Regional Geochemical Mapping of The

Home , Chondrites (genus), Heteraster, Laurentian Upland, Mojado Formation, Ophiomorpha, Planolites

University of Texas at El Paso DigitalCommons@UTEP

Open Access Theses & Dissertations

2016-01-01 Regional Geochemical Mapping Of The upS erior Upland Province; Ichnology Of The rC etaceous Mesilla Valley Formation, Cerro De Cristo Rey; A New Ichnospecies Of Cardioichnus From The Cretaceous (albian) Of New Mexico; A Pedagogy For The eC rro De Cristo Rey Tracksite; Walking In The oF otprints Of Dino Eric J. Kappus University of Texas at El Paso, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.utep.edu/open_etd Part of the Geochemistry Commons, Geology Commons, and the Paleontology Commons

Recommended Citation Kappus, Eric J., "Regional Geochemical Mapping Of The uS perior Upland Province; Ichnology Of The rC etaceous Mesilla Valley Formation, Cerro De Cristo Rey; A New Ichnospecies Of Cardioichnus From The rC etaceous (albian) Of New Mexico; A Pedagogy For The eC rro De Cristo Rey Tracksite; Walking In The ootF prints Of Dino" (2016). Open Access Theses & Dissertations. 673. https://digitalcommons.utep.edu/open_etd/673

This is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@UTEP. It has been accepted for inclusion in Open Access Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UTEP. For more information, please contact [email protected]. REGIONAL GEOCHEMICAL MAPPING OF THE SUPERIOR UPLAND PROVINCE; ICHNOLOGY OF THE CRETACEOUS MESILLA VALLEY FORMATION, CERRO DE CRISTO REY; A NEW ICHNOSPECIES OF CARDIOICHNUS FROM THE CRETACEOUS (ALBIAN) OF NEW MEXICO; A PEDAGOGY FOR THE CERRO DE CRISTO REY TRACKSITE; WALKING IN THE FOOTPRINTS OF DINOSAURS: TEACHING SENSE OF PLACE IN EL PASO, TX

ERIC KAPPUS Doctoral Program in the Department of Geological Sciences

APPROVED:

Philip Goodell, Ph.D., Chair

Richard Langford, Ph.D.

Tom Gill, Ph.D.

Lixin Jin, Ph.D.

Aaron Velasco, Ph.D.

Tina Carrick, Ph.D.

Spencer Lucas, Ph.D.

Charles Ambler, Ph.D. Dean of the Graduate School

by Eric Kappus 2016

Dedication

This work is dedicated to my first geology professor, Fred Trexler, PhD, and to my tracking teacher, Tom Brown Jr. You both inspired me to learn about the Earth and to teach others about it. You both showed me how to uncover secrets about my surroundings, and to look beneath the surface of things. You both modeled a sense of appreciation and awe, grounded in awareness. I will honor your legacy and continue to help people fall in love with their home, our beautiful planet. REGIONAL GEOCHEMICAL MAPPING OF THE SUPERIOR UPLAND PROVINCE; ICHNOLOGY OF THE CRETACEOUS MESILLA VALLEY FORMATION, CERRO DE CRISTO REY; A NEW ICHNOSPECIES OF CARDIOICHNUS FROM THE CRETACEOUS (ALBIAN) OF NEW MEXICO; A PEDAGOGY FOR THE CERRO DE CRISTO REY TRACKSITE; WALKING IN THE FOOTPRINTS OF DINOSAURS: TEACHING SENSE OF PLACE IN EL PASO, TX

ERIC KAPPUS, MS

DISSERTATION

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at El Paso in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

The Department of Geological Sciences THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT EL PASO August 2016 Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor Philip Goodell. Thank you for teaching me how to spin plates. I would also like to thank my committee members for their contributions. Special thanks to Spencer Lucas! To my mentor-teachers Doris Nielsen (“Mabel”) and Rev. Lee Bondurant, thank you for facilitating my growth as a scientist and teacher. Richard Romero and Mercy Guzman, retired EPISD science facilitators, thank you for all your help, ideas, and support and thank you for welcoming me into the district with open arms. I would also like to thank Hunt and Marilyn Burdick, Gloria Villaverde, Robert Ardovino, and my brother Jeremy for being there for me when I really needed help.

v Abstract

This is a multi-disciplinary study that covers a variety of geoscience topics on both international borders of the continental United States. This dissertation is the product of several separate investigations. First is a report on the landscape geochemistry of the Superior Upland Province of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, with regional maps of 37 chemical elements interpreted in terms of bedrock, glacial reworking, and anthropogenic influence. The next 2 sections are reports on the invertebrate ichnology of the Cretaceous Mesilla Valley Formation at

Cerro de Cristo Rey, including the proposal of a new ichnospecies of echinoid resting trace, Cardioichnus biloba nov. isp.. These are the first reports on the invertebrate ichnology of the Cretaceous of the El Paso/Juarez region. The next section presents a pedagogy for the Cerro de Cristo Rey Dinosaur Tracksite, including hiking trails the author designed and constructed, a trail map, and two sets of educational content including self-guided tours and virtual visits. The next section is a report documenting place-based education at the Cerro de Cristo Rey tracksite, and presents strategies for teaching Hispanics about natural history and instilling a sense of place and stewardship. The final chapter is a presentation of two lessons in rock texture discrimination that were developed by the author for undergraduate geology students at the University of Texas at El Paso.

vi Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ...... v

Abstract ...... vi

Table of Contents ...... vii

List of Tables ...... x

List of Figures ...... xi

Chapter 1: Regional Geochemistry of the Superior Upland Province ...... 1 Abstract ...... 1 1. Introduction ...... 1 2. Statement of the Problem ...... 2 3. Study Area ...... 3 4. Dataset...... 5 5. Methodology ...... 7 6. Results and Interpretation ...... 15 7. Discussion ...... 23 8. Future Work ...... 31

Chapter 2: Invertebrate Ichnology of the Cretaceous (Albian) Mesilla Valley Formation ...... 32 Abstract ...... 32 1. Introduction ...... 32 2. Provenance ...... 34 3. Systematic Ichnology ...... 37 4. Discussion ...... 84 4.1. Ichnofabric Analysis ...... 84 4.2 Proximal Cruziana Ichnofacies ...... 88 Importance of Tempestites ...... 89 Importance of Benthic Dysoxia ...... 91 5. Future Work ...... 92

Chapter 3: A New Ichnospecies of Cardioichnus from the Cretaceous of Southern NM ...... 93 Abstract ...... 93

vii 1. Introduction ...... 93 2. Location and Geologic Setting ...... 93 3. Systematic Ichnology ...... 94 4. Interpretation ...... 96 Conclusions ...... 96

Chapter 4: A Pedagogy for the Cerro de Cristo Rey Dinosaur Tracksite: Hiking Trails, Self- Guided Tours, and Virtual Visits ...... 98 Abstract ...... 98 1. Introduction ...... 98 2. Background ...... 100 2.1 Research ...... 101 2.2 Education ...... 101 3. Pedagogical background ...... 102 3.1 Informal Science Education and Geoantitquities ...... 102 3.2 A Sense of Place: Cerro de Cristo Rey ...... 104 4. Technology and Visualization in Informal Science Education ...... 106 4.1 Hiking Trails ...... 106 4.2 Self-guided Tours...... 107 4.3 Virtual Visits ...... 108 5. Promoting the Cerro de Cristo Rey Dinosaur Trails ...... 109 5.1 Guided Tours ...... 110 5.2 Community Presentations ...... 110 5.3 Teacher Workshops ...... 110 6. Future Work ...... 110

Chapter 5: Walking in the Footprints of Dinosaurs: Teaching Sense of Place in El Paso, TX ...113 Abstract ...... 113 1. Introduction ...... 114 1.1 What is Sense of Place? ...... 114 1.2 What Does an Outdoor Educator Do? ...... 114 2. Background ...... 115 3. Methods...... 117 4. Conclusions ...... 120

viii 5. Future Work ...... 121

Chapter 6: Co-operative, Inquiry-based, Hands-on Lessons in Rock Texture Discrimination for Upper Level Undergraduate Geology Classes, UTEP ...... 122 1. Introduction ...... 122 2. Background ...... 125 3. Pedagogical Background ...... 126 4. Lessons ...... 127

References ...... 128 Chapter 1 ...... 128 Chapter 2 ...... 133 Chapter 3 ...... 146 Chapter 4 ...... 148 Chapter 5 ...... 150 Chapter 6 ...... 151

Appendices ...... 153 Appendix 1 ...... 153 Appendix 2 ...... 153 Appendix 3 ...... 153 Appendix 4 ...... 153 Appendix 5 ...... 153 Appendix 6 ...... 153 Appendix 7 ...... 153 Appendix 8 Bubbles Exercise ...... 154 Appendix 9 Breccias Exercise ...... 163

Curriculum Vita………………… ...... 169

ix List of Tables

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the cleaned NGS data for the SUP…………………………....33 Table 2. Geologic Units of the Superior Upland Province and their geochemical associations...37 Table 3. Geochemical Associations of Selected Laurentide Glacial Landforms………………..39 Table 4. Outliers tentatively correlated with Anthropogenic activity……………………………42

x List of Figures

Chapter 1 ...... 15 Figure 1. Location map of the Superior Upland Province, north-central USA...... 18 Figure 2. General Geology of the Superior Upland Province...... 19 Figure 3. General map of the SUP showing locations of sample points for the NGS...... 23 Figure 4. Tukey boxplots, histograms, and Q-Q plots for Cerium and Phosphorus ...... 25 Figure 5. Single element maps for Fe and Cu, two elements mined in the region ...... 28 Figure 6. Single element map for Vanadium, showing boundaries of geologic units for correlation...... 30 Figure 7. Single element map for Pb compared with city size by population...... 35 Figure 8. Screen shot from TOXMAP showing the locations of TRI facilities and Superfund NPL sites ...... 36 Figure 9. Outliers of Co and Li plotted on their respective single element maps ...... 38 Figure 10. Single element map of Ti compared with galcial lobes ...... 41 Figure 11. Comparative boxplots of Ca and Fe in the geologic units of the SUP ...... 32 Figure 12. Boxpolot for Be, Histogram for Sc, and Q-Q plot for Eu showing some problems with the data...... 45

Chapter 2 ...... 47 Figure 1. Location map and General Stratigraphy of the Mesilla Valley Fm.hsowing generalized straigraphic position of NMMMNH localities 10167-10170 ...... 50 Figure 2. View of the Mesilla Valley Fm from Scott et al.(2013) ...... 51 Figure 3. Epichnial view of Anchorichnus reworking Planolites with Chondrites ...... 54 Figure 4. Field photos showing Arenicolites and Ophiomorpha ...... 56 Figure 5. Hypichnial views of Bergaueria ...... 58 Figure 6. Epichnial view of Cardioichnus biloba nov. isp...... 59 Figure 7. Field photo of Cardioichnus foradadensis...... 61 Figure 8. Photos of Chondrites intricatus ...... 63 Figure 9. Photos of Cochlichnus anguineus with Protovirgularia ...... 65 Figure 10. Photo of Heloicodromites...... 67 Figure 11. Photos of Kinneyia...... 69 Figure 12. Photos of Lockeia...... 71 Figure 13. Photos of Ophiomorpha nodosa...... 73

xi Figure 14. Photo showing Spongeliomorpha, Palaeophycus tubularis, P. heberti, and P. striatus, and Taenidium ...... 75 Figure 15. Photos of Palaeophycus striatus...... 77 Figure 16. Photos of Planolites, with Chondrites and Taenidium ...... 80 Figure 17.Photos of Skolithos, Arenicolites, Protovirgularia, and Cochlichnus ...... 82 Figure 18. Photos of Spongeliomorpha oraviense...... 86 Figure 19. Photos of Spongeliomorpha sublumbricoides...... 87 Figure 20. Photos of Taenidium, with Palaeophycus tubularis ...... 90 Figure 21. Photos of Thalassinoides ...... 92 Figure 22. Photos of Thalassinoides paradoxicus ...... 94 Figure 23. Photos of Protovirgularia...... 96 Figure 24. Photo of a chimney structure, with Chondrites and Palaeophycus tubularis .....99

Chapter 3 ...... 108 Figure 1. Overview and close-ups of holotype and paratypes of Cardioichnus biloba .....110 Figure 2. Comparison of C. biloba with the other named ichnospecies of Cardioichnus ..111

Chapter 4 ...... 112 Figure 1. Location map of Cerro de Cristo Rey, New Mexico, USA and Chihuahua, Mexico ...... 114 Figure 2. Trail Map for the Cerro de Cristo Rey Tracksites ...... 115 Figure 3. Trail Content Example from Stop 20, alongside its corresponding QR code .....119 Figure 4. Photo of Stop 1, showing sign post and trail ...... 123 Figure 5. Screenshot from Google Earth® showing trail stops ...... 124

Chapter 5 ...... 128 Figure 1. Location map of Cerro de Cristo Rey...... 131 Figure 2. Photo of Creosote bush, Larrea tridentata, with students on a field trip for El Paso Community college ...... 133

Chapter 6 ...... 122 Figure 1. Location map ...... 123 Figure 2. Photo comparison of spherulitic rhyolite and bauxite ...... 125

xii Chapter 1: Regional Geochemical Mapping of the Superior Upland Province, Midwstern USA

1. Introduction Regional Geochemical Mapping (RGM) is the study of the chemistry of the terrestrial surface of the Earth. Elements are not evenly distributed across the landscape, and a variety of processes affect these elements in different ways. Some objectives of RGM are: (1) Elucidation of fundamental earth systems processes, (2) Exploration for new mineral resource using geochemical anomalies, (3) Determination of geochemical background values, and (4) Identification of natural or man made chemical contamination (Zumlot et al., 2008; Reid, 1993). RGM started in the United States with mineral prospecting (Hawkes and Webb, 1962; Rose et al., 1979), and began in Europe in the USSR (Vinagradov, 1959; Fortescue, 1992). Mineral and energy industry surveys of the western and eastern regions of the United States (USGS, 1974; Rose et al., 1979) eventually gave way to soil surveys focusing on agricultural regions and geochemical background (ie Boerngen and Shacklette, 1981; Shacklette and

Boerngen, 1984; Fortescue, 1992; and Gustavsson et al., 2001). Rock, sediment and groundwater studies of the National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) program began with emphasis on the energy industry (Arendt et al., 1979) and these data eventually became the responsibility of the National Geochemical Survey (NGS) of the USGS (2004) and are currently housed in

Denver, CO. Currently the NGS contains over 500,000 surface samples from over 250,000 sites. These data have sourced several studies, including the regions of NM (Zumlot et al., 2008), Georgia

(Cocker, 1999), North Carolina (Reid, 1993), northern California (Goldhaber et al., 2009), and New England (Robinson et al., 2004), and are a part of the greater Global Geochemical Baselines Programme (Darnley et al., 1995; IUGS, 2007). This effort was formally supported by the IUGS/UNESCO International Geological Correlation Programme (IGCP) in 1988, with over 120 countries participating to date (IUGS, 2007). Plant et al. (2001) have an excellent summary of 1 global efforts toward the study of surface geochemistry and some of the creative uses of the data, such as epidemiological (aetiological) investigations into the geochemistry of disease (; Shacklette et al., 1970; Underwood, 1979; Mills, 1996; Plant et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2003). Smith et al. (2013b) also have a summary of low density geochemical mapping and interpretation. Stream sediment and soil data from the US National Geochemical Survey (USGS, 2004) have been used in this study.

2. Statement of the Problem A detailed regional geochemical analysis begins with the dataset. Kürzl (1988) introduced Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) and his methods are followed here. Several geochemical trends and patterns can be seen in Tukey boxplots, univariant histograms, and cumulative probability plots, which are used to identify normal and anomalous behavior, outliers, and to separate populations in the dataset (Reimann et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2008). Questions addressed in this study are as follows: Are the data normally or log-normally distributed? What are the outlier values for the data? How can these outliers be identified? What geochemical associations are there between the data and bedrock geology, and Quaternary sediments? GIS provides tools for spatial analysis which are critical for RGM, leading to a better understanding of the surface geochemistry of the Superior Upland Province (SUP).

For several reasons it was difficult to contain investigative interest to within the geographic limits of the SUP. First, the region can only be understood in terms of its surrounding geochemical landscape, and next, geochemically similar anomalies diverted attention to regions adjacent to the SUP for comparison. One example is anomalies representing glacial sediments in the region, which are revealed in geochemical maps inside and outside the SUP. This study utilized many images, figures, and tables; the present paper only present highlights a few of these. For a complete set of figures and tables, the reader is referred to the website: http://www.geo.utep.edu/pub/SUP. 2 3. Study Area 3.1 Physiography and General Geology The Superior Upland Province (SUP) is a small physiographic province located in the midwestern United States around Lake Superior (Figure 1; Fenneman and Johnson, 1946). This province is 131,270 km2 and is located in the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and upper peninsular Michigan.

Figure 1. Location map of the Superior Upland Province (#1), north-central USA.

The SUP is characterized by low relief (~150m total), forests, and many lakes.

Geologically, the SUP is the southern extension of the Laurentian Upland Province of the Canadian shield (USGS, 2004; Cannon et al., 1999), and the largest exposure of Precambrian rocks in the United States. Figure 2 is a geologic map showing the Archean and Proterozoic rocks of the Canadian shield and mid-continent rift (respectively) in the SUP. This map was used for comparison with geochemical maps produced in this study. Importantly, this region has 3 distinct lithogeochemistry from the surrounding landscape, which is underlain primarily by Paleozoic carbonates (Figure 2).

Figure 2. General Geology of the Superior Upland Province. An- Archean greenstones and gneisses; Ag- Archean granites; X- early-Proterozoic quartzite/slate; Xv – early-Proterozoic volcanics; Xg- early-Proterozoic granite; Y- mid-Proterozoic red beds and mafic clastics; Yv – mid-Proterozoic volcanics; Yg- mid-Proterozoic granite; Ym- mid-Proterozoic mafics; and lPz – Paleozoic carbonates

3.2 Glacial geology and Hydrology The SUP was covered at one time or another by continental ice sheets during Pleistocene glaciation (Grimley, 2000), and the province is overlain in most places by a sequence of moraines, tills, and outwash deposits from multiple glacial episodes (Syverson et al, 2011; Woodruff et al., 2004). Several of these individual moraine and glacial outwash units have been

4 previously correlated geochemically with stream sediments (Cannon et al., 2004; Woodruff et al., 2002). This trend was not seen in soils by Gustavsson et al. (2001) or Darnley et al. (1995), probably because of lower sampling density. Hydrologically the SUP drains into Lake Superior in the north, and the Mississippi river in the south. Annual rainfall for the province is average, and generally increases from NW to SE, with about 63cm/yr in the NW and 89cm/yr in the SE portion. The northern Minnesota region of the SUP is characterized by many lakes and ponds.

3.3 Land Use This physiographic province was also chosen for this study because of its small size and long history of mining and land use. Abandoned and current metalliferous mine workings and naturally occurring sulfide-bearing rock units are a concern for land management agencies in the US (Plant et al., 2001). The SUP contains several large mining provinces (Cannon et al., 1997; Sims, 1976), including the banded iron deposits of Minnesota and Wisconsin, and the Keewenawan copper deposits from the Wisconsin-Michigan border into the upper peninsula of Michigan. The Duluth complex of NE Minnesota is also a significant mineral resource for Cu,

Ni, and platinum group metals (USGS, 1997; Klaus and Cannon, 1998; Schmidt, 1978). The southwest area of the SUP (in Minnesota) also contains an agricultural region and much of the study area is used for outdoor recreation.

4. Dataset 4.1 The evolution of the National Geochemical Survey Data used in this study originated from several geochemical surveys, including the HSSR program of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), the National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) program of the US Department of Energy (DOE), and the National Geochemical survey of the US Geological Survey (USGS, 2004). Also, other smaller geochemical surveys of bedrock, stream sediments, soils and lake sediments were undertaken in the SUP (Woodruff et al., 2002; Cannon et al., 2004). Cannon et al. (2004) attempted to empirically predict soil 5 compositions from stream sediment data for a portion of the SUP, and compared their results with actual soil samples. Following is a short history of the data used in this study, and the reader is referred to Smith (2006), Hoffman & Buttleman (1994), and Bolivar (1980) for more details. The National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) program was originally established in 1973 by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (now the U.S. Department of Energy), to identify and assess uranium resources throughout the United States (Arendt et al., 1979). For a detailed summary of the NURE protocols, see Arendt et al. (1979). The NURE program had five parts: 1. Hydrogeochemical and Stream Sediment Reconnaissance (HSSR), 2. Aerial Radiometric and Magnetic Survey, 3. Surface Geologic Investigations, 4. Drilling for Geological Information, and 5. Geophysical Technology development. Many of the reanalyzed samples used in the present study were originally collected and analyzed by Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant (ORGDP) beginning in 1973 (Arendt et al., 1979). By 1981, most of the SUP was sampled and analyzed at the ORGDP (Mitchell, 1981), and this is about the time NURE funding ran out. Original NURE sampling was only performed in geologically favorable areas for uranium. Like many other physiographic provinces of the USA, the SUP region was sampled in separate stages, with the northern Minnesota and Wisconsin portions finally completed by 2007 using different protocols and mixed sampling media (USGS, 2004). NURE stream sediment data have been formatted, reanalyzed and presented as maps by Grossman (National Geochemical Atlas, 1998) and as raw data (Hoffman and Buttleman, 1994;

Smith, 1997; USGS, 2004). Samples were analyzed for 40 elements using the ICP-MS method mostly at XRAL Laboratories in Canada (Zhang et al., 2005; Briggs, 1993). All these data are currently housed by the USGS in the National Geochemical Survey (NGS) database (USGS,

2004). Average sample density is 1/289km2 for NURE data and 1/100km2 for areas sampled for the NGS afterward (USGS, 2004; Zhang et al., 2005). The USGS recently finished sampling soils of the conterminous US for the North American Geochemical Landscapes project in conjunction with Canada and Mexico (IUGS,

6 2007), and these data will be the most complete coverage for soils North America (Smith et al., 2013a). For an evaluation of national scale geochemical datasets, see Smith et al. (2013b).

4.2 Data covering the Superior Upland Province 1143 samples were extracted from the National Geochemical Survey database for a detailed study of the SUP. Several areas of the SUP have significantly greater sampling densities, and these are part of previous, more detailed studies. They are Voyageurs N.P. (Woodruff et al.,

2003) and Chequamegon National Forest (Woodruff et al., 2000). Cannon and Woodruff (2003) also interpreted the surface geochemistry of a portion of the SUP. It is important to note here that the geochemical data used in this study represent a patchwork of different surface sediments collected from the early 1970’s until 2007. Stream sediments are a result of eroding rock and soils, and so they are related to soil chemistry (Shacklette & Boerngen, 1984; Plant et al., 2001; Barber-Delach & Cannon, 1999), but have different values. Efforts have been made to quantitatively relate these two media using an enrichment factor (Sposito, 1989), and more complicated statistical methods (Appleton et al.,

2008; Cannon et al., 2004). These more recent studies relate soils and stream sediments in terms of parent materials, such as bedrock (Appleton et al, 2008) or glacial sediments (Cannon et al., 2004). This is an important step in understanding the nature of stream sediments, however this is beyond the scope of the current study.

5. Methodology 5.1 Data acquisition and Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) Surface sediment data from the National Geochemical Survey (NGS) were downloaded from the US Geological Survey (USGS) website: http://mrdata.usgs.gov/geochem/. These data consist mostly of reanalyzed samples from the NURE HSSR program and additional samples collected by the USGS National Geochemical Survey in conjunction with the National Park Service. The purpose was to produce a body of geochemical data for the US based primarily on 7 stream sediments, and analyzed with a relatively consistent set of methods (Grossman et al., 1998). Sample coverage was one sample every 289km2 (Figure 3). Most samples in the Superior Upland Province are stream sediments collected between 1973 and 1981, with the remainder being soil samples (USGS, 2004).

Figure 3. General map of the SUP showing locations of sample points for the NGS.

The raw data must be modified before they can be utilized for geostatistics or geochemical mapping (Kürzl, 1988; Rose et al., 1979; Reimann et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2008). National Geochemical Survey data (raw) were duplicated and saved, then formatted and cleaned using Microsoft Excel® following Zumlot et al. (2008) and Price (2012). One important step in the preparation includes spreadsheet formatting as well as replacement of values below the

8 detection limit for that element. Table 1 shows lower detection limits for the ICP40 method used in NGS. Some authors replace values below the detection limit with the value of the detection limit itself (ie Lalor & Zhang, 2001), however other authors use a value that is 2/3 of the detection limit (Cannon et al., 2004) or 1/2 the detection limit (Rose et al., 1979; Zumlot et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2006; Cocker, 1999). In this study, these values were replaced with 1/2 of the lower detection limit. EDA was performed on the entire dataset, as well as for datapoints extracted for the

Superior Upland Province. The softwares used are Microsoft Excel®, SPSS® and JMP®. After removing zeroes and replacing non-detect values, the data were inspected for sample coverage and normality. 30 elements were found to have more than 95% of values above the lower detection limit, and these elements were used in this study (Table 1). The elements are Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, P, Ti, Ba, Be, Ce, Co, Cr, Cu, Eu, Ga, La, Li, Mn, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Sc, Sr, Th, V, Y, Yb and Zn. Skewness and Kurtosis values were unacceptable for most elements (did not fall within ranges of +3 to -3 and 0.1 to 0.99 respectively), and are reported in Table 1. The extracted database for the SUP consists of 1143 sampling sites.

Production of statistical and graphical summaries for each element is an essential step in EDA (Rose et al., 1979; Kürzl, 1988; Filzmoser et al., 2009; Reimann et al., 2002) so Tukey boxplots, histograms, and cumulative frequency plots (lognormal quantile-quantile) were used to aid in data analysis and outlier identification (Reimann et al., 2002). These were generated for each element in SPSS software and are presented in Appendix 1. Figures 4a and 4b presents these for comparison of the elements Ce and P, respectively. All graphical summaries from EDA can be found in Appendix 1.

Figure 4a. Tukey boxplot, histogram, Q-Q plot for Cerium.

Figure 4b. Tukey boxplot, histogram, Q-Q plot for Phosphorus.

5.2 Outliers Outliers in a geochemical dataset have the greatest effect on normality, skewness and kurtosis of the data, and so they are removed after examination of percentiles, histograms,

11 boxplots, and lognormal quantile-quantile plots. There are several different types of outliers, including range, spatial, and relationship outliers (Lalor and Zhang, 2001). Range outliers are the most commonly identified and isolated, as they are identified using boxplots as values greater than 2 standard deviations from the median. The second type of outliers are spatial outliers, which are identified as extreme values related to neighboring sample points. For this study, with such a low sampling density, these types of “outliers” are common due to the heterogeneous nature of geological materials, however they do not greatly affect the normality of the data.

These outliers were identified by correlating outlier sample locations with single element maps (after all range outliers were removed). The third type are relationship outliers, which are values that fall outside those expected from correlation with the dataset. For the entire NGS dataset, these outliers are also common because of low sampling density and heterogeneity of geological materials, however some relationship outliers were identified in the SUP data, using lognormal quantile-quantile plots and comparative boxplots. Range outliers were first identified for all 30 elements of this study, using the EDA for the entire dataset. Each one of these outliers was investigated for a correlation with an anomaly on the single-element maps produced in this study (Figures 5, 9). Range and relationship outliers were also identified from the data extracted for the SUP only and compared to the range outliers for the entire NGS dataset.

Figure 5. Single element maps for Fe and Cu, two elements which are mined in the SUP.

13 5.3 Mapping using ArcMap GIS Cleaned data minus outliers were loaded into ArcMap 10, and point maps were generated for all 30 elements and the 197 outliers. Smoothed maps were also created for each element using the Kriging geospatial tool. Layers were also downloaded from several different sources for visual and spatial comparison. A general geologic map layer was generated in National Atlas, which is now a retired website. Also, layers for mineral deposits (USGS, 1997), Toxic Release Index (TRI) by state, roads and cities, hydrology, and glacial till were also downloaded from online sources. These maps were then compared to each other and studied along with the aid of Google Earth© and websites such as the Department of Natural Resources for each state in order to investigate anomalies on the single element and factor maps. This step aided in the outlier investigation as well. With a dataset of this size and coverage, geology is usually the primary influence on the surface geochemistry of a region (Gustavsson et al, 1994; Rose et al., 1979; Cocker, 1998, 1999; Appleton et al., 2008), with anthropogenic influence from mining, agriculture, or industry being secondary (Garrett, 2009; Reimann et al., 2002). Figure 6 is a single element map for Vanadium, overlain by geologic polygons.

Figure 6. Single element map for Vanadium, showing boundaries of geologic units for correlation. Note the positive anomaly that correlates with Ym (Duluth complex), and the negative anomaly that correlates with the driftless area of southwestern WI.

6. Results & Interpretation Graphs from EDA are presented, including boxplots, histograms and log-normal histograms, Q-Q plots, and detrended Q-Q plots. Also included are single element geochemical maps correlated with regional geology, an outlier discussion, and correlation of single element maps with Pleistocene glacial sediments.

6.1 Boxplots, Histograms, and Q-Q plots As mentioned above, Tukey boxplots were generated for each of the elements in this study and were used to identify outliers and to visualize data distribution. Few elements are distributed normally, and required a log-normal transformation.

15 Histograms also aid in the visualization of data distribution, and also show problems in the data such as discretization, which is clearly visible in histograms for Be, Eu, Sc, and Yb (Appendix 1). Problems with the data are described below. Distinct populations can be seen in many of the Q-Q plots as changes in slope (Zhang et al., 2005). This important because these line segments represent discrete subpopulations in the data, and are commonly linked to lithology or other dynamic geologic processes (Zhang et al., 2005). Figure 4 shows a Q-Q plot for Ce and P. Ce data is distributed normally, but the P data is not. Several distinct populations are visible in the Q-Q plots of the Ce data, but are not visible in the same plots for P. Comparative boxplots were also generated for the dataset using SPSS™ software, to compare concentrations of each element in different geologic units. Figure 11 shows 2 of these comparative boxplots for the elements Ca and Fe and Appendix 7 is a complete set for each element.

Figure 11. Comparative Boxplots of the concentrations of Ca and Fe in the geologic units of the SUP. Outliers are included. Appendix 7 contains the comparative boxplots for the rest of the elements in this study. Abbreviations for geologic units are in Figure 2.

17 6.2 Single Element Maps Presented here is a brief description of several single-element geochemical maps showing distinctive geochemical provinces (Reimann et al., 2002; Hawkes and Webb, 1962), and other pertinent information about each element. Appendix 2 has a complete set of these maps. Table 1 presents a list of elements, including lower detection limits for NGS reformatted data (USGS, 2004).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the cleaned NGS data for the SUP (no outliers; see Zumlot et al., 2008 for Descriptive Stats of raw NGS data). Lower DL = lower detection limits of ICP-MS detected elements; Min = minimum values (non-detect values have been replaced by ½ the lower DL); Max = maximum values cut off at the Upper fence; Range? Avg. = Mean from Descriptive Stats; Skew = Skewness; Kurt = Kurtosis. See Figure 2 for Geologic Unit abbreviations.

Elem. Lower Range Avg. S&B 1984 Skew Kurt. Geologic unit name DL Al .005% .0025 – 10.9% 4.98% 7.2% 0.68 1.18 X, Ym Ca .005% .0025 – 4.83% 1.05% 2.4% 1.89 6.07 lPz, Xv, X, Yv Fe .005% .01 – 32.4% 2.92% 2.6% 6.87 108 X, lPz K .005% .005 – 3.94% 1.93% 1.5% -0.05 1.00 X, Ym Mg .005% .0025 – 3.91% 0.63% 0.9% 2.78 13.8 Ym, Xv Na .005% .0025 – 2.75% 1.05% 1.2% 1.19 1.50 X P .005% .0025 - 9% 0.06% 0.04% 33.2 1114 Xg Ti .005% .0025 – 1.67% 0.48% 0.29% 1.12 2.30 lPz Ba 1.0 ppm 0.5 - 1180ppm 498ppm 580 0.18 9.22 Xv, Ym, Be 0.1 ppm 0.5 - 5ppm 0.9ppm .92 1.63 3.46 X, Y, Yg Ce 1.0 ppm 2 - 200ppm 46.8ppm 75 1.57 8.14 Yg, Ym Co 1.0 ppm 0.5 - 63ppm 9.77ppm 9.1 3.00 18.0 Ym, X Cr 1.0 ppm 0.5 - 338ppm 46.1ppm 54 1.95 10.4 An, Ag Cu 1.0 ppm 0.25 - 1330ppm 21ppm 25 23.1 647 lPz, X Eu 1.0 ppm 0.5 - 5ppm 0.85ppm - 2.77 13.3 n/a Ga 1.0 ppm 0.5 - 35ppm 13.5ppm 17 0.28 0.23 X La 1.0 ppm 1 - 78ppm 20ppm 37 1.58 6.65 Yg Li 1.0 ppm 1 - 58ppm 16ppm 24 1.28 2.23 X, Y Mn 4.0 ppm 2 - 8490ppm 591ppm 550 5.91 59.9 X Nb 4.0 ppm 1 - 51ppm 11ppm 11 1.53 3.90 X Nd 1.0 ppm 2 - 81ppm 17.7ppm 46 1.33 5.99 Yg Ni 2.0 ppm 1 - 231ppm 23.2ppm 19 4.15 36.6 Ym Pb 1.0 ppm 2 - 336ppm 14ppm 430 20.8 579 Yv, Xv Sc 2.0 ppm 0.5 - 27ppm 7.6ppm 8.9 1.30 3.43 Yv Sr 2.0 ppm 1 - 485ppm 139ppm 240 2.00 4.49 Ag, An Th 1.0 ppm 1 - 29ppm 4.77ppm 9.4 0.79 0.25 Yg, Ym V 2.0 ppm 1 - 533ppm 82.4ppm 80 2.94 21.6 X Y 1.0 ppm 1 - 84ppm 14.5ppm 25 3.36 35.4 Yg

18 Yb 1.0 ppm 0.5 - 10ppm 2.11ppm 3.1 1.61 14.9 Yg Zn 2.0 ppm 1 - 1930ppm 65.7ppm 60 17.6 426 X, lPz

Early geochemical maps utilized symbols of increasing darkness or size to delineate concentrations of elements (Rose et al., 1979; Shacklette and Boerngen, 1984). These maps are limited however in how much information they can contain, and interpolation between sampling points is up to the imagination. GIS can generate interpolated, color maps which can be overlain on many different layers, and presents geochemical data in a more usable form. For this reason color point maps and interpolated maps are presented herein. Figure 5 shows single element maps for Fe and Cu. The full set of geochemical maps from this study is presented in Appendix 2.

6.4 Outlier Investigation 197 range outliers were identified at the beginning of the study as greater than or equal to the upper fence on the Tukey boxplot (Appendix 1). Q-Q plots were also used to identify outliers. Each of the outlier samples was compared to anomalies on single element maps, and investigated for geochemical or geographic associations, such as a relationship to population centers (Figure 7), TRI facilities, and Superfund sites (Figure 8).

Figure 7. Single element map for Pb compared with city size by population. SUP boundary is in black.

Figure 8. Screen shot from TOXMAP showing the locations of TRI facilities(in blue) and Superfund NPL sites(in red).

Table 2 contains information for the outliers that we correlated only with Anthropogenic activity. The entire table of outliers can be found in Appendix 4. Figure 9 shows examples of Co and Li maps with outliers overlain, and the remaining maps can be found in Appendix 3.

21 Table 2. Geologic Units of the Superior Upland Province and their geochemical associations. Geologic Map Unit/Anomaly Associated Associated Color Age Symbol name elements Outliers R G B Phanerozoic lower Ca, Mg, Mn Ca, Co, Mn, 255 204 255 lPz Paleozoic P, Pb

carbonate Zn, Pb, Ba, Co, n/a Miss.valley Mn, Be, P deposit Ym mid- Al, Ca, Co, Cr, Co, Cr, Cu, 179 77 255 Late- Proterozoic Fe, Ga, Mg, Fe, Ga,Mg, Proterozoic mafic Nb, Ni, Ti, Sc Mn, Nb, Ni, P, Ti, V, Yb, Yg mid- Nb, Yb, Fe, Ti, Ce, La, Mn, 204 179 255 Proterozoic Sc, La, Be, Th Nb, Nd, Th, granite Y, Yb (Wolf River Batholith) mid- Be, Ca, Cu, Fe, Cu, Fe, Mn, 179 179 153 Yv Proterozoic Ga, Li, Mg, Pb, Ti, V, Yb, volcanic Mn, Sc, Ti, V, Zn Y, Yb, Zn, Pb? Y mid- K, La, Sc, Th, Cu, Mn, Ni, 204 204 128 Proterozoic red Yb P, Sc, Ti, Yb, beds and mafic clastic early- Al, Fe, Th, P Ca, K, Li, P, 153 128 204 Early- Xg Proterozoic Zn Proterozoic granite

Early- Al, Be, Ga, Li, Fe, Mn, Nb, 179 179 204 Xv Proterozoic P, Sr, Ti, Cr? P, Pb, Ti, Zn volcanic Na?

early- Be, Cr, Sc, Co, Cr, Cu,Fe, 204 204 222 X Proterozoic Nb? Li, Mn, Ni,Sc, quartzite/slate Ti, V, Y, Yb, Zn Ag Archean Al, Be, Ca, Li, Cu, Li, P, 153 77 179 Archean granites Mn, Na, Ni, P, Th Archean Mg, Sc, Y, Co, Ni, 179 204 235 An gneisses Mn?

Figure 9. Outliers of Co and Li plotted on their respective single element maps, for visual correlation with regional geochemistry and regional geology. Geologic symbols represent units from Figure 2.

23 7. Discussion 7.1 Bedrock Anomalies Several regional anomalies in single-element maps were attributable to bedrock lithologies, especially in areas with less glacial cover. A list of these anomalies can be found in Table 2 with their geochemical associations. Figure 6 shows a correlation between Vanadium concentrations and bedrock anomalies.

7.2 Pleistocene Anomalies Several regional anomalies were attributable to sediments of the Pleistocene glaciation. End moraine deposits are particularly visible in several maps (Figure 10). Table 3 is a list of these anomalous units, their glacial associations, and associated elements. All single element maps correlated with glacial lobes can be found in Appendix 5.

Table 3. Geochemical Associations of Selected Laurentide Glacial Moraines and Lake Sediments. Pleistocene Unit Assoc. Elements Glacial Lobe Source Comments: Vermillion and Anomaly in P, Sr; Rainy Lobe Labradoran n/a Nashwauk Elevated in Na, Al, Cr, (from NE) moraines Mn?, Co, Ti & Fe. Nickerson, La, Yb, Ve, Mn; Superior Lobe Labradoran Same as Miller Creek Cloquet and Elevated in Ca, Mg, Fe, (from NE) Fm. (see below) Mille Lacs- Sc, Ti, Ga, Al, Co, Cr, Highland Ni, V, and negative moraines anomlies for P, Sr, Th, & Nb. Copper Falls Fm Elevated Al, Fe, Cu, Ga, Chippewa Sublobe; Labradoran Woodruff et al., 2004 Mg, Ti, V. Superior Lobe (from NE) found the C.F. Fm to be elevated in Fe, Cu, Ti, and V Nashville Mbr, Cr, Eu; slightly elevated Langland sublobe; Labradoran Seems distinctive from Copper Falls Fm. Al, Cr, Fe, Ga, Mg, Ni, Superior Lobe (from NE) the rest of the C.F. Fm. Ti, Mn,& Yb. Wildcat Lake elevated Cr, Na, Nb and Wisconsin Valley Labradoran Mbr., Copper lower K than other sublobe; Superior (from NE) Falls Fm. members in this Fm. Lobe Miller Creek Fm. La, Yb, Be, Mn; Greenbay/Michigan Labradoran 70-90% clay according Elevated in Ca, Mg, Fe, sublobes; Superior (from N) to Syverson and Colgan, Sc, Ti, Ga, Al, Co, Cr, Lobe (2004) Ni, V; negative anomalies for P, Sr, Th, & Nb. St. Croix Fm. Anomaly in Al, Ce, Co, Rainy Lobe Labradoran n/a Cr, Fe, Ga, Mn, Nb, Ni, (from NE) Sc, Ti, Yb, V; Negative

24 anomalies for Ca, Cu, K, Mg, & Zn. Keewaunee Fm. Elevated values of K, Green Bay Lobe Labradoran n/a Ca, Mg, Mn, Cr; (from N) Negative anomaly for Co, Na, Nb, Fe, Sc, Yb, V, Zn. Holy Hill Fm Anomaly in Ca, Mg, & Green Bay Lobe Labradoran Johnstown moraine is Mn. (from N) distinguishable as a boundary at the edge of the driftless area for Al, Co, Fe, Ga, K, La, Nb, Sc, Ti, Yb V Pleistocene Unit Assoc. Elements Glacial Lobe Source Comments: Itasca moraine Elevated values of Ca, Wadena lobe Keewatin n/a Mg, Mn, Nb. (from NW) Alexandria Elevated values of Mn, Wadena lobe) Keewatin n/a Moraine Li, Ca, Mg. Negative (from NW) anomaly for Al, Ba, Ce, Co, Fe, La, Li, P, V, Sc, Ti, Th & Yb. Altamont Elevated values of Ca, Des Moines lobe Keewatin n/a Moraine Mg, Mn; Negative (from NW) anomaly for Al, Ce, Fe, K, La, Na, Sr, & Th. Bemis moraine Elevated Ca, Mg, Mn? Des Moines lobe Keewatin Distinguished from the (from NW) Altamont moraine above by higher Al values Other n/a Anomalies: Driftless Area in Elevated values for Ca, n/a n/a Seems to be unglaciated SW Wisconsin Mg, and Mn. Negative (Syverson and Colgan, anomalies for Al, Ba, 2004). Elevated values Be, Ce Co, Cr, Fe, Ga, correspond with Ti, K, La, Li, Na, Mn, carbonate bedrock. Nb, Nd, Ni, Sc, Sr, Th, V, Y, Yb. Glacial Lake Anomaly in Al, Co, Fe, Des Moines Lobe? Meltwater Lake Wisconsin Sediments Ga, Li, Ni, Sc, Ti, V ; from Des (Syverson and Colgan, Negative anomaly for Moines 2004); Lake Agassiz; Na, Ca and Mn, Sr. Lobe Lake Grantsburg

Figure 10. Single element map of Ti compared with glacial lobes, modified from Figure 1 of Grimley (2000). Notice Ti correlates strongly with more mafic sediments of the Rainy, Superior, and Green Bay lobes from the NE, with a negative correlation to the Des Moines lobe from the NW.

Cannon et al. (2004) correlated elemental concentrations with glacial sediments and attempted to predict soil compositions. We looked for patterns of moraines in the single-element maps and noting which elements show high values for that moraine. Source regions for tills predict the surface chemistry of their deposits, for example tills sourced from the north-northeast are derived from Proterozoic mafic rocks and have representative chemistry enriched in mafic elements.

7.3 Mineralization Anomalies

26 Several mining areas were visible as anomalies on the single element maps. All iron ranges in the study area were associated with anomalies on the Fe map. Appendix 6 has a thorough description of Iron content in the SUP and map pattern in relation to these deposits. Cu-Ni-PGM deposits were visible as anomalies on maps of Al, Be, Ca, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ga, Na, Ni, Sc, Sr, Ti, and V. These deposits are concentrated on the NW edge of the Duluth complex in northeaster MN. Keewenawan rocks and their copper deposits are associated anomalies in the element maps of Co, Cu, Fe, Ga, K, Mg, Mn, Sc, Ti, V, Yb and to a lesser extent Ni & Y. Finally, a Mississippi Valley type deposit in southern WI is visible on the Ba, Ca, Co, Cu, Fe, Mg, P, Pb, Yb, and Zn maps.

7.4 Outliers The majority of range outliers found in this study (90%) were attributable to natural enrichment in bedrock. This is not unusual, as regional enrichment of certain mineral phases by geologic processes can exceed enrichments from anthropogenic contamination (Woodruff et al., 2011). Appendix 4 contains locations of outliers of the SUP and mine locations can be found in

Appendix 6. Several outliers could not be explained by bedrock lithology, and these were investigated in more detail. Table 4 presents these outliers.

Table 4. Outliers that are tentatively correlated with Anthropogenic activity. A complete list of outliers can be found in Appendix 4. NURE # refers to the original sample number, Anom. Assoc. shows which elements are associated with this outlier, if any, Geol. Unit is abbreviations of bedrock units (Figure 2). NURE # Lat/Long Anom Outlier Geol. Land Use/Roads/ Potential Assoc. Elements Unit Anthropogenic Sources

REC_NO 47.905571, P P = .173% An Intersection Rt 1 & Anthropogeni ST012241 -91.821215 Ni = 48ppm Rt 169 c: Mining: LABNO As = 9.4ppm Sibley and C-279927 Savoy mines (Fe) REC_NO 46.140785, P, Cu P = .208% Y Disturbed: Anthropogeni ST012496 -92.979406 Cu = 58ppm Agriculture; Se c: LABNO Se = 1.6ppm anomaly on NGS Agriculture? C-279648 maps REC_NO 45.226411, Mn Mn = 1730 lPz North of O’Brien Anthropogeni

27 ST010553 -92.771503 Se = .8 ppm Trail: Disturbed: c: LABNO Residential; Se Agriculture? C-255544 outliers to S and SW

REC_NO 45.011680, No As = 11ppm lPz Disturbed; Anthropogeni ST010895 -92.857723 Mn = Agriculture and c: LABNO 1900ppm Suburban; Local Mn Agriculture? C-254690 is 430-630ppm REC_NO 45.223191, P, Mn P = .21% lPz Disturbed: Anthropogeni 5230511 -91.793140 Mn = Agriculture; High P c: LABNO 2370ppm area ; Sr = 111ppm Agriculture? C-119855 As = 11pm REC_NO 45.101738, P, Mn, P = .255% lPz Disturbed: Anthropogeni 5230453 -91.689967 Co Co = 49ppm Agriculture; Hight P c: Agriculture LABNO Mn=9210ppm area (0.03% C-119849 Sn = 5ppm elsewhere) Zn = 170ppm As = 10ppm NURE # Lat/Long Anom Outlier Geolo Land Use/Roads/ Potential (decimal Assoc. Elements gic Anthropogenic Sources degrees) Unit REC_NO 45.127799, Pb Bi = 16ppm lPz Disturbed: Anthropogeni 5230501 -91.505112 (Mn) Pb = 45ppm Agriculture all c: Industry? LABNO As = 6.9ppm around, but in small C-120448 forest pocket; West of Rt. 64. Pb/Bi from roads? Truck and Auto shop REC_NO 46.277173, Ti, Ti = 1.08% Yv Values decrease Anthropogeni 5230134 -90.947457 Mn, As = 30ppm north downstream: source c: Mining? LABNO Pb Bi = 31ppm of Ag of Pb? C-119646 (Cu, Mn=2110ppm Conta V, Sr) Pb = 336ppm ct Sn = 377ppm Ni = 43ppm Zn = 144ppm V = 132ppm Sr = 151ppm REC_NO 45.463244, Fe, P, Fe =6.55% Xv Reforested/Agricultur Anthropogeni 5231821 -89.579461 Be, P -= .247% al area; No of Hornic c: LABNO Cr, V As = 29ppm Rd; Near Cu/Pb/Zn Agriculture? C-143578 Ba= 1040ppm prospect Cr = 82ppm V = 109ppm REC_NO 45.143676, Pb Pb = 91ppm Xv Disturbed/Agricultura Anthropogeni 5231559 -89.234218 Mo = 2ppm l field; N of Rt 64 c: Industry? LABNO C-143137 REC_NO 46.533417, Fe, Fe = 8.37% X at On route 28 Anthropogeni RA001630 -88.140778 Cu, As = 13ppm Xg c: Mining

28 LABNO Pb, V, Cu = 62ppm contac C-193824 Sc Mo = 89ppm t Pb = 48ppm V = 364ppm NURE # Lat/Long Anom Outlier Geolo Land Use/Roads/ Potential (decimal Assoc. Elements gic Anthropogenic Sources degrees) Unit REC_NO 46.539190, Fe, Fe = 18.4% X at Near route 28 Anthropogeni 5232416 -88.130131 Cu, Co = 37ppm Xg c: Mining? LABNO Mn, Mn=5320ppm contac C-142327 V, Sc Mo =5ppm t Pb = 42ppm U = 180ppm V = 194ppm REC_NO 46.426748, No Fe = 32.4%! X Reforested; next to Anthropogeni RA001738 -88.203686 Ti = 1.215% Cut across road c: Mining? LABNO Co = 43ppm C-193985 Cu = 226ppm Mn=4040ppm Mo = 10ppm Nb = 31ppm Ni = 61ppm Sc = 18ppm V = 533ppm

7.5 Problems with the data Aside from analytical limitations or differences, some troublesome trends in the data were discovered during univariant statistical analyses and visual investigation of map patterns.

7.5.1 Univariant trends Figure 12 shows a boxplot for Be, histogram for Sc, and QQ plot for Eu. These elements have obvious problems with the data. All elements show discretization, with samples “clumped” at certain values.

Figure 12. Boxplot for Be, Histogram for Sc, and QQ plot for Eu, showing some problems with the data.

Be shows a lower-detection limit problem, with a cluster of data points at the lower detection limit. This cluster of data points at the lower detection limit in common in NGS data for the SUP,

30 due to limitations in analysis. This can be seen in histograms for the elements P, Be, Co, Cr, Eu, Ga, Nb, Nd, Pb, and Th (Appendix 1).

7.5.2 Map trends Even after reformatting and/or reanalysis, a quadrangle bias in the ORGDP samples shows up distinctly in several of the geochemical maps (in Gustavson et al., 2001; and in maps of the current study (Appendix 2). Differences in substrate and analytical methods show up as a quadrangle biases and can muddle interpretation and create false geochemical anomalies or

“boundaries” Fortunately this was on the western edge of the study area.

8. Future Work Although the UTEP Regional Geochemical Mapping Group is also researching regional patterns of chemical elements in individual states like New Mexico (Zumlot et al., 2008) and Colorado (in progress), it is argued here that the boundaries of Fenneman’s Physiographic Provinces of North America (1946; see also USGS website) are more related to geochemical processes than state boundaries. This reasoning is also shown in the NURE HSSR sampling protocol which identified sampling regions based on Fenneman’s Physiographic description of the US. Detailed soil profile sampling in areas identified as anomalous in this study (see Section 7 above) can provide data for identification of contribution from bedrock or anthropogenic sources.

31 Chapter 2: Ichnology of the Cretaceous (Albian) Mesilla Valley Formation, Cerrro de Cristo Rey, Southern New Mexico, USA

ABSTRACT Trace fossils are described from the Mesilla Valley Formation (Washita Group) at Cerro de Cristo Rey, Sunland Park, NM. These include the invertebrate traces Anchorichnus isp., Arenicolites isp., Bergueria isp., Cardioichnus foradadensis, C. biloba nov isp., Chondrites intricatus, Cochlichnus anguineus, Helicodromites isp., Lockeia isp., Ophiomorpha nodosa,

Palaeophycus tubularis, P. striatus, P. heberti, Planolites isp., Protovirgularia dichotoma, Scolicia isp., Skolithos isp., Spongeliomorpha isp., S. sublumbricoides, S. oraviense, Taenidium isp., Thalassinoides isp., T. paradoxicus, Treptichnus isp., possible arthropod resting traces, a chimney structure (Chomatichnus?), and the biofilm “Kinneyia.” This is the first study of the invertebrate ichnology of any of the shallow marine units at Cerro de Cristo Rey. It is a medium/high diversity ichnoassemblage, including fugichnia (i.e., Skolithos), fodichnia (i.e., Chondrites), domichnia (i.e., Ophiomorpha, Thalassinoides), repichnia (i.e., arthropod trackways), paschichnia (i.e., Palaeophycus), and cubichnia (i.e., Bergaueria, Cardioichnus, Lockeia), as well as compound traces and composite traces. This ichnoassemblage was preserved in tempestites (storm deposits) from below wave base during Oceanic Anoxic Event 1d, on the upper/middle continental shelf and contains ichnotaxa representative of the proximal Cruziana ichnofacies (with Skolithos influence).

1. Introduction The Mesilla Valley Formation has been described from several localities in southern New Mexico and far west Texas (Strain, 1976; Lucas and Estep, 1998; Lucas et al., 2010). The best exposures of this unit in the region are found on the flanks of Cerro de Cristo Rey, located in Sunland Park, Doña Ana County, New Mexico (Figure 1 location). Cerro de Cristo Rey is a

32 prominent peak straddling the international border between Sunland Park, New Mexico, USA and Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico. Historically this mountain was called Cerro de Muleros, but was renamed in honor of a 29 ft (8.8m) tall statue of a limestone crucifix constructed by Urbici Soler in 1939. It is also called “Sierra de Cristo Rey” and “Mount Cristo Rey” (Hook, 2008; Lucas et al., 2010), both of which are misnomers because the hill is only 820 ft above the surrounding pass to the north. It is a culturally and geologically important monument, and sits on the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro National Historic Trail. Structurally, this hill is a trachy-andesite dome

(Lovejoy, 1976) and on the north-eastern flanks approximately 350m of Cretaceous strata have been exposed by uplift and erosion. These strata represent the top of the Fredricksburg Group, the entire Washita Group, with the Cenomanian Mancos Fm. at the top. This section represents the overall transgression of the Cretaceous Interior Seaway during the Albian and Cenomanian periods (Lucas et al., 2010). The Mesilla Valley Fm. is a 65m thick, dark grey to olive-colored, finely laminated marine shale with intercalated thin calcareous and fossiliferous siltstone lenses, each ranging from 5-60cm thick. In their revision of the stratigraphy of this unit, Lucas et al. (2010) described the thinly bedded siltstones as bioturbated storm deposits. This unit was first described by Böse (1910) as “subdivision 6”, and he measured it at 20m thickness, which was corrected to 64m by Strain (1976) and confirmed by Lucas et al. (2010). Strain (1976) formally named this unit the “Mesilla Valley Shale” and divided it into 2 members. Lucas et al. (2010) clarified and revised the biostratigraphy of this unit and divided it into three informal members (Fig. 1). The first member is a 13.7m thick grey shale with thin sandy siltstone lenses (Lucas et al., 2010). The middle member, which is 14.4m thick, starts with a ledge-forming bioclastic packstone with abundant Texigryphaea. This olive colored shale also has thin sandstone beds and three thick, ripple laminated sandstone-siltstone intervals, each about 0.4m thick (Lucas et al., 2010). The upper member is a black shale, 36.5 m thick, and as shown by Lucas et al. (2010), grades up into the overlying Mojado Fm. (“Anapra Sandstone” of Strain, 1976)

33 The depositional environment of the Mesilla Valley Fm. was interpreted by Lucas et al. (2010) as an outer continental shelf, below wave base. Shales were deposited under quiet conditions, which were periodically interrupted by storm events. It was deposited during Washita Group cycle #4 (WA4) of the upper Albian during Cretaceous flooding of North America (Scott et al., 2003), and includes oceanic anoxic event (OAE) 1d (Scott et al., 2013), which has been dated at 100.6-100.2Ma (Nuñez-Useche et al., 2014). This unit has been loosely correlated with the Weno and Pawpaw formations of east Texas (Scott, 2003; Lucas et al., 2010).

Invertebrate paleontology of the Mesilla Valley Fm. was first described by Böse (1910) who noted the presence of the oyster Peilinia quadriplicata (“Ostrea” renamed by Kues, 1997) and a prolific assemblage of marine invertebrates, most notably the bivalve Texigryphaea sp. and the foraminifera Cribritina texana, which are both common in the lower and middle member of this unit. Other fossils reported include echinoids (ie Heteraster), bivalves (ie Neithea), gastropods, ammonoids, brachiopods, dinoflagellates, serpulid worms, corals, algae, and terrestrial plant fragments (Bose, 1910; Strain, 1976; Cornell, 1982; Kues, 1989 and 1997; Turnsek et al., 2003).

Invertebrate traces were briefly mentioned by Lucas et al., (2010) and have since been found in all styles of preservation in calcareous sandy-siltstone lenses in finely laminated shale. These traces include the first records of the invertebrate ichnogenera from the Washita Group of southern NM, representing the Cruziana ichnofacies (Seilacher, 1967; Buatois and Mangano,

2011). In this paper, NMMNH refers to New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, Albuquerque, NM, where all samples collected are housed with the designation “P-“, and locality numbers are NMMNH localities.

2. Provenance Trace fossils documented here were collected over 5 years at NMMNH localities #10167,

#10168, #10169, and #10170, all located on the northern slopes of Cerro de Cristo Rey, southern

34 Doña Ana County, NM (Figure 1). Generalized stratigraphy of the Mesilla Valley Formation and strigraphic positions of #10169 and #10170, #10167 and #10168 are also shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Location map and general stratigraphy of the Mesilla Valley Formation, showing generalized stratigraphic position of NMMNH 10169 and 10170, as well as detailed position of NMMNH 10167 and 10168 in the Mesilla Valley Formation.

Traces are revealed during the weathering of thinly bedded, calcareous sandstones/siltstones and bioclastic packstones. The paleoenvironment was below fair wave base on the outer continental shelf (Lucas et al., 2010). The Mesilla Valley Fm. encompasses two ammonoid zones, the Mortoniceras wintoni and overlying Drakeoceras drakei (Lucas and Estep, 1998; Lucas et al., 2010), and is Albian in age (Scott et al., 2013). NMMNH locality #10167 is in beds steeply dipping to the north, stratigraphically below the type section of the Mojado formation (“Anapra sandstone” of Strain, 1976) re- measured by Lucas et al. (2010). Several ichnofossil bearing strata are found at this location, but not all have been placed stratigraphically. One bed trace fossils was located and excavated, and is a bioclastic packstone with abundant bivalve bioclasts including oysters such as Texigryphaea isp. and bivalves like Neithea isp.. Trace fossils include Cardioichnus sp. and Scolicia sp.. 35 Locally this bed is red with grey fossils, and found approximately 12m below the Mesilla Valley/Mojado contact, which we place at the first sandstone of typical Mojado lithology (Lucas et al, 2010). Also at this locality there is a small pile of bulldozed sandstone slabs from member B of the Mesilla Valley Fm. (Lucas et al., 2010). After several decades of weathering, these slabs reveal details of ichnotaxa which were originally covered in shale. NMMNH locality #10168 is preserved in beds gently dipping west, stratigraphically below the Powerline Ridge dinosaur tracksite (Kappus et al., 2011). This locality is in a railroad cut and road cut on the west side of Brickland Rd, at the same field location used by Scott et al.

(2013). Figure 2 shows a view of the Mesilla Valley Fm. at this locality.

Figure. 2 View of of Mesilla Valley outcrop from Scott et al. (2013) showing cyclic storm deposits in an olive green shale. The top of the formation is at the top of the hill.

Ichnofossils are preserved in ripple-sculpted planar and hummocky cross-stratified sandy-siltstones at two stratigraphic locations. The first bed is ~12m below the upper contact of

36 the Mesilla Valley. The second is ripple laminated, fractured, and has liesegang banding, is ~2m below the upper contact of the Mesilla Valley formation and preserves the arthropod trackways and arthropod resting traces identified in this study. NMMNH locality #10169 in is also beds gently dipping west, and includes members B and C of the Mesilla Valley Fm. Slabs of bioclastic sandy siltstones with hummocky cross- bedding and planar laminations were collected on this hillside, as they contain abundant invertebrate trace fossils revealed by long-term weathering, especially after shale weathers off the hypichnia/epichnia.

NMMNH locality #10170 is an arroyo and patio located at Ardovino’s Desert Crossing restaurant and banquet facilities. The patio was laid by the senior author with sandstone slabs from the Mesilla Valley Formation, collected from the arroyo on the property. Most of these slabs could not be removed, but were useful for identifying and photographing ichnotaxa. We concur with Lucas et al. (2010) that these strata represent quiet deposition on the outer continental shelf, with what appear to be cyclic interruptions by storm deposits (“tempestites”).

3. Systematic Ichnology Traces are described in alphabetical order, with problematica at the end. Terminology for describing morphology of indivual traces mostly follows recommendations of Basan (1978) and

Gingras et al., (2007), and Trewin (1994) for arthropod trackways. Preliminary description of ichnofabrics follows Taylor and Goldring (1993).

Ichnogenus Anchorichnus Heinberg 1974 Anchorichnus sp. Fig. 3. Referred specimen: (Fig. 3) NMMNH P-71998.

37 Description: Small, horizontal, meandering, meniscate-filled tubular burrow with a thin mantle preserved in convex hyporelief. Each meniscae is a lined packet, which join to make up the wall structure. The burrow is 1-1.5 mm wide, and 12.5cm long, with small, tabular (uncurved) menisca .5-.8mm thick with a lining of similar thickness. Distance between arcs in the meander are ~2 cm. Overall trace has a meandering pattern. Remarks: Only one specimen of Anchorichnus was observed in this study. This burrow meanders (Dam, 1990) and externally resembles Cochlichnus isp. which has also been observed in this study (Fig. 9, 17), but was found to have meniscate backfill and a structured mantle (Keighley and Pickerill, 1994). Frey et al. (1984) state that A. anchorichnus is only known from the type area, and we did not observe enough specimens to determine if these are A. coronus as described by Frey et al. (2004). P-71998 is an example of a composite trace, with Anchorichnus isp. reworking Planolites isp., which was filled with bioclastic debris mainly consisting of Cribratina texana. Anchorichnus isp. has been interpreted as the actively backfilled repichnia/domichnia of a deposit feeder (Frey and Howard, 1985b; Dam, 1990), with the concave side of menisci indicating direction of movement (Frey et al., 2004). This trace has also been rported from the Upper Cretaceous of Utah (Frey and Howard, 1985b).

Figure 3. Epichnial view of P-71998 showing endichnial Anchorichnus isp. (An) reworking Planolites isp. with bioclastic fill (arrows denote specimens of Cribratina texana), as well as Chondrites intricatus (Ch). Sample P-71998 is also a representative of the Thalassinoides/Planolites-Chondrites ichnofabric (#6) from this study.

Ichnogenus Arenicolites Salter (1857) Arenicolites isp. (aff. A. sparsus) Fig. 4, Fig. 17. Referred specimens: (Fig.4, 17) NMMNH P-71984, P-71986, NMMNH P-72005; more than 10 specimens observed in the field at locality #10170. Description: Epichnial/endichnial, vertical, U-shaped burrows with no spreiten. The limbs are vertical, closely spaced, circular to sub-circular in cross-section, and are parallel to each other. Diameter of the limbs and width of the trace do not appear to change with depth. Burrow fills are a slightly different lithology than the host rock. Two size groups of Arenicolites isp. were identified in this study. The first group has a limb diameter of 5-6mm and overall trace

39 width of 20mm; the second group has a limb diameter of 9mm and an overall trace width of 46mm, with two specimens reaching depths of up to 9cm. Remarks: These traces resemble “Arenicolites carbonarius” shown by Rajkonwar et al., (2013), but differ from the original description of A. carbonarius by Binney (1852). A more likely ichnospecific assignment may be A. sparsus Salter 1856 based on their vertical limbs, simple morphology and lack of a thick lining (Rindsberg and Kopaska-Merkel, 2005). More specimens preserved in full relief are needed for a confident ichnospecific designation.

Arenicolites isp. has been interpreted as domichnia (Chamberlain, 1977; Fillion and Pickerill, 1990; Rindsberg and Merkel, 2005; Gingras et al., 2007) as well as fixinia (Bromley and Asgard, 1979; Fillion and Pickerill, 1990) and are typical of shallow-marine settings (Chamberlain, 1978; Rajkonwar et al., 2013; Buatois and Mangano, 2011). The most likely trackmaker is an annelid worm (Binney, 1852) although it is likely there are multiple trackmakers for this ichnogenus such as insects (Rindsberg and Kopaska-Merkel, 2005). In the Mesilla Valley Formation most of these traces are found most often with Ophiomorpha (large morphotype), Skolithos, Diplichnites, and Palaeophycus tubularis. A piece of NMMNH#72005 was sliced and stained to reveal internal structures, and this partially revealed one of these burrows (Fig?). Horizontal laminae are interrupted and fill resembles host- rock, although it is not laminated. This ichnogenus has been reported from Cambrian to recent, and is described from the upper Cretaceous of Utah (Chamberlain, 1978; Howard and Frey, 1983; Frey and Howard, 1985a).

40 A

Figure 4A-B. A) Field photo of a sample that P-72005 was collected from, showing the Arenicolites ichnocoenose of the Skolithos ichnofacies (ichnofabric #3 in this study; arrows = Arenicolites isp.; Op = Ophiomorpha nodosa); B) Close-up of P-72005 showing Arenicolites isp. (Ar) cross-cuttting Ophiomorpha nodosa (Op, large morphotype).

Ichnogenus Bergaueria Prantl 1946 Bergaueria isp. 41 Fig. 5, Fig. 12. Referred specimens: (Fig. 5, 12) P-71992, 5 specimens observed in the field. Description: Plug shaped or conical protuberances preserved in convex hyporelief, with a height equal to or less than the diameter (Alpert, 1973). Diameters range from 8mm to 2cm(Fig. 5). Surfaces of the traces can be smooth or have a depression (show 71992) Transverse section is mostly circular and some specimens have a tranversal constriction (ie Patio 4 photo). Remarks: At least three specimens observed resemble Bergueria aff B. hemispaerica shown in Mangano et al., (2005) and Uchman (1998), but are larger than those they reported. Other specimens of Bergaueria isp. (P-71992 and P-72003) have a central concavity at the bottom end of the trace, which B. hemisphaerica lacks (Mangano et al, 2005). Bergaueria isp. is almost always associated with Lockeia isp. in the Mesilla Valley Fm. We await collection of more specimens before we assign these samples to ichnospecies. Crimes (1970) included Bergaueria as a representative member of the Cruziana or Skolithos trace fossil assemblages (also Buatois and Mangano, 2011). This trace most likely represents the domichnia/cubichnia of an anemone (Pemberton et al., 1988; Uchman, 1998;

Mangano et al., 2005; Pfister and Keller, 2010; Lima and Netto, 2012), and is found in diverse settings from the late Precambrian to recent (Uchman, 1998). Bergaueria isp. plugs can be found in mine tailings on the north side of Cerro de Cristo Rey, being replaced by hematite.

Figure 5. Hypichnial overview of P-71992 showing Bergaueria isp. (Be), Spongeliomorpha isp. (Sp), Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa; small and medium morphotypes), Taenidium isp., Thalassinoides isp. (Th; arrow indicates passive fill) and Lockeia isp. (Lo). This sample represents the Palaeophycus-Spongeliomorpha ichnofabric (#5) from this study.

Ichnogenus Cardioichnus Smith and Crimes 1983 Cardioichnus biloba Kappus and Lucas [in revision]

Fig. 6. Referred specimens: (Fig. 6) P-71976. Description: Bilobate, heart shaped cubichnia preserved in convex epirelief in a bioclastic packstone. Traces are 3.2cm wide, with variable lengths. Three of the 5 traces in P-71976 are compound traces with Scolicia isp. burrows. Remarks: Plaziat and Mahmoudi (1988) illustrated the ichnospecies of this ichnogenus of echinoid resting traces erected by Smith and Crimes (1983). Mayoral and Muniz (2001) added

43 the ichnospecies C. reniformis. The traces described here differ from other ichnospecies of Cardioichnus by having a bilobate terminus, preservation in convex epirelief in a bioclastic packstone, and a lack of central protuberance or groove on the ventral side. For these reasons we proposed a new ichnogenus for these specimens, Cardioichnus biloba (Kappus and Lucas, in review). One of the meandering burrows found in NMMNH P-71976 resembles Fig 4A from Gibert and Goldring (2008) with twists and turns and repeated posterior impressions. One of these posterior impression (have photo) is associated with a fecal blowout through the burrow wall.

Figure 6. Epichnial view of P-71976 showing the holotype and paratypes of Cardioichnus biloba (modified from Kappus and Lucas in review). Three specimens of Cardioichnus isp. are

44 compound fossils with Scolicia isp. This sample represents the Cardioichnus ichnofabric (#7) of this study. Arrow indicates ammonoid fragment.

Ichnogenus Cardioichnus Smith and Crimes 1983 Cardioichnus foradadensis Plaziat and Mahmoudi 1988 Fig. 7 Referred specimens: (Fig. 7) Field photo of 3 specimens, 5 others observed at locality #10167, tentatively P-71977.

Description: Ovate, smooth, elongated, slightly heart shaped cubichnia preserved in convex epirelief in a bioclastic packstone. Traces are ~2cm wide, with variable length depending on degree of exposure by weathering. The sediment immediately surrounding the traces is fine grained relative to the bioclastic debris of the host stratum. Remarks: These traces were first described by Plaziat and Mahmoudi (1988) are found in the same bed as the above mentioned Cardioichnus biloba, and are often replaced by hematite or limonite. So far none of the C. foradadensis specimens have been associated with Scolicia isp.

These traces are reported from the Cretaceous to the Pleistocene (Plaziat and Mahmoudi, 1988).

Figure 7. Photo of uncollected sample showing several specimens of Cardioichnus foradadensis (Ca). This sample represents the Cardioichnus ichnofabric (#7) of this study.

Ichnogenus Chondrites von Sternberg 1833 Chondrites intricatus Brongniart 1828 Fig. 3, Fig. 8, Fig. 12, Fig. 13, Fig. 16, Fig 24. Referred specimens: (Fig. 3, 8, 13, 16, 24) P-71988, P-71990, P-71994, P-71997, P- 71998, also two uncollected at locality #10170.

Description: Small, straight, flattened, dichotomously branching tunnels radiating from a central point, preserved in bed junctions in low angle cross strata (Simpson, 1956). Often these burrows occur in clusters. Burrow fill erodes more quickly than matrix (eg’s P-71983; P-71987; P-71988; P-71998) or is darker than matrix(Fig P- 71994). Individual burrow segments are often

46 found penetrating bedding plane surfaces(chimney structure fig), are 1-1.5mm wide, up to 2 cm long (per segment), with branch at an angle less than 45 degrees. Remarks: Although the ichnotaxonomy of Chondrites is in ongoing revision (Fu, 1991; Uchman et al., 2012), we feel the resemblance of these traces to C. intricatus described in the literature (Simpson, 1956; El-Hedeny et al., 2012; Uchman et al., 2012) is sufficient to warrant ichnospecific designation of the Mesilla Valley specimens. Chondrites is an ichnogenera found in many different environments (Chamberlain, 1978), and has been attributed to several different trackmakers such as annelids, sipunculoid worms, chemosymbiotic bivalves, nematodes, and crustaceans, and sea pens (El-Hedeny et al, 2012), but Simpson (1956) showed that the final form of this trace was preserved as the animal withdrew from a side branch and continued retreating towards the surface, putting to rest the dispute about whether or not this was a root trace. This ichnogenus can be an indicator of anoxic conditions (Bromley and Ekdale, 1984; Ekdale and Mason, 1988; Martin, 2004), and this coincides with the documentation of Oceanic Anoxic Event 1d (OAE 1d) in the Mesilla Valley Formation (Scott et al., 2013). Chondrites isp. has also been reported by Scott et al. (2003) from the Washita Group of central Texas, the upper Cretaceous of Utah (Howard and Fey, 1983; Frey and Howard, 1985a), and the Albian of Alberta, Canada (Male, 1992).

47 A

Figure 8A-B. Photos of Chondrites intricatus. A) Epichnial closeup of P-71988 showing a cluster of Chondrites intricatus (Ch), along with Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa) (large Morphotype) and Ophiomorpha (Op) (medium Morphotype) ; B) Epichnial view of P-71990, showing Chondrites intricatus (Ch) reworking two specimens of Planolites isp. (Pl, composite trace), Skolithos (Sk), and a possible arthropod trackway (Ar) as a compound trace with a Spongeliomorpha isp. burrow (Sp). These samples all belong to the Thalassanoides/Planolites- Chondrites ichnofabric (#6) of this study.

48 Ichnogenus Cochlichnus Hitchcock 1858 Cochlichnus anguineus Hitchcock 1858 Fig. 9 (morphotype A & B), Fig. 12, Fig. 17 (morphotype B), Fig. 23. Referred specimens: (Fig. 9, 12, 17, 23) NNMNH P-71984, P-71986, P-71995, P-71997. Description: Simple, unlined, sinusoidal, unbranched, horizontal burrows preserved in convex epirelief. Burrow fill appears to be the same as the host rock. Two morphotypes of this meandering trace were identified in this study, both with comparable burrow diameters (1.2mm), but the distance between arcs differs. Morphotype A has a repeating wavelength of 8mm and is found on each of the specimens collected, while morphotype B has a longer wavelength of 36mm and is only seen on P-71986(Fig. 17). Specimens occur associated with Diplichnites isp., Treptichnus isp., Thalassinoides isp., and Palaeophycus isp.. One specimen found on NMMNH #71986 is a compound trace trace with Treptichnus isp., and brings into question the relationship between these two traces. Lucas et al. (2010a) also noted a transitional form of this ichnogenus, from sinuous to less-sinuous along the burrow. This variation within one burrow relates the two morphotypes of this ichnogenus found in this study. Remarks: These traces are assigned to Cochlichnus anguineus (Hitchcock, 1858), which is the type ichnospecies of this ichnogenus. This is based on a lack of wall markings or annulations, which are present in the other two ichnospecies of Cochlichnus, C. antarticus and C. annulatus (Buatois and Manganao, 1993; Buatois et al., 1997a). For detailed ichnotaxonomy of this ichnogenus, the reader is referred to Uchman (2009) and Buatois et al. (1997a). In non-marine settings this trace has been interpreted as feeding/grazing trails possibly made by annelids, aquatic oligochaetes, nematodes, or insect larvae (Bordy et al., 2011). Sediment consistency had to be soft enough in order for the trackmaker to penetrate, yet firm enough to resist propulsion force (Elliot, 1985). Most of these traces are found as convex epireliefs, associated with arthropod trackways, similar to the traces in the Triassic Redonda formation described by Lucas et al. (2010a). 49 Cochlichnus anguineus has been described from the Cretaceous of England (Goldring et al., 2005), Spain (de Gibert et al., 2000), and Korea (Kim et al., 2005) and is often associated with arthropod trackways (Goldring et al., 2005; Kim et al., 2005; Uchman et al., 2009). Cochlichnus ranges from the Ediacaran to Recent.

50 9C

Figure 9A-C. Photos showing epichnial view of Cochlichnus anguineus and associated traces. A) a convex specimen of morphotype A (Co) on P-71986, showing what appears to be a sharp, angular turn in the trace, and Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa, small morphotype); B) close-up of P- 71986, showing a compound fossil of convex Cochlichnus anguineus (morphotype A) grading into convex Treptichnus isp., along with a convex specimen and two concave specimens of Treptichnus isp. (Tr). Scale bar is 1cm; C) close-up of P-71986 showing concave Cochlichnus anguineus morphotype A (Ca) and convex morphotype B (Cb), along with two specimens of Protovirgularia isp. (Pr), and two arthropod traces (Ar), one associated with Protovirgularia isp. (Pr).

Ichnogenus Helicodromites Berger 1957 Helicodromites isp. Fig. 10

Referred specimens: (Fig.10) P-72001, and an uncollected specimen from locality #10169. Description: Simple, unlined, corkscrew shaped burrows oriented horizontally and with a generally straight central axis, preserved only in full relief. These traces are preserved in sandy siltstones with hummocky crossbeds, and are revealed by parting of laminae. Burrow fill

51 weathers more easily than host rock, and the tunnel is semi-circular in cross-section (Fig 10). A slight iron oxide halo is visible lateral to the tunnels. The burrow is 5mm in diameter, with an overall trace width of 1.8cm. The distance between successive whorls is 1.6cm. Remarks: This is a rare trace in the Mesilla Valley Fm. and elsewhere (Poschmann, 2014). Due to a lack of specimens, we have not assigned these two traces to an ichnospecies. Helicodromites isp. has been associated with Cochlichnus isp. (Moussa, 1970). This trace is interpreted as the feeding structure of a vermiform, is found in deep and shallow marine settings

(Carmona et al., 2008), and ranges from Silurian to Recent (Poschman, 2014).

Figure 10. Photo of epichnial view of endichnial Helicodromites isp. (He), with arrows showing semi-circular iron halo lateral to the semi-circular tunnel (P-72001).

52 Wrinkle structures ‘Kinneyia’ Aff. ‘Kinneyia’ Fig. 11 Referred specimens: (Fig.11) P-71978, P-71979, P-71980. Description: Closely spaced, fairly regular, steep-walled wrinkles found on the upper bedding plane of horizonally laminated sandy siltstone. Wrinkle crests are sharp, symmetric, and flat-topped, and sometimes branched. Flat troughs separate these wrinkles, forming subparallel sets. Crests are usually 2-3mm wide, with troughs of similar width. Lenghts of troughs and ridges vary but do not exceed 3cm. Remarks: Kinneyia is one type of microbially induced sedimentary structure, also described as “wrinkle structures” by Porada and Bouougri (2007). The specimen described here occur exclusively at the tops of bedding planes in fine grained sandstones with horizontal/low angle cross bedding, similar to all those described in the literature (Mata and Bottjer, 2009; Porada et al., 2008). These wrinkle structures are tentatively assigned to the ichnogenus Kinneyia, despite the dispute about their origin (Porada et al., 2008). Noffke (2009) calls them microbially induced sedimentary structures. Thomas et al. (2013) experimentally reproduced a Kinneyia-like geometry in siliciclastics, which could be justification for keeping an ichnogeneric designation. Kinneyia has been associated with arthropod trackways (Diplichnites isp., in Prescott et al., 2014) and has been reported from the Archean to recent (Porada et a., 2008).

Figure 11. Photo of epichnial view of three samples of Kinneyia (left to right, P-71979, P-71980 and P-71978). Note the presence of Spongeliomorpha sublumbricoides cross-cutting Kinneyia on sample P-71980.

Ichnogenus Lockeia James, 1879

Lockeia isp. Fig. 5, Fig.12 Referred specimens: (Fig.5, 12) P-71983 (terminal chamber), P-71992, P-71995. Description: Convex, hypichnial, bilaterally symmetrical, almond-shaped cubichnia that stands out from the bedding plane. The exterior of the trace is smooth, and ends in a sharp termination. These traces vary in size and exposure, but the almond-shaped specimens are usually 8mm wide and 1.5cm long (ie Fig. 5).

Remarks: Three ichnospecies have been described in this ichnogenus, Lockeia siliquaria James 1879, Lockeia serialis Seilacher and Seilacher 1994, and Lockeia ornata (Mangano, 1998; Paranjape et al., 2013). We did not observe enough specimens to justify ichnospecific designation of these traces. Some “terminal chambers” observed in this study (ie P-71997)

54 resemble bivalve traces, and are similar in size to the bivalve Protocardia sp. observed/reported in the area (Bose, 1910; Lucas et al., 2010). One specimen photographed in the field (Fig. 12B) resembles Lockeia siliquaria (Radley et al., 1998) and also is a compound fossil with a repichnia. This “locomotion trace” may be attributable to Protovirgularia (Ekdale and Bromley, 2001), which shows a wide variety of preservation styles (Carmona et al., 2008; Carmona et al., 2010). Without visible internal structures we hesitate to assign this locomotion trace to the ichnogenus Protovirgularia

(Fernandez et al., 2010). This locomotion trace and Lockeia were both reworked by Cochlichnus isp.in convex hyporelief (Fig. 12B). This particular trace also shows a preferred orientation parallel to current direction as indicated by flute casts and prod marks. This was also reported by Masakazu (2003). The name Lockeia is a senior synonym for Pelecypodichnus (Maples and West, 1989) and ranges from Ordovician to Recent (Ekdale, 1988). Lockeia was reported from the Lower Cretaceous of England by Radley et al. (1998) and Goldring et al. (2005), and the Upper Cretaceous of Wyoming by Clark (2010).

55 12A

12B

Figure 12A-B. Photos of different cubichnia attributable to Lockeia isp.. A) Photo of P-71997 showing terminal chambers assigned to Lockeia sp. (Lo), along with Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa) of the medium morphotype. This photo also shows a large burrow we attribute to Thalassinoides isp. with a rounded, mineralized terminal chamber (TC). This sample represents the Thalassinoides/Planolites-Chondrites ichnofabric (#6) of this study; B) Field photo showing Lockeia isp. (Lo) as a compound trace with a burrow, both being reworked by Cochlichnus

56 anguineus (Co). This sample most likely represents the Palaeophycus-Spongeliomorpha ichnofabric (#5) of this study, due the presence of a locomotion trace associated with Lockeia isp. and Bergaueria isp (Be).

Ichnogenus Ophiomorpha Lundgren 1891 Ophiomorpha nodosa Lundgren Fig. 4, Fig. 8, Fig. 13 Referred specimens: (Fig. 4, 8, 13) P-71988, P-72005. Description: Simple cylindrical tunnels with knobby, pelleted walls. Overall trace width ranges from 8-30mm, and lengths vary from 3cm to 8cm. Pellets weather out of the burrow walls quickly, and range in size from 1-2mm and are irregular and polygonal. The larger specimens have more poorly preserved walls and pellet morphology. These larger traces often span the slab upon which they are preserved. Remarks: Three ichnospecies have been described from this ichnogenus, including Ophiomorpha annulata Ksiazkiewicz 1977, Ophiomorpha irregulaire Frey, Howard & Pryor 1978, and Ophiomorpha nodosa (Frey and Howard, 1985b). Based on the morphology of the pelleted walls, we assign these traces to Ophiomorpha nodosa. Two morphotypes of O. nodosa were identified in this study. Morphotype 1 is small and rare, and is found reworking another Ophiomorpha (P-71988). Morphotype 2 is larger (2.5-3cm wide) and is preserved in concave epirelief (P-72005; fig 4b.).

Ophiomorpha has been reported from the Lower Cretaceous Vectis Formation (Stewart et al., 1991) and has an overlapping morphology with Gyrolithes and Ardelia (Frey et al., 1978; Bromley and Frey, 1974), but has been taxonomically differentiated from taxa such as

Thalassinoides and Spongeliomorpha (Yanin and Baraboshkin, 2013). Ophiomorpha is considered an indicator of shallow marine conditions until the mid-Cretaceous, when it migrated to the deep-sea (Tchoumatchenco and Uchman, 2001). Ophiomorpha is considered to be a member of the Skolithos ichnofacies (Ekdale et al, 1984; Buatois and Mangano, 2011) and is often associated with tempestites (Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997). This ichnospecies has

57 also been reported from the upper Cretaceous of Wyoming (Clark, 2010), Utah (Howard and Frey, 1983; Frey and Howard, 1985b), Texas (Henk et al., 2002), and New Mexico (Pillmore and Maberry, 1976).

13A

58 13B

Figure 13A-B. Photos of Ophiomorpha nodosa. A) Epichnial overview of P-71988 showing convex O. nodosa (Op), Chondrites (Ch), endichnial Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa, large morphotype), and convex Treptichnus isp. (Tr); B) Photo of concave, epichnial O. nodosa (Os, small morphotype) reworking O. nodosa large morphotype (OL) from sample P-71988. This sample belongs to the Palaeophycus-Chondrites-Ophiomorpha ichnofabric (#1) of this study.

Ichnogenus Palaeophycus Hall 1847 Palaeophycus tubularis Hall 1847 Fig. 5 (all three morphotypes), Fig. 8, Fig. 12, Fig. 13, Fig. 14, Fig. 18, Fig. 19, Fig. 20, Fig. 21, Fig. 24. Referred specimens: (Fig. 8, 12-14, 18-21, 24) P-71981, P-71977?, P-71983 (also another reworked by smaller size P. tubularis), P-71985, P-71986, P-71987, P-71991? (collapsed?), P- 71992, P-71993, P-71996, P-71997 (both sizes, also lining visible in one photo), #71999 (not Planolites like on info card), P-72000, P-72002, P-72003, P-72004.

59 Description: Simple, predominantly unbranched, distinctly lined burrows that are cylindrical or elliptical in cross section. They are either inclined or horizontal and sediment fill is the same as the host lithology. Three morphotypes have been identified in this study. First is a small morphotype with burrow diameter of 1-2mm(ie P-71997). The second is a medium morphotype with burrow diameters of 4-6mm (ie P-71997). After weathering, it is difficult to see the burrow lining of these two morphotypes. The last morphotype is larger (~1cm diameter) and has thicker walls, but not as thick as P. heberti (ie Fig 14., P-71998).

Remarks: Some specimens of the medium morphotype are partially collapsed (ie P- 72004), probably due to incomplete filling by host sediment. The taxomony of Palaeophycus has been well established and reviewed by Fillion and Pickerill (1990) Keighley and Pickerill (1995) and Buckman (1995). This is a ubiquitous, facies crossing ichnotaxa ranges from the Precambrian to Recent (Fillion and Pickerill, 1990). It is interpreted as a domichnia (Dam, 1990; El-Hedeny et al., 2012).

60 Figure 14. Photo overview of P-71995, showing Spongeliomorpha isp. (Sp), small Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa), P. heberti (P.h), P. striatus (Ps), and Taenidium (Ta). This sample belongs to the Palaeophycus-Spongeliomorpha ichnofabric (#5) of this study.

Palaeophycus Hall 1847 Palaeophycus heberti da Saporta 1972 Fig. 14. Referred specimens: (Fig. 14), P-71995, and 2 specimens observed in the field. Description: Simple, isolated, inclined to vertical Palaeophycus isp. with smooth walls and a very thick burrow lining. Burrow diameter is 8mm, with a lumen that is 3mm wide. Burrow lining I makes up for at least half of the diameter of the trace (Fig. 14; P-71995). Wall filling is darker than the host rock, and the central tube appears to be the same lithology as the host rock. Remarks: This burrow was only identified where it intersected the upper bedding plane. The burrow lining is darker than the host rock or burrow lumen, which is the opposite of the description by Frey and Howard (1985a). Only one size grouping of this trace was recognized. P. heberti has been described from shallow and deep marine environments in the upper Cretaceous of Utah (Howard and Frey, 1983; Frey and Howard, 1985b) and from the lower Cretaceous of Bulgaria (Tchoumatchenco and Uchman, 2001).

Ichnogenus Palaeophycus Hall 1847 Palaeophycus striatus Hall 1852 Fig. 14, Fig. 15

Referred specimens: (Fig.14, 15) P-71992, P-71993, P-71995, P-71996, many specimens observed in the field at locality #10169. Description: Hypichnial, horizontal or inclined, straight or slightly curved, longitudinally striated but unlined burrows with massive fill that is similar to the host rock. These traces are

61 found isolated, but can also form dense, monospecific assemblages (ie P-72000). Burrows are 8mm-1.2cm wide, and individual striations are continuous, and generally .6-1mm in width. Remarks: P. striatus is described and illustrated by Goldring et al. (2005) and Mangano et al. (2005) as well as Paranjape et al. (2013). These authors show specimens in isolation and in monospecific assemblages. The Mesilla Valley specimens are found isolated (P-71995), in groups, or as monospecific assemblages (P-72000), which is evidence for opportunistic behavior (Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997). Goldring et al.(2005) noted that some of these burrows superficially resemble the nonmarine trace Scoyenia, and we also noted this in sample (P-71995). These were not attributed to Scoyenia because of the continuous, longitudiunal scratch marks, and as Goldring et al. (2005) also noted, the absence of meniscate backfill. This burrow has been interpreted as a domichnia/fodichnia (Lucas and Lerner, 2004) and is also known from the Smeltertown Fm. at Cerro de Cristo Rey (Lucas et al., 2010), and the lower Cretaceous of England (Goldring et al., 2005).

15A

62 15B

Figure 15A-B. Photos of monospecific assemblage of Palaeophycus striatus. A) Close-up of P- 71993, arrows indicated striations; B) Overview of P-72000. These samples belong to the the Palaeophycus striatus ichnofabric (#4) of this study.

Ichnogenus Planolites Nicholson 1873

Planolites isp. Fig. 3, Fig. 8, Fig. 16, Fig. 23C. Referred specimens: (Fig. 3, 8, 16, 23C) P-71983, P-71990, P-71994, P-71998. Description: Cylindrical, horizontal or inclined, unlined, smooth walled burrows with fill that differs from the host rock. Several specimens observed have a meandering pattern. Burrow diameter is 1-1.3cm. Remarks: Planolites is distinguished from Palaeophycus by the absence of a lining and the presence of fill differing from the host lithology (Pemberton and Frey, 1982), Several specimens we have identified as Palaeophycus isp. herein resemble hypofaunal Planolites isp. previously described, but the Mesilla Valley burrows are filled with the same lithology as the siltstone to which they are still attached, and in many cases are found to be still lined. Planolites is an actively filled paschichnia, as opposed to Palaeophycus which is a passively filled

63 domichnia (Pemberton and Frey, 1982). We generally reserved the designation “Planolites” for burrows preserved as endichnia, or partial endichnia. Sample number P-71983 contains Planolites isp. being reworked by Chondrites isp. in hummocky crossbedded siltstone/sandstone (Fig. 16A). Sample number P-71998 shows Planolites isp. being reworked by Anchorichnus isp. (Fig. 3). P-71990 does not have smooth walls, but resembles Planolites isp.. Finally, P-71994 is Planolites isp. from the western portion of the study area (locality #10169) with coarser grained, bioclastic fill. This has been reported elsewhere (Buatois and Mangano, 2002). This ichnogenus has also been reported from the Washita Group of Texas (Scott et al., 2002), the upper Cretaceous of Utah (Frey and Howard, 1985b), and the Albian Bluesky Formation (Male, 1992). Planolites is interpreted as a fodichnia (Pfister and Keller, 2010) and a paschichnia (Dam, 1990) and is described from Precambrian to Recent (Alpert, 1975). This ichnotaxon has been described from the upper Cretaceous of Texas (Henk et al., 2002), New Mexico (Pillmore and Maberry, 1976), and Wyoming (Clark, 2010).

64 16A

16B

Figure 16A-B. Photos of Planolites isp. A) Epichnial view of endichnial traces in P-71983, showing a tunnel (horizontal) and shaft (vertical) of Planolites isp. (Pl, note lighter color of burrow fill) being reworked by Chondrites intricatus (Ch); B) Hypichnial view of P-71994 showing endichnial traces Taenidium isp. (Ta), bedding plane Chondrites intricatus (fill darker

65 than host rock), Planolites isp. with bioclastic fill (Pb), and Chondrites intricatus reworking a shaft of Planolites isp. (Pc). These samples represent the Thalassinoides/Planolites-Chondrites ichnofabric (#6) of this study

Ichnogenus Protovirgularia Protovirgularia sp. Fig. 9, Fig. 17, Fig. 23. Referred specimens: (Fig. 9, 17, 23), NMMNH #71984, NMMNH #71985, #71986. Description: Curved, unbranched, epichnial trace consisting of two parallel rows of linear or teardrop-shaped imprints oriented oblique or perpendicular to a medial groove. The lateral imprints are somewhat disorganized and vary in shape and size, often within one specimen (Fig. 23). Sometimes the lateral imprints are anastomosing and join the medial groove, and other times they are clearly separated from it. The lateral impressions are almost always associated with a sediment bulge. Overall width of the trackways is 5-6mm, with lateral linear imprints extending 2-3mm away from the medial groove, which is .1-1mm wide and continuous. Internal widths vary from zero to 1.5mm (Fig. 23A). All specimens of this trace are short.

Two specimens (found on P-71986; Fig. 23) contain portions at the end of the trace without a medial groove, showing that the lateral impressions are deeper into the substrate. Also, two specimens from P-71986 are associated with what appear to be arthropod body traces (Fig 23A). P-71985 contains two traces that appear to converge (Fig 23B).

Remarks: These traces resemble “chevronate-“ and “feather-stitch trails” shown by Buta et al. (2013), as well as Protovirgularia sp. shown by Ekdale and Bromley (2001), Nara and Ikari (2011), Kim et al. (2000), and Carmona et al. (2010). Several species of

Protovirgularia have been described, including P. bidirectionalis (Mangano et al., 2002), P. rugosa (Miller and Dyer, 1878), and P. dichotomata (McCoy, 1980). Our specimens superficially resemble P. dichotoma, but they also resemble arthropod trackways such as Dendroidichnites sp., which has also been noted by Carmona et al. (2010). Unlike the Protovirgularia sp. of Carmona et al. (2010), our specimens are not associated with Lockeia sp.

66 Instead our traces are associated with what appear to be arthropod resing traces (Fig 23). Poor preservation, small number of specimens, and resemblance to arthropod trackways deterred us from assigning these traces to an ichnospecies. Seilacher and Seilacher (1994) attributed this trace to the feeding activity of photobranch bivalves, using their split foot to tunnel through the sediment (Carmona et al., 2010).

Figure 17. Photo close-up of P-71984, showing Skolithos (Sk), Arenicolites isp. (Ar), Protovirgularia isp. (Pr), and poorly preserved example of Cochlichnus anguineus (Co) morphotype A. This sample belongs to the Arthropod tracks-Arenicolites-Skolithos ichnofabric (#2) of this study.

Ichnogenus Scolicia de Quartrefages 1849

67 Scolicia isp. Fig. 6. Referred specimens: (Fig. 6) P-71976, P-71977, P-71988. Description: Simple, horizontal, twisting and meandering burrows of variable width (1- 3cm) and length, preserved in convex epirelief. Several specimens show a clear, single drain tube 1-2mm in diameter. Four specimens observed are compound fossils with Cardioichnus isp. (P- 71976, P-71977).

Remarks: We assign these burrows to the ichnogenus Scolicia because of their strong association with Cardioichnus isp. and the presence of at least one drain or sanitary tube (Nichols, 1959; Bromley and Asgard, 1975; Bernardi et al., 2010). Two of these burrows have walls that were breached by the drain tube, possibly due to difficulty maneuvering through the gravel sized clasts in the packstone. Uchman (1995) revised the classification, nomenclature, and spatial interpretation of echinoid burrows and included Taphrhelminthopsis, Subphyllochorda, Taphrhelminthoidia and Laminites in this ichnogenus. Scolicia is found in marine environments (Buatois et al., 2008) and ranges from Jurassic to Recent (Bromley and Asgaard, 1975; Carmona et al., 2008). It has been described from the upper Cretaceous of Utah (Howard and Frey, 1983).

Skolithos Haldeman 1840

Skolithos isp. Fig.17, 23C. Referred specimens: (Fig. 17, 23C) P-71984, P-71985, P-71986?, P-71987? (described here as a chimney structure), P-71990. Description: Vertical, cylindrical, unlined/unornamented shafts, preserved in concave epirelief or as endichnia. Openings are typically 5-6mm in diameter, and depths are generally unobserved in cross section. Sediment fill always weathers faster than host rock, so it probably finer grained. 68 Remarks: Although an indicator of high energy conditions, this burrow is commonly associated with storm deposits within typical Cruziana assemblages(cite). This may be because the Skolithos isp. tracemaker was escaping upward during deposition of the tempestites, or because the tracemaker simply excavated a domichia after deposition. The latter makes more sense, mainly because there is no evidence of Skolithos isp. in an equilibrium community before/after deposition of tempestites (in the shales). Skolithos has been described often in the literature, and ranges from Pre-Cambrian to

Recent (Howard and Frey, 1975; Carmona et al., 2008). It is also a very common ichnogenus in coastal settings (MacEachern et al., 2012). Simpson (1975) interpreted these burrows as fugichnia, but they could also be domichnia or even fodichnia.

Ichnogenus Spongeliomorpha Saporta 1887 Spongeliomorpha isp. Fig. 5, Fig. 8, Fig. 14. Referred specimens: (Fig.5, 14) P-71995 (two different morphotypes), P-71996, P-71999.

Description: Isolated, convex, hypichnial, inclined burrows in half-relief with abundant linear scratch marks (“biglyphs” of Gibert and Elkdale, 2001) covering the burrow walls and floor. Scratch marks are incuse and stand out as a pattern of ridges form the outer surface of the trace. Burrows are simple and oval in cross section (Fursich et al., 1981). The trace width varies, but is 1-6cm wide and is at least 6cm long. Individual scratch marks very in with from .5-1.5cm, and up to 1.5cm long. Remarks: There are 6 ichnospecies of Spongeliomorpha (cite), including S. iberica, S. sudolica (Zareczny 1878), S. sicula (D’Alessandro and Bromley, 1995), S. sinuostriata and S. chevronensis (Muniz and Mayoral, 2001), S. oraviense (Ksiazkiewicz 1977), and finally S. carlsbergii (Melchor et al., 2010), based on ichnotaxobases outlined by Fursich (1973) which were amended by Melchor et al. (2010). This ichnotaxon is restricted to the horizons marking a lithologic change, and are considered to have formed in mud firmground before the deposition of 69 shallow marine carbonates (Gibert and Ekdale, 2010), but has also been reported from the Cruziana ichnofacies (Fursich, 1973; Ekdale, 1992; Schlirf and Uchman, 2005; Niedzwiedzki et al., 2014)). We do not see any other evidence of dewatering or firmground, but the presence of Kinneyia in the Mesilla Valley does hint at very shallow water conditions and it is possible that firmground colonizers of the Glossifungites ichnofacies are present in this unit. We reserve this interpretation until more evidence of an erosional surface (Gibert and Ekdale, 2010) is found, or until more firmground ichnotaxa are described within the Mesilla Valley Fm.

It has been shown that this trace has considerable overlap in morphology with Ophiomorpha, Thalassinoides, Gyrolithes, and Ardelia (Frey et al., 1978; Schlirf, 2005) to that extent that Bromley and Frey (1974) even recommended abandoning this ichnogenus. However, Melchor et al. (2010) demonstrated that the ichnotaxobases for Spongeliomorpha produced by Fursich (1973) can be used to differentiate between this ichnogenera. Spongeliomorpha has been reported from the Permian to Recent (Carmona et al., 2008). The trackmaker was most likely a decapod crustacean (Asgaard et al., 1997), or at least an animal capable of scratching the firm mud (Gibert and Ekdale, 2010).

Ichnogenus Spongeliomorpha Spongeliomorpha oraviense Ksiazkiewicz 1977 Fig. 18.

Referred specimens: (Fig.18) NMMNH #72003, NMMNH #72004. Description: Larger, unbranched Spongeliomorpha isp. with thick, irregular scratch marks oriented transverse to the burrow axis. Burrows vary in width from4-6cm, with coarse scratchmarks of variable width. Remarks: These two specimens are tentatively assigned to S. oraviense based on the absence of branching, and the large, irregular scratch marks oriented oblique to transverse to the burrow axis (Uchman, 1998; Muniz and Mayoral, 2001). These traces are found in isolation and are always hypichnial, and are included in the Glossifungites ichnofaces (Buatois and Mangano, 70 2011). We did not find any other evidence of firmground ichnogenera. It is possible that the tracemaker stamped the ridges we interpret to be “scratchmarks.” Spongeliomorpha ranges from Permian to Recent (Carmona et al., 2008).

18A 18B

Figure 18A-B. Photos of Spongeliomorpha oraviense (Sp), preserved in convex hyporelief. A) P- 72003; B) P-72004, with S. oraviense and the medium morphotype of Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa). These samples belong to the Spongeliomorpha-Palaeophycus ichnofabric. These samples belong to the Spongeliomorpha-Palaeophycus ichnofabric (#8) of this study.

Ichnogenus Spongeliomorpha Spongeliomorpha sublumbricoides Fig.11, Fig. 19.

71 Referred specimens: P-71985, P-71980 (Fig. 11 ), P-71995(beneath a P.striatus at edge), P-71996 (next to P. striatus). Description: A smaller, inclined, branched Spongeliomorpha with short, very fine scratch marks oriented oblique to the burrow axis (Uchman, 1998). This burrow is always preserved in partial hyporelief, and is slightly inclined, so the scratchmarks are revealed as it enters hyporelief. Some specimens terminate in a smooth, rounded chamber that is unlined and unscratched. Burrow width is 7-9mm, but is variable as are the lengths.

Remarks: These traces are smaller than other Spongeliomorpha burrows identified in this study, and burrow terminations are “knobby”, as shown by Uchman (1998). Figure 19 shows one of these scratchless, rounded terminations.

19A

72 19B

Figure 19A-B. Photos of Spongeliomorpha sublumbricoides preserved in convex hyprelief A) Close-up of P-71995, showing S. sublumbricoides (Sp), Palaeophycus striatus (Ps), Taenidium isp.(Ta), and Palaeophycus tubularis (Ps and Pm represent small and medium morphotypes, respectively). Scale bar is 1cm; B) Close-up of P-71996, showing branched S. sublumbricoides (Sp) with knobby burrow termination (indicated by arrow), Palaeophycus striatus (Ps), and the medium morphotype of Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa). These samples belong to the Palaeophycus-Spongeliomorpha ichnofabric (#5) of this study.

Ichnogenus Taenidium Taenidium isp. Fig.14, 16, 19, 20,

Referred specimens: (Fig. ) P-71981, P-71992, P-71995. Description: Unwalled, winding, curved, basically cylindrical, meniscated filled burrow with a horizontal to inclined orientation. Overall trace width is 6-10mm. Meniscae are heterogeneous, not deeply arcuate, segmented or packeted, and vary in thickness from 2-4mm. In

73 all specimens meniscae are always thicker towards the center of the burrow. Two specimens were found to be cross-cut/reworked by Palaeophycus tubularis (P-71981; P-71992). Remarks: Four ichnospecies of Taenidium have been established. The ichnospecies T. serpentinium (Heer 1877), T. satanassi, and T. cameronensis were reviewed and revised by D’Alessandro and Bromley(1987), who also added a fourth ichnospecies, T. barretti. Keighley and Pickerill (1994) also revised the taxonomy of Taenidium, in relation to Beaconites and Anchorichnus, which are both meniscate as well. Samples P-71981and P-71995 described here resemble T. satanassi illustrated by D’Alessandro and Bromley (1987) and shown by Rotnicka (2010), and sample P-71992 resembles T. serpentinium illustrated by D’Alessandro and Bromley, 1987), but we did not assign ichnospecies because of an insufficient number of specimens and poor preservation of those encountered. Vertical examples of this burrow were not found as in other studies (ie Keighley and Pickerill, 1997; Good, 2013). Taenidium is generally regarded as a nonmarine trace (Keighley and Pickerill, 1994) of a deposit feeder (Kulkarni et al., 2008) and is a member of the nonmarine Scoyenia ichnofacies although it has also been found in shallow marine settings(Buatois and Mangano, 2011).

Keighley and Pickerill (1994) suggested an arthropod for the tracemaker based on association with other arthropod traces such as Cruziana and Hexapodichnus. Taenidium ranges from Cambrian to Recent (Crimes et al, 1992; Carmona et al., 2008), and has been reported from the upper Cretaceous of Utah (“Muensteria” of Howard and Frey, 1983; Bracken and Picard,

1984; and Frey and Howard, 1985b) and Wyoming (Clark, 2010), and the Cretaceous of Alabama (Savrda et al, 2000).

74 20A

20B

Figure 20A-B. Photos of Taenidium isp. A) epichnial view of P-71981 showing endichnial of Taenidium isp. (Ta) being reworked by the medium-sized morphotype of Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa). Arrows indicate meniscae; B) epichnial view of P-71992 showing horizontal, poorly preserved, endichnial Taenidium isp. (Ta), apparently cross-cut by convex/concave small 75 morphotype of Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa). These samples belong to the Palaeophycus- Spongeliomorpha ichnofabric (#5) of this study.

Ichnogenus Thalassinoides Ehrenberg 1944 Thalassinoides isp. Fig. 5, 12, 21. Referred specimens: (Fig. 5, 12A, 21) NMMNH #71982?, NMMNH #71983, NNMNH #71989, NNMNH #71990, NMMNH #71992, NMMNH #71997, NMMNH #72002.

Description: Mostly horizontal, regularly branched tunnel that is subcircular in cross section and has passive fill. These burrows are preserved as epichnia, hypichnia, and endichnia, but most commonly has hypichnia. Burrow width varies highly, but is usually 1.5cm. Burrow segments between branches range from 6-8cm in length, and the burrow does not widen noticeably at the junctions. Remarks: Many ichnospecies of Thalassinoides have been reported and their taxonomy and validity is in need of review (Yanin and Baraboshkin, 2013). For this reason we did not assign many of these burrows to ichnospecies. Specimens preserved in finer sediments (siltstones) contain isolated scratchmarks and trample fill (see also Frey and Howard, 1985a), or show bedding of passive fill. One very small specimen (Fig. 21) observed at locality #10170 appears to be Thalassinoides isp. based on its morphology and preservation, but is extremely small, with a burrow diameter of 1mm, and segments 2-3mm long with no swelling at the Y-shaped branches. The smallest burrow diameter we could find in the literature is 7mm (El-Hedeny et al., 2012). Thalassinoides is reported from Cambrian to Recent (Bromley, 1996), and is usually attributed to decapod crustaceans (Carmona et al., 2008). Crayfish fossils have also been discovered in these burrows (Yanin and Baraboshkin, 2013). This ichnogenus has been reported throughout the Washita Group of Texas (Scott et al., 2002), in the Albian of Alberta, Canada

76 (Male, 1992), the upper Cretaceous of Texas (Henk et al., 2002), New Mexico (Pillmore and Maberry, 1976), Wyoming (Clark, 2010), and Utah (Howard and Frey, 1983).

21A

21B

Figure 21A-B. Photos of Thalassinoides isp. A) Epichnial view of P-71989 showing Thalassinoides isp., filled with bioclastic debris (dominated by Cribratina texana, with Turritela

77 sp. (Tu) burrow system is outlined in white); B) hypichnial view of tiny convex burrows we attribute to Thalassinoides isp. (Th), along with a specimen of the medium-sized morphotype of Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa). This sample belongs to the Thalassinoides/Planolites-Chondrites ichnofabric (#6) of this study.

Ichnogenus Thalassinoides Ehrenberg 1944 Thalassinoides paradoxicus Woodward 1830 Fig. 22. Referred specimens: P-71983, P-71989, P-71997, several uncollected samples.

Description: Large, hypichnial, irregularly branched Thalassinoides with short, blind tunnels or terminal chambers and distorted X-shaped, or trident-shaped branching, not T- or Y- shaped. Burrows are often 3cm in diameter (up to 10cm) and have been observed over 40cm long (Fig 22B). Remarks: Several specimens of Thalassinoides observed in this study were distinctive with an irregular branching pattern, smaller terminal chambers, and often with bioclastic fill. The amount of bioclastic fill in these tunnels decreases towards the east. Figure 22 compares two field photos from localities #10168 and #10170 to demonstrate this. One sample collected (P-71997) has its own large, rounded terminal chamber that has been mineralized with limonite and gypsum (Fig.12). Mineralization in terminal chambers is common and may be related to a concentration of organic material there. This sample also contains two smaller, lateral terminal chambers. One of these looks like a resting trace of the local bivalve Protocardia sp. first described in the area by Bose (1910). The other is less distinctive. This ichnogenus has been reported from every continent, and ranges from Cambrian to recent (Carmona et al., 2008).

78 22A

22B

Figure 22A-B. Photos of Thalassinoides paradoxicus (Th) in convex hyprelief. A) Uncollected sample from NMMNH locality #10170, showing bioclastic fill (burrow system outlined in white, note Neithea sp.); B) the largest sample of T. paradoxicus (Th, uncollected) found in this study. This sample is from NMMNH locality #10168 (note the lack of bioclastic fill, and the X-shaped branching). Both of these samples belong to the Thalassinoides/Planolites-Chondrites ichnofabric (#6) of this study.

79 Ichnogenus Treptichnus Treptichnus isp. Fig. 9, Fig. 13, Fig. 23 Referred specimens: (Fig. 9, 13, 23), P-71986, P-71988. Description: Simple, unlined, smooth, zigzag trace with straight segments between joints which meet at an obtuse angle. No vertical tubes, pits, or twiglike projections were noted in these specimens. Specimens preserved in convex and concave epirelief. Burrow width is 1-2mm and lengths vary from 2-4cm. Lengths of burrow segments is between 1.5-1.8cm Remarks: The taxonomy of Treptichnus was revised by Buatois and Mangano (1993) and is discussed in Buatois et al. (1998). This ichnogenus contains several species (T. bifurcus Miller, 1889; T. triplex Palij, 1976; T. lublinensis Paczesna, 1986; and T. pollardi Buatois and Mangano, 1993), and our specimens most closely resemble T. pollardi, proposed by Buatois and Mangano (1993). However, the absence of pits or nodes on these traces causes us to hesitate with ichnospecific designation. Several traces found on P-71986 preserved in concave epirelief resemble T. bifurcus reported by Ridsberg and Kopaska-Merkel (2005), but again lack the twiglike projections at the joints. Similar traces have been also reported from the late Carboniferous of Kansas (Buatois et al., 1997). One specimen we collected (Fig. 9; P-71986) is a compound fossil with with Cochlichnus anguineus. There has been shown to be overlap in the morphology of these two traces (Buatois et al., 1998). Treptichnus has been interpreted as a feeding trace(fodichnia) and ranges from earliest-Cambrian to Eocene (Buatois and Mangano, 1993; Buatois and Mangano, 2011).

80 23A

23B

81 23C

Figure 23A-C. Photos of traces tentatively assigned to Protovirgularia isp.(Pr), preserved in concave epirelief (see also Fig.17). A) Close-up of P-71986 showing three trackways, two of which are associated with arthropod resting traces (Ar), poorly preserved Cochlichnus anguineus (Co), and concave Treptichnus isp. (Tr).; B) Close-up P71985 showing Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa) two arthropod trackways (De) apparently converging; C) Close-up of P-71985, showing one arthropod trackway (De) possibly a compound trace with Planolites isp. (Pl), Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa), and Skolithos isp. (Sk). These samples belong to the Arthropod tracks- Arenicolites-Skolithos ichnofabric (#2) of this study.

Arthropod resting traces Fig. 9, Fig. 23A. Referred specimens: (Fig. 9, 23A), P-71986.

82 Description: Bilaterally symmetrical, elongate resting trace with two parallel rows of 3 impressions preserved in convex epirelief. The trace is three pairs of thoracic appendage imprints which are symmetrically opposite of one another and show reduction of size towards the posterior end. Traces are both 1.8mm long and taper from 5mm down to 3mm wide. Remarks: These traces resemble the central region of other well preserved arthropod resting traces such as Tonganoxichnus isp. figured in Buatois et al. (1998, Fig. 12), Buatois and Mañgano (2011), Mañgano et al (2007), and Getty et al. (2013). We have compared these with the Buildex specimens, and although there is resemblance between the thoracic appendage imprints, the Cristo Rey specimens are not preserved well enough to warrant assignment to an ichnogenus. Both specimens are associated with traces we are assigning to Protovirgularia sp. both are found at the end of the Protovirgularia traces, with chevrons opening in the direction of the resting traces. It is possible these are not arthropod traces, but instead record the behavior of a bivalve. Nonetheless we note the similarity between these and those reported from the late Carboniferous of Kansas (Buatois et al., 1997).

Chimney Structure Figure. 24 Referred specimens: (Fig. 24) One on P-71987

Description: Lobed, epichnial sediment mounds surrounding a burrow entrance on the upper bedding plane of a massive sandy siltstone. Sediment mounds are the same lithology as the host rock, but the burrow fill is different than the host rock. Burrow width is 6-7mm and internal structures were not visible, but due to the presence of sediment mounds, we can ascertain that this was not an escape structure. It was most likely the domichnia of a marine arthropod. Remarks: These resemble the ruptured sediment mounds at the top of bubbler crab burrows shown by Chakrabarti et al. (2006; Fig 3). Yanin and Baraboshkin (2013) show a schematic structure of callianassid burrows and illustrated a “waste bank” pile which also 83 resembles this structure. Hasiotis and Dubiel (1993) associate chimney structures with the burrow Camborygma, but these are much larger than the specimen discussed here. Desai (2016) classified epichnial mounds present on the bedding plane as Chomatichnus isp. Additional specimens from the Mesilla Valley Fm. may aid in classification of this epichnial sediment mound.

Figure 24. Photo of epichnial view of P-71987, showing a chimney structure (C), possibly Chomatichnus isp., and the medium-sized morphotype of Palaeophycus tubularis (Pa), both appear to be cross-cut by Chondrites intricatus (Ch). This sample belongs to the Palaeophycus- Chondrites-Ophiomorpha ichnofabric (#1) from this study.

4. Discussion 4.1 Ichnofabric Analysis Ichnofabric analysis aids in environmental reconstruction and interpretation (Frey and

Howard, 1985). Most of the bioturbated deposits show repetitive patterns and associations of trace fossils. These have been grouped into 8 ichnofabrics, but it is important to note that the same strata vary laterally in grain size, bedding, and bioturbation intensity, so their assignment to a particular ichnofabric depends on which outcrop the unit was observed. In general, outcrops to the east provide higher ichnodiversity. Outcrops to the west also consistently have more

84 bioclastic debris than outcrops to the east, which coincides with a N-S shoreline in the area and a clastic source to the west, suggested by Kappus because of an E-W bimodal orientation of trough cross-strata in the overlying Mojado Fm. (2007, unpublished Masters Thesis). Several of the bioturbated units we observed/collected did not adequately fit the description of any groups described below, but all samples contain members of the Cruziana ichnofacies as described by Buatois and Mangano (2011).

1. Palaeophycus-Chondrites-Ophiomorpha ichnofabric – Figure 13, Figure 23 The first ichnofabric is represented by epichnial Palaeophycus tubularis (all three Morphotypes described herein), Ophiomorpha (Small Morphotype), and Chondrites intricatus. It is found in siltstones with horizontal laminations and hummocky cross-strata at the tops of beds. Ophiomorpha nodosa is cut by Palaeophycus tubularis, which is cross-cut by Chondrites intricatus. Sample P-71987 contains an epichnial chimney structure, which appears to be cross- cut by Chondrites intricatus (Fig 24). This is evidence for a post-tempestite, equilibrium fauna consisting of Chondrites intricatus. Samples P-71987, P-71988 (and many others observed in the field) are included in this ichnofabric.

2. Protovirgulari-Arenicolites-Skolithos ichnofabric –Figure 17 The second ichnofabric is found on the ripple sculpted tops of horizontally laminated silty-sandstones. Ripple are symmetrical and sinuous, showing current in one direction. All samples contain Protovirgularia, Arenicolites, and Skolithos, with secondary Palaeophycus (Small and Medium Morphotypes), Cochlichnus isp. and Treptichnus isp. This ichnofabric appears to be one group of beds approximately 2 m below the contact with the Sarten Member, but more detailed stratigraphy is needed. All examples were collected at NMMNH locality #10168. It appears that Cochlichnus isp. cross-cuts Treptichnus isp. (P-71986), but this is tentative. We include samples P-71984, P-71985, P-71986 in this ichnofabric.

85 3. Arenicolites ichnocoenose of Skolithos Ichnofacies – Figure 4 The third ichnofabric is simple, contains Arenicolites isp. and Ophiomorpha nodosa (Large Morphotype), Skolithos(?) and is preserved in massive to hummocky cross stratified sandstones with ripple-sculpted upper bedding planes(Fig 4). This ichnofabric strongly resembles the Arenicolites ichnocoenose described by Bromley and Asgaard (1979; 1991) and MacEachern et al. (2012). This ichnocoenose is known for its low ichnodiversity (MacEachern et al., 2012), dominated by Arenicolites and Ophiomorpha, with hummocky cross-strata in the upper portion of the bed. It has been reported from numerous units including the Triassic of Greenland (Bromley and Asgaard, 1979), the Devonian of Antarctica (Bradshaw et al., 2002), and the Cambro-Ordovician of Wales (Droser et al., 1994). At Cerro de Cristo Rey, Arenicolites isp. cross-cuts Ophiomorpha nodosa in this ichnofabric. This assemblage was observed at locality #10168. Sample P-72005 (+ field photo “ophiomorpha and arenicolites”) is included in this ichnofabric.

4. Palaeophycus striatus ichnofabric – Figure 15

The fourth ichnofabric is mostly monospecific and hypichnial, with densely clustered, semi-parallel Palaeophycus straitus burrows, and secondary P. tubularis (this could simply be weathered P. striatus). It is not uncommon to find densely populated, monospecific assemblages in the Cruziana ichnofacies, and this probably records an opportunistic fauna exploiting organic rich material after a storm event. P. straitus cross-cuts itself, but a relationship with P. tubularis could not be established. Three samples observed fit the description of this ichnofabric, but only #71993 and #72000 represent monospecific assemblages.

5. Palaeophycus-Spongeliomorpha ichnofabric – Figure 5, 20 The fifth ichnofabric has a higher diversity than the others, with dominant hypichnial Palaeophycus striatus, P. tubularis (small and medium Morphotypes), P. heberti, Spongeliomorpha isp., and also with epichnial and hypichnial P. tubularis and Taenidium. 86 Several specimens of Lockeia isp. and Bergaueria isp. are found with this ichnofabric. Bergaueria isp. represents an equilibrium community. The samples P-71981, P-71991, P-71992, P-71995, P-71996, and others observed in the field are included in this ichnofabric.

6. Thalassinoides/Planolites-Chondrites ichnofabric- Figure 3, 21, 22 The sixth ichnofabric is found in massive and finely laminated sandy siltstones. Traces are dominated by large Thalassinoides isp. and T. paradoxicus, as well as epichnial/endichnial

Chondrites isp. and Planolites isp.. In the western portion of the study area, the Thalassanoides isp. and Planolites isp. burrows are filled with bioclastic debris (dominated by Cribratina texana), but in the eastern portion there is little to no bioclastic debris in these same ichnotaxa (Fig field photo of huge Thalass). Two specimens show Planolites isp. reworked by Chondrites isp.(P-71983, P-71990) or Anchorichnus isp. (P-71998). This is the second piece of evidence in this study for a Chondrites isp. equilibrium fauna in the shales, which would have penetrated into deeper tiers, namely the tempestites below. Samples included in this assemblage are P-71983, P- 71989, P-71990, P-71994, P-71997, P-71998, P-72002, and others observed in the field (Fig.

22). One sample observed at locality #10168 contains the largest Thalassinoides burrow found in this study (Fig. 22). A similar ichnofabric was described by Bayet-Goll et al. (2016) from the upper Cretaceous of Iran (Thalassinoides/Chondrites), and also from the Jurassic of Norway by

McIlroy (2004) with Thalassinoides and Planolites associated with Chondrites.

7. Cardioichnus ichnofabric – Figure 6, 7

The seventh ichnofabric is found in bioclastic packstones at locality #10167, and consists of Cardioichnus isp. and Scolicia isp. Bioclastic fragments are large, and Scolicia burrows meander as the echnoids worked their way through the bioclastic debris, evidently seeking out the top of the bed, because this is where all resting traces in this ichnofabric were found. NMMNH P- 71976, P-71977, and an uncollected field specimen are all classified under this ichnofabric. 87

8. Spongeliomorpha-Palaeophycus ichnofabric Fig 14. This ichnofabric contains hypichnial Spongeliomorpha isp. and Palaeophycus tubularis (medium and large Morphotypes). No other traces have been observed in this ichnofabric. Samples included in this ichnofabric are P-71999, P-72003, and P-72004.

We interpret each of the ichnofabrics described here as belonging to the Cruziana ichnofacies, with ichnofabrics #1 and #2 containing ichnotaxa from the Skolithos ichnofacies. Tempestites in shales like those in the Mesilla Valley Fm. have been associated with the Cruziana ichnofacies (Pemberton et al., 1992; Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997; Mangano et al., 2005). Like our samples, they show a dominance of paschichnia and repichnia (ie Fig. 8, 13), opportunistic forms actively seeking food sources (ie Fig. 23) or deposit feeders exploiting the nutrient rich shales below (ie Fig. 15). Ongoing field work at the contact between the Mesilla Valley and the overlying Sarten Member of the Mojado formation shows a vertical change in Cruziana ichnotaxa and ichnofabrics, and a vertically increasing influence of the Skolithos ichnofacies, coinciding with progradation of the delta into the area (Lucas et al., 2010). It is likely that ichnofabric analysis will show a stratigraphic boundary between these two units.

4.2 Proximal Cruziana Ichnofacies Overall, this diverse ichnoassemblage contains a variety of ethological categories including repichnia (cursichnia), fodichnia and paschichnia, fixichnia and cubichnia, as well as domichnia. There is a dominance of horinzontal structures, with a secondary influence of vertical or inclined elements. Taxa represent the proximal Cruziana ichnofacies (Seilacher, 1967; Buatois and Mangano, 2011; MacEachern et al., 2012), with secondary elements of the Skolithos ichnofacies. Both of these ichnofacies intergrade, and are well-represented by modern analogues (MacEachern et al., 2012).

88 The Cruziana ichnofacies was first described by Seilacher (1967) and refined by others (Frey and Seilacher, 1980; Frey and Pemberton, 1984). It is characterized by a dominance of simple, superficial/shallow trace fossils combining locomotion, grazing, and dwelling structures, with very few escape structures. This trace fossil association suggests the activities of mobile carnivores and deposit feeders exploiting nutrient rich, fine-grained sediments (Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997). Cruziana is a high-diversity, high individual-density ichnofacies (Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997). Similar assemblages showing Skolithos influence in

Cruziana assemblages are described from the Cretaceous of Utah (Frey and Howard, 1985b), Alberta Canada (Pemberton and Frey, 1984; Raychaudhuri et al., 1992), Colorado (Jackson, 2014), Iran (Bayet-Goll et al., 2015), the Jurassic of Western India (Fursich, 1998), the Ordovician of Argentina (Aceñolaza and Aceñolaza, 2002), Overall, the Mesilla Valley Fm. at Cerro de Cristo Rey contains a background assemblage of Thalassinoides isp., Paleophycus tubularis and P. striatus and Planolites isp. along with subordinately common occurances of Chondrites intricatus., Diplichnites isp., Ophiomorpha nodosa., Spongeliomorpha isp., and Arenicolites isp..

4.3 Importance of Tempestites Study of the trace fossils and their host lithology within the Mesilla Valley Fm. has revealed details about the paleoenvironment and paleoecology of the area during late-Albian time. Dark grey to olive-colored, anoxic, organic rich, marine shales make up the majority of the Mesilla Valley Fm., punctuated by storm deposits of siltstones/sandstones which are often bioclastic and/or bioturbated with angular sand grains (Lucas et al., 2010). These storm deposits are massive, horizontally laminated, or contain hummocky cross strata. Individual bed thickness varies but is usually between 5-30cm. Beds closer to the upper contact are found in bundles. These sandy siltstones have sharp, often fluted bottoms (where unbioturbated) indicating erosive bases (Aigner, 1985; Frey and Goldring, 1992; Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997). These are characteristics of storm deposits described by several authors (Howard, 1978; Dott and 89 Bourgeois, 1982; Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997), and these storm beds are also called “tempestites” (Seilacher, 1982). Tempestites represent fluctuations in depositional energy and sedimentation rate and often have distinct proximal and distal signatures (Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997). They show the onset, culmination, and waning of water turbulence during an event, and they change the ecological situation for benthic organisms by redistributing sediment and organic material (Seilacher, 1982). Dott (1983) argued that most of the sedimentary record represents episodic deposition such as this. Trace fossils in the Mesilla Valley Fm. are mostly hypichnial, with the tops of beds being ugly, bioturbated and gradational, as conditions and sedimentation returned to normal (Pemberton et al., 1992). Our observations show that most of these tempestites in the Mesilla Valley Fm. are bioclastic and coarse-grained to the west, while being finer grained with higher ichnodiversity to the east. In addition, several of the passively filled trace fossils in the west also contain bioclastic fill, but these same traces contain finer grained fill to the east (ie Thalassinoides isp., Planolites isp.). Differences from west to east in lithology, trace fossils, and geochemistry needs to be further investigated. So far trace fossils have only been observed in the tempestites, and not yet in the shales. This preservation bias has been described from the Cretaceous elsewhere (Frey and Howard, 1990). It shows that not only did the storm events transport sediment into the area, they also supplied oxygen to a dysoxic system. The opposite has also been described, with relatively unbioturbated tempestites in the presence of a diverse equilibrium fauna in the shales (Gingras et al., 2007). Traces restricted to the tempestites likely represent an opportunistic (“r-selected” of

Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997) fauna that was introduced during storm-related deposition (Ekdale, 1988; Taylor and Goldring, 1993; Pemberton et al., 2001; MacEachern et al., 2007). Traces in the shales would represent a fair weather, or equilibrium fauna (“K-selected” of Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997). The shales are finely laminated, and so evidence of bioturbation should be obvious. The only pieces of evidence for an equilibrium fauna in the 90 shales are multiple examples Chondrites traces on the upper bedding plane of NMMNH #71987 (and #71988), Chondrites reworking other forms such as Planolites isp. and Palaeophycus isp., and also the presence of Bergaueria isp. in convex hyporelief on a few samples (Fig 5, Fig 12).

4.4 Importance of Benthic Dysoxia The low number of equilibrium fauna observed (Chondrites isp., Bergaueria isp., Thalassinoides isp.?) might be the result of dysoxic conditions at the sea floor (Ekdale and

Mason, 1988; MacEachern et al., 2007), specifically from oceanic anoxic event 1d (OAE 1d), which was recently described from the upper Mesilla Valley at Cerro de Cristo Rey by Scott et al. (2013). Scott (2003) also correlated the east Texas Paw Paw Fm. with the latest Albian Breistroffer Interval, a time of organic rich sedimentation and probably part of OAE1d. As mentioned above, and often in the literature, Chondrites is associated with anoxia in sediments, and the Mesilla Valley Fm. also supports this. This formation preserves a dysaerobic ichnoassemblage which has been linked to independent evidence for benthic oxygen conditions. This important for truly understanding the relationship between dysoxic conditions and its affect on ichnotaxa present (Martin, 2004). In fact, the identification of OAE1d in this unit was the first step in a multidisciplinary approach to the paleoenvironmental conditions of the area during latest Albian time. Interestingly, Scott et al. (2013) show that OAE1d was not a simple event, but instead had a dysoxic precursor. Detailed stratigraphy and correlation of ichnofabrics may confirm this. There are a few other examples of impoverished fauna in the lower Cretaceous, and these include the Wilrich Member (Spirit River Formation) of Alberta, Canada (Bann and Ross, 2014),

The Choshi Group (Katsura et al., 1984). This has also been reported from the Jurassic (Kulkarni at el., 2008). In contrast, and interestingly, one study of ichnofauna during the lower Toarcian (Jurassic) oceanic anoxic event showed little evidence for anoxia in the ichnofauna (Rodriguez- Tovar and Uchman, 2010), so it is possible that the low-diversity equilibrium fauna in the Mesilla Valley Fm. has another explanation. 91

5. Future Work Detailed stratigraphic sections and correlation of tempestites (storm events) within the Mesilla Valley Formation would aid in the interpretation of ichnofossils at Cerro de Cristo Rey. Some excavation and rock slabbing is sure to reveal additional ichnotaxa, particularly those that weather away quickly after exposure or are yet undiscovered within certain units. This could also aid in detailed characterization of OAE1d within this formation.

Also, the upper contact of the Mesilla Valley Fm. was arbitrarily placed at a 30cm bed thickness (Strain, 1976), and later redefined by Lucas et al. (2010) as “first traceable sandstone of typical Mojado lithology.” Detailed ichnology and ichnofabric analysis are presenting a more precise stratigraphic location for the contact with the overlying Mojado formation, as noted by others (Taylor and Goldring, 1993; Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997). Finally, recent recognition of an OAE in the Mesilla Valley Fm. also warrants further detailed study of this unit comparing geochemistry and detailed biostratigraphy (and ichnofabric analysis). This has important implications for understanding the dysoxic shelf during late Albian time. It also can aid characterizing the Mesilla Valley Fm. as a hydrocarbon source rock (see also Arthur and Schlanger, 1979), particularly for petroleum plays in the Chihuahua trough sediments of northern Mexico.

92 Chapter 3: A New Ichnospecies of Cardioichnus from the Cretaceous (Albian) of New Mexico

Abstract A new ichnospcies of Cardioichnus, Cardioichnus biloba isp. nov., is described and documented from shallow marine strata of Cretaceous (late Albian) age in southern New Mexico, USA. It is a heart-shaped resting trace with a bilobate terminus, and the tracemaker is a sptangoid echinoid, most likely Heteraster d'Orbigny, 1853.

1. Introduction The ichnogenus Cardioichnus, erected by Smith and Crimes (1983), is a cubichnia (resting trace), typically preserved in positive hyporelief, or negative epirelief. It is generally ovoid in shape, with two bilaterally symmetrical lateral lobes that are linked with a depressed, V- shaped region. The morphology of this trace strongly resembles the size and shape of the organism that made it, and it has been attributed to spatangoid echinoids (Smith and Crimes,

1983). This relationship is well documented in the literature (e. g., Howard et al., 1974; Bromley and Asgard, 1975, Smith and Crimes, 1983; Kanazawa, 1992; Plaziat and Mahmoudi, 1988; Mayoral and Muniz, 2001; Belaústegui, 2015). The ichnogenus Cardioichnus currently has four named ichnospecies. These are C. planus, C. ovalus, C. foradadensis, erected by Smith and Crimes (1983), and C. reniformis named by Mayoral and Muniz (2001). Here, as part of an ongoing study of trace fossils from the Albian strata at Cerro de Cristo Rey in southern New Mexico, we add to this ichnodiversity a new ichnospecies of Cardioichnus.

2. Location and Geologic Setting The study area is located on the northern slopes of Cerro de Cristo Rey, Doña Ana County, New Mexico, USA, preserved in shallow marine Cretaceous sediments that were uplifted by a Tertiary igneous intrusion (Lovejoy, 1976). The sample was collected from an

93 outcrop of the upper Albian Mesilla Valley Formation at NMMNH (New Mexico Museum of Natural History) locality 10167, along Cristo Rey road. Lucas et al. (2010) described the Mesilla Valley Formation at Cerro de Cristo Rey as a shale-dominated unit, assigned to three informal members. Interbeds of fossiliferous sandstone and siltstone in this formation represent storm deposits, and often contain bioclastic debris. The bed from which the trace fossils described here were collected is intercalated in the black shale of the upper member near the gradational base of the overlying Mojado Formation. A distinctive ichnospecies of Cardioichnus is preserved in bioclastic packstone, containing bivalve shell debris, with bioclasts often larger than 3 cm in diameter.

3. Systematic Ichnology Cardioichnus Smith and Crimes 1983

Cardioichnus biloba isp. nov. (Figs. 1A-B; 2C) Holotype: NNMNH P-71976A, cubichnia in convex epirelief; Paratype: NNMNH P- 71976B, cubichnia in convex epirelief Type locality: NMMMNH locality 10167 Type horizon: Bioclastic packstone with silty matrix of the upper part of the Mesilla Valley Formation (late Albian) (Lucas et al., 2010).

Etymology: From the combination of the Latin prefix bi- and the word loba, referring to the two prominent lobes at the terminus of this trace. Occurrence: Albian (Cretaceous). It occurs within the black shales at the top of the upper member of the Mesilla Valley Formation, immediately above the stratigraphic level of Oceanic Anoxic Event 1d (OAE 1d), which is dated at 97.3-97 Ma (Scott et al., 2013). Diagnosis: Cardioichnus with a bilobate terminus, and an obvious heart shape. The two terminal lobes are rounded and pronounced, and are separated by a V-shaped depression that does not extend far onto the dorsal surface. The ventral surface is unmarked. There are no scratch 94 marks associated with this trace. All specimens are preserved in convex epirelief, and 3 of the 5 specimens are compound trace fossils with Scolicia isp. Description: Bilobate convex epireliefs with bilateral symmetry and an overall heart shape (Figs. 1A-B, 2C). The lobes are adjacent to the terminal, V-shaped depression and are distinct, rounded, and broad. The ventral area is flat and unmarked. The axial groove extending from the V-shaped depression does not extend far onto the dorsal surface. Remarks: We consider the above-described features to be of sufficient ichnotaxonomic value to propose a new ichnospecies, Cardioichnus biloba. It differs from C. planus, C. ovalis, and C. foradadaensis in its length/width ratio, with the latter two ichnospecies being more elongate than C. biloba. C. planus is more quadrate than C. biloba, and is found with the posterior end at the terminus of the trace, whereas C. biloba is found with the anterior end at the terminus in all specimens. C. biloba is similar to C. reniformis in its length/width ratio and terminal geometry, but the latter is deeply lobed at the anterior and posterior ends. Also, C. reniformis has a central depression and protuberance, which are absent in C. biloba (Fig. 2). The V-shaped depression of C. biloba resembles that of C. planus, but is deeper and more pronounced than in C. ovalis or C. foradadaensis. C. reniformis has a deeper V-shaped depression, which extends into an axial groove on the anterior, unlike the other ichnospecies. C. biloba is also the only ichnospecies of Cardioichnus preserved exclusively in convex epirelief in a bioclastic packstone. Although Bromley and Asgaard (1975) reported Cardioichnus from “all types of sediment of all oceans from the littoral zone to depths of several thousands of metres,” many authors describe these traces from sandstones and sandy siltstones (Mayoral and Muniz, 2001; Plaziat and Mahmoud, 1988; Pfister and Keller, 2010; Zecchin et al., 2010) or limestones (Gibert and Goldring, 2008; Monaco et al., 2005). Other ichnospecies of Cardioichnus are also associated with, or compound ichnotaxa with well-preserved forms (Subphyllochorda; Taphrhelminthopsis), which Uchman (1995) regarded as different taphonomic variants of Scolicia isp. Cardioichnus biloba is instead associated with a highly variable, poorly preserved, non-meniscate burrow with one central drain 95 tube (Kanazawa, 1995) preserved in convex epirelief, which is identified here as Scolicia isp., despite the fact that Plaziat and Mahmoudi (1988) state this burrow is restricted to convex hyporeliefs.

4. Interpretation Cardioichnus biloba isp. nov. is interpreted as the resting trace of a spatangoid echinoid constructed at the end of a poorly preserved epifaunal convex burrow (Scolicia isp.). The echinoids Heteraster d'Orbigny, 1853 , Hemiaster Desor 1847, Phymosoma Haime 1853, Globator Agassiz, 1840 have all been described from the Mesilla Valley Formation in New Mexico and west Texas (Böse, 1910; Kues and Lucas, 1993), but Cardioichnus biloba most closely resembles Heteraster in morphology. Cardioichnus biloba is bilobate only at its terminus, which is the impression of the ambulacrum, or anterior end of the echinoid. This is interpreted as a resting trace in life-position, with the posterior end of the resting trace associated with the burrow and drain tube of Scolicia isp. Therefore, C. biloba represents an upward pointing resting trace of the echinoid in life position after burrowing upwards (Kanazawa, 1992), unlike the other ichnospecies in this ichnogenus, which represent turn-around resting traces (C. planus, Smith and Crimes, 1983), downward digging and resting (C. reniformis, Mayoral and Muñiz, 2001), or are more ovate and continuous within associated burrows of Scolicia isp. (Smith and Crimes, 1983; Plaziat and

Mahmoudi, 1988; Pfister and Keller, 2010). Based on this interpretation, it appears that “Cardioichnus sp.” shown in Monaco et al. (2005, fig. 6A) can be assigned to C. biloba.

5. Conclusions The ongoing study of middle Cretaceous trace fossils at Cerro de Cristo Rey has resulted in the recognition of a new ichnospecies within the ichnogenus Cardioichnus, named C. biloba. It is a bilobate resting trace with a heart-shaped outline. The lobes are pronounced and rounded,

96 and always found at the terminal end of the trace. This ichnospecies is also associated with poorly preserved, non-meniscate Scolicia, which contains one central drain tube.

97 Chapter 4: A Pedagogy for the Cerro de Cristo Rey Dinosaur Tracksite: Hiking trails, Self-guided Tours, and Virtual Visits

Abstract The Cerro de Cristo Rey dinosaur tracksite was discovered in 2002 on a hillside regularly used for informal geoscience education. Although quickly preserved, the site has not been developed. We designed and constructed 7km (4.3mi) of interpretive trails covering over 200 acres, and installed 20 plaques with QR codes linking visitors and their cell phones to educational content about the geology and history of the area. Virtual visitors can also visit these same trails using Google Earth® software on their personal computer, tablet, or cell phone. Each of the trail stops contains content which interprets the view at that spot, instilling a greater understanding of the El Paso urban area, and stimulating a sense of place and belonging. This trail system compliments the Catholic trail up to the top of Cerro de Cristo Rey, which receives over 50,000 visitors annually. Trails were promoted through field trips, presentations, and teacher workshops. There is still need for further development at the Cerro de Cristo Rey dinosaur tracksite and protection for the dinosaur tracks, which have now been preserved for 13 years.

1. Introduction The Cerro de Cristo Rey (CCR) dinosaur tracksite sits on the flanks of a solitary hill which straddles the international border in El Paso, TX and Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico (Kappus and Cornell, 2003; Figure 1).

Figure 1. Location map of Cerro de Cristo Rey, New Mexico, USA and Chihuahua, Mexico (modified after Lovejoy, 1976; Norland, 1986; Belle, 1987).

The tracksite consists of at least 8 track-bearing localities in Texas, New Mexico, and Chihuahua (Mexico), with approximately 210 acres in New Mexico preserved (Kappus et al., 2011). This 210 acre, “boomerang” shaped tract of land (Figure 2) has long been used by the

99 University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) for Geology field trips. In fact the senior author discovered dinosaur footprints at the site during one of these UTEP Geology classes.

Figure 2. Dinosaur Trail Map for the Cerro de Cristo Rey Tracksite. Map is approximately 1.1 miles (1.77 km) wide.

This area contains many fossils including an estimated 1000 dinosaur footprints, with thousands more easily accessible just below the surface. This outdoor classroom is located only 2 miles from UTEP and downtown El Paso. It can be argued this site is one of the most important geological field education sites in the El Paso region due to its quality of outcrop, diversity of stratigraphy and structure, and proximity to UTEP and downtown El Paso.

2. Background

100 2.1 Research Cerro de Cristo Rey has also been a destination for Geology research since the early 1900’s (ie Richardson, 1909; Bose, 1910) and continues to reveal much about the El Paso region during the middle Cretaceous period (e.g. Strain, 1968; Strain, 1976; Mauldin, 1985; Cornell et al., 1991; Cornell, 1998; Kappus et al., 2003; Lucas et al., 2010; Scott et al., 2013; Kappus and Lucas, in review) and afterwards with Laramide folding, Eocene intrusion and uplift (Hoffer, 1970; Garcia, 1970; Lovejoy, 1976; Norland, 1986; Belle, 1987, Carciumaru, 2008). The discovery of over 1000 dinosaur footprints (Kappus and Cornell, 2003) and subsequent studies (Kappus et al., 2003; Kappus and Hernandez, 2004; Kappus et al., 2011) helped renew research interest in the area and to ensure the possibility of preserving and protecting this urban Geology field site, and it was donated to a local museum in 2003. Studies of the invertebrate ichnology of the CCR dinosaur tracksite are ongoing (Kappus and Lucas, in prep) and are reported in this dissertation.

2.2 Education Informal Geoscience Education (ISE) at the CCR tracksite probably began with the opening of the nearby State School of Miners and Metallurgy in 1913 (now UTEP), but UTEP geology professor William Strain officially started using the site in 1955 when mining moved further south (Cornell, personal comm.). Education continued with field trips for stratigraphy and structural geology classes led by Earl Lovejoy, who eventually published a seminal monograph with William Strain on the structure and stratigraphy of Cerro de Cristo Rey (cf. Cerro de Muleros) based on field reconnaissance they did during field classes (Lovejoy, 1976). Other professors from UTEP also utilized this site for research and masters dissertations (eg’s

Mauldin, 1985; Norland, 1986; Belle, 1987; Turnsek et al., 2003). Currently at least 16 different UTEP Geology classes and introductory geology labs visit Cerro de Cristo Rey each semester to view igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, folds, faults, as well as many types of shallow marine body and trace fossils. Upper division classes from UTEP also visit the site for hand-on experiences with more advanced concepts such as 101 marine transgression, ptygmatic folding, and contact metamorphism. Also, over 200 private groups visit the site each year through the museum or local clubs and organizations, mostly to visit the dinosaur tracks. Geology classes from UTEP that visit the CCR tracksite include Physical and Historical Geology, Geoscience Processes, Paleontology, Mineralogy, Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Structural Geology, and Summer Field Camp. El Paso Community College (EPCC) also uses the site for Introductory Geology field trips and enrichment programs, such as their Border to Beltway program, in which students are exchanged with Northern Virginia Community College for field experiences. Even the Border Patrol agents watching the area are inspired by the fossils in the area and engage in self-directed learning experiences in the field and online, researching fossils they found. The site inspires people to participate in Informal Science Education.

3. Pedagogical Background 3.1 Informal Science Education and Geoantiquities The value of self-directed field experiences in science education was first argued by John

Dewey (1938) and Informal Science Education (ISE) continues to be a topic of publications (Krishnamurthi and Rennie, 2013; Bartley et al, 2009; Bonfield, 2014) and funded research such as the ISE program of the National Science Foundation which focuses on Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) fields of education (Ucko, 2008). Field areas are important parts of Earth science education, and pedagogies for these field sites should be published. One spectacular example is the Trail of Time at Grand Canyon National Park (Karlstrom et al., 2008), which was conceptualized and constructed by a team of scientists and educators as part of a new generation of educational geoscience exhibits (Karlstrom et al., 2008). This exhibit focuses on giving visitors a better understanding of Geologic Time, or “Deep Time.” Urban sites that record environmental change and have educational value such as the CCR dinosaur tracksite were coined “Geoantiquities” by Chan et al. (2003) as part of a public information campaign to argue for the preservation of the Stockton Bar, an urban paleoshoreline 102 they were using as a field site in Utah, USA. This information campaign was successful in mobilizing residents and resulted in preservation (Chan, 2009). Geoantiquities are local, easily accessible places and are also ripe with research and educational potential (Chan, 2004). Recognition of these urban landscapes is only the first step. The next step is to promote preservation for future generations (Chan and Godsey, 2004; Chan, 2009) through education and development of educational materials (ie Atwood et al., 2004). These are already underway for the CCR dinosaur tracksite.

Geoantiquities, by nature of being a local area rich in science education resources, also have the potential to be used to instill a sense of place and meaning in visitors, if one does not already exist. A “sense of place”, as defined by Semken is “a set of meanings of and attachments to places that are held by individuals or groups” (2005, p149). Place based education also builds upon the cultural history of an area to promote an interest and feeling of connection in students. Place based education can best use Geoantiquities to reach students as well as local residents by building personal inspiration and meaning. Interpretive hiking trails also combine cognitive and kinesthetic learning (Karlstrom et al., 2008). The interpreted view adds an affective element as well. At the CCR tracksite visitors walk up and down hills and through canyons, while stopping to learn about local geology, history, or ecology. Some stops are sobering, for example Stop 12 (Figure 2), which is on the old Smuggling Trail, and other stops are more visually inspiring, such as Stop 20, where over 100 dinosaur footprints can be viewed (Figure 2). Figure 3 is an example of the content from this site, along with the corresponding QR code.

103

Figure 3. Trail Content Example from Stop 20, alongside its corresponding QR code (try scanning it).

3.2 A Sense of Place: Cerro de Cristo Rey The Cerro de Cristo Rey tracksite already has a rich cultural history and visitors frequently express that they feel this area is an important cultural and historical local landmark. Before a statue of a crucifix was erected on the top, the hill was called “Cerro de Muleros” after the mule herders that would keep their animals there as they took a break from traveling on the Camino Real, or Santa Fe Trail. The Apache would hide on the hillside above this same trail and raid caravans of people traveling north into New Mexico, so the hill was also called Apache Peak

104 for some time (Fred Morales, personal comm.). Smugglers traveled through the area until the 1990’s using trails that can still be seen today, and these rock-line paths were included in the trails we designated (Stop 12, Fig. 2). These same trails, and all canyons in the area, are currently littered with footprints, water bottles, and clothes from undocumented immigrants still crossing over the mountain to this day. Each year there are two religious pilgrimages to the top, with the hike in April being the largest crowd for any event in the region, with up to 50,000 people attending! It is obvious Cerro de Cristo Rey already has a cultural significance and meaning for local Hispanics. This is an important element for planning Informal Science Education for this ethnic group (Bonfield, 2014), especially here in El Paso, which is about 80% Hispanic (US Census Bureau, 2015). Because of its proximity to UTEP and downtown El Paso, the diversity and abundance of trace and body fossils, relative lack of development, and rich cultural history, we feel Cerro de Cristo Rey is the premier site in the El Paso region for inspiring youth to explore science and their local environment. This was the justification for creating trails with self-guided, experiential content, so that visitors could personally explore and gain and in-depth understanding of this place. These are critical components place-based education (Semken, 2004). One example of place-based education is the Route 66 road log (Mathis et al., 2013). These authors show how place-based teaching and geological interpretation have many similarities and give good recommendations about helping visitors form a connection with the landscape. This also a critical component of place-based education. Another spectacular example of place-based geoscience education is the Trail of Time exhibition at Grand Canyon National Park (Karlstrom et al., 2008). This is the world’s largest informal geoscience exhibition, where visitors can walk a 2km long walking trail and stop to learn about geologic time and the stories rocks tell. This exhibit adds a new set of meanings and attachments to the site, which is defined as a “sense of place” (Semken, 2005). We also developed trail content specifically to introduce visitors to new elements of the area and to provide meaningful experiences that they will want to share with their friends and family. 105 One of the most important elements of engaging the Hispanic community in ISE and place-based education is the use of Spanish terms and names for objects and landmarks (Bonfield, 2014, Meyer et al., 2012). Currently we are developing an entirely separate set of content in Spanish.

4. Technology and Visualization in ISE Visualization is vital to learning about the natural sciences and making them accessible

(Libarkin et al., 2002). This is the idea behind self-guided hiking trails for the purpose of ISE. We have integrated technology and data from the CCR dinosaur tracksite in three different ways for this, 1) Hiking Trails, 2) Self-guided Tours, and 3) Virtual Visits. Each of these we hope will not only provide ISE experiences, but also help visitors to experience that science is a continuous, life-long process (Krishnamurthi and Rennie, 2013) as they connect concepts on their own out on the trail.

4.1 Hiking Trails After over 10 years of taking groups out to the CCR tracksite, making observations, and performing reconnaissance, 7 kilometers of interpretive trails have been designated and/or installed on the 210 acres currently owned by Insights El Paso Science museum. Like the Trail of Time, there are educational stops marked along the way with educational content about that area and what can be viewed from there.

The trail begins at the center of the property, on the access road. There were already roads and large parking lots from previous mining activity, so these were incorporated into the trail system and marked as parking (Figure 2). Retired rock quarries are of particular importance at this site because it is in the quarries where one finds all the best exposures of dinosaur tracks and other geologic structures. The trail is covers the entire 210 acres, utilizing pre-existing animal trails, historical smuggling trails, and mining roads. Very few new trails were cut into this already impacted area. These new trails were planned with switchbacks, and to pass by areas of interest such as fossil collecting localities (ie “Fossil Hill”, Figure 2). 106 4.2 Self-Guided Tours Each year about 200 groups visit the site, most of these without a guide or interpreter. We felt that the informal groups also deserved opportunities for science education, so we developed two separate sets of educational content for 20 trail stops. These sets of content are simple and visual, and interpret the view for visitors through their cellular phone (Fig. 3). This self-guided experience and choice of learning material is an essential component in ISE (Krishnamurthi and Rennie, 2013).

The first set of content is linked via QR codes which navigate the visitor’s cell phone to our webpage, with relevant interpretive information about that stop on the trail. The view is interpreted through labeled photos or illustrations. The trail map (Fig. 2) has stops ordered numerically, originating from the entrance to the property. There are large parking lots that were created during development of the site for mining, and these lots have been integrated into the map, so guests know where to leave their car. From this central location inquiring hikers can follow the trail numerically, with an option in the middle to stop early and walk back to the car. Figure 4 is a photo of Dinosaur Trail Stop 1, including the QR code signpost, and trail lined with rocks.

107

Figure 4. Photo of Stop 1, showing the QR code and trail.

4.3 Virtual Visits The second set of content for these trails is in the form of kmz files, compatible with Google Earth™ software. Using Google Earth™, teachers, students, and anyone else can take virtual tours of the interpretive trails at the Cerro de Cristo Rey dinosaur tracksite. Figure 5 is an overview screen-shot of this content.

108

Figure 5. Screenshot from Google Earth®, showing all the trail stops for both the east and west loops of the dinosaur trails.

The software uses aerial photos as a base, and the kmz file adds the trail map (with stops), as well as clickable content. Virtual visitors can run freely over the landscape, investigating sites of interest, or follow the trail and view the content in numerical order. This content can also be accessed through the cell phone app “Google Earth Mobile™”, and visitors can physically hike the designated trails and use the GPS on their cell phone in conjunction with the Google Earth Mobile APP to view this second set of educational content for the trails. Although it is possible to view this content remotely on a cell phone, we feel that it is best viewed remotely on a PC such as a laptop or tablet. The upcoming Teacher Workshop will introduce teachers to Google Earth™ which is afree software, so that they can take their entire classroom on a Virtual Visit to the CDR dinosaur tracksite.

5. Promoting the CCR Dinosaur Trails 109 We used a 3-tiered approach to promoting the dinosaur trails, Guided Tours, Community Presentations, and Teacher Workshops. We have also modified a field trip survey from Orion (1991) and added questions about Sense of Place, in order to greater understand the factors that influence learning at the CCR tracksite.

5.1 Guided Tours Field trips were led to the site and participants were introduced to the trails, the content, and also the dinosaur tracksite. These groups include school groups from Irvin and El Dorado

High Schools (where both the authors have taught, respectively), local clubs such as the Texas Master Naturalists and Girl Scouts, and local field trip organizations such as Celebration of Our Mountains, which offers free nature field trips in the El Paso region. Visitors from these groups expressed overwhelmingly positive feedback about the trips and many claimed they would return with friends or family, especially because they could learn on their own at each stop and teach others. These students were much more likely to pull out their cell phones and scan QR codes during the trip than members of other groups. Texas Master Naturalists, Celebration of Our Mountains, and other clubs and organizations also visited the CCR dinosaur trails and helped with trail construction and promotion. A leg of trail was also connected to a local restaurant and farmers’ market, Ardovino’s Desert Crossing, and four hikes were promoted and led from the restaurant on Saturdays during the farmers’ market. The hike was so popular that we began to book a second hike immediately after.

5.2 Community Presentations Powerpoint presentations about the CCR dinosaur tracksite and trails were shown to many local organizations and clubs to promote awareness of the site, an essential component of preservation and development (Chan, 2004). These clubs and organizations include Insights El Paso Science Museum, Tom Lea Institute, Osher Lifelong Learning Institute, El Paso Public Library, UTEP Geology classes, EPCC Geology classes, and El Paso Independent School District. The presentation was modified based on comments from viewers, and is now also used to accompany Teacher Workshops. 110 5.3 Teacher Workshops Atwood et al. (2004) describe materials and Teacher Workshops developed by a local not-for-profit organization, based on their local geoantiquities site. They used data collected from Stockton Bar to create a workshop focusing on shoreline processes, climate change and uniformitarianism (Atwood et al., 2004). The senior author also developed three place-based, hands-on lesson plans based off data from the CCR dinosaur tracksite and presented these at Teacher Workshops offered to local school teachers through organizations including Region 19, El Paso Independent School District, Canutillo School District, Socorro Independent School District, and The University of Texas at El Paso. The goal of these lesson plans are, 1) to inspire local youth about their geologic heritage, 2) to teach basic principles of vertebrate ichnology, and 3) to teach students how to estimate and compare the speeds of different dinosaurs. A hands-on element is important in geoscience education for helping with retention, a sense of accomplishment, and for relating the experience to other learning situations (Haury and Rillero, 1994). So far, at least 200 high school and middle school teachers have learned about the CCR dinosaur tracksite, and have experience with three different lesson plans administered at different levels. These will be published and distributed to local school districts in the near future.

6. Future Work There are many ideas for future development at the CCR dinosaur tracksite, and many of these options are being proposed or researched. First, a Google Street View ™ style walk through of the trail system, including the kmz files presented herein, would add depth and reality to the experience, and students could compare Street View™ style photos with those from the educational material already in the kmz files. Also, more educational material on the geology at the Cerro de Cristo Rey tracksite needs to be developed and integrated into the trail system. Additional layers of information can be

111 added to the trails, such as current ecology and botany of the site, or photogrammetry of the dinosaur tracks. Many more surveys need to be collected and analyzed using multivariate statistics such as ANOVA. These survey s help quantify the attitudes of visitors and identify factors that influence learning during a ISE field trip, such as structure, teaching style, and educational materials (Semken paper on quantifying place; Orion and Hoffstein, 1994). Another important part of the future work on this project are more presentations and school visits to promote the trails and the CCR dinosaur tracksite. Every child in El Paso should know about our dinosaur tracks.

112 Chapter 5: Walking in the Footprints of Dinosaurs: Teaching a Sense of Place in El Paso, Texas, USA

Abstract Dinosaur tracks in the El Paso, TX region are an attraction for the general public, scientists, and educators alike. Presented here are some of the activities and strategies being used at the Cerro de Cristo Rey Dinosaur Tracksite to develop a Sense of Place and stewardship in participants of all ages. In 2002, over 1000 Cretaceous dinosaur tracks were discovered at 8 different sites in the El Paso region, with the largest outcrops at Mt. Cristo Rey, a well-known religious monument that straddles the International Border. Illegal quarrying of the track bearing strata, and smelter related environmental impacts presented the need for public awareness and education, and opened the door to share the excitement of scientific discovery and curiosity, and also a sense of stewardship. Since then, 211 acres were donated to a local museum, and educational materials have been developed. To date, the author has offered over 400 free field trips to the general public, schools, clubs, local organizations, even businesses, always emphasizing personal observation and ethical values. The strategies of nature interpretation and discovery are used in all field trips, educational materials, teacher in-services, and presentations. Field trip participants walk where dinosaurs left their footprints; this has powerful implications for visitors to the site, seeing how we have inherited this land from these creatures, and how it is our role to be caretakers of it. Place-based education at Mt. Cristo Rey utilizes Paleontology, Archaeology, History, Ethnobotany, Ichnology, and Environmental Sciences. Even Structural Geology is related to place and culture of the area, for example the canyons most commonly used by undocumented immigrants in the area are radial faults surrounding an igneous intrusion.

Learners explore an ecosystem drastically affected by metals from a local smelter, and often leave with a passion for stewardship. “Code switching”, in this case teaching names in Spanish as well as English, has proven invaluable due to local demographics. This type of field experience surpasses the cognitive and psychomotor domains, and enters the affective domain

113 through exploration and excitement. The Cerro de Cristo Rey tracksite is an ideal outdoor classroom, visited by many classes from the University of Texas at El Paso, and in the interest of student recruitment, future studies, and preservation, Sense of Place and stewardship must be critical component for field trips.

1. Introduction 1.1 What is Sense of Place? There are many definitions for Sense of Place in the literature. Most simply, Sense of Place is a relationship between people and environment. It is a sense of belonging and attachment that arises from experiences in the natural world. It is a factor that makes an environment psychologically comfortable.” (Xu, 1995). Stedman wrote, “Sense of place is based on symbolic meanings attributed to the setting.” (2003). Sense of Place is a complex interplay between nature and nurture, the ecosystem and the experience people have within it. Places (aka “Primal Landscapes”) are sources of livelihood and inspiration (Measham, 2006; 2007). Certain landscapes have a stronger Sense of Place than others, for example, prominent mountains or bodies of water. This depends on the culture and background of the community, and the experiences they have had there. These experiences, called Place-based education, can be developed anywhere, such as a schoolyard, an urban alley, or even abandoned mines such as at Mt. Cristo Rey. Aldo Leopold wrote “The weeds in a city lot convey the same lesson as the redwoods.”(1949).

1.2 What Does an Outdoor Educator do? An Interpretive Naturalist is an informal educator connects people with places, and guides them non-directively towards developing their own Sense of Place. To quote Michael Link, “Outdoor Education’s challenge is to provide inspiration, to encourage observation, to develop ethical values, and to gain perspective on the human role in the mechanism called Earth.”(Link, 1981). Link’s definition has similar elements as place-based education. A natural 114 effect of developing a Sense of Place is a feeling of connectedness to the land, and a sense of stewardship toward it. Place-based education also makes broader environmental issues more tangible (Measham, 2007).

2. Background El Paso, Texas is known for its mountains and desert landscape, with a rich Hispanic culture. Mt. Cristo Rey is a focal point for all these elements, a solitary desert mountain that straddles the international border (Figure 1), with a large sculpture of a crucifix at the peak. 50,000 people visit this mountain in the Fall and Spring each year to visit this prominent religious monument (Cristo Rey Restoration Committee, Personal Comm.).

115

Figure 1. Location map of Cerro de Cristo Rey, showing the El Paso/Juarez region.

Geology classes visit the surrounding Cretaceous rocks many times each semester for field experiences in general Geology, Stratigraphy, Structural Geology, Geomorphology, and

Geologic mapping. The Cretaceous strata are rich in fossils (Lucas et al., 2010) including many marine fossils and over 1000 dinosaur footprints and swimming traces (Kappus et al., 2011). Several of these units were quarried extensively until 2002, for brick making and construction materials. Mt. Cristo Rey has a rich cultural history, dating back to prehistoric times (2400BC- 1800BC) when it was the source of stone tools for primitive cultures. In recorded history, it was 116 originally called “Cerro de los Muleros” (hill of the mule drivers), because the mountain formed a natural corral used by mule herders traveling north on the Camino Real trail(El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro), a historical road from Mexico City to Santa Fe, New Mexico, officially traveled from 1598-1881. It wasn’t until after the statue was completed by artist Urbici Soler that the hill was renamed, “Cerro de Cristo Rey” or hill of Christ the King. It is commonly called Mount Cristo Rey in popular culture and media. In recent history, Mt. Cristo Rey has become a crossing point for undocumented immigrants, crossing the US/Mexico border illegally. Canyons and “arroyos”, or dry streambeds on and around the mountain, are littered with footprints, clothing, and empty water bottles from these travelers. The mountain is patrolled by the US Border Patrol, day and night, and they have helped keep the site secure. The area has been impacted mainly by over-grazing and local smelting operations (ASARCO). The result is an ecosystem dominated by Creosote bush (not grasslands) and devoid of mosses, lichens, and winter annuals (Worthington, 1991). Yet wildlife still flourishes, with abundant hares, ground squirrels, coyotes, and even mountain lions, as well as a variety of plant life.These many elements work together to create a memorable place, to say the least. The mountain itself was preserved by the Catholic Diocese in 1933. Recently in 2003, over 210 acres (85 hectares) on the north side of the mountain were preserved from further quarrying, due to the discovery of the mid- Cretaceous dinosaur footprints and efforts of the community. The result is a desert ecosystem impacted by history and exploitation, which is open to the public for field trips.

3. Methods To date the author has brought over 400 groups to Mt. Cristo Rey for Outdoor/Environmental Education purposes. These groups vary greatly, from school groups to religious groups, young and old. Each group has a different experience, and the author uses non- directive teaching methods to allow for exploration and discovery of a Sense of Place at the 117 mountain. Some groups are only interested in dinosaur footprints and fossils, and how these pieces of past life speak to geologists. Other groups are interested in the history of the site, as well as environmental and cultural impacts, such as militarization of the international border.

Following are Some Examples of Teaching Methods Used:

5 Senses Activity - Closing eyes and one-by-one awakening the five senses. This simple activity helps participants to focus on observation, and to be engaged in the field trip experience (Cornell, 1984).

The 5 Elements of Nature - This activity is based off Knoop’s (2006) “Questions to Ask and Answer to Better Understand Your Environment”, and includes 1.Earth, 2.Water, 3.Air, 4.Plants, and 5.Animals. (The author has added “Air” and subtracted “Glaciers” from Knoop’s original formula, to better represent the region).

Personal Discovery - Groups are provided with time to find their own dinosaur tracks, fossils, and other objects of personal interest, including everything from trash and mining waste, to tracks and waste of currently living things. At the end individuals get to share in these discoveries with the group.

Code Switching - Native terms are used to emphasize local culture and history of the region; this includes historical names for places and objects. Examples include “Cerro de los Muleros”, the historical name for the mountain, or “guamis”, the traditional name for Creosote bush (Larrea tridentata).

Family Involvement - Frequently parents and grandparents have stories of their own about Mt. Cristo Rey, and these are welcomed and shared with the group, as family is an essential 118 component of learning a Sense of Place (Derr, 2002; Measham, 2006). Several parents have admitted to discovering dinosaur tracks decades before the author did in 2002 (Kappus and Cornell, 2003; Kappus et al., 2011).

Ethnobotany and Cultural History - These include uses of certain plants or rocks by historic and pre-historic peoples of the El Paso region. An example is “guamis” (Larrea tridentata), which is used traditionally by “Curanderas” (Medicine Women; Derr, 2002). This plant is a powerful insect repellent and anti-diarrheal, as well as a tonic and skin wash.

Environmental Themes – These field trips focus on local plant and animal populations, which reflect smelter related environmental impacts. Quarry visits give participants an opportunity to experience firsthand the human impact on their Primal Landscape.

Supplemental Materials – Images of the dinosaurs and their footprints help participants to get a quicker understanding of the creatures that once lived in this Place. Also maps of tracksites or the mountain itself help participants to get a broader perspective, and to more quickly develop a detailed mental picture of the area. In addition, these images and maps allow for participants to discover more objects of interest, and put these into a broader picture for themselves.

Service Projects - These activities are still being developed, but so far consist of cleaning off dinosaur track bearing layers, rappelling to assist in stratigraphy research, participating in digs to discover new dinosaur tracks, and trail maintenance. These Service Learning activities instill a

Sense of Place and allow participants a chance to “give back” or invest in their community and our understanding of it.

Pre-Field Trip School Visits and Activities - These include Powerpoint® and overhead presentations in the classroom, as well as making plaster casts of footprints and handprints 119 outside on the playground at schools. These activities steepen the learning curve for participants and allow them to “hit the ground running” once they are out at the mountain. Teacher in-service days also provide teachers with introductory materials and concepts to introduce to students before a field trip.

Post-Field Trip Presentations and Activities - Debrief activities are a critical element of Experiential Education (Dewey, 1938). These include essay writing and drawing pictures based on their experience (Derr, 2002). Teachers often facilitate debrief activities on their own, and have their students draw pictures from their experiences and write thank you cards, with terrific illustrations. The author has received many drawings of himself on the back of a dinosaur.

Non-Field Experiences – Experiences in the classroom have also proven beneficial to instilling participants with a Sense of Place. These also serve to reach groups unable to fund or participate in field trips, and include Powerpoint® and overhead presentations at schools, churches, clubs, and other organizations.

4. Conclusions Some places have a lot of potential for academically and experientially varied, memorable experiences. These Cultural Landscapes should be preserved and utilized to the fullest. The public needs memorable experiences in these places to begin to develop their own Sense of Place, and also to see the value of the natural sciences. Children in particular need these experiences to help them relate their classroom experience to the real world (Dewey, 1938), and to begin to develop a Land Ethic of their own, specific to their region and local culture. Non-directive teaching methods, mainly personal discovery and exploration, are essential components of the field trip experience. Cultural relativity is a must, relating the natural landscape to culture and all ethnicities by using techniques such as Code Switching. Many modern cultures do not have an intimate intellectual or spiritual connection with the landscape, 120 but have some history of this connection. Knowledgeable guides are also an essential component to the development of a Sense of Place, and over the years the author has learned many different content areas to encourage all learners (young and old) to be a part of the teaching experience. Field trips must allow for participant input and direction to a great extent. For example, many field trip participants tell stories about their childhood or favorite natural places closer to their house. These stories are related by the skilled Interpretive Naturalist to the current environment, and integrated into the experience of Place for everyone.

5. Future Work

1. Development of specific learning objectives and pedagogy for different age groups, student groups, and student teachers, providing future Outdoor Educators and Interpretive Naturalists with a versatile foundation upon which to build.

2. More Service Learning elements need to be developed for Mt. Cristo Rey, to encourage a sense of Civic Responsibility, and to develop Leadership skills, personal growth, and a sense of Environmental Ethics (Hatcher and Bringle, 1999; Buchanan et al, 2002).

3. To continue to find creative ways to use a Sense of Place in order to “…nurture public memory, the sense of civic identity, which empowers citizens and inspires them to contribute to civic life.” (Shutkin, 2001). Defending Place is the author’s central goal in teaching a Sense of Place. In order to make broader environmental issues more tangible, students must begin with a

Sense of Place, and a feeling of local stewardship (Measham, 2007).

121 Chapter 6: Co-operative, Inquiry-based- Hands-on Lessons in Rock Texture Discrimination for Upper Level Undergraduate Geology Classes

Abstract Presented here are two lesson plans developed by the authors for the purpose of rock identification and rock texture discrimination in undergraduate Mineralogy and Geoscience Processes classes for 2nd year Geology students at the University of Texas at El Paso, USA. These lessons are inquiry-based and use numbered hand samples housed in the classroom.

Lesson questions require group problem solving, supplemental research on the web, and comparison with other samples and the results of different questions. These lesson plans have been implemented in the classroom and modified for 4 years and are the results of ~150 students completing them. Although qualitative, feedback from students about these lessons has been overwhelmingly positive.

1. Introduction Hands-on learning in Geology at the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) has been ongoing since the school was opened as the “Texas College of Miners” in 1914. Figure 1 shows the region.

122

Figure 1. Location map, showing UTEP (Campus) location. UTEP serves a binational community that straddles the USA/Mexico border.

The El Paso regional governments have worked to preserve a rich, well-exposed Geologic history in its Franklin Mountains (Lemone 1968; Harbour, 1972; Lovejoy, 1975) which are now a state park, Chihuahua’s Juarez Mountains (Lovejoy, 1980; Drewes and Dyer, 1993), also a state park, and other hills such as Cerro de Cristo Rey (Lovejoy, 1976) which was

123 preserved by the Diocese and Insights Science Museum, and Potrillo volcanic field (Hoffer, 1976), which is mostly preserved by the US Bureau of Land Management. There was a need in undergraduate Geology courses at UTEP to fill in the gap between Introductory Geology Lab rock identification exercises, and upper level Geology rock identification exercises in classes such as Igneous Petrology and Structural Geology. So lesson plans were developed based on hand samples and trends in student needs. Two textures that we noticed students having trouble with are spherical objects, and different types of breccias.

Sphere-shaped objects can be found in igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic (more often hydrothermal) rocks. Geodes and lythophysae are two examples of spherical objects in igneous rocks. Sedimentary rocks can contain ooids or peloids. Metamorphic rocks sometimes contain blastocrysts, or if hydrothermally altered, bauxite) or even malachite spheres. Figure 2 shows spherical structures for comparison between spherulitic rhyolite and bauxite.

124

Figure 2. Comparison photo of spherulitic rhyolite (left) and bauxite (right).

Breccias can have at least 4 possible origins (citation needed), and are often mineralized. Discerning between the types of breccias provides a much deeper understanding of the tectonic history of a region. Breccias have a particular utility for economic geologists, as they are pathfinders to mineral deposits, or are the mineral deposits themselves (citation needed, Types of mineral deposits).

2. Background Most lessons in rock identification focus on classification of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. These lessons use the rock cycle, or typical rock classification schemes to help students understand and organize rocks in hand sample.

125 Innovative, inquiry-based undergraduate lesson plans in Geology are also available on the web through the US Geological Survey (USGS, 2016). There are also links to supplemental materials and reading on this website. The Geological Society of America also has supplemental materials, and lesson plans called ETeach for sale. Because of the sizeable, catalogued, educational sample collection housed in the Department of Geological Sciences at UTEP, these rocks were used for the lesson plans described here. These lesson plans take rock identification and understanding to the next step by guiding the inquiry of students into the different textures that are sometimes displayed by igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. These lessons also help students to think outside the box when it comes to rock textures.

3. Pedagogical background Inquiry based learning has its philosophical background in constructivist learning theories of the great names in non-traditional education such as John Dewey (the importance of the social environment) and Lev Vygotsky (children engaging in practical activity in a social environment).

The utility of inquiry based, co-operative learning has been well demonstrated over the last 100 years. Inquiry is fundamental to the practice of science (Edelson et al., 2011), and an essential part of developing problem solving skills. “Problem-based learning” of medical education (Savery, 2015) is a similar example, and is a learner centered approach that empowers learners to conduct research and to apply knowledge and skills to solve a problem or find an answer. This type of learning must allow for free inquiry. Inquiry is important because problems in the real world are ill-structured (Savery,

2015). Edelson et al. (2011) describe some challenges of inquiry-based learning, and how they addressed them. Some of these challenges were relevant to our lesson development. The first relevant challenge was motivation. Inquiry-based learning requires a higher level of motivation on the part of learners. We created questions that would build upon one another, and provide 126 steps on the way to other answers. We also integrated the element of discussion in order to use a social element to motivate students. This is important, especially with Hispanic students (Bonfield, 2014).The next challenge was background knowledge. Students had differing amounts of geologic vocabulary. We found it beneficial to include a glossary in the lesson plans, especially for advanced terms, and to be directive in telling students to look words up if they didn’t know the meaning. Management of extended activities was another problem. It is difficult to tell if students each took the time to do background research and inquiry on the web, or if they simply used each other’s answers. These pitfalls are why some authors discredit inquiry-based learning (ie Kirschner et al., 2006). However, other authors also cite the benefits of problem- based and inquiry-based learning, such as improvements in science literacy and student self- confidence (Gormally et al., 2009).

4. Lessons Appendix 1 and 2 contain PDF’s of the lesson plans introduced here. Although these lessons are based on hand samples which are housed at UTEP, it is our hope that they will provide a good example of inquiry-based learning in upper level undergraduate geology classes. Learning about other lesson plans provides insight about how to develop your own. It is our hope that other Geology departments will be inspired to create hands-on, inquiry based lesson plans such as these.

127 References

Chapter 1. Regional Geochemical Mapping of the Superior Upland Province, Midwestern USA Appleton, J.D., Rawlins, B.G., Thornton, I., 2008, National-scale estimation of potentially harmful element ambient background concentrations in topsoil using parent material classified soil:stream-sediment relationships, Applied Geochemistry, V.23, pgs 2596-2611.

Arendt, J.W., Butz, T.R., Cagle, G.W., Kane, V.E., and Nichols, C.E., 1979, Hydrogeochmical and Stream Sediment Reconnaisance Procedures of the Uranium Resource Evaluation Project, Report Number: K/UR-100, Union Carboide Corp, Nuclear Division, Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, U.S. Department of Energy, Grand Junction, Colo., GJBX-32 (80), 55pp.

Barber-Delach, R.D. and Cannon, W.D., 1999. Re-examining stream sediment geochemical data from the National Uranium Resource Evaluation Program (NURE), Wisconsin and northern Michigan (abs.). Institute on Lake Superior Geology Proceedings Vol. 45, pgs 4-5.

Boerngen, J.G. & Shacklette, H.T., 1981, Chemical analyses of soils and other surficial materials of the conterminous United States. US Geological Survey Open-File Report, pgs 81- 197.

Briggs, P.H., 1993. The determination of forty elements in geological and botanical samples by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry, USGS Open-File Report 02-223, pgs 1-18.

Cannon, W.F., & Woodruff, L.G., 2003. The geochemical landscape of northwestern Wisconsin and adjacent parts of northern Michigan and Minnesota (Geochmical Data Files). U.S. Geoloical Survey Open-File Report 03-259.

Cannon, W.F, Woodruff, L.G., and Pimley, S., 2004. Some statistical relationships between stream sediment and soil geochemistry in northwestern Wisconsin – can stream sediment compositions be used to predict compositions of soils in glaciated terranes?, in ?, pages?.

Cannon, W.F, Kress, T.H., Sutphin, D.M, Morey, G.B., Meints, J, and Barber-Delach, R., 1999. DIGITAL GEOLOGIC MAP AND MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION MINNESOTA, WISCONSIN, MICHIGAN: Version 3, USGS Open-File Report 97- 455. http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/of97-455/

Cocker, M. D., 1998. Defining the heavy mineral potential in the upper coastal plain of Georgia with the use of NURE stream sediment geochemical data and geographical information system. In: Belanger, M., Clark, T., Jacob, H-L., (Eds), Proceedings of the 33rd forum on the geology of the INdustrail minerals. Can.Inst.Min, Metall.Pet.Spec.Vol 50, pgs 131-144.

128 Cocker, M.D., 1999. Geochemical mapping in Georgia, USA: a tool for environmental studies, geologic mapping and mineral exploration, Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Vol. 67, pgs 345-360.

Darnley, A.G., Bjorklund, B., Gustavsson, N., Koval, P.V., Plant, J., Steenfelt, A., Tauchid, T.M., Xie, X.J., 1995. A Global Geochemical Database for Environmental and Resource Management: Recommendations for International Geochemical Mapping, Earth Science Report 19. UNESCO Publishing, Paris.

Fenneman, Nevin M. and Douglas W. Johnson. 1946. Physical Division of the United States. U.S. Geological Survey, scale 1:7,000,000.

Fortescue, 1992. Landscape Geochemistry- Retrospect and Prospect – 1990, Applied Geochemistry, Vol. 7, pgs 1-53.

Goldhaber, M.B, Morrison, J.M, Holloway, J.M., Wanty, R.B, Heisel, C.R., Smith, D.B., 2009. A regional soil and sediment geochemical study in northern California, Appl. Geochm. Vol. 24(8), pgs 1482-1499.

Grimley, D.A., 2000. Glacial and nonglacial sediment contributions to Wisconsin Episode loess in the central United States. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 112(10), pp.1475-1495.

Grossman, J.N., 1998. National geochemical atlas: the geochemical landscape of the conterminous United States derived from stream sediment and other solid sample media analyzed by the National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) program. U.S. geological survey open file- report 98-622, version 3.01.

Gustavsson, N., Bølviken, B., Smith, D.B., & Severson, R.C., 2001. Geochemical Landscapes of the Conterminous United States - New Map Presentations for 22 Elements, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1648, 44 pgs.

Gustavsson, N., Lampio, E., Nilsson, B., Norblad, G., Ros, F., and Salminen, R., 1994. Geochemical maps of Finland and Sweden,

Hawkes, H.E., Webb, J.S., 1962. Geochemistry in Mineral Exploration. Harper & Row, New York.

Hoffman, J.D., and Buttleman, K., 1994. National geochemical database: National Uranium Resource Evaluation data for the conterminous United States. U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series, DDS-18-A.

IUGS, 2007. Working Group on Geochemical Baselines, Annual Report, pgs 1-12.

Lalor, G.C., and Zhang, C., 2001. Multivariate outlier detecion and remediation in geochemical databases, The Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 281, pgs 99-109.

129

Lusardi, B.A., 1997. Minnesota at a glance, Minnesota Geological Survey, 4pgs.

Mills, C.F., 1996. Geochemical aspects of aetiology of trace element related diseases. In: Appleton, J.D., Fuge, R., McCall, G.J.H. (Eds.), Environmental Geochemistry and Health, Vols. 1-7, Geol. Soc. London.

Mitchell, S.D., 1981. NURE GEOSCIENCE DATA: THEIR NATURE AND AVAILABILITY, Bendix Field Engineering Corportation, Internal Report, Grand Junction CO, pg 1-33.

Nicholson, S.W., Cannon, W.F., and Schulz, K.J., 1992. Metallogeny of the Midcontinent rift system of North America: Precambrian Research, v. 58, pgs 355-386.

Plant, J., Smith, D., Smith, B., Williams., L., 2001. Environmental geochemistry at the global scale, in Applied Geochemistry Vol 16, pgs 1291-1308.

Price, M, 2012. Importing Data from Excel Spreadsheets, in ArcUser, Vol. 15 No.2, pgs 50-55.

Reid, J.C., 1993. A geochemical atlas of North Carolina, Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Vol. 47, Issues 1-3, April 1993, Pgs 11-27.

Reimann, C., Filzmoser, P., 2000. Normal and lognormal data distribution in geochemistry: death of a myth. Consequences for the statistical treatment of geochemical and environmental data. Environ. Geol. 39, pgs 1001–1014.

Reimann, C, Filzmoser, P., and Garret, R.,G., 2002. Factor analysis applied to regional geochemical data: problems and possiblities. Applied Geochemistry, 17: pgs 185-206.

Reimann, Clemens; Äyräs, M; Chekushin, V; Bogatyrev, I; Boyd, Rognvald; Caritat, P; Dutter, R; Finne, TE; Halleraker, JH; Jæger, Ø; Kashulina, G; Lehto, O; Niskavaara, H; Pavlov, VK; Räisänen, ML; Strand, T; Volden, T, 1998. Environmental geochemical atlas of the central Barents region. NGU-GTK-CKE special publication, Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), Trondheim, ISBN 978-82-7385-176-5, 745 pp

Robinson, G.R., Kapo, K.E., and Grossman, J.N., 2004, Chemistry of Steam Sediments and Surface Waters in New England, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2004-1026, pgs 1-18, http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1026/index.htm.

Rose, G., Hawkes, J.E. and Webb, H.S., 1979. Computerized Data-handling and Statistical Interpretation, in Geochemistry in Mineral Exploration, 2nd Ed., © Academic Press, pgs 519-533.

Sall, J., and Lehman, A., 1996. A guide to statistic and data analysis using JMP® and JMP in software SAS Institute Inc. Duxbury Press, CA.

130 Schilts, W.W., Aylsworth, J.M, Kaszycki, C.A., and Klassen, R.A., 1987. Canadian Shield, in Geological Society of America Centennial Special, Vol. 2, pgs 119-161.

Schmidt, P.G., Dolence, J.D., Lluria, M.R., and Parsons, G., 1978. Geology of Crandon Massive Sulfide Deposit in Wisconsin, in Skillings Mining Review, Vol 67, No.18, pgs 8-11.

Schumann, R.R., ed., 1993. Geologic radon potential of EPA region (1-10): U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 93-292.

Schulz, Klaus J., and Cannon,William F., 1997. Potential for New Nickel-Copper Sulfide Deposits in the Lake Superior Region: U.S. Geological Survey, Information Handout, online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/info/mwni_cu/ .

Schweitzer, P.N., Grossman, J.N., Grosz, A.E., Schruben, P.G., 2008. The National Geochemical Survey - Database and Documentation, USGS online publication: http://mrdata.usgs.gov/geochem/doc/home.htm

Shacklette, H.T., and Boerngen, J.G., 1984. Element concentrations in soils and other surficial materials of the conterminous United States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1270, 105 p.

Sims, P.K., 1976. Precambrian Tectonics and Mineral Deposits, Lake Superior Region, Economic Geology, V. 71, No. 6, pgs 1092-1118.

Smith, S.M., 1997. National Geochemical Database: reformatted data from the National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) hydrogeochemical and stream sediment reconnaissance (HSSR) program (version 1.30, 2001). U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 97-492. On- line at http://greenwood.cr.usgs.gov/pub/open-fiel-reports/ofr-97-0492/index.html

Smith, D.B., Goldhaber, M.B., and Smith, S.M, 2003. The U.S. Geological Survey’s National Geochemical Database: A possible link between earth science and health science [abs.]: 21st Annual Epidemiologic Research Exchange, Feb. 7, 2003, pg. 12.

Smith, D.B., Smith S.M., Goldhaber, M.B., Kilburn, J.E., Cannon, W.F., and Woodruff, L.G., 2006. Spatial patterns in soil geochemistry of the United States: The relationship between scale and process: Abstracts of the 18th World Congress of Soil Science, July 9-15, 2006, Philadelphia, PA (CD-ROM).

Smith, D.B., Cannon, W.F., and Woodruff, L.G., 2011. A national-scale geochemical and mineralogical survey of soils of the conterminous United States, Applied Geochemistry, Vol. 26, pgs S250-S255.

Smith, D.B., Cannon, W.F., Woodruff, L.G., Solano, Federico, Kilburn, J.E., and Fey, D.L., 2013. Geochemical and mineralogical data for soils of the conterminous United States: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 801, 19 p.

131 Smith, D.B., Smith, S.M., and Horton, J.D., 2013. History and evaluation of national- scale geochemical data sets for the United States: Geoscience Frontiers, 4 (2), p. 167-183. Syverson, K.M., Clayton, L., Attig, J.W., and Mickelson, D.M., 2011, Lexicon of Pleistocene Stratigraphic Units of Wisconsin, Technical Report 1, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey.

Syverson, K.M. and Colgan, P.M., 2004. The Quaternary of Wisconsin: a review of stratigraphy and glaciation history. Quaternary glaciations extent and chronology part II: North America (J. Ehlers and PL Gibbard, eds.). Elsevier BV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp.295- 311.

Underwood, E.J., 1979. Trace elements and human health: an overview. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B228, pgs 5-14.

USGS, 2003. Physiographic Provinces of the Conterminous United States, http://tapestry.usgs.gov/physiogr/physio.html

USGS, 1997. Mineral Resources Data System (MRDS), USGS Open-File Report 97- 455.prepared by Suzanne W. Nicholson ORRRR Nicholson, S.W., Cannon, W.F., and Schulz, K.J., 1992, metallogeny of the Midcontinent rift system of North America: Precambrian Research, v. 58, pgs 355-386.

USGS, 2004. The National Geochemical Survey, Open-File Report 2004-1001, updated by Jeff Grossman, Mar 2012. US DOI. URL: http://tin.er.usgs.gov/geochem/doc/groups-cats.htm

USGS, 2004. Geologic Provinces of the United States: Laurentian Upland Province - Superior Upland, http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/province/laurent.html

Vinagradov, A.P., 1959. Geochemistry of Rare and dispersed Chemical Elements in Soil, Acad. Sciences, USSR Moscow-Leningrad (Trans by Consultants Bureau, Champman & Hall, London).

Woodruff, L.G., Attig, J.W., and Cannon, W.F., 2000. Geochemical impacts of an undisturbed mineral deposit – results from the Bend Deposit, Chequamegon National Forest, Wisconsin [abst.], Institute on Lake Superior Geology Proceedings, 46th Annual Meeting, Thunder Bay, Ontario: v. 46, part 1, pgs 72-73.

Woodruff, L.G., Attig, J.W., Cannon, W.F., Nicholson, S.W., Schulz, K., 2003. Geochemistry of bedrock and glacial deposits in the vicinity of the Bend massive sulfide deposit, north central Wisconsin, USGS Open-File Report 03-353 (digital only: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-353/).

Woodruff, L.G., Cannon, W.F., Eberl, D.D., Smith, D.B., Kilburn, J.E., Horton, J.D., Garrett, R.G., & Klassen, R.A., 2009. Continental-scale patterns in soil geochemistry and mineralogy: Results from two transects across the United States and Canada, Applied Geochemistry, V. 24, pgs 1369-1381.

132

Woodruff, L.G., Cannon, W.F., and Smith, D.B., 2011. Distribution of trace and potentially toxic elements in soils at the national scale – The USGS Geochemical Landscapes Project, Abstract: GSA Annual Meeting in Minneapolis, Paper No. 40-3. Section 40.

Zhang, C., Manheim, F.T., Hinde, J., and Grossman, J.N., 2005. Statistical characterization of a large geochemical database and effect of sample size, Applied Geochemistry, Vol. 20, pgs 1857-1874.

Zhang, C., Fay, D., McGrath, D., Grennan, E., and Carton, O.T., 2008. Statistical analyses of geochemical variables in soils of Ireland, Geoderma, Vol. 146, pgs 378-390.

Zumlot,T., Goodell,P. and Howari,F., 2008. Geochemical mapping of New Mexico, USA, using stream sediment data. Environ. Geol., 58, 1479-1497.

Chapter 2. Ichnology of the Cretaceous (Albian) Mesilla Valley Formation, Cerro de Cristo Rey, Southern New Mexico, USA Aceñolaza, G.F. and Aceñolaza, F.G., 2002. Ordovician trace fossils of Argentina. INSUGEO, Serie de Correlación Geológica, 16, pp.177-194.

Aceñolaza, G.F. and Milana, J.P., 2005. Remarkable Cruziana beds in the Lower Ordovician of the Cordillera Oriental, NW Argentina. Ameghiniana, 42(3), pp.633-637.

Adkins, W.S., 1918. The Weno and Pawpaw formations of the Texas Comanchean: University of Texas Bull. 1856, p. 1-170.

Aigner, T., 1985. Storm Depositional Systems. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Alfaro, E.M., 2001, Pistas fosiles de artropodos, Boletin de la SEA, No. 28, pp. 15-33.

Alpert, S.P., 1973. Bergaueria Prantl (Cambrian and Ordovician), a probable actinian trace fossil. Journal of Paleontology, pp.919-924.

Bann, K.L. and Ross, D.J.K, 2014, Sedimentology and Ichnology of the Lower Cretaceous Wilrich Member (Lower Falher) of the Spirit River Formation., GeoConvention 2014:FOCUS, pp. 1-4.

Basan, P.B., 1978, Introduction. In: Trace fossil Concepts (Ed. by P.B. Basan), SEPM Short Course No. 5. pp. 1-12.

133 Bordy, E.M., Linkermann, S. and Prevec, R., 2011. Palaeoecological aspects of some invertebrate trace fossils from the mid-to Upper Permian Middleton Formation (Adelaide Subgroup, Beaufort Group, Karoo Supergroup), Eastern Cape, South Africa. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 61(3), pp.238-244.

Bradshaw, M.A., 2010, Devonian trace fossils of the Horlick formation, Ohio Range, Antarctica: Systematic description

Bayet-Goll, A., De Carvalho, C.N., Mahmudy-Gharaei, M.H. and Nadaf, R., 2015. Ichnology and sedimentology of a shallow marine Upper Cretaceous depositional system (Neyzar Formation, Kopet-Dagh, Iran): Palaeoceanographic inﬂuence on ichnodiversity. Cretaceous Research, 56, pp.628-646.

Bayet-Goll, A., De Carvalho, C.N., Monaco, P, and Sharafi, M., 2016. Sequence Stratigraphic and Sedimentologica Significance of Biogenic Structures from Chalky Limestones of the Turonian-Campanian Abderaz Formation, Kopet-Dagh, Iran. In Khosla, A. and Lucas, S.G., eds., 2016, Cretaceous Period: Biotic Diversity and Biogeography. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 71.

Bernardi, M., Boschele, S., Ferretti, P. and Avanzini, M., 2010. Echinoid burrow Bichordites monastiriensis from the Oligocene of NE Italy. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 55(3), pp.479-486.

Binney, E.W., 1852. On some trails and holes found in rocks of Carboniferous Strata, with remarks on the Microconchus carbonarius. Mem. Lit. and Pil. Soc. Manchester, ser. 2, vol. x. p. 181.

Bordy, E.M., Linkermann, S. and Prevec, R., 2011. Palaeoecological aspects of some invertebrate trace fossils from the mid-to Upper Permian Middleton Formation (Adelaide Subgroup, Beaufort Group, Karoo Supergroup), Eastern Cape, South Africa. Journal of African Earth Sciences,61(3), pp.238-244.

Böse, E., 1910, Monografia geological y paleontological del Cerro de Muleros cerca de Ciudad Juarez, Estado de Chihuahua y descripcion de la fauna Cretacea de la Encantada, Placer de Guadalupe, Estado de Chihuahua: Instituto Geologico Mexico, Boletin 25, 193p.

Botterill, S.E., Campbell, S.G., and Gingras, M.K., 2014, Bioturbation Intensity: A proxy for evaluating environmental stresses in the bluesky formation, northeastern Alberta: Proceedings of GeoConvention 2014:FOCUS, 8pgs.

Bracken, B. and Picard, M.D., 1984. Trace Fossils from Cretaceous/tertiary North Horn Formation in Central Utah: Journal of Paleontology 58 (2). Paleontological Society: pp. 477– 487.

134 Bradshaw, M.A., Newman, J. and AITCHISON, J.C., 2002. The sedimentary geology, palaeoenvironments and ichnocoenoses of the Lower Devonian Horlick formation, Ohio range, Antarctica. Antarctic Science, 14(04), pp.395-411.

Braddy, S.J., 1995. A new arthropod trackway and associated invertebrate ichnofauna from the Lower Permian Hueco Formation of the Robledo Mountains, southern New Mexico. 101-105. Early Permian Footprints and Facies, p.301.

Bromley, R. G.; Frey, R. W., Redescription of the trace fossil Gyrolithes and taxonomic evaluation of Thalassinoides, Ophiomorpha and Spongeliomorpha, In: Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark, Vol. 23, 1974, p. 311-335.

Bromley, R.G. and Asgaard, U., 1975. Sediment structures produced by a spatangoid echinoid: a problem of preservation. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark, 24(3-4), pp.261-281.

Bromley, R. and Asgaard, U., 1979. Triassic freshwater ichnocoenoses from Carlsberg Fjord, east Greenland. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 28, pp.39-80.

Bromley, R.G. and Ekdale, A.A., 1984. Chondrites: a trace fossil indicator of anoxia in sediments. Science, 224(4651), pp.872-874.

Bromley, R.G. and Asgaard, U., 1991. Ichnofacies: a mixture of taphofacies and biofacies. Lethaia, 24(2), pp.153-163.

Bromley, R.G., Ekdale, A.A. and Richter, B., 1999. New Taenidium (trace fossil) in the Upper Cretaceous chalk of northwestern Europe. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark, 46, pp.47-51.

Buatois, L.A. and Mángano, M.G., 1993. The ichnotaxonomic status of Plangtichnus and Treptichnus. Ichnos: An International Journal of Plant & Animal, 2(3), pp.217-224.

Buatois, L.A., 1995. A new ichnospecies of Fuersichnus from the Cretaceous of Antarctica and its paleoecologic and stratigraphic implications. Ichnos: An International Journal of Plant & Animal, 3(4), pp.259-263.

Buatois, L.A., Jalfin, G. and Acenolaza, F.G., 1997a. Permian nonmarine invertebrate trace fossils from southern Patagonia, Argentina: ichnologic signatures of substrate consolidation and colonization sequences. Journal of Paleontology, pp.324-336.

Buatois, L.A., Mangano, M.G. and Maples, C.G., 1997b. The paradox of nonmarine ichnofaunas in tidal rhythmites; integrating sedimentologic and ichnologic data from the Late Cretaceous of eastern Kansas, USA. Palaios,12(5), pp.467-481.

135 Buatois, L.A., Mangano, M.G., Maples, C.G. and Lanier, W.P., 1998, Ichnology of an upper carboniferous fluvio-estuarine paleovalley: The Tonganoxie Sandstone, Buildex Quarry, Eastern Kansas, USA: Journal of Paleontology, V. 72, No. 1, p.152-180002E.

Buatois, L.A. and Mángano, M.G., 2002. Trace fossils from Carboniferous floodplain deposits in western Argentina: implications for ichnofacies models of continental environments. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 183(1), pp.71-86.

Buatois, L.A., Santiago, N., Parra, K. and Steel, R., 2008. Animal–substrate interactions in an Early Miocene wave-dominated tropical delta: delineating environmental stresses and depositional dynamics (Tácata field, eastern Venezuela). Journal of Sedimentary Research, 78(7), pp.458-479.

Buatois, L.A. and Encinas, A., 2011. Ichnology, sequence stratigraphy and depositional evolution of an Upper Cretaceous rocky shoreline in central Chile: Bioerosion structures in a transgressed metamorphic basement.Cretaceous Research, 32(2), pp.203-212.

Buckman, J.O., 1992. Palaeoenvironment of a Lower Carboniferous sandstone succession northwest Ireland: ichnological and sedimentological studies. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 62(1), pp.217-241.

Carmona, N.B, Buatois, L.A., Mangano, M.G., and Bromley, R.G., 2008. Ichnology of the Lower Miocene Chenque formation, Patagonia, Argentina: Animal-substrate interactions and the modern evolutionary fauna. Ameghiniana, 45, p.1.

Carmona, N.B., Mángano, M.G., Buatois, L.A. and Ponce, J.J., 2010. Taphonomy and paleoecology of the bivalve trace fossil protovirgularia in deltaic heterolithic facies of the Miocene Chenque formation, Patagonia, Argentina. Journal Information, 84(4).

Chakrabarti, A., Chakrabarti, R. and Hertweck, G., 2006. Surface traces and bioturbate textures from bubbler crabs: an indicator of subtropical to tropical tidal flat environments. Senckenbergiana maritima, 36(1), pp.19-27.

Chamberlain, C. K., 1977, Ordovician and Devonian trace fossils from Nevada: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 90, 24 pp.

Chamberlain, K., 1978, Chapter 5 Recognition of Trace fossils in cores ; Chapter 6 Use of Trace Fossil assemblages for recognizing depositional environments, Seilacher, A. ,1978, In Trace Fossil Concepts: SEPM Short Course, No. 5, Basan, Paul B. (ed.), Published by Society of Economic Paleontologists & Mineralogists, Oklahoma City, 1978

Clark, C.K., 2010. Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and Ichnology of the Upper Cretaceous Frontier Formation in the Alkali Anticline Region, Bighorn County, Wyoming. Dissertations & Theses in Geosciences, p.9.

136 Cornell, W.C., 1982. Dinoflagellate cysts from the Mesilla Valley Shale (late Albian), El Paso, Texas (abs.): American Association of Straigraphic Palynologists, 14th Annual Meeting, October, 1981, Program and Abstracts, p. 17.

Dam, G., 1990. Taxonomy of trace fossils from the shallow marine Lower Jurassic Neil Klinter Formation, East Greenland. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark, 38, pp.119- 144.

D’Alessandro, A.S.S.U.N.T.A. and Bromley, R.G., 1987. Meniscate trace fossils and the Muensteria-Taenidium problem. Palaeontology, 30(4), pp.743-763.

Demathieu, G., Gand, G. and Toutin-Morin, N., 1992. La palichnofaune des bassins permiens provençaux. Geobios, 25(1), pp.19-54.

Dott Jr., R.H. and Bourgeois, J., 1982. Hummocky stratification: significance of its variable bedding sequences. Geological Society of American Bulletin 93, p663-680.

Dott Jr., R.H., 1983. 1982 SEPM Presidential addrss: Episodic sedimentation: How normal is average? How rare is rare? Does it matter? Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 53:5-23.

Droser, M.L., Hughes, N.C. and Jell, P.A., 1994. Infaunal communities and tiering in Early Palaeozoic nearshore clastic environments: trace‐fossil evidence from the Cambro‐Ordovician of New South Wales. Lethaia, 27(4), pp.273-283.

Ekdale, A.A., 1988. Pitfalls of paleobathymetric interpretations based on trace fossil assemblages. Palaios, pp.464-472.

Ekdale, A.A. and Mason, T.R., 1988. Characteristic trace-fossil associations in oxygen- poor sedimentary environments. Geology, 16(8), pp.720-723.

Ekdale, A.A.,1992. Muckraking and mudslinging: the joys of deposit-feeding, 145-171. In Maples, C.G & WEST, R.R. (eds) Trace fossils. Paleontological Society, Short Courses in Paleontology 5.

Ekdale, A.A., & Bromley, R.G., 2001, A day and a night in the life of a cleft-foot clam: Protovirgularia-Lockeia-Lophoctenium: Lethaia, Vol. 34: p. 119-124.

El-Hedeny, M., Hewaidy, A., and Al-Kahtany, Kh., 2012, Shallow-marine trace fossils from the Callovian-Oxfordian Tuwaiq Mountain imestone and Hanifa Formations, central Saudi Arabia: Australian Journal of Basic and applied Sciences, 6(3). pp 722-733.

Elliott, R.E., 1985, An interpretation of the trace fossil Cochlichnus kochi (Ludwig) from the East Pennine Coalfield of Britain. In Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society (Vol. 45, No. 3, pp. 183-187). Geological Society of London.

137 Fernandes, A.C.S. & Carvalho, I.S. (2006) Invertebrate ichnofossils from the Adamantina Formation (Bauru Basin, Late Cretaceous), Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Paleontologia, 9, 211– 220.

Fernández, D.E., Pazos, P.J. and Aguirre-Urreta, M.B., 2010. Protovirgularia dichotoma—Protovirgularia rugosa: an example of a compound trace fossil from the Lower Cretaceous (Agrio Formation) of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina. Ichnos, 17(1), pp.40-47.

Fillmore, D.L., Lucas, S.G. and Simpson, E.L., 2012. Ichnology of the Mississippian Mauch Chunk Formation, eastern Pennsylvania, NMMNH Bulletin #54, 136 p.

Fillion, D. and Pickerill, R.K., 1990. Ichnology of the Upper Cambrian? to Lower Ordovician Bell Island and Wabana groups of eastern Newfoundland, Canada. Calgary: Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, 119p.

Frey, R. W. & Howard, J. D. 1970: Comparison of Upper Cretaceous ichnofaunas from siliceous sandstones and chalk, western interior region, U.S.A.. In Crimes, T. P. & Harper, J. C. (eds): Trace fossils. Geol. J. special Issues 3, 141-166.

Frey, R. W., Howard, J.D., and Pryor, W.A., 1978, Ophiomorpha: its morphologic, taxonomic, and environmental significance: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, Vol. 23: 199-229.

Frey, R.W., Pemberton, S.G. and Fagerstrom, J.A., 1984. Morphological, ethological, and environmental significance of the ichnogenera Scoyenia and Ancorichnus. Journal of Paleontology, pp.511-528.

Frey, R.W. and Howard, J.D., 1985a. Trace fossils from the Panther Member, Star Point Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Coal Creek Canyon, Utah. Journal of Paleontology, pp.370-404.

Frey, R.W. and Howard, J.D., 1985b. Upper Cretaceous trace fossils, Book Cliffs of Utah: A field guide. Rocky Mountain Section (SEPM).

Frey, R.W., 1990. Trace fossils and hummocky cross-stratification, Upper Cretaceous of Utah. Palaios, pp.203-218.

Frey, R.W., Pemberton, S.G. and Saunders, T.D., 1990. Ichnofacies and bathymetry: a passive relationship. Journal of Paleontology, pp.155-158.

Fürsich, F. T. 1973: A revision of the trace fossils Spongeliomorpha, Ophiomorpha and Thalassinoides. Neues Jb. Geol. Paldont. Mh., p. 719-735.

Fürsich, F.T., 1998. Environmental distribution of trace fossils in the Jurassic of Kachchh (Western India). Facies, 39(1), pp.243-272.

138 Getty, P.R., Sproule, R., Wagner, D.L. and Bush, A.M., 2013. Variation in wingless insect trace fossils: insights from neoichnology and the Pennsylvanian of Massachussetts. Palaios, 28(4), pp.243-258.

Gibert, J.M. de, & Ekdale, A.A., 2010, Palaeobiology of the crustacean trace fossil Spongeliomorpha from the Miocene of SE Spain: Acta Palaeontologia Polonica, 55(4):733-740.

Gingras, M.K., Bann, K.L., MacEachern, J.A., Waldron, J. and Pemberton, S.G. 2007. 'A conceptual framework for the application of trace fossils'. In: Applied Ichnology. Editors: J.A.

MacEachern, K.L. Bann, M.K. Gingras and S.G. Pemberton. 'Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Short Course Notes', 52: 1-25.

Głuszek, A., 1998. Trace fossils from Late Carboniferous storm deposits, Upper Silesia Coal Basin, Poland. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 43(3), pp.517-546.

Goldring, R., Pollard, J.E. and Radley, J.D., 2005. Trace fossils and pseudofossils from the Wealden strata (non-marine Lower Cretaceous) of southern England. Cretaceous Research, 26(4), pp.665-685.

Good, T.R., 2013. Life in an Ancient Sea of Sand: Trace Fossil Assocations and Their Paleoecological Implications in the Upper Triassic/Lower Jurassic Nugget Sandstone, Northeastern Utah (unpublished Masters Thesis, The University of Utah).

Hasiotis, S.T., and Dubiel R.F.. 1993. Continental Trace fossils of the Upper Triassic Chinle Formation, Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona. In The Nonmarine Triassic: NMMNH Bulletin 3, Lucas, S.G. and M. Morales, eds., 3, p.117.

Henk, Bo, John A. Breyer, and Mark Scheihing, 2002. "Sedimentology, Ichnology and Depositional Environment of the Woodbine Sandstone (Cretaceous) Exposed along the Shores of Lake Grapevine, Tarrant County, Texas." pp 395-395.

Hook, S.C., 2008, Gallery of geology- Sierra de Cristo Rey: New Mexico Geology, v. 30. Pp 93-94.

Howard, J.D., 1978, Sedimentology and Trace Fossils. In: Trace fossil Concepts (Ed. by P.B. Basan), pp. 13-45, SEPM Short Course No. 5.

Howard, J.D. and Frey, R.W., 1984. Characteristic trace fossils in nearshore to offshore sequences, Upper Cretaceous of east-central Utah. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 21(2), pp.200-219.

Jackson, A.M., 2014, Ichnological Assessment of Depositional Environments in the Cretaceous Dakota Group, Cañon City, Colorado. In 2014 GSA Annual Meeting in Vancouver, British Columbia.

139 Kappus, E.J., 2007, Middle Cretaceous dinosaur tracks at Cerro de Cristo Rey, Sunland Park, New Mexico and a comparison with other paleocoastal tracksites of the southwestern US, [unpublished Masters Thesis], The University of Texas at El Paso, 158 p.

Kappus, E.J., Lucas, S.G. and Langford, R. 2011. The Cerro de Cristo Rey Cretaceous dinosaur tracksites, Sunland Park, New Mexico, USA, and Chihuahua, Mexico. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 53: 272-288.

Kim, J.Y., Keighley, D.G., Pickerill, R.K., Hwang, W. and Kim, K.S., 2005. Trace fossils from marginal lacustrine deposits of the Cretaceous Jinju Formation, southern coast of Korea. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 218(1), pp.105-124.

Książkiewicz, M., 1970. Observations on the ichnofauna of the Polish Carpathians. Palaeont. Polon., 36: p1-208.

Kues, B.S., 1989. Taxonomy and variability of three Texigryphaea (Bivalvia) species from their Lower Cretaceous (Albian) type localities in New Mexico and Oklahoma. Journal of Paleontology, 63(04), pp.454-483.

Kues, B.S., 1997. New bivalve taxa from the Tucumcari Formation (Cretaceous, Albian), New Mexico, and the biostratigraphic significance of the basal Tucumcari fauna. Journal of Paleontology, 71(05), pp.820-839.

Kues, B.S. and Lucas, S.G., 1993, Stratigraphy, Palaeontology and Correlation of Lower Cretaceous Exposures in Southeastern New Mexico: New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook, 44th Field Conference, Carlsbad Region, New Mexico and West Texas, p. 245-260.

Kulkarni, K.G., Borkar, V.D., and Petare, T.J., 2008, Ichnofossils from the Fort Member (Middle Jurassic), Jaisalmer Formation, Rajasthan. Geological Society of India [Online], Vol. 71.5: p.731-738.

Leckie, D.A., Singh, C., Bloch, J., Wilson, M. and Wall, J., 1992. An anoxic event at the Albian-Cenomanian boundary: the Fish Scale marker bed, northern Alberta, Canada. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 92(1-2), pp.139-166.

Lima, J.H.D. and Netto, R.G., 2012. Trace fossils from the Permian Teresina Formation at Cerro Caveiras (S Brazil). Revista Brasileira de Paleontologia,15(1), pp.5-22. Lovejoy, E.M.P., 1976. Geology of Cerro de Cristo Rey Uplift, Chihuahua and New Mexico. New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources Memoir 31.

Lucas, S.G., Minter, N.J., Spielmann, J.A., Hunt, A.P. and Braddy, S.J., 2005. Early Permian ichnofossil assemblage from the Fra Cristobal Mountains, southern New Mexico. The Permian of central New Mexico. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 31, pp.140-150.

140 Lucas, S.G., Spielmann, J.A., Klein, H. and Lerner, A.J., 2010a. Ichnology of the Upper Triassic (Apachean) Redonda Formation, east-central New Mexico: Bulletin 47 (Vol. 47). New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science.

Lucas, S.G., Krainer, K., Spielmann, J.A., and Durney, K., 2010b, Cretaceous stratigraphy, paleontology, petrography, depositional environments, and cycle stratigraphy at Cerro de Cristo Rey, Dona Ana County, New Mexico: New Mexico Geology, v. 32, p. 103-130.

Machalski, M. and Machalska, K., 1994. Arthropod trackways,“Diplichnites” triassicus (Linck, 1943), from the Lower Triassic (Buntsandstein) fluvial deposits of the Holy Cross Mts, central Poland. Acta Geologica Polonica, 44(3-4), pp.267-276.

MacEachern, J.A., Pemberton, S.G., Bann, K.L., and Gingras, M.K., 2007. Departures from the archetypal ichnofacies: effective recognition of physico-chemical stresses in the rock record. In:

MacEachern, J.A., Bann, K.L., Gingras, M.K., Pemberton, S.G. (Eds.), Applied Ichnology. SEPM Short Course Notes 52. pp, 65-93.

MacEachern, J.A., Bann, K.L., Gingras, M.K., Zonneveld, J.P., Dashtgard, S.E. and Pemberton, S.G., 2012. The ichnofacies paradigm. Trace fossils as indicators of sedimentary environments. Developments in Sedimentology, 64, pp.103-138.

Male, W.H., 1992. The Sedimentology of Ichnology of the Lower Cretaceous (Albian) Bluesky Formation in the Karr Area of West-Central Alberta. Applications of Ichnology to Petroleum Exploration, Edited by S. George Pemberton. Vol. 17.p. 33-55

Mángano, M.G., Buatois, L.A. and Muñiz Guinea, F., 2005. Ichnology of the Alfarcito Member (Santa Rosita Formation) of northwestern Argentina: Animal-substrate interactions in a lower Paleozoic wave-dominated shallow sea. Ameghiniana, 42(4), pp.641-668.

Maples, C.G. and West, R.R., 1989. Lockeia, not Pelecypodichnus. Journal of Paleontology, pp.694-696.

Martin, K.D., 2004. A re-evaluation of the relationship between trace fossils and dysoxia. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 228(1), pp.141-156. Masakazu, N., 2003, Preferentially oriented Lockeia siliquaria in the Miocene Tatsukushi Formation, southwestern Japan : Paleoecology and sedimentological significance of infaunal suspension-feeding bivalves: Jour. Geol. Soc. Japan, Vol. 109, No. 12, p. 710-721.

Matteucci, R., Manni, R., Di Bella, L., 2012, Echinoid grazing traces on ostreid shell- ground from the Pliocene Ficulle quarry (central Italy): Journal of Mediterranean Earth Sciences, Vol. 4, pp. 71-79.

Mayoral, E. and Muñiz, F., 2001. New ichnospecies of Cardioichnus from the Miocene of the Guadalquivir Basin, Huelva, Spain. Ichnos, Vol. 8 (1), pp.69-76.

141

McIlroy, D., 2004. Ichnofabrics and sedimentary facies of a tide-dominated delta: Jurassic Ile Formation of Kristin Field, Haltenbanken, offshore Mid-Norway. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 228(1), pp.237-272.

Melchor, R. N., Bedatou, E., and Bromley R.G., 2006, Spongeliomorpha in continental settings: Third Workshop on Ichnotaxonomy; Abstract Book, eds. R Mikulas & amp; A K Rindsberg, September 2006, 2 pp.

Melchor, R.N., Bromley, R.G., and Bedatou, E., 2010, Spongeliomorpha in nonmarine settings: an ichnotaxonomic approach: Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. 100, p.429-436.

Metz, R., 2013, An exceptional occurrence of the trace fossil cruziana on a bedding surface from a core of the bloomsburg red beds (Silurian), northwestern New Jersey: Volume 31, Number 1, p.1 – 6

Metz, R., 2012, First record of an arthropod from the Passaic Formation (Late Triassic), near Milford, New Jersey: Central European Journal of Geosciences, v. 4, p.3-8.

Minter, N.J. and Lucas, S.G., 2009. The arthropod trace fossil Cruziana and associated ichnotaxa from the Lower Permian Abo Formation, Socorro County, New Mexico. In New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook, 60th Field Conference, Geology of the Cupadera Mesa Region, p 291-298.

Monaco, P., Giannetti, A., Caracuel, J. and Yébenes, A., 2005. Lower Cretaceous (Albian) shell‐armoured and associated echinoid trace fossils from the Sácaras Formation, Serra Gelada area, southeast Spain. Lethaia,38(4), pp.333-344.

Morrissey, L.B., Braddy, S., Dodd, C., Higgs, K.T. and Williams, B.P., 2012. Trace fossils and palaeoenvironments of the Middle Devonian Caherbla Group, Dingle Peninsula, southwest Ireland. Geological Journal, 47(1), pp.1-29.

Neef, G., 2004. Devonian arthropod trackways from the fluvial Ravendale Formation, western New South Wales. Alcheringa, 28(2), pp.401-402.

Niedzwiedzki, G., Narkiewicz, M. and Szrek, P., 2014. Middle Devonian invertebrate trace fossils from the marginal marine carbonates of the Zache³mie tetrapod tracksite, Holy Cross Mountains, Poland. Bulletin of Geosciences, 89, p.3.

Noffke, N., 2009, The criteria for the biogeneicity of microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) in Archean and younger, sandy deposits: Earth Science Reviews, v. 96, p. 173–180.

142 Núñez-Useche, F., Barragán, R., Moreno-Bedmar, J.A. and Canet, C., 2014. Mexican archives for the major Cretaceous Oceanic Anoxic Events. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana, 66(3), pp.491-505.

Paranjape, A.R., Kulkarni, K.G. and Gurav, S.S., 2013. Significance of Lockeia and associated trace fossils from the Bada Bagh Member, Jaisalmer Formation, Rajasthan. Journal of Earth System Science, 122(5), pp.1359-1371.

Pemberton, S.G. and Frey, R.W., 1982. Trace fossil nomenclature and the Planolites- Palaeophycus dilemma. Journal of Paleontology, pp.843-881.

Pemberton, S.G., Frey, R.W., and Bromley, R.G. 1988. The ichnotaxonomy of Conostichus and other plug-shaped ichnofossils. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 25: 866- 892.

Pemberton, S.G. and MacEachern, J.A., 1997. The Ichnological Signature of Storm Deposits: the Use of Trace Fossils in Event Stratigraphy, in Brett, C.E. and Baird, G.C. (eds) Paleontological events: stratigraphic, ecological, and evolutionary implications. Columbia University Press p73-109.

Pemberton, S.G., Van Wagoner, J.C. and Wach, G.D., 1992. Ichnofacies of a wave- dominated shoreline. In S.G. Pemberton, ed., Applications of Ichnology to Petroleum Exploration, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Core workshop 17. p.339- 382.

Pfister, T. and Keller, B., 2010. Spurenfossilien aus der Oberen Meeresmolasse (Burdigalien) um Bern, Schweiz. Contributions to Natural History, 13, pp.37-79.

Pickett, T. E., Kraft, J. C. & .Smith, K. 1971: Cretaceous burrows - Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, Delaware. J. Paleont. 45, 209-211.

Pieńkowski, G. and Niedźwiedzki, G., 2010. Invertebrate trace fossil assemblages from the Lower Hettangian of Sołtyków, Holy Cross Mountains, Poland. Volumina Jurassica, 6, pp.109-131.

Pillmore, C.L. and Maberry, J.O., 1976. Depositional environments and trace fossils of the Trinidad Sandstone, southern Raton basin, New Mexico in Guidebook of Vermejo Park, northeastern New Mexico: New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook. In 27th Field Conference (pp. 191-195).

Plaziat, J.C. and Mahmoudi, M., 1988. Trace fossils attributed to burrowing echinoids: a revision including new ichnogenus and ichnospecies. Geobios,21(2), pp.209-233.

Poschmann, M., 2014. The corkscrew-shaped trace fossil Helicodromites Berger, 1957, from Rhenish Lower Devonian shallow-marine facies (Upper Emsian; SW Germany). Paläontologische Zeitschrift, 89(3), pp.635-643.

143

Pollard, J.E., Goldring, R. and Buck, S.G., 1993. Ichnofabrics containing Ophiomorpha: significance in shallow-water facies interpretation. Journal of the Geological Society, 150(1), pp.149-164.

Radley, J.D., Barker, M.J. and Munt, M.C., 1998. Bivalve trace fossils (Lockeia) from the Barnes High Sandstone (Wealden Group, Lower Cretaceous) of the Wessex Sub-basin, southern England. Cretaceous Research, 19(3), pp.505-509.

Rajkonwar, C., Tiwari, R.P., and Patel, S.J., 2013, Arenicolites helixus isp. nov. and associated ichno-species from the Bhuban Formation, Surma Group (Lower-Middle Miocene) of Aizawl, Mizoram, India: Himalayan Geology: Vol. 34 (1), pp. 18-37.

Raychaudhuri, I., Brekke, H.G., Pemberton, S.G., and MacEachern, J.A., 1992. Depositional facies and trace fossils of a low wave energy shorefacies succession, Albian Viking Formation, Chigwell Field, Alberta, Canada. SEPM Special Publication: Applications of Ichnology to Petroleum Exploration (CW17), pp319-337.

Rindsberg, A.K. and Kopaska-Merkel, D.C., 2005. Treptichnus and Arenicolites from the Steven C. Minkin Paleozoic Footprint site (Langsettian, Alabama, USA). Pennsylvanian Footprints in the Black Warrior Basin of Alabama, pp.121-141.

Rotnicka, J., 2010. Ichnofabrics of the Upper Cretaceous fine-grained rocks from the Stołowe Mountains (Sudetes, SW Poland). Geological Quarterly, 49(1), pp.15-30.

Savrda, C.E., Blanton‐Hooks, A.D., Collier, J.W., Drake, R.A., Graves, R.L., Hall, A.G., Nelson, A.I., Slone, J.C., Williams, D.D. and Wood, H.A., 2000. Taenidium and associated ichnofossils in fluvial deposits, Cretaceous Tuscaloosa Formation, eastern Alabama, southeastern USA. Ichnos: An International Journal of Plant & Animal, 7(3), pp.227-242.

Schlirf, M. and Uchman, A., 2005. Revision of the ichnogenus Sabellarifex Richter, 1921 and its relationship to Skolithos Haldemann, 1840 and Polykladichnus Fursich, 1981. Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 3, 115-131.

Scott, R.W. and Kidson, E.J., 1977, Lower Cretaceous depositional systems, West Texas; in Bebourt, D.G. and Loucks, R.G., eds., Cretaceous carbonates of texas and Mexico: Texas Bureau of Economic Geology, Report of Investigations 89, pp. 169-181.

Scott, R.W., Holbrook, J.M., Evetts, M.J. and Oboh-Ikuenobe, F.E., 2001, Albian- Cenomanian depositional cycles transgressed from Chihuahua trough to western interior: New Mexico Geological Society, Guidebook 52, pp. 221-228.

Scott, R.W., Benson, D.G., Morin, R.W., Shaffer, B.L. and Oboh-Ikuenobe, F.E., 2003. Integrated Albian-lower Cenomanian chronostratigraphy standard, Trinity River section, Texas. Cretaceous stratigraphy and paleoecology, Texas and Mexico: Gulf Coast Section of the Society

144 of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation Special Publications in Geology, 1, pp.277-334.

Scott, R.W., Formolo, M., Rush, N., Owens, J.D. and Oboh-Ikuenobe, F., 2013. Upper Albian OAE 1d event in the Chihuahua Trough, New Mexico, USA. Cretaceous Research, 46, pp.136-150.

Seilacher, A., 1967. Bathymetry of trace fossils. Marine geology, 5(5), pp.413-428.

Seilacher, 1978. Use of trace fossil assemblages in recognizing depositional environments, p. 185-201. In P. B. Basan (ed.), Trace Fossil Concepts. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Short Course Number 5.

Seilacher, A., 1982. Distinctive features of sandy tempestites. In Cyclic and Event Stratification (pp. 333-349). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

Simpson, S., 1956. On the trace-fossil Chondrites. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, 112(1-4), pp.475-499.

Smith, A.B. and Crimes, T.P., 1983. Trace fossils formed by heart urchins‐a study of Scolicia and related traces. Lethaia, 16(1), pp.79-92.

Smith, A., Braddy, S.J., Marriott, S.B. and Briggs, D.E.G., 2003. Arthropod trackways from the Early Devonian of South Wales: a functional analysis of producers and their behaviour. Geological Magazine, 140(01), pp.63-72.

Stewart, D.J., Ruffell, A., Wach, G. and Goldring, R., 1991. Lagoonal sedimentation and fluctuating salinities in the Vectis Formation (Wealden Group, Lower Cretaceous) of the Isle of Wight, southern England. Sedimentary Geology, 72(1), pp.117-134.

Strain, W.S. 1976, New Formation Names in the Cretaceous at Cerro de Cristo Rey, Doña Ana County, New Mexico, pp. 77-82. In Lovejoy, E.M.P., Geology of Cerro de Cristo Rey Uplift, Chihuahua and New Mexico. New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources Memoir 31. Socorro, New Mexico.

Taylor, A.M. and Goldring, R., 1993, Description and analysis of bioturbation and ichnofabric: Journal of the Geological Society, London, Vol. 150, p. 141-148.

Tchoumatchenco, P. and Uchman, A., 2001. The oldest deep-sea Ophiomorpha and Scolicia and associated trace fossils from the Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous deep-water turbidite deposits of SW Bulgaria. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 169(1), pp.85-99.

Tiwari, R.P., Rajkonwar, C., Malsawma, P.L.J., Ralte, V.Z. and Patel, S.J., 2011. Trace fossils from Bhuban Formation, Surma Group (lower to middle miocene) of Mizoram India and their palaeoenvironmental significance.Journal of earth system science, 120(6), pp.1127-1143.

145

Turnšek, D., LeMone, D. V., and Scott, R. W., 2003, Tethyan Albian corals, Cerro de Cristo Rey uplift, Chihuahua and New Mexico; in Scott, R. W. (ed.), Cretaceous stratigraphy and paleoecology, Texas and Mexico: Perkins Memorial volume, GCSSEPM Foundation, Special Publications in Geology, v. 1, pp. 147–185.

Uchman, A. 1995. Taxonomy and palaeoecology of flysch trace fossils: the Marnoso- arenacea Formation and associated facies (Miocene, northern Apennines, Italy). Beringeria 15:115 p.

Uchman, A., 1998. Taxonomy and ethology of flysch trace fossils: a revision of the Marian Ksiazkiewicz collection and studies of complementary material. Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae, 68, pp 105-218.

Uchman, A., Kazakauskas, V. and Gaigalas, A., 2009. Trace fossils from Late Pleistocene varved lacustrine sediments in eastern Lithuania.Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 272(3), pp.199-211.

Uchman, A., Caruso, C. and Sonnino, M., 2012. Taxonomic review of Chondrites affinis (Sternberg, 1833) from Cretaceous-Neogene offshore-deep-sea Tethyan sediments and recommendation for its further use. Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia (Research In Paleontology and Stratigraphy), 118(2).

Chapter 3. A New Ichnospecies of Cardioichnus from the Cretaceous (Albian) of New Mexico Belaústegui, Z., Muñiz, F., Domènech, R. and Martinell, J. 2015. Echinoderm Ichnology: A State of the Art. Progress in Echinoderm Palaeobiology: 37-40.

Böse, E. 1910. Monografia geológica y paleontológica del Cerro de Muleros cerca de Ciudad Juarez y descripción de la fauna Cretacea de la Encantada, Placer de Guadalupe, Estado de Chihuahua. Boletín del Instituto de Geología de México, 25: 1-193.

Bromley, R.G. and Asgaard, U. 1975. Sediment structures produced by a spatangoid echinoid: a problem of preservation. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark, 24: 261- 281.

De Gibert, J.M. and Goldring, R. 2008. Spatangoid-produced ichnofabrics (Bateig Limestone, Miocene, Spain) and the preservation of spatangoid trace fossils. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 270 : 299-310.

Howard, J. D., H. E. Reineck, and Rietschel, S. 1974, Biogenic sedimentary structures formed by heart urchins. Senckenbergiana maritima, 6 : 185-201.

Kanazawa, K. 1992. Adaptation of test shape for burrowing and locomotion in spatangoid echinoids. Palaeontology, 35 : 733-750.

146

Kues, B.S. and Lucas, S.G. 1993. Stratigraphy, paleontology and correlation of Lower Cretaceous exposures in southeastern New Mexico. Carlsbad region, New Mexico and west Texas. New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook, 44: 245-260.

Lovejoy, E.M. 1976. Geology of Cerro de Cristo Rey uplift, Chihuahua and New Mexico. New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources Memoir, 31: 84.

Lucas, S.G., Krainer, K., Spielmann, J.A. and Durney, K. 2010. Cretaceous stratigraphy, paleontology, petrography, depositional environments, and cycle stratigraphy at Cerro de Cristo Rey, Doña Ana County, New Mexico. New Mexico Geology, 32 : 130.

Mayoral, E. and Muñiz, F. 2001. New ichnospecies of Cardioichnus from the Miocene of the Guadalquivir Basin, Huelva, Spain. Ichnos, 8: 69-76.

Monaco, P., Giannetti, A., Caracuel, J. and Yébenes, A. 2005. Lower Cretaceous (Albian) shell armoured and associated echinoid trace fossils from the Sácaras Formation, Serra Gelada area, southeast Spain. Lethaia, 38: 333-344.

Pfister, T. and Keller, B. 2010. Spurenfossilien aus der Oberen Meeres-molasse (Burdigalien) um Bern, Schweiz. Contributions to Natural History, 13: 37-79.

Plaziat, J.C. and Mahmoudi, M. 1988. Tracefossils attributed to burrowing echinoids: a revision including new ichnogenus and ichnospecies. Geobios, 21: 209-233.

Scott, R.W., Formolo, M., Rush, N., Owens, J.D. and Oboh-Ikuenobe, F. 2013. Upper Albian OAE 1d event in the Chihuahua Trough, New Mexico, USA. Cretaceous Research, 46: 136-150.

Smith, A.B. and Crimes, T.P. 1983. Trace fossils formed by heart urchins‐ a study of Scolicia and related traces. Lethaia, 16: 79-92.

Strain, W.S. 1976. New formation names in the Cretaceous at Cerro de Cristo Rey, Doña Ana County, New Mexico. New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources Memoir, 31: 77-82.

Uchman, A. 1995. Taxonomy and paleoecology of flysch trace fossils: The Marnoso- arenacea Formation and associated facies (Miocene, Northen Apennines, Italy). Beringeria, 15: 3-115.

147 Zecchin, M., Caffau, M., Civile, D. and Roda, C. 2010. Anatomy of a late Pleistocene clinoformal sedimentary body (Le Castella, Calabria, southern Italy): A case of prograding spit system?. Sedimentary Geology, 223: 291-309.

Chapter 4. A Pedagogy for the Cerro de Cristo Rey Dinosaur Tracksite: Hiking trails, Self- guided Tours, and Virtual Visits

Bartley, J.E., Mayhew, L.M. and Finkelstein, N.D., 2009. November. Promoting children’s understanding and interest in science through informal science education. In American Institute of physics conference proceedings for the 2009 physics education research conference. Retrieved October (Vol. 17, p. 2012).

Belle, E.R., 1987. A geochemical study of the organic matter within the lower cretaceous Mesilla Valley shale, Cerro de Cristo Rey uplift, Dona Ana County, New Mexico.

Bonfield, S.B., 2014. Engaging Latino audiences in informal science education (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University).

Böse, E., 1910. Monografia geological y paleontological del Cerro de Muleros cerca de Ciudad Juarez, Estado de Chihuahua y descripcion de la fauna Cretacea de la Encantada, Placer de Guadalupe, Estado de Chihuahua: Instituto Geologico Mexico, Boletin 25, 193p.

Carciumaru, D. and Ortega, R., 2008. Geologic structure of the northern margin of the Chihuahua trough: Evidence for controlled deformation during Laramide Orogeny. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana, 60(1), pp.43-69.

Cerro de Cristo Rey Tracksite website, 2014. www.geo.utep.edu/pub/dinosaurs

Chan, M.A., 2009. Geoantiquities in the Urban Landscape: Potential Loss of Geological Heritage. In 2009 Portland GSA Annual Meeting.

Cornell, W.C., LeMone, D.V., and W.D. Norland (1991). Albian Ophiuroids from Cerro de Cristo Rey, Dona Ana County, New Mexico: Jour. of Paleont., v. 65(60, p. 1009-1013.

Cornell, W.C., 1998. Preliminary report of dinoflagellate cysts from the Buda Limestone (Cenomanian) Cerro de Cristo Rey, Dona Ana County, New Mexico; in Srivastava, S.K., and E.R. Wincander (eds.), Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology (Festschrift volume honoring H. Tappan and A.R. Loeblich), v. 98, p. 153-157.

Garcia, R.A., 1970. Geology and petrography of andesitic intrusions in and near El Paso, Texas: unpublished M.S. thesis, University of Texas (El Paso), 139 p.

Haury, D.L. and Rillero, P., 1994. Perspectives of Hands-On Science Teaching.

148 Hoffer, J.M., 1970. Petrology and mineralogy of the Campus Andesite pluton, El Paso, Texas, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., v. 81, p. 2129-2136.

Kappus, Eric J., and Cornell, William C., 2003. A New Cretaceous Dinosaur Tracksite in Southern New Mexico, Paleontologia electronica, vol 6(3), 6pp.

Kappus, E.J., Lucas, S.G., Hunt, A.P., Heckert, A.B., and Lockley, M.G., 2003. Dinosaur footprints from the Lower Cretaceous Sarten Member of the Mojado Formation at Cerro de Cristo Rey, Doña Ana County, New Mexico, Bill Sarjeant Tribute issue, Ichnos.

Kappus, E.J. and Hernandez, D., 2004. Lower Cretaceous dinosaur footprints at Cerro de Cristo Rey, Sunland Park, New Mexico, and the Franklin Mountains, El Paso, Texas; in Clark, K.F. and Goodell, P.C., eds., Cerro de Cristo Rey, Otero Mesa, New Mexico and Texas, and Copper Canyon, Mexico: El Paso Geological Society Guidebook, p. 10- 19.

Kappus, E.J., Lucas, S.G., and Langford, R., 2011. The Cerro de Cristo Rey Cretaceous Dinosaur Tracksites, Sunland Park, New Mexico, USA, and Chihuahua, Mexico, in Sullivan et al., eds., 2011, Fossil Record 3. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, Bulletin 53.

Karlstrom, K., Semken, S., Crossey, L., Perry, D., Gyllenhaal, E.D., Dodick, J., Williams, M., Hellmich-Bryan, J., Crow, R., Watts, N.B. and Ault, C., 2008. Informal geoscience education on a grand scale: The trail of time exhibition at grand canyon. Journal of Geoscience Education, 56(4), p.354.

Krishnamurthi, A., Alliance, A. and Rennie, L.J., 2013. Informal Science Learning and Education: Definition and Goals, Board on Science Education Commisoined Papers, http://www.afterschoolalliance.org/documents/STEM/Rennie_Krishnamurthi.pdf

Libarkin, J. and Brick, C., 2002. Research methodologies in science education: Visualization and the geosciences. Journal of Geoscience Education, 50(4), pp.449-455.

Mauldin, R.A., 1985. Foraminiferal biostratigraphy, paleoecology, and correlation of the Del Rio Clay (Cenomanian), from Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas, to the Cerro de Muleros area, Dona Ana County, New Mexico.

Mathis, A., Lillie, R.J., and Semken, S., 2013. Sharing Geology with the Public in Arizona’s “Route 66 Country” Using Interpretive and Place-Based Educational Techniques, 64th NMGS Fall Field Conference, 2013, FIRST-DAY ROAD LOG, pp 20-22.

Meyer, X.S., Capps, D.K., Crawford, B.A. and Ross, R., 2012. Using Inquiry and Tenets of Multicultural Education to Engage Latino English-Language Learning Students in Learning About Geology and the Nature of Science. Journal of Geoscience Education, 60(3), pp.212-219.

149 Norland, W.D., 1986. Thermal maturation of the Mesilla Valley shale (Late Albian) on the north and east flanks of the Cerro de Cristo Rey pluton, Dona Ana County, New Mexico.

Orion, N. and Hofstein, A., 1991. The measurement of students' attitudes towards scientific field trips. Science Education, 75(5), pp.513-523.

Richardson, G. B., 1909. Geologic Atlas of the United States, El Paso Folio no. 166.

Semken, S., 2005. Sense of place and place-based introductory geoscience teaching for American Indian and Alaska Native undergraduates. Journal of Geoscience Education, 53(2), p.149.

Strain, W.S., 1968. Cerro de Muleros: West Texas Geological Society, Delaware Basin Exploration Guidebook, Publication 68-55, p.83-84.

Strain, W.S. 1976. New Formation Names in the Cretaceous at Cerro de Cristo Rey, Doña Ana County, New Mexico, pp. 77-82. In Lovejoy, E.M.P.L. Geology of Cerro de Cristo Rey Uplift, Chihuahua and New Mexico. New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources Memoir 31. Socorro, New Mexico.

D. Turnsek, D. V. LeMone, and R. W. Scott. 2003. Tethyan Albian corals, Cerro de Cristo Rey Uplift, Chihuahua and New Mexico. Cretaceous Stratigraphy and Paleoecology, Texas and Mexico: Perkins Memorial Volume. Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation, Special Publications in Geology 1:147-185.

Ucko, D, 2008. Introduction to Evaluating Impacs of NSF Informal Science Education Projects, in Framework for Evaluating Impacts of Informal Science Education Projects: Report from a National Science Foundation Workshop, pp 9-13.

Chapter 5. Walking in the Footprints of Dinosaurs: Teaching Sense of Place in El Paso, Texas Buchanan, A.M., Baldwin, S.C., & Rudisill, M.E., 2002. Service learning as scholarship in teacher education. Educational Researcher, June-July:28-34.

Cornell, J., 1984, Sharing nature with children, 20th Edition. Dawn publications, California, p.176.

Derr, V., 2002. Children’s sense of place in northern New Mexico. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 22:125-137.

Dewey, J., 1938. Experience and education. New York: Collier Books. p. 181.

Hatcher, J.A. and Bringle, R.G., 1999. Reflections: Bridging the gap between service and learning. National Society for Experiential Education Quarterly, Spring Volume:12-16.

150 Kappus, E.J. and Cornell, W.C., 2003. A new Cretaceous dinosaur tracksite in southern New Mexico. Paleontologia Electronica, 6: p. 6.

Kappus, E.J., Lucas, S.G., and Langford, R. 2011. The Cerro de Cristo Rey dinosaur tracksite. In Sullivan et al., eds., Fossil Record 3, New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, Bulletin 53, p. 272-288.

Knoop, P.E. Jr., 2006. A sense of place: Getting to know your surroundings. Available at http://www.education.com/reference/article/sense-place-getting-know/surroundings/ (accessed 4 July 2012).

Leopold, A., 1949. A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and There: Oxford University Press. p. 240.

Link, M., 1981. Outdoor education: A manual for teaching in nature’s classroom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall. p. 198.

Lucas, S.G., Krainer, K., Spielmann, J.A. and Durney, K., 2010. Cretaceous stratigraphy, paleontology, petrography, depositional environments, and cycle stratigraphy at Cerro de Cristo Rey, Doña Ana County, New Mexico. New Mexico Geology, 32:103-130.

Measham, T.G., 2006. Learning about environments: The significance of primal landscapes. Environmental Management, 38:426-434.

Shutkin, W.A. and Brower, D., 2001. The land that could be: Environmentalism and democracy in the twenty-first century, 1st ed. MIT Press. p. 295.

Stedman, R.C., 2003. Is it really just a social construction?: The contribution of the physical environment to sense of place, Society and Natural Resources, 16:671-685.

Worthington, R.D. 1991. A rare plant survey of portions of the Cerro de Cristo Rey Uplift, Dona Ana County, New Mexico. Marron Taschek Knight, Inc. 11 p.

Xu, Y., 1995. Sense of place and identity. East St. Louis Action Research Project, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Background Research Report LA 437/465. Available at http://www.eslarp.uiuc.edu/la/la437-f95/reports/yards/main.html (accessed 4 August 2012).

Chapter 6. Co-operative, Inquiry-based, hands-on lessons in rock texture discrimination for upper level undergraduate Geology classes Apedoe, X.S., Walker, S.E. and Reeves, T.C., 2006. Integrating inquiry-based learning into undergraduate geology. Journal of Geoscience Education, 54(3), p.414.

151 Bonfield, S.B., 2014. Engaging Latino audiences in informal science education (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University), 159p.

Drewes, H.D. and Dyer, R., 1993. Geologic map and structure sections of the Sierra Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico (No. 2287).

Gormally, C., Brickman, P., Hallar, B., and Armstrong, N., 2009. "Effects of Inquiry- based Learning on Students’ Science Literacy Skills and Confidence," International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning: Vol. 3: No. 2, Article 16. Available at: http://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/ij-sotl/vol3/iss2/16

Hoffer, J., 1975. A Note on the Volcanic Features of The Aden Crater Area Southcentral New Mexico, New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook, 26th Field Conference, Las Cruces Country, 1975, pp 131-134.

Hoffer, J.M., 1976. Geology of Potrillo basalt field, south-central New Mexico. New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources.

Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J. and Clark, R.E., 2006. Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational psychologist, 41(2), pp.75-86.

Lemone, D., 1968, General Geology of the Franklin Mountains: Road Log, in: The General Geology of the Franklin Mountains, El Paso County, Texas, El Paso Geological Society and Permian Basin Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, pp 1-11.

Lovejoy, E.M.P., 1975, An interpretation of the structural geology of the Franklin Mountains, Texas, in: Las Cruces Country, Seager, W. R.; Clemons, R. E.; Callender, J. F.; [eds.], New Mexico Geological Society 26th Annual Fall Field Conference Guidebook, pp. 261- 268.

Lovejoy, 1980, Sierra de Juarez, Chihuahua Mexico Structure and Stratigraphy, El Paso Geological Society, 59 p.

GSA, 2016, website http://www.geosociety.org/educate/

Savery, J.R., 2015. Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions. Essential Readings in Problem-Based Learning: Exploring and Extending the Legacy of Howard S. Barrows, pp.5-15.

USGS, 2016, website http://education.usgs.gov/undergraduate.html

152 Appendices 1-7- www.geo.utep.edu/pub/SUP

Appendix 1. Histograms, boxplots, and Q-Q plots (cumulative frequency diagram) for chemical elements from this study. Appendix 2. Single element maps for the SUP correlated with geologic polygons. Appendix 3. Single element maps for the SUP showing locations of outliers for those elements. Appendix 4. Table of information for all 197 outliers investigated in this study. Data includes a NURE number, Lat/Long, anomaly associations, site description, sediment type, elements with high values, the geologic map unit, land use comments, and finally a potential source. Appendix 5. Single element maps for the SUP correlated with Pleistocene glacial lobes. Appendix 6. General comments for each element in this study. Appendix 7. Comparative boxplots for each element, showing boxplots for each geologic unit in the SUP.

Appendices 8-9 Appendix 8. Bubbles Exercise Appendix 9. Breccias Exercise

153 Bubbles and Spheres: An Exercise in Rock Texture Discrimination

Mineralogy Lab

INTRODUCTION Correctly identifying rocks is fundamental in geologic interpretation at all scales. Hand samples are the most commonly used scale of observation in geologic interpretation. This exercise will guide the student to an understanding of spherical hand sample features and related terminology, including vesicles, lythophysal cavities, lythophysae, (lithologic) cavity, other cavities like gossan cavities, geodes, thundereggs, bauxite spheres, peloids, ooids, porphyroblasts, ignimbrite, spherulitic (having spherules), vitrophyre, scoria, and zeolites.

INSTRUCTIONS Get online, go to Google.com, and search “gas in magmas” for background on many of the terms listed above. It might be wise to review igneous rock textures and mineralogy, metamorphic textures and mineralogy(including hydrothermal processes), and also sedimentary rock classification and cement/matrix mineralogy. Please be thorough and descriptive with your answers, drawing from your collective knowledge of rock and mineral identification. Feel free to use any online or text reference to answer each of these questions, but remember to consider your peers as a resource as well. Also remember there are often several samples with the same number so look at them all.

1a. Observe hand samples #171, #263, & #264. Sketch the spherical shapes in each of these rocks, and label your illustrations. Comment on sizes, shapes, and bubble density.

#171

#263

#264

154

1b. Identify each of these same samples, and list the properties that led you to your conclusions.

Name Properties #171

#263

#264

1c. How did the “cavities” in sample #263 form? What are these called?

2a. Bubbles can be filled by later diagenetic or hydrothermal processes. These can fill or partially fill the bubble cavities. Sketch and describe these bubble filling features in the following samples: #212, #78, #267, & #110a.

#212

#78

#267

155

#110a

2b. An image of #110b is found on the last page of this exercise. This sample is so full of information that we have a subset of this assignment directed just to this. Describe the paragenesis of this sample.

3a. Observe hand samples #109, #267, #268, & #78. Are these rocks? If so, Igneous, Sedimentary, or Metamorphic? Which one is not like the others? How so?

rock? Ig., Sed., or Meta. same or different?

#109

#267

#78

#268

3b. For each of these same rocks, name the spherical shapes.

#109

156 #267

#78

#268

4a. Observe samples #300 & #263. Are these rocks? If so, name and describe them. If not, name them anyway and describe the observations you made that tell you these are anthropogenic. Are these made of the same stuff?

Rock? Ig., Sed., Meta., or n/a name & description

#300

#263

4b. What type of minerals do you suspect are in samples #300 & #263? (Not the same!)

#300

#263

4c. What do you think would be the weathering product of each of these “stones?”

#300

#263 5a. Observe samples #195 & #109. Are these rocks? How are these rocks related to the #212 & #264 from Question 2.

rock? Ig., Sed., or Meta.? Relationship to samples from Question 2

#195

157

#109

6. Volcanic glasses During the cooling of glassy vitrophyres at the base of ash flow tuffs, nuclei of quartz and feldspar form and micro crystal spheres grow at the expense of the glass. These may grow in size to be commonly ¼ inch in diameter or larger, and are called “spherulites.” Several samples have them including #265(snowflake obsidian), #266(silicified spherulitic rhyolite), and #116(vitrophyre).

6a. Sketch each of these samples, using labels for your illustrations:

#265

#266

#116

7a. Observe samples #224, #266 & #61. Are these rocks? These samples have concentric, spherical inclusions, similar to these Russian nesting dolls------>

158 rock? Ig., Sed., or Meta.? #224

#266

#61

7b. What are these spheres made of?

#224

#266 (a tough one)

#61

7c. What physical properties did you use to identify the spheres?

7d. Name these rocks.

#224

#266

#61

8a. Observe samples #39 and #182. Classify and briefly describe each. (Probably you’ll need to look up the word “gossan.” And if you get minerals from #39 you’ll get lots of Extra Credit.)

Rock? Ig., Sed., Meta., n/a Classification info Name

#39

159

#182

8b. What are the differences between #39 and #182? Can you group these rocks together?

9a. Observe samples #110 and #195, and #194. Are these rocks? If so, are they Igneous, Sedimentary, or Metamorphic? How did you classify them? Name?

Rock? Ig., Sed., Meta., n/a Classification info Name

#110

#195

#194 9b. Pick up #194 again. This rock has not been broken or cut open. Do you feel anything interesting about this rock? (Try shaking it…) What is special about this sample? What does it teach us about the formation of geodes?

10a. Observe hand samples #35, #109 & #268. Are these rocks? If so, Igneous, Sedimentary, or Metamorphic? Which one is not like the others? Why?

rock? Ig., Sed., Meta. , n/a same or other

#35

#109

#268

160

10b. Are #35 and #268 similar? How?

10c. Any guess as to which of these samples is the oldest? How could you tell?

10d. Name the minerals in #109 and #268. Are there any similarities?

11a. Observe sample #. What is the name of this sample? Are there vesicles? (hint: you may need to use a hand lens or binocular microscope)

11b. Extra Credit – are there any other samples with pumice inside them? Which ones? Look carefully, because pumice clasts can be altered and squished.

12. General questions about all samples:

12a. List the main differences between felsic and mafic cavities and how they might be filled.

12b. Which sample is spherulitic rhyolite?

12c. Which sample is has bauxite in it?

161

12d. Which sample has Aluminum ore in it?

12e. What does amygdaloidal mean?

11f. What is the difference between “scoria” and “vesicular basalt?”

Sample #110b image

Sample List (Not for students)

300 slag from ASARCO

182 gossan

194 water filled geode

195 geodes

109 geodes, broken

110a geodes, sliced, hollow; 110b big sliced filled geode

171 lythophyssal obsidian

224 peloidal limestone

61 bauxite ore

116 vitrophyre, with phenocrysts, squished pumice, & spherulites(?)

212 amygdaloidal vesicular basalt

162 263 vesicular basalt

267 amygdaloidal basalt

39 altered pillow basalt with zeolites, NJ

35 welded tuff, “ignimbrite”

266 spherulitic rhyolite (silicified) from Madagascar. “Sea Jasper”

264 scoria

265 snowflake obsidian, spheroidal

268 Ignimbrite, metamorphosed? Gawler craton, Australia

78 altered amygdaloidal andesite

Appendix 9. Breccias Exercise Breccias

Breccias are important indicators of tectonic and volcanic activity. They are often mineralized with interesting alteration and matrices.

Describe the following breccias. Make sure to describe the lithology and nature of the clasts as well as the matrix. Some specimens have more than one type of clasts and more than one mineral in the matrix; be sure to note these details in your description.

Samples to sketch and describe:

149

157

163

161

184

237

254

255

256

278

164

279

280

281

282

283

284

285

165 286

287

288

289

290

291

292

306

166

766

790

KEY

149 Mississippi Valley type Hydrothermal limestone breccia with sphalerite in matrix. 157 Volcanoclastic breccia; sedimentary. 161 Lithic breccia - contrast with #157 184 Cinder block (man made). 237 Arenaceous limestone with calcite filled fractures, Franklin Mountains, El Paso, TX 254 Limestone conglomerate in limestone matrix, Permian, Franklin Mts., El Paso. 255 Volcaniclastic sediments, Sierra Madre, Chihuahua, Mexico. 256 Skarn, altered limestone and pyritized rock, Morococha, Peru. 278 Ash flow tuff breccia with yellow opal(1st paragenesis) then to agate matrix 279 Breccia Unknown silicified breccia, clasts are stratified 280 Breccia igneous clasts and hematite matrix 281 Limestone breccia with big limonite matrix (limonite clasts in matrix?), Crazy Cat landslide, El Paso, TX 282 Breccia – Thunderbird rhyolite with pink hydrothermal alteration pattern 283 Obsidian – flow breccia 284 Volcaniclastic breccia from Mexico 285 Vein breccia hornfels clasts with pyrite veinlets 286 Breccia core rhyolite clasts, calcite (siderite?) matrix 287 Obsidian – partially devitrified (looks like breccia); possibly brecciated obsidian in welded tuff 288 Breccia, clasts rhyolite (?), matrix pyrite & quartz veinlets 289 Breccia core, rhyolite clasts? 290 Limestone breccia with limonite (weathered sample), 291 Conglomerate 292 Breccia with amethyst 306 Hydrothermal alteration of Castner Fm., Franklin Mts. 766 brecciated limestone 790 brecciated andesite

167

168 Vita

Eric Kappus holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Outdoor Education and Master of

Science degree in Geological Sciences. Eric discovered, preserved, and has published several papers on the Cerro de Cristo Rey dinosaur tracksite, as well as one manuscript on Adventure

Therapy. Publications are listed below. Eric is a two-time recipient of a Teaching Excellence

Award from The University of Texas at El Paso. Eric has taught Geology at the college level (or above) since 1997, and has also directed the Louisiana State University Freshmen Geology Field

Camp, which he designed. Eric has led geology field trips and taught local students, teachers, and families about the earth since 1996.

Publications:

“ A new Ichnospecies of Cardioichnus from the Cretaceous (Albian) of New Mexico”, [in revision], co-author S.Lucas, NMMNH Bulletin

“The Cerro de Cristo Rey Cretaceous Dinosaur Tracksites, Sunland Park,New Mexico, USA, and Chihuahua, Mexico”, in Sullivan et al., eds., 2011, Fossil Record 3, New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 53.

“Lower Cretaceous dinosaur footprints at Cerro de Cristo Rey, Sunland Park, New Mexico, and the Franklin Mountains, El Paso, Texas”, El Paso Geological Society Guidebook, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Annual Meeting 2004, El Paso, Texas.

“A New Cretaceous Dinosaur Tracksite in Southern New Mexico,” 2003, co-author, William Cornell, Paleontographica electronica.

“Early Cretaceous Dinosaur Footprints from Cerro de Cristo Rey, Doña Ana County, New Mexico”, 2003, co-authors S. Lucas, A. Heckert, A. Hunt, and M. Lockley, Ichnos- Bill Serjeant Memorial Volume.

“Abraham Maslow and Adventure Therapy: Self Actualization through Process”, 2004, Conversations on the Spiritual Striving of Youth, Online Journal, http://www.youthsection.org/conversations/essays3.html.

169

Contact Information: [email protected]

This dissertation was typed by Eric Kappus.

170