate change.

Monitoring

A wetland system needs to be monitored over time to in order to assess whether it is functioning at an ecologically sustainable level or whether it is becoming degraded. Degraded wetlands will suffer a loss in water quality, a high number of threatened and endangered species, and poor soil conditions. Due to the large size of wetlands, mapping is an effective tool to monitor wetlands. There are many remote sensing methods that can be used to map wetlands. Remote-sensing technology permits the acquisition of timely digital data on a repetitive basis. This repeat coverage allows wetlands, as well as the adjacent land-cover and land-use types, to be monitored seasonally and/or annually. Using digital data provides a standardized data-collection procedure and an opportunity for data integration within a geographic information system. (Guntenspergen & Naugle 2005).

17 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction This chapter composed of the description of how the research was conducted. It includes the research design, study population, sampling design and size, data collection methods, data analysis, ethical considerations and limitations encountered/experienced in the study.

3.1 Research Design Qualitative and quantitative research design was used in the study to ensure proper collection of data from the respondents. A qualitative research was used by the researcher through asking broad questions and collects word data from participants. The researcher focused on the study themes and describes the information in themes and patterns exclusive to that set of participants. Quantitative research design was applied to reveal the numerical form of data such as statistics, percentages, etc. the researcher asked specific, narrow question and collected a sample of numerical data from participants (respondents).

3.2 Population of the Study The study comprised the staff members of NEMA officers (Government officials), Agriculturalists, Brick making, Fish makers and Business People within the area of Namungona Kampala district

The number of the population sample was determined by use of!

The Sloven’s formula was used to determine the minimum sample size

N=Sample population

A= Estimated total population

Estimated total population

1 + Estimated total population (e2)

18 N= 200

1+ 200 (0.052)

200

1+ 200 (0.0025)

200

1+ 0.5

200

1.5

N 133 (sample population)

Therefore 133 =0.665

200

Population category Estimated number Actual sample population

Farmers 90 x 0.665 60

Business people 40 x 0,665 27

Government officials 20 x 0.665 13

Brick makers 30 xO.665 20

Fish farmers 20 xO.665 13

Total 200 EST 133

Source: Primary data

19 During data collection the researcher collected data from Government officials, Farmers and Business people. These were categorized as follows; 60 Farmers, 27 Business people, 20 Brick makers, Fish famers and 13 Government officials from different organizations such as NEMA, UWA among others who are the stake holders of wetlands in the country.

3.3 Sampling techniques

3.3.1 Purposive sampling Purposive sampling was used in this study for the rationale of acquiring enough information for the study. The researcher purposively targeted respondents’ capabilities basing on their experience (knowledge he/she has about the research topic). Reason for Purposive sampling is, it provides a wide range of non-probability sampling techniques for the researcher to draw on. The researchers purposively selected Farmers, Business people, Brick makers, Fish farmers and Government officials, reason being that this category of respondents has the required information and they are aware about the effects of population influx and wetlands in Namungona Kampala.

3.3.2 Simple random sampling A simple random sampling technique was used especially on the targeted population. This is because of a large number of respondents. All respondents ready to give information were selected and screened with the rationale of preparing them for the sample especially those who had stayed and worked within the area of Narnungona Kampala district. In sampling technique, all respondents ready to give information required by the researcher were given equal chance of being selected to participate in the sample, the researcher asked questions to all the respondents randomly at a go so as to get their consent about the topic.

3.4 Sample Selection Size

The researcher considered 131 people as respondents and these were got from the farmers, business people and Government officials within the area of Namungona. These were categorized in the following manner; 90 Business people, 39 Farmers around Lubiji shores and 33 Government officials from different organization.

20 3.5 Sources of data

3.5.1 Primary data source This refers to raw facts which were collected or generated in a given research for the first time. This kind of data which was generated from the sample population by use of questionnaires in the field during data collection

3.5.2 Secondary data source This method involved sourcing from already processed information. Data was got by reviewing relevant text books, journals, news papers, records about Population influx on wetlands in the country.

3.6 Procedures and instruments

3.6.1 Questionnaire The researcher drafted both open and close ended questions basing on the number of respondents expected to participate in the sample, these were distributed to the respondents within the area of Namungona by the researcher so get their consent and opinions about the study.

3.6.2 Observations The researcher used this technique during data collection because it gives an opportunity to observe whatever taking place in the field physically; as a result, the researcher was in a better position to make critical judgments in coming up with detailed information about this issue.

3.6.3 Interviews

Oral interviews were used to collect information about the phenomenon. Interviews were administered especially to the top Government people and some Business people who tend to deserve no time of filling questionnaires, therefore, some of them were asked by the researcher through face to face interview method. This method was supported by question guide or interview guide. The purpose of this tool was to give more data of which respondents could yield qualitatively resulted from free expression.

21 3.7 Validity and reliability

3.7.1 Validity To ascertain validity of the questions and the interview schedule, the researcher consulted his supervisor from the University. The pilot exercise gave a basis for rectifying any mistakes in the questionnaires.

3.7.2 Reliability of instrument During the study questionnaires were tested to measure the reliability of instruments, Reliability refers to the degree of consistency between two measures of the same thing. Fraenkel & Wallen (2009) advanced that a measuring instrument is reliable if it provides consistent information after several tests.

3.8 Ethical Considerations The researcher got a transmittal letter from the University administration under research department and this helped in introducing the researcher to the place where the study was to be conducted. Questionnaires were anonymous and responses in the questionnaire were confidential. Informal consent was got from the respondents who participated in the research sampling process.

3.9 Data analysis Data gathered by use of questionnaire was edited and coded qualitatively. Data was analyzed by use of tables. In doing this, the researcher expected to use both SPSS and M-Excel analysis as data analysis packages to analyze data where the percentage and frequencies were included to present the data.

3.9.1 Tabulating Tables were used in showing percentages of how the questionnaires were answered. The researcher used tables in some sections of the study especially in chapter four to find out frequencies of certain responses for easier statistical analysis and summarization of data to be collected. Tables based on the variables which were identified as research guidelines.

22 3.10 Limitations of the study The research was of such a lengthy and hectic process and it therefore involved the following limitations:

i The time expected to make a comprehensive study was limited since the researcher had other commitments. ii Finances required to carry out the study as the costs involved were too high since it included a number of activities such as typing, printing, photocopying, distributing questionnaires among others, thus taking lot of money to complete the process iii It was not easy to get accurate records since the researcher was denied access in some information and there was too much pressure on text books required to gather data for the study. iv Most of the respondents were not willing to give out information for security reasons. That was due to the fear that the information may be used against them or exposed to public.

23 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS 4.0 Introduction.

This chapter deals with the data analysis and interpretation of the findings. The results have been grouped under major headings namely, background of respondents involving their age group, education background, responsibility, marital status among others and the objectives of the study which were considered as the guidelines of research during data collection.

4.1 Findings from responses about the background of respondents who participated in the sample. Table 1. showing the gender status, marital status, education back ground and age of respondents.

Gender status Frequency Percentage Male 53 40% Female 80 60% Total 133 100% Marital status Single 60 45% Married 40 30% Widow 13 10% Widower 20 15% Total 133 100% Education background Primary 30 23% Secondary 60 45% Diploma 20 15% Degree 13 10% Others specified 10 7% Total 133 100% Years (age) 20~29 40 30% 30-39 60 45% 40-49 20 15% 50+ 13 10% Total 133 100% Source: Field data

24 Gender distribution of respondents The information as presented in the table above shows that the researcher gathered data from 133 respondents of which 40% of respondents were male and 60% of respondents out of the total sample size were female, basing on percentage difference, findings shows that during data collection most of the participants were female by gender due to their large number when compared to males who participated in the sample during data collection in the field.

Marital status of respondents The information presented in the table above shows that the researcher collected data from respondents with different marital status of which, findings shows that out of the total sample size of the participants, 45% of respondents were single, 30% of respondents were married, 10% of respondents out of the total sample of those who participated in the sample were widow and 15% of them were widower by status. Due to percentage difference, research findings show that most of the respondents who participated in the sample were married since their percentage is bigger when compared to others.

Education background of respondents The information shows that the researcher collected data from respondents who possessed different education backgrounds, on this issue, findings shows that 23% of respondents out of the total sample had primary level qualifications, 45% of respondents with secondary level qualifications, 15% of respondents possessed diploma level qualifications, 10% of respondents had Bachelors degree qualifications and only 7% of respondents had other qualifications apart from those mentioned in the table above. Due to percentage difference and frequency size of the participants respondents, findings concludes that most of respondents who dominated the sample had secondary level qualifications followed by those primary level qualifications.

Years (age) of the participants Findings from responses about the age distribution of respondents shows that the researcher collected data from respondents of different age groups as shown in the table, therefore, findings shows that 40% of respondents who participated in the sample were in the age group ranging between 30-39 years, 30% of respondents who participated in the sample were in the age group

25 ranging between 20-29 years, 15% of respondents were in the age group ranging between 40-49 years and only 10% of respondents out of the total percentage of those who participated in the sample were in the age group of 50 years and above. Basing on the frequency and percentage difference, the information in table shows that most of the respondents who dominated the sample during data collection were in the age group of 30-39 years followed by those in the age ranging between 20-29 years, this shows that the organization has mature people who have knowledge and skills in whatever required from them by the researcher.

4.1.1 Categories of respondents who participated in the sample Table2: Shows the Categories of respondents who participated in the sample

Category of respondents Frequency Percentage

Farmers 60 45%

Business people 27 20%

Government officials 13 10%

Brick makers 20 15%

Fish farmers 13 10%

Total 133 100%

Source: Primary data

Findings from the responses about the categories of respondents who participated in the samples shows that, 45% of respondents were farmers within the area were the study was conducted, 20% of respondents were business people, 10% were got from government servants! officials, 15% from the brick makers and 10% of respondents out of the total sample who participated in the sample were fish farmers. Reason being that these categories of respondents got a chance of being selected because these are categories of people who had the required data about the relationship between population influx and wetlands within the area of Namungona, this explains the high rate of economic activities taking place in wetlands for example 45%of the respondents

26 were farmers, 20% were business people, 1 0% government officials, 15% brick makers and 10% fish farmers.

Brick laying in lubigi wetland.

Source Field data

Soil mixing for brick laying.

Source: Field Data

27 4.2 Findings from responses about the benefits of Wetlands in the country of Uganda

Table 3: Shows the benefits of Wetlands in the country of Uganda

Benefits of wetlands Frequency Percentage

Food provision 15 11%

Craft materials e.g papyrus for 10 8% mats, baskets, roofing materials among others

Cool weather 10 8%

Water purification 60 45%

Reservoirs of biodiversity 23 17%

Homes to many living 15 1 1% organisms like snakes

Total 133 100 Source: Primary data The information shows various responses on the benefits of wetlands in the country of which 22% of respondents indicated food provision as one of the benefits of wetlands in the country, these explained that Wetlands play a key role in the provision of food like yams ,vegetables like dodo, cabbages and pumpkin leaves and sugarcanes, habitats and nurseries for fisheries, 8% of respondents indicated the benefit of wetlands like craft materials like papyrus for mats and baskets, roofing materials.. On the same issue, 8% of respondents indicated cool weather around the wetland area as one of the benefits of wetlands in the country; these explained that Wetlands provide climate regulation, climate mitigation and adaptation, and carbon storage, 45% of respondents indicated that wetlands contributes to Water purification, these explained wetlands are sources of clean water which they use in domestic purposes for example cooking food, washing clothes among others ,Wetlands also cycle both sediments and nutrients balancing terrestrial and aquatic 28 ecosystems. A natural function of wetland vegetation is the up-take and storage of nutrients found in the surrounding soil and water. Hence contributing to water purification and 17% of respondents indicated that wetlands act as Reservoirs of biodiversity in the country Uganda, it was noted that a Hundred thousands of animal species, 20,000 of them vertebrates, are living in wetland systems. The discovery rate of fresh water fish is at 200 new species per year.(Moseman et al 2011).Also 11% of the respondents indicated that wetlands are homes of many living organisms. They identified majorly fish such as mud fish and other organisms like birds e.g, the crested crane, butterflies and snakes and other animals that lubigi wetlands harbor.

4.3 Findings from responses about the impact of population influx on the Lubigi wetlands ecosystem within Kampala

Table 4: Shows the Impact of population influx on wetlands ecosystem within Kampala Impacts of population influx Frequency Percentage

Settlement 40 30%

Industrialization 60 45%

Overfishing 20 15%

Construction 13 10%

Total 133 100%

Source: Primary data

The information shows that the researcher found out different impacts of population influx on the existence of wetland ecosystem in Kampala, 30% of respondents indicated the ever increasing settlements in Kampala as one of the factors which have contributed to wetland and ecosystem loss in the area this means increase in population due to migrations which has put much pressure on wetlands as people over cultivate to get what to eat, clear bushes around to build houses which has led to shortage of food, drought and hot weather ,45% of respondents indicated industrialization as one of the key factors affecting the existence of ecosystems in Kampala like

29 pollution of water as the wastes are disposed off in the wetland this affects ground water contaminating it from their small industries where they have preservatives for cassava flour because these are the cormnon industries there which makes water unsuitable for use and even leads to death of organisms in the water like fish which is used as food, 15% of respondents indicated overfishing on different ecosystems such as lakes and rivers around Kampala that it has caused loss of aquatic biodiversity in lakes such as Victoria and Lubigi due to poor and over fishing done by some people ,fish is no longer there and if is there its few. This explained the agglomeration of different small scale industries around the wetland area as was observed around the areas of for example Kasubi, Namungoona among others. Then 10% of the respondents indicated that construction which is ever conducted in Kampala and the surrounding areas as one of the factors which have caused a loss of biodiversity in Kampala Uganda because the debris wastes from constructions are poured into the wetland leading to death of important organisms like fish which is used as food and other organisms which can be used for study purposes

4.4 Findings from responses about the Ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands in the country

Table 5: Shows the Ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands in the country Solutions Frequency Percentage

Balancing wetland conservation with the needs of people 40 30%

Monitoring 60 45%

Putting tight restrictions 20 15%

Evaluation 13 10%

Total 133 100%

Source: Primary data

During data collection the researcher foimd out that wetlands in Kampala are seriously affected and they are reducing in size and number, therefore, the respondents came up with various possible solutions which should be put across so as to maintain and conserve wetlands within the area of Kampala Uganda of which 30% of respondents indicated that there should be a Balancing 30 of wetland conservation with the needs of people, these explained that Wetlands are vital ecosystems that provide livelihoods for the millions of people who live in and around them, therefore, they should be encouraged to maintain and conserve wetlands especially within the area of Narnungoona, this helps people around areas of Namungoona to know how to deal with wetlands like not over fishing, dumping wastes into wetlands which are toxic among others and it will also help them to prevent famine because they have what to eat over time.

45% mentioned that the government through its ministry of environment should monitor these wetlands within the area of Namungoona, these explained that wetland system needs to be monitored over time to in order to assess whether it is functioning at an ecologically sustainable level or whether it is becoming degraded, this helps to keep wetlands over productive and people get what to eat and also keep important organisms among other importances to us and the environment.

On the same issue, the researcher mentioned that 15% of respondents indicated that the government through National Enviromrient Management Authority should put tight restrictions and regulations which could help in preventing people from destructing wetlands within the area of Kampala and the country in general, like the polluter pays principle any one got polluting the wetland like dumping harmful wastes is charged to treat that water.

10% of respondents indicated that Valuation of wetlands in Kampala should be considered, The value of a wetland system to the earth and to humankind is one of the most important valuations that can be computed for sustainable development. Yes this is true because wetlands have a lot of benefits like providing food as they have fish, growing crops as they have fertile soils among others.

31 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction This chapter gives a summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations of the study about the effects of population influx on wetlands basing on the case study of Lubigi wetland Namugoona Kampala District.

In addition to this, this chapter covers conclusions made from this research basing on the research objectives, research questions and analysis of findings. It also suggests recommendations for effective maintenance and conservation of wetlands in Uganda.

5.1 Discussion This study was about effects of population influx on wetlands basing on the case study of Lubigi wetland Namugoona Kampala District, The thrust of the discussion based on the specific objectives of the study; to examine peoples’ perceptions and attitudes towards wetland conservation, procedures which have been put in place to maintain wetlands in the area of Narnungona, challenges faced in the conservation of wetlands in Namugoona, the researcher consulted respondents about the effects of population influx on wetlands within the area of Namugoona Kampala district and Finally, the researcher pointed out key areas for policy recommendations and further research.

5.2 Summary of major findings This study examined relationship between population influx and wetland conservation within the area of Narnugoona Kampala district.

It is important to note that the study was transformed into specific objectives as they appear in sub section chapter one of the study, through the analysis of the literature in the study, the findings revealed the effect of population influx on wetland conservation within the area of Namugoona, therefore, as a case of the effects of population influx on wetland conservation, people within the area of Namugoona Kampala are advised to apply effective conservation measures so as to maintain wetland ecosystem within the area of Namugoona and the whole country in general.

32 Findings from responses about the benefits of Wetlands in the country of Uganda shows that 22% of respondents indicated food security as one of the benefits of wetlands in the country, these explained that Wetlands play a key role in the provision of food, and habitats and nurseries for fisheries, 8% of respondents indicated the benefit of tourism and recreation in the country by creating new jobs and allowing local inhabitants stay employed such as tour guides, drivers among others in the town rather than migrate to cities to look for work. On the same issue, 8% of respondents indicated conducive climatic change as one of the benefits of wetlands in the country; these explained that Wetlands provide climate regulation, climate mitigation and adaptation, and carbon storage, 45% of respondents indicated that wetlands contributes to Water purification, these explained that Wetlands cycle both sediments and nutrients balancing terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. A natural function of wetland vegetation is the up-take and storage of nutrients found in the surrounding soil and water. Hence contributing to water purification and 17% of respondents indicated that wetlands act as Reservoirs of biodiversity in the country Uganda, it was noted that a Hundred thousands of animal species, 20,000 of them vertebrates, are living in wetland systems. The discovery rate of fresh water fish is at 200 new species per year. Findings from responses about the Impact of population influx on wetlands ecosystem within Kampala shows that 30% of respondents indicated the ever increasing settlements in Kampala as one of the factors which have contributed to wetland and ecosystem loss in the area, 45% of respondents indicated industrialization as one of the key factors affecting the existence of ecosystems in Kampala, 15% of respondents indicated overfishing on different ecosystems such as lakes and rivers around Kampala that it has caused to loss aquatic biodiversity in lakes such as Victoria and Lubiji due to poor and over fishing done by some people. Findings from responses about the Ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands in the country shows that 30% of respondents indicated that there should be a Balancing of wetland conservation with the needs of people, these explained that Wetlands are vital ecosystems that provide livelihoods for the millions of people who live in and around them, therefore, they should be encouraged to maintain and conserve wetlands especially within the area of Namugoona. 45% mentioned that the government through its ministry of environment should monitor these wetlands within the area of Namugoona, these explained that wetland system

33 needs to be monitored over time to in order to assess whether it is functioning at an ecologically sustainable level or whether it is becoming degraded. On the same issue, the researcher mentioned that 15% of respondents indicated that the government through National Environment Management Authority should put tight restrictions and regulations which could help in preventing people from destructing wetlands within the area of Kampala and the country in general, 10% of respondents indicated that Valuation of wetlands in Kampala should be considered, The value of a wetland system to the earth and to humankind is one of the most important valuations that can be computed for sustainable development.

5.3 Conclusion Wetland conservation is aimed at protecting and preserving areas where water exists at or near the Earth?s surface, such as swamps, marshes and bogs. Wetlands cover at least six per cent of the Earth and have become a focal issue for conservation due to the ecosystem services they provide. More than three billion people, around half the world’s population, obtain their basic water needs from inland freshwater wetlands. According to Roulet 2000, Wetland loss and degradation occur worldwide, sometimes at extremely high rates. In the conterminous US, 53% of wetlands were lost between the 17 80s and 1980s, with Ohio and California losing 90% and 91% respectively. Estimated wetland loss in different parts of Canada ranges between 65% and 80%. In parts of Europe, Australia and New Zealand more than 50% of specific types of wetlands were destroyed during the twentieth century.

Processes of wetland loss and degradation undermine the capacity of wetlands to provide valuable ecosystem services to humanity. These include water supply, flood control, carbon storage, and maintenance of biodiversity, retention of sediment and nutrients, and recreation. Such services have both global significance and local value, and there is broad support for their conservation value, e.g. In land change studies, a distinction is often made between proximate causes and underlying driving forces, e.g. proximate causes are human activities or immediate actions at the local level that originate from intended land use and directly impact land cover. Underlying driving forces are fundamental societal processes, such as human population dynamics or agricultural policies that drive the proximate causes, either operating at the local level, or indirectly from a higher level. (Moseman et al 2011).

34 Wetlands play an integral role in the hydrologic cycle, and provide important ecosystem services that may include flood storage, water quality amelioration and enhancement, carbon storage, wildlife habitat, and buffers during periods of high water (NRC 1995). Economic benefits of wetlands include timber production, peat extraction, and recreation. Although littoral zones and wetlands make up only 12% of the surface area of the Great Lakes, these zones are “hot spots” of primary and secondary production because of watershed inputs of nutrients and sediments (Brazner et al 2000). Coastal wetlands such as those in Saginaw Bay, and large estuaries such as Green Bay, Sturgeon Bay, and the St. Louis River Estuary support rich communities and unique plants, birds, and fish (Jude 1992 , Pappas 1992, Brazner 1997). Bogs and fens cover extensive areas in the northern Great Lakes region and contain a wide variety of acid-loving plants — the pitcher plant being among the most familiar.

Wetlands act as the biological “kidneys” of the landscape by filtering out any water that would otherwise directly run into a water system (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000). The loss of wetlands can cause the change in water chemistry of major water systems that those wetlands would otherwise filter out. With increasing transmissions from cars, fertilizer and pesticide use, and animal grazing there are increasing number of pollutants entering our waterways. These pollutants are changing the natural balance of nutrients in our lotic systems and having long-term consequences on the function and community composition of those systems (Ribaudo et al 2001).

5.4 Recommendations The study thus recommends the following policy issues. For the Government in fostering effective wetland conservation in the country of Uganda, there is a need to appreciate the socio economic conditions, knowledge, attitudes, perceptions and cultural beliefs and practices of the community (clients) and a critical consideration of the above issues raised will enable the government of Uganda to tailor the measures for wetland conservation so as to improve and boost the conservation of wetlands within the country.

There should be a Balancing of wetland conservation with the needs of people, these explained that Wetlands are vital ecosystems that provide livelihoods for the millions of people who live in

35 and around them, therefore, they should be encouraged to maintain and conserve wetlands especially within the area of Namugoona.

The government through its ministry of environment should put much emphasis in monitoring these wetlands within the area of Namugoona, these explained that wetland system needs to be monitored over time to in order to assess whether it is functioning at an ecologically sustainable level or whether it is becoming degraded.

The government through the organization of National Enviromnent Management Authority should put tight restrictions and regulations which could help in preventing people from destructing wetlands in the area of Kampala and the country in general.

Valuation of wetlands in Kampala should be considered, the value of a wetland system to the earth and to humankind is one of the most important valuations that can be computed for sustainable development of wetlands within the country.

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37 C. Prigent, F. Papa, F. Aires, C. Jimenez, W. B. Rossow, E. Matthews. Changes in land surface water dynamics since the 1 990s and relation to population pressure. Geophysical Research Letters, 2012; 39 (8) DOT

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38 APPENDICES APPENDIX I: RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRES FOR RESPONDENTS DURING DATA COLLECTION Dear Respondent!

I am Nasra Mohammed, a student at Kampala International University, pursuing a pursuing a Bachelors in environmental science and currently carrying out a research on the topic, “the impact of population influx on wetlands in the country basing on the case study of Lubigi wetland Namungona Kampala district”

It is purely an academic research being undertaken and therefore, your responses will be treated with utmost confidentiality for only purpose of this study. It is my humble request to you, therefore, to spare part of your valuable time and answer the following questions. I appreciate your cooperation.

Please tick where appropriate SECTION A 1. Age distribution Below 20 yrs 20-29 30-3 9 40-49 50-59 60+

2. Do you have knowledge about wetlands? Yes No

3. If yes what do you know about wetlands? They provide food I I They provide water I______Habitats for animals 1 Reduces floods as they receive water when it rains Its where majority of people make bricks I______

39 Any other.

4. Are you a resident of this place?

Yes _____ No ____I If yes, how long have you lived here?

If no, where do you come from?

SECTION B

1st Objective “To investigate the benefits of Wetlands in the country

1. What do you think are the benefits of wetlands in Kampala? i. Habour wild animals I______

ii. Modifies climate ______

iii. Source of water iv Source of food (fish) I I v. Employment opportunity I I vi. Source of medicinal plants I vii. Materials for crafts ______I

Any other

40 2. How do you use wetlands in your area?

2~~d Objective “To assess the Impact of population influx on wetlands within the country”

3. Is there an increase in population within your area?

Yes ___ No ___

Has the increased population increased the activities in the wetland? Yes ____I

No ____

What are the increased activities in this wetland? Brick making ______I

Fishing ______

Growing crops ______

Any other

Have these activities had any changes on the wetland ecosystem? Yes _____I

No ____

What are these changes?

How have these changes affected the ecosystem?

41 How have these changes also affected people around the area?

3rd Objectives. “To identify the Effects of Wetland Loss in the country”

1. What has the government of Uganda has done to improve in the conservation of wetlands?

2. How effective have the government measures been in conserving wetlands?

3. How can the measures given by the Government be improved in conserving wetlands?

4th Objective: “To establish the Ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands in the country”

4. What possible solutions could you give to improve wetlands conservation in Kampala especially Lubiji wetland Namungona Area?

5. Do you think formulation the application of policies and restrictions against wetland destruction can help in the conservation of wetlands in Kampala?

Yes _____ No I

Give reasons for your answer?

42 APPENDIX II INTERVIEW GUIDE

1. What are some of the wetland benefits in this area?

2. What are the impacts of population influx on the wetlands in this area?

3. What are some of the ways of maintaining and conserving wetlands in the country?

4. In your view what should be put across to improve wetland benefits and not degrading them?

43