Introduction

Notes

Introduction

1. Leonard Barkan, The Gods Made Flesh: Metamorphosis and the Pursuit of Paganism (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1986), 243. 2. Gordon Braden, ‘Ovid and Shakespeare’, in A Companion to Ovid, ed. Peter E. Knox (Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons, 2009), 640–1. 3. All citations from Ovid in Latin taken from The Complete Works of Ovid (Delphi Classics: Kindle ebook edition, 2012). 4. All citations of Golding’s translation of Ovid’s Metamorphoses are to Ovid’s Metamorphoses: The Arthur Golding Translation 1567, ed. John Frederick Nims (1965; Philadelphia: Paul Dry Books, 2000). 5. All citations of Metamorphoses in contemporary English translation are to Ovid, Metamorphoses, trans. Charles Martin (New York and London: W.W. Norton, 2004). 6. Sarah Annes Brown, ‘Philomela’, Translation and Literature 13 (2004): 194–206, 196. 7. Lynn Enterline discusses the relevance of this term in the line between what cannot be and what is spoken in her analysis of Philomela’s tongue as an emblem of the violated body’s voice (The Rhetoric of the Body from Ovid to Shakespeare [Cambridge University Press, 2000], 3). She quotes Elissa Marder, who has noted that here Ovid ‘insists on the convergence between speaking the crime and doing the deed. One cannot speak “rape”, or speak about rape, merely in terms of a physical body. The sexual violation of the woman’s body is itself embedded in discursive and symbolic structures’ (‘Disarticulated Voices: Feminism and Philomela’, Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy 7.2 [Spring 1992]: 148–66, 158). 8. I strongly agree with Patrick Cheney’s argument that Shakespeare employs Virgil and other writers while in the end aligning himself with Marlowe as mostly an Ovidian poet-playwright, although I see Shakespeare as more vehemently Ovidian, more like Marlowe in this respect, than he does. I also agree strongly with Cheney’s main claim that Shakespeare should be seen as a ‘poet-playwright’, not exclusively a dramatist. See Shakespeare, National Poet-Playwright (Cambridge University Press, 2004), esp. 13–79. 9. See Don Cameron Allen, Mysteriously Meant: The Rediscovery of Pagan Symbolism and Allegorical Interpretation in the Renaissance (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970), esp. 163–99. 10. For more on this matter, see Jonathan Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), esp. 25. 11. Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid, 31. 12. Georgia Brown, Redefining Elizabethan Literature (Cambridge University Press, 2004), 42. 13. See A.B. Taylor, Introduction to Shakespeare’s Ovid: The Metamorphoses in the Plays and Poems, ed. A.B. Taylor (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 1–2; and Colin Burrow, ‘Shakespeare and Humanistic Culture’, in Shakespeare and the

184 Notes to Introduction 185

Classics, ed. Charles Martindale and A.B. Taylor (Cambridge University Press, 2004), 13. 14. Burrow, ‘Shakespeare and Humanistic Culture’, 13. 15. See Burrow, ‘Shakespeare and Humanistic Culture’, 9–27. 16. Taylor, Shakespeare’s Ovid, 1; and Burrow, ‘Shakespeare and Humanistic Culture’, 9–17. 17. Stephen Gosson, The Schoole of Abuse, Conteining a pleasaunt invective against Poets, Pipers, Plaiers, Jesters, and such like Caterpillers of a Commonwealth (1570), ed. Edward Arber (London, 1906), 20. Quoted in Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid, 24. 18. See Raphael Lyne, ‘Ovid in English Translation’, in The Cambridge Companion to Ovid, ed. Philip Hardie (Cambridge University Press, 2002), 249. 19. See Taylor, Shakespeare’s Ovid, 2; and Raphael Lyne, Ovid’s Changing Worlds: English Metamorphoses, 1567–1632 (Oxford University Press, 2001). 20. Liz Oakley-Brown, Ovid and the Cultural Politics of Translation in Early Modern England (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), 1–15. 21. Oakley-Brown, Ovid and the Cultural Politics, 11. 22. On Golding’s commentary as paratext, see Raphael Lyne, ‘The Paratext of Golding’s Ovid’, in English Literature and Transformation, ed. Sabine Coelsch- Foisnel (Tυ¨bingen: Stauffenburg Verlag, 1999), 57–69. For an opposing view, see Madeline Forey, ‘“Bless thee, Bottom, bless thee! Thou Art Translated!” Ovid, Golding, and “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”’, The Modern Language Review 93 (1998): 321–9, esp. 325. 23. Lyne, ‘The Paratext of Golding’s Ovid’, 66. 24. Cora Fox, Ovid and the Politics of Emotion in Elizabethan England (New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 22–3. In Fox’s reading of the section of the Epistle, she sees Golding warning the reader of excess emotion. Although I agree, it is important to note – and it is implied in Plato’s Allegory – that it is particular kinds of passions that pose a threat – those that lead to ‘sin’, to transgressive desires, and often result in profound suffering or trauma. 25. For a discussion of these points in the Preface, see Lyne, ‘The Paratext of Golding’s Ovid’, 61. 26. Lyne notes that Golding’s translation shows a certain amount of pull from contrary desires to faithfully translate the poem and to increase its ‘moral content’. Even so, Golding rarely employs a ‘genuinely moralizing tone’ in his translation (Ovid’s Changing Worlds, 30). 27. On the significance of Golding publishing the poem as a whole, see Lyne, Ovid’s Changing Worlds, 28. 28. See Taylor, Shakespeare’s Ovid, 1–5; ‘Golding’s Ovid, Shakespeare’s “Small Latin”, and the Real Object of Mockery in “Pyramus and Thisbe”’, Shakespeare Survey 42 (1989): 53–64, 54–5; Lyne, Ovid’s Changing Worlds, esp. 23–78; and Braden, ‘Ovid and Shakespeare’, 640–844, 642. Braden also emphasizes Golding’s significance in increasing awareness and influence of the classics in the English Renaissance, in The Classics and English Renaissance Poetry: Three Case Studies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), 1. 29. See Taylor, ‘Golding’s Ovid’, 56. 30. See Taylor, Shakespeare’s Ovid, 3. Notably, Lyne sees Golding’s use of the four- teener as effective for his readers, as it ‘[m]akes Ovid more local, regional, and even rural’ (Ovid’s Changing Worlds, 75). 186 Notes to Introduction

31. See Lyne, Ovid’s Changing Worlds, 29. 32. For a full discussion on Golding’s ‘Englishing’, see Lyne, Ovid’s Changing Worlds, esp. 54–78. On Golding’s modernization of Ovid’s deities and Middle English traditions, see Charles and Michelle Martindale, Shakespeare and the Uses of Antiquity: An Introductory Essay (London and New York: Routledge, 1990), 72–3. 33. Taylor, Shakespeare’s Ovid, 5. 34. Bate notes that, during this time, ‘ways of reading Ovid underwent radical transformation’ (Shakespeare and Ovid, 25); and Lee T. Pearcy also comments that, ‘new developments in style and new ways of reading the ancient authors had made it possible to translate a new Ovid’ (The Mediated Muse: English Translations of Ovid, 1560–1700 [Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1984], 1. For more on this new Ovidianism, see William Keach, Elizabethan Erotic Narratives: Irony and Pathos in the Ovidian Poetry of Shakespeare, Marlowe, and Their Contemporaries (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1977), 31–5, esp. 4; and Laurence Lerner, ‘Ovid and the Elizabethans’, in Ovid Renewed: Ovidian Influences on Literature and Art from the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century, ed. Charles Martindale (Cambridge University Press, 1988), 121–35. 35. Keach, Elizabethan Erotic Narratives, 29. 36. Colin Burrow, ‘Re-embodying Ovid: Renaissance Afterlives’, in The Cambridge Companion to Ovid, ed. Philip Hardie (Cambridge University Press, 2002), 301–19, 304. 37. Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid, 32. 38. Bate has shown that Shakespeare did read primary texts in Latin (and French), along with English translations of them (Shakespeare and Ovid, 7–8). Although scholars have argued about the degree to which Shakespeare read Ovid in Latin and translation, they agree that evidence points to his use of them in combination. See also Martindale and Martindale, Shakespeare and the Uses of Antiquity, 74–6; and Taylor, Shakespeare’s Ovid, 2. 39. See Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid, 31 and Keach, Elizabethan Erotic Narratives, 29. For more on the role of the Amores and Marlowe’s career, see Patrick Cheney, Marlowe’s Counterfeit Profession: Ovid, Spenser, Counter-Nationhood (University of Toronto Press, 1997). 40. Keach, Elizabethan Erotic Narratives, 35. 41. Georgia Brown points out this ambivalence. Although Ovid provided writers with classical weight, his erotic poetry was scandalous, thereby making it shameful – albeit desirable – to imitate him. See Redefining Elizabethan Literature, 2–44, esp. 39–40. 42. Numerous critics have made this point. According to Charles Martindale, ‘Ovid is no moraliser but his sympathetic interest in so many aspects of the human predicament has its own moral dimension’ (Introduction to Ovid Renewed: Ovidian Influences on Literature and Art from the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century, ed. Charles Martindale [Cambridge University Press, 1988], 9); and both Charles Paul Segal and Goran V. Stanivukovic describe his Metamorphoses as ‘moral’ but not ‘moralistic’. See Segal, Landscape in Ovid’s ‘Metamorphoses’: A Study in the Transformations of a Literary Symbol (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag GMBH, 1969), 2–3; Stanivukovic, Introduction to Ovid and the Renaissance Body, ed. Goran V. Stanivukovic (University of Toronto Press, 2001), 5. Notes to Introduction 187

43. Keach, Elizabethan Erotic Narratives, 4–5. 44. Burrow, ‘Re-embodying Ovid: Renaissance Afterlives’, 302. 45. See Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid, 84–7; also, on translatio and imitatio, 131. 46. See Agnès Lafont, Introduction to Shakespeare’s Erotic Mythology and Ovidian Renaissance Culture, ed. Agnès Lafont (Farnham: Ashgate, 2013), 2. 47. Dennis J. Siler, The Influence of the Roman Poet Ovid on Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Intertextual Parallels and Meta-Ovidian Tendencies (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2010), 10–12. 48. Paul Barolsky makes a similar point, that ‘the transformation of one story into another, the metamorphosis of one fable into another is as central to Ovid’s Metamorphoses as it is to Renaissance Ovidian art’ (‘As in Ovid, so in Renaissance Art’, Renaissance Quarterly 51 [1998]: 451–74, 466), quoted in Lafont, Introduction to Shakespeare’s Erotic Mythology, 5. 49. On this matter, see Lafont, Introduction to Shakespeare’s Erotic Mythology, 4. 50. Sarah Carter makes a similar point, that artists could employ these characters ‘almost metaphorically as coded references to a collection of implications’, but her concern is primarily with how these figures relate to ‘prevailing ideologies’ and structures of power. See Ovidian Myth and Sexual Deviance in Early Modern English Literature (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 7. 51. Carter, Ovidian Myth, 1. 52. Lafont, Introduction to Shakespeare’s Erotic Mythology, 2. 53. Brown, Redefining Elizabethan Literature, 41. In a similar vein, Clark Hulse argues that the body in transformation, the ‘metamorphic image’ in Ovid, ‘is integral, minimizing differences. It may suggest the ecstasy or terror of the flesh made free to move across the categories of substance, and of the mind to move across the categories of thought. Indeed, it may call into question our ability to categorize experience at all’ (Metamorphic Verse: The Elizabethan Minor Epic [Princeton University Press, 1981], 7). Also quoted in Brown, Redefining Elizabethan Literature, 41. 54. Burrow, ‘Re-embodying Ovid: Renaissance Afterlives’, 301. 55. Heather James, Shakespeare’s Troy: Drama, Politics, and the Translation of Empire, Cambridge Studies in Renaissance Literature and Culture 22 (Cambridge University Press, 1997). 56. Cheney, Marlowe’s Counterfeit Profession. 57. Brown, Redefining Elizabethan Literature, 36. On this point, see also Fox, Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 12. On Ovid as a ‘counter-classical’ poet, see W.R. Johnson, ‘The Problem of the Counter-Classical Sensibility’, California Studies in Classical Antiquity 3 (1970): 123–50. 58. Gregory Heyworth, Desiring Bodies: Ovidian Romance and the Cult of Form (University of Notre Dame, 2009), 9. 59. Fox, Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 12. 60. On Ovid as an anti-Augustan/Virgilian poet, see Leo Curran, ‘Trans and Anti- Augustanism in Ovid’s Metamorphoses’, Arethusa 5 (1972): 71–91. 61. See Heyworth, Desiring Bodies, 9; and Fox, Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 12. 62. Heyworth, Desiring Bodies, 14. 63. For more on this matter, see Heyworth, Desiring Bodies, 17–18. 64. Joseph B. Solodow writes that ‘any grand scheme of significance in their [the tales’] arrangement is illusory’ (The World of Ovid’s Metamorphoses [Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988], 2). 188 Notes to Introduction

65. Brown, Redefining Elizabethan Literature, 40–1. 66. For a thorough discussion of Ovid’s use of the forest and hunt in depicting violence and sexuality, see Hugh Parry, ‘Ovid’s Metamorphoses: Violence in a Pastoral Landscape’, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 95 (1964): 268–82, esp. 270–82; L.P. Wilkinson, Ovid Surveyed (Cambridge University Press, 1962), 53–4; and Keach, Elizabethan Erotic Narratives, 11–16. 67. Fox, Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 15, 9 68. Alison Sharrock, ‘Gender and Sexuality’, in The Cambridge Companion to Ovid, ed. Philip Hardie (Cambridge University Press, 2002), 95–107, 104. 69. Lafont, Introduction to Shakespeare’s Erotic Mythology, 5. 70. Valerie Traub, afterword to Ovid and the Renaissance Body, ed. Goran V. Stanivukovic (University of Toronto Press), 261. 71. Enterline, The Rhetoric of the Body, 1. 72. Stanivukovic, Ovid and the Renaissance Body, 5, 3, 6. 73. Carter, Ovidian Myth, 2. 74. Carter, Ovidian Myth, 7. 75. Lafont, Introduction to Shakespeare’s Erotic Mythology, 3. 76. Traub, afterword to Ovid and the Renaissance Body, 266. 77. Lafont, Introduction to Shakespeare’s Erotic Mythology, 2. 78. Fox, Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 2. 79. Fox, Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 8. 80. See J.A. Simpson, E.S.C. Weiner, and Michael Proffitt, Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 29. 81. Fred H. Frankel, ‘The Concept of Flashbacks in Historical Perspective’, International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 42 (1994): 328; noted by Ruth Leys, Trauma: A Genealogy (University of Chicago Press, 2000), 241–2. 82. Allan Young, The Harmony of Illusions: Inventing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (Princeton University Press, 1995), 5. 83. Kirby Farrell, Post-traumatic Culture: Injury and Interpretation in the Nineties (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 6. 84. From American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edn (Washington, DC: National Center for PTSD), www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/pages/dsm5_criteria_ptsd.asp. Date created: 10 June 2013; accessed 12 September 2013. 85. Catherine Silverstone traces definitions and revisions of PTSD, reprints 1980, 1987, 1994, 2000, noting this addition in DSM-4. See Shakespeare, Trauma, and Contemporary Performance (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2011), 11. 86. Under the first criterion, labeled ‘Stressor’, the individual must have been confronted with ‘death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence’ – either 1) directly, 2) as a witness, 3) indirectly (via family member or close friend; if ‘actual or threatened death’, the event must be ‘violent or accidental’), 4) indirectly in a continuous or a severe manner, most often in cases of health care professionals, but not including confrontation via mass media. The second category, ‘intrusion symptoms’, addresses how the stressful experience is constantly relived in traumatic memories, nightmares, ‘dissociative reac- tions’ or flashbacks, marked distress in response to reminders of trauma, or evident ‘physiologic reactivity’ in response to ‘trauma-related stimuli’. Notes to Introduction 189

The third area, ‘avoidance’, refers to the person’s insistent, determined evasion of anything that is related to or reminiscent of the stressful experience, or the blocking out of traumatic thoughts or emotions. The next criteria include adverse shifts in both thoughts and frame of mind, which may involve the individual’s lack of memory of the event or ‘dissociative amnesia’, consistent negative views of self and surroundings, feelings of guilt and isolation from others, lack of concern in previous interests, or the incapacity to have pleasant feelings; and changes in the response to stimulation, which may involve short-tempered, violent, uncontrolled, potentially self-destructive behavior, ‘hypervigilance’, ‘exaggerated startle response’, or difficulty in focusing attention and sleeping. 87. The dissociative subtype is characterized by the person’s ‘[c]onfrontation with overwhelming experience from which actual escape is not possible, such as childhood abuse, torture, as well as war trauma’; as such, it ‘challenges the individual to find an escape from the external environment as well as their internal distress and arousal when no escape is possible’. Ruth Lanius et al., ‘Dissociative Subtype of PTSD’, www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/pages/ Dissociative_Subtype_of_PTSD.asp. Date created: 10 June 2013; accessed 12 September 2013. 88. Lanius et al., ‘Dissociative Subtype of PTSD’. 89. Leys, Trauma, 15. 90. British physician John Erichsen first identified ‘railway spine’ and thus initiated modern theories of trauma; Paul Oppenheim then diagnosed ‘traumatic neuroses’ as a disease of the brain. See Leys, Trauma, 2–3. 91. For a full discussion of trauma theory, railway accidents, and the rise of modernity, see Roger Luckhurst, The Trauma Question (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), esp. 34; and Farrell, Post-traumatic Culture, 7–9. 92. See Leys, Trauma, 2–3. 93. See Leys throughout, Trauma, and 9–10 for definition of the mimetic/ antimimetic binary. 94. Freud, SE 3: 1–19. All references to Sigmund Freud are cited from The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. and ed. James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1953–74). 95. See Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 45. Although their work was similar to that of contemporaries, Freud claimed that Breuer’s research predated that of others. See also Leys, Trauma, 2–3. 96. Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 45–6. 97. Freud SE 3: 191–221. 98. Freud SE 3: 191–221. 99. Freud SE 3: 203. 100. Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 47. See also Leys, Trauma, 4. 101. See Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 49. 102. Beyond the Pleasure Principle, throughout, SE 18: 7–64. See Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 48, on Freud’s theory of unconscious as ‘vertical’, as opposed to the ‘horizontal’, as in Janet’s theory of dissociation. 103. Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 46. 104. Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 47. 105. See Leys, Trauma, 20. 106. Leys, Trauma, esp. 36 and Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 47. 190 Notes to Introduction

107. The invention of modern technological warfare – rapid machinegun fire, explosive shells, poison gas, and air combat, among other machines of destruction – drastically changed the new generation’s experience of war. Although horrible atrocities, slaughter, and death had always been brutal realities of war, the advent of technology depersonalized the experience of combat, producing record casualties and mass slaughter; developments in medicine and defense against mechanized warfare lagged far behind dev- e lopments in weapons of mass destruction to make the ‘new’ war unique in its shattering effects. Moreover, at the war’s outbreak, Europeans did not have a realistic idea of modern warfare. Many saw the war as a refuge from modernity, a haven from the industrialization and the monotony of mecha nized life, a retreat back to ‘old-fashioned’ values of chivalry and honor, the raw experience of life-and-death combat. Soon, however, it became clear that war was not a shelter from modernity’s harsh reality, but rather an exposed no-man’s land, where the overwhelming forces of technology created a surreal nightmare. 108. Leys, Trauma, 31. 109. I examine this theory in relation to post-Great War silent films of Hamlet in ‘“Remember me”: Psychoanalysis, Cinema, and the Crisis of Modernity’, Shakespeare Quarterly 53.2 (2002): 181–200. Some of the following description of his theory is excerpted from that article. 110. Beyond the Pleasure Principle, SE 18: 29. 111. Freud, ‘A Note on the Mystic Writing Pad’, SE 19: 230. 112. See Freud, Inhibitions, Systems, and Anxiety (1926), SE 20: 114, 115, 163 and Beyond the Pleasure Principle, throughout, SE 18: 7–64. 113. Leys, Trauma, 28–9. 114. Freud, ‘A Note on the Mystic Writing Pad’, SE 19: 231. 115. Freud, ‘Screen Memories’ (1899) SE 3: 303–22. See Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 12. 116. Freud, ‘A Note on the Mystic Writing Pad’, SE 19: 231. 117. Freud, SE 18: 29. 118. On gender and the treatment of war neuroses, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830–1980 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), 167–94. 119. W.H.R. Rivers writes of such cases in an address that was delivered to the Meeting of the Section of Psychiatry at the Royal Society of Medicine on 4 December 1917. The paper was later published in the proceedings and the journal The Lancet, then posthumously published as ‘The Repression of War Experiences’, in Instinct and the Unconscious: A Contribution to a Biological Theory of the Psycho-neuroses, 2nd edn (Cambridge University Press, 1922), 185–204. 120. Quoted in Cathy Caruth, ‘An Interview with Jean Laplanche’, in Typologies of Trauma: Essays on the Limit and Knowledge of Memory, ed. Linda Belau and Petar Ramadanovic (New York: Other Press, 2002), 103. 121. Caruth, ‘Interview with Jean Laplanche’, 104. 122. Linda Belau, ‘Introduction: Remembering, Repeating, and Working- Through: Trauma and the Limit of Knowledge’, in Topologies of Trauma: Essays on the Limit of Knowledge and Memory, ed. Linda Belau and Petar Ramadanovic (New York: Other Press, 2002), xvi. Notes to Introduction 191

123. Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 3. 124. Freud, ‘Introduction to Psycho-analysis and the War Neuroses’, SE 17: 209. 125. See Showalter, The Female Malady, 167–94. The soldier was under great pres- sure to fulfill traditional expectations of masculinity: to become a strong, unemotional, and heroic warrior. These expectations, along with the deper- sonalizing effects of mechanized warfare, then led to psychological despair. If he cracked under its pressures – exhibiting fears, anxieties, or emotions which, although perhaps acceptable in peacetime, were unacceptable in wartime – then he felt tremendous shame and self-loathing. 126. See Freud, ‘Introduction to Psycho-analysis and the War Neuroses’, SE 17: 209. 127. Leys, Trauma, 22. 128. On the impact of the war on the history of psychoanalysis, see Freud, ‘Introduction to Psycho-analysis and the War Neuroses’, SE 17: 207, and Peter Gay, Freud: A Life for Our Time (1988); (London: Papermac, 1995), 376. 129. On this point, see Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 56. 130. W.H.R. Rivers observes that, before the war, Freud’s ideas had ‘not merely failed to meet with general acceptance, but ... [were] the subject of hostil- ity exceptional even in the history of medicine’ (quoted in Showalter, The Female Malady, 189). Partly due to Rivers’s efforts in England and Freud’s followers on the continent, the ‘talking cure’ of psychoanalysis became the most effective and humane treatment of men suffering from war neuroses throughout Europe. Rivers promoted the humane talking cure over the methods promoted by Dr Lewis Yealland, who advocated the painful use of electrification to force soldiers to overcome their illness in order to return to war. See Lewis R. Yealland, Hysterical Disorders of Warfare (London: Macmillan, 1918), 7–10. For a thorough account of Rivers’s versus Yealland’s treatments, war neuroses, and ‘male hysteria’, see Showalter, The Female Malady, 167–94. For a historical account of war neuroses during and after World War I, see Eric J. Leed, No Man’s Land: Combat and Identity in World War I (Cambridge University Press, 1979), esp. 163–92. 131. Leys, Trauma, 5, 12. 132. See Leys, Trauma, esp. 5. 133. Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 57–8. His book greatly influenced William Sargant, who spearheaded efforts to treat war neuroses during World War II. Sargant employed Freud’s idea of the cathartic cure, along with other controversial methods, including drug and electroconvulsive therapy. See Leys, Trauma, 14, 190–228. 134. See Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 61. 135. See Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 58–72. 136. See Judith Lewis Herman, Trauma and Recovery (New York: Basic Books, 1992) and Ann Cvetkovich, An Archive of Feelings: Trauma, Sexuality, and Lesbian Public Cultures (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003). 137. On matters of ‘survivorship’ and identity politics, see Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 60–9; on ‘rape trauma syndrome’ and issues, see Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 72–5, and Leys, Trauma, 5–6. 138. As Luckhurst points out, Freud was seen as the ‘patriarch’ who denied the authenticity of childhood sexual abuse in trauma cases. Luckhurst points out that this attitude was motivated by changes in psychiatry, primarily the rise of drug therapies, as well as legal pressures to present iron-clad 192 Notes to Introduction

testimonies in court cases (The Trauma Question, 49). Leys stresses the misreading and misapplication of Freud’s ideas in subsequent rejection of them (Trauma, 18–40). 139. On trauma theory and deconstruction, see Leys, Trauma, esp. 8. 140. Cathy Caruth, Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 425. 141. Cathy Caruth, Introduction to Trauma: Explorations in Memory (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 8. 142. Luckhurst, The Trauma Question, 64. 143. Leys, Trauma, 229–65. 144. Caruth herself employs metaphors of disease and infection in describing the communicability of trauma in her book Unclaimed Experience (esp. 71), which Leys views as problematic. See Leys, Trauma, 284–92. 145. Caruth, Unclaimed Experience, 20–1; Leys, Trauma, 284–92. 146. See Cvetkovich, An Archive of Feelings, esp. 18. 147. Deborah Willis, ‘“The gnawing vulture”: Revenge, Trauma Theory, and Titus Andronicus’, Shakespeare Quarterly 53.1 (2002): 21–52. 148. Lisa S. Starks, ‘“Remember Me”: Psychoanalysis, Cinema, and the Crisis of Modernity’, Shakespeare Quarterly 53.2 (2002): 181–200. 149. Heather Hirschfeld, ‘Hamlet’s “first corse”: Repetition, Trauma, and the Displacement of Redemptive Typology’, Shakespeare Quarterly 54.4 (2003): 424–48. 150. Thomas P. Anderson, Performing Early Modern Trauma from Shakespeare to Milton (Farnham and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2006), Patricia A. Cahill, Unto the Breach: Martial Formations, Historical Trauma, and the Early Modern Stage (Oxford University Press, 2008). 151. Anderson, Performing Early Modern Trauma, 1. 152. Anderson, Performing Early Modern Trauma, 3. 153. Anderson, Performing Early Modern Trauma, 3–4. 154. See esp. Dominick LaCapra, Writing History, Writing Trauma (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001). 155. Cahill, Unto the Breach, 2. 156. Cahill, Unto the Breach, 9. 157. Silverstone, Shakespeare, Trauma, and Contemporary Performance, 2. 158. Silverstone, Shakespeare, Trauma, and Contemporary Performance, 7. 159. Silverstone, Shakespeare, Trauma, and Contemporary Performance, 15. 160. Silverstone, Shakespeare, Trauma, and Contemporary Performance, 17. 161. Cahill, Unto the Breach, 7 162. As Richard Strier argues in an e-conversation concerning these matters in early modern studies, ‘I don’t see anything “anachronistic” in speaking in dualistic terms about the early modern period. Descartes was, after all, an early modern person, and the idea of a sharp body–soul dualism was not invented by him. Its initial propounder (or influential formulator) was probably Pythagoras, and dualistic anthropology has been central to the Platonic tradition, from Plato on. Descartes is in this line, a long way down it’ (Richard Strier and Carla Mazzio, ‘Two Responses to “Shakespeare and Embodiment: An E-Conversation”’, Literature Compass 3.1 [2006]: 15–31), 15. 163. Sean McDowell, ‘The View from the Interior: The New Body Scholarship in Renaissance/Early Modern Studies’, Literature Compass 3 (2006): 787. Notes to Introduction 193

164. On Aristotle’s tripartite soul and Renaissance thought, see Garrett A. Sullivan, Sleep, Romance, and Human Embodiment (Cambridge University Press, 2012), esp. 1–9. 165. This Latin text, Isagoge, along with Galen’s Ars Parva or Tegni comprised a part of the Articella, the stock textbook on the subject in universities of medieval Europe (F. David Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare in the English Renaissance [Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1992], 113). The English translation, by Edward T. Withington (appendix 4, Medical History [London, 1894], 387–96), is printed in Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 339–46. 166. Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 339–40. 167. Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 88. 168. De loci affectis 3.9, in Claudii Galeni opera Omnia, ed. Carolus Gottlob Kühn, 22 vols (Leipzig: Cnobloch, 1821–33), 8: 174–5. Quoted in Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 88. 169. See Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 88. 170. Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 157. 171. Aquinas appropriated and changed much of Avicenna’s theory from his De Anima, which included the following five or six inward wits (or senses): 1) sensus communis, aligned with phantasia; 2) imaginato; 3) vis imaginative, and, unique to humans, cogitativa; 4) extimativa; 5) memoria. See Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 153 and Ruth Harvey, The Inward Wits: Physiological Theory in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (London: Warburg Institute, 1975), 4–5, 20–9. 172. See Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 159. 173. Although Bright argues against despair as a kind of melancholy, seeing it more akin to ‘sin’ than to ‘tragedie’, Burton includes it. Timothie Bright, A Treatise of Melancholie, The English Experience: Its Record in Early Printed Books, Published in Facsimile, no. 212 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1969), 2. For a full discussion of Bright’s terminology, see Adam H. Kitzes, The Politics of Melancholy from Spenser to Milton (New York and London: Routledge, 2006), 27–57. 174. See Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621), ed. Holbrook Jackson (New York Review Books, 2001), esp. III. IV. 175. See Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 158. 176. See Burton, Anatomy, I.252. Burton cites several sources, including Thomas Wright’s Book of the Passions of the Mind. 177. Burton, Anatomy, III. IV. 404. 178. See Garrett A. Sullivan, Memory and Forgetting in English Renaissance Drama (Cambridge University Press, 2005), 7–9. 179. Sullivan, Memory and Forgetting, 8. 180. Sullivan, Memory and Forgetting, 9. 181. Thomas Wright, The Passions of the Minde in Generall, 1.9–2.3; quoted in Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 165, 68. 182. N[icholas] Coeffeteau, Table of Humane Passions, trans. Edw[ard] Grimeston ([London:] Nicholas Okes, 1621), 333; quoted in Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 165. 183. For a comprehensive discussion of early modern lovesickness in all its variations, especially in relation to female ‘disorders’ and medical discourses, 194 Notes to Introduction

see Lesel Dawson, Lovesickness and Gender in Early Modern English Literature (Oxford University Press, 2008). 184. M. Andreas Laurentius, A Discourse of the Preservation of the Sight; of Melancholike Diseases; of Rheumes, and of Old Age, trans. Richard Surphlet (London, 1599), 118. Quoted in Dawson, Lovesickness and Gender, 6. 185. For these previous positions, see Juliana Schiesari, The Gendering of Melancholia: Feminism, Psychoanalysis, and the Symbolics of Loss in Renaissance Literature (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); Gail Kern Paster, The Body Embarrassed: Drama and the Disciplines of Shame in Early Modern England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); and Elaine Showalter, ‘Representing Ophelia: Women, Madness, and the Responsibilities of Feminist Criticism’, in Shakespeare and the Question of Theory, ed. Patricia Parker and Geoffrey Hartman (New York: Methuen, 1985), 77–94. These points are summarized and commented on in Dawson, Lovesickness and Gender, 4–5. For Dawson’s position, see 5. 186. See Dawson, Lovesickness and Gender, 5. 187. Dawson, Lovesickness and Gender, 5. 188. Carol Thomas Neely, Distracted Subjects: Madness and Gender in Shakespeare and Early Modern Culture (Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 2004), 99–100. 189. Bruce R. Smith, Homosexual Desire in Shakespeare’s England: A Cultural Poetics (University of Chicago Press, 1991), 15–22. 190. Lafont, Introduction to Shakespeare’s Erotic Mythology, 2. 191. For a detailed discussion of ‘Lovesickness’ and Courtly Love, see Mary Frances Wack, Lovesickness in the Middle Ages: The ‘Viaticum’ and Its Commentaries (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990), 166–73. 192. James M. Bromley takes this position in his analysis of masochistic practices in Intimacy and Sexuality in the Time of Shakespeare (Cambridge University Press, 2011), see esp. 83. 193. See Psychopathia Sexualis: A Medico-Forensic Study, trans. Harry E. Wedeck (1885; New York: Stein and Day, 1965), 168–244. 194. On modern variations of the narrative in literature, see Carol Siegel, Male Masochism: Modern Revisions of the Story of Love (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995). 195. Freud, SE 17: 179–204. 196. Freud, SE 19: 159–69, 161. 197. Freud, SE 18: 34–64. 198. Freud, SE 18: 53. 199. Freud, SE 18: 54. Jean Laplanche in Life and Death in Psychoanalysis, trans. Jeffrey Mehlman (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976) argues that Freud’s term Trieb, translated in the Standard Edition into English via French translation as ‘instinct’, is translated more accurately as ‘drive’ (9). I will be using Laplanche’s terminology of ‘death drive’ rather than ‘death instinct’. 200. Laplanche, Life and Death in Psychoanalysis, 105. 201. Laplanche, Life and Death in Psychoanalysis, 105. 202. SE 19: 57–61. 203. SE 19: 57. 204. Siegel, Male Masochism. Notes to Introduction 195

205. For my earlier treatments of male masochism and Deleuze’s theory, see Lisa S. Starks, ‘“Batter my [flaming] heart”: Male Masochism in the Religious Lyrics of Donne and Crashaw’, Enculturation 1.2 (1997): n. pag. Web. 15 May 2012; ‘“Won with thy words and conquered with thy looks”: Sadism, Masochism, and the Masochistic Gaze in I Tamburlaine’, in Marlowe, History, and Sexuality: New Critical Essays on Christopher Marlowe, ed. Paul Whitfield White (New York: AMS, 1998), 179–93; and ‘“Like the lover’s pinch that hurts and is desired”: The Narrative of Male Masochism in Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra’, Literature and Psychology 45.4 (1999): 58–73. For my later work on Freudian theory, male masochism, and sadomasochism, see Lisa S. Starks, ‘“Immortal longings”: The Erotics of Death in Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra’, in Antony and Cleopatra: New Critical Essays, ed. Sara Munson Deats (New York and London: Routledge, 2005), 245–8; and ‘Transforming Ovid: Violence, Vulnerability, and the Blazon in Shakespeare’s Titus Andronicus’, in Staging the Blazon in Early Modern English Theatre, ed. Sara Morrison and Deborah Uman (Farnham: Ashgate Press, 2013), 53–66. 206. Dawson, Lovesickness and Gender, 11. 207. Melissa E. Sanchez, Erotic Subjects: The Sexuality of Politics in Early Modern English Literature (Oxford University Press, 2011); Bromley, Intimacy and Sexuality in the Time of Shakespeare. 208. Catherine Bates, Masculinity, Gender, and Identity in the English Renaissance Lyric (Cambridge University Press, 2007); Cynthia Marshall, The Shattering of the Self: Violence, Subjectivity, and Early Modern Texts (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002). 209. Gilles Deleuze, ‘Coldness and Cruelty’, in Masochism, trans. Jean McNeil (New York: Zone Books, 1991), 8–138. Deleuze’s framework is, however, exclusively heterosexual – male submissive lover with dominant female beloved – as opposed to Freud’s, in which roles need not be assigned to a particular gender. 210. Starks, ‘Immortal longings’, 247. 211. Bates, Masculinity, Gender, and Identity, 43. 212. Catherine Bates, ‘Astrophil and the Manic Wit of the Abject Male’, Studies in English Literature 41.1 (2001), 1–24, 9. 213. Wack, Lovesickness in the Middle Ages, 158. Here she also notes that Dante’s description echoes the writings of Gerard of Berry, who treated the subject of love-melancholy in his commentaries on Constantine’s Viaticum. For a full discussion of Gerard of Berry’s writings on the subject, see Wack, Lovesickness in the Middle Ages, 51–73. 214. All references to Shakespeare are cited from The Norton Shakespeare, 2nd edn, ed. Stephen Greenblatt (New York: W.W. Norton, 2008). 215. I deal with this point fully in Starks, ‘Transforming Ovid’, 64–6. 216. See my article, Lisa S. Starks, ‘That’s Amores! Latin Love and Lovesickness in Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis’, The Shakespearean International Yearbook 7 (2007): 75–91. 217. I discuss this connection in Starks, ‘Immortal longings’, esp. 246–7. 218. I have treated this subject earlier in the context of seventeenth-century religious poetry in Starks, ‘Batter my [flaming] heart’, paras 3–4. 219. Julia Kristeva, Black Sun: Depression and Melancholia, trans. Leon S. Roudiez (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), 131. 196 Notes to Introduction

220. Kaja Silverman, Male Subjectivity at the Margins (New York: Routledge, 1992). I note that she draws from the ideas of Theodor Reik, Masochism in Modern Man, trans. Margaret H. Beigel and Gertrud M. Kurth (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1949). 221. Silverman, Male Subjectivity, 197. 222. Silverman, Male Subjectivity, 197. 223. William J. Bouwsma, ‘The Two Faces of Humanism: Stoicism and Augustinianism in Renaissance Thought’, in A Usable Past: Essays in European Cultural History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 35–6. Richard Strier discusses Bouwsma’s distinction between Stoic and Augustinian strains of humanism and Renaissance views on passions in ‘Against the Rule of Reason: Praise of Passion from Petrarch to Luther to Shakespeare to Herbert’, in Reading the Early Modern Passions: Essays in the Cultural History of Emotion, ed. Gail Kern Paster, Katherine Rowe, and Mary Floyd-Wilson (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 23–42. 224. See Bouwsma, ‘Two Faces of Humanism’, 47. 225. Bouwsma, ‘Two Faces of Humanism’, 47. 226. Gail Kern Paster, Humoring the Body: Emotions and the Shakespearean Stage (University of Chicago Press, 2004), 1. 227. See Edward Reynolds, A Treatise of the Passions and Faculties of the Soule of Man, ed. Margaret Lee Wiley (Gainesville, FL: Scholars’ Facsimiles and Reprints, 1971) and Thomas Wright, The Passions of the Mind in Generall, ed. Thomas O. Sloan (1604; Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971). Both are compared in Paster, Humoring the Body, 1–24. 228. On his differing view, see Michael Schoenfeldt, Bodies and Selves in Early Modern England: Physiology and Inwardness in Spenser, Shakespeare, Herbert, and Milton (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 15. 229. Paster, Humoring the Body, 2. 230. Helkiah Cooke, Microcosmographia; or, A Description of the Body of Man (1615); quoted in Paster, Humoring the Body, 19. 231. See Schoenfeldt, Bodies and Selves, 1–18, esp. 10 and 18. Although both Paster and Schoenfeldt fully explore the links between these strands in humanist thought and early modern notions of the body, their interpretations differ. Paster disagrees with Schoenfeldt’s view here and also questions his positing of the ‘individual’ (Humoring the Body, 20–2). 232. See Schoenfeldt, Bodies and Selves, 74–95, esp. comments on Sonnet 94 on 84–5. 233. David Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails: Belief, Scepticism and the Interior of the Body (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007). Hillman extends the earlier ideas of Norbert Elias on the emergence of homo clausus, or the bounded subject. Elias theorizes the evolution of the notion of the self as ‘ego’ completely separate from the environment. See Elias, The History of Manners, vol. I, The Civilizing Process, trans. Edmond Jephcott (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978). 234. Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails, 8–9. 235. Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails, 8. 236. Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails, 8. 237. Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails, 1. 238. Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails, 47. 239. Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails, 5. Notes to Chapter 1 197

1 The Origin of Love: Ovidian Lovesickness and Trauma in Venus and Adonis

1. This reference and the one cited below are taken from Ben Jonson, Poetaster, or, The Arraignment, in The Devil is an Ass and Other Plays, Oxford World’s Classics, ed. Margaret Jane Kidnie (Oxford University Press, 2000), 1–101. 2. For a more detailed discussion on Ovid and Jonson’s Poetaster, see Margaret Tudeau-Clayton, Jonson, Shakespeare and Early Modern Virgil (Cambridge University Press, 1998), 148–76; for various points of view, see Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid, 168–70; Burrow, ‘Re-embodying Ovid: Renaissance Afterlives’, 309–10; Cheney, Shakespeare, National Poet-Playwright, 58. 3. Colin Burrow argues that Shakespeare continues his earlier Ovidian emphasis on ‘rape and archaic violence’ but later joins it with one on ‘the power of the imagination’ (‘Re-embodying Ovid: Renaissance Afterlives’, 310). However, I see Shakespeare uniting violence and the imagination early on in poems like Venus and Adonis, discussed in this chapter, and plays like A Midsummer Night’s Dream, discussed in the Coda of this volume. 4. Shakespeare refers to the poem in these terms in its dedication to the Earl of Southampton, Henry Wriothesley. 5. Bate refers to it as the ‘etiology of love’s anguish’ (Shakespeare and Ovid, 58). 6. As many critics have noted, Shakespeare (like other Elizabethan poets) draws from tales in Metamorphoses other than that of his subject (in this case, Venus and Adonis), as well as from Ovid’s other poetry, particularly the elegies. See Bate, ‘Sexual Perversity in Venus and Adonis’, Yearbook of English Studies 23 (1993): 80–92, 82, and Keach, Elizabethan Erotic Narratives, 3–35. Also, Shakespeare draws directly and indirectly from his own sonnets in Venus and Adonis, as explained below. 7. Many critics have pointed out the fluidity of gender in Ovid’s poetry. For example, Bate claims that Ovid’s depiction of desire is characterized by the ‘dissolution of conventional gender barriers’ (‘Sexual Perversity’, 88). Burrow notes that in his Metamorphoses, Ovid ‘soften[s] hard distinctions between male and female bodies’, reveling in the ‘polymorphousness of both narrative art and sexual desire’ (‘Re-embodying Ovid: Renaissance Afterlives’, 305). 8. Some portions of this section and below are adapted from my article, Starks, ‘That’s Amores!’, 75–81. 9. For a full discussion of the epic and imperialist ideology, see Elizabeth Bellamy, Translations of Power: Narcissism and the Unconscious in Epic History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), esp. 22–7. 10. On the epic and masculine identity, see Georgia Nugent, ‘Mater Matters: The Female in Lucretius’ De rerum natura’, Colby Quarterly 30 (1994): 179–205, 179. 11. Alison Keith, ‘Versions of Epic Masculinity in Ovid’s Metamorphoses’, in Ovidian Transformations: Essays on the ‘Metamorphoses’ and its Reception, ed. Philip Hardie, Alessandro Barchiesi, and Stephen Hinds (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 214. 12. Keith, ‘Versions of Epic Masculinity’, 214. 13. Sharrock, ‘Gender and Sexuality’, 102. 14. On the significant influence of Catullus on Ovid’s poetry, see especially Philip Hardie, Ovid’s Poetics of Illusion (Cambridge University Press, 2002), 50–5. Hardie links the tradition back to Sappho (53). 198 Notes to Chapter 1

15. See Ellen Greene, The Erotics of Domination: Male Desire and the Mistress in Latin Love Poetry (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), xii–xiii. See also Alison Sharrock, ‘Ovid and the Discourses of Love: The Amatory Works’, in The Cambridge Companion to Ovid, ed. Philip Hardie (Cambridge University Press, 2002), 150–62, 150. 16. All citations of Ovid’s Amores in contemporary English translation are to The Love Poems, trans. A.D. Melville (Oxford University Press, 1990). 17. Heather James has pointed out that Ovid’s radical choice of genre led him to introduce his erotic poems as merely playful ‘toys’ and later, in his exile, to brush off his earlier work as insignificant in unsuccessful attempts to appeal his banishment to Augustus. Nevertheless, Ovid draws from his approach in these early poems greatly in his later work. See Heather James, ‘The Poet’s Toys: Christopher Marlowe and the Liberties of Erotic Energy’, Modern Language Quarterly 67.1 (2006): 104–5. 18. Sharrock, ‘Gender and Sexuality’, 102. 19. M.L. Stapleton, Harmful Eloquence: Ovid’s Amores from Antiquity to Shakespeare (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), iii, 7–36. 20. Greene, The Erotics of Domination, xv. 21. On Ovid’s elegies as the foundation of the sonnet tradition, see M.L. Stapleton, ‘Introduction: “Small things with greater may be copulate”: Marlowe the Ovidian’, in Marlowe’s Ovid: The Elegies in the Marlowe Canon (Farnham: Ashgate, forthcoming, 2014). 22. See Hulse, Metamorphic Verse, 35. 23. Because Ovid’s poetry refuses easy categorization, it has been subject to numerous generic labeling and relabeling. Some critics, such as Hulse, in Metamorphic Verse, 3–36 and Brooks Otis, in Ovid as Epic Poet (Cambridge University Press, 1966), 2–24 have discussed Ovid’s narratives in relation to the epic, even though they both see Ovid as an ‘anti-Virgilian’ or ‘anti- Augustan’ poet who experimented with genre. Stephen Harrison classifies Ovid’s Metamorphoses as meeting ‘epic criteria’, but sees its relationship to the epic as ‘complex’. See ‘Ovid and Genre: Evolutions of an Elegist’, in The Cambridge Companion, ed. Philip Hardie (Cambridge University Press, 2002), 79–94, 87. Cheney refers to it as a ‘mini-epic’ – but as I see Shakespeare’s genre here as undercutting the Virgilian epic, I do not employ that term (see Shakespeare, National Poet-Playwright, 81–107). An apt descriptive label for the Elizabethan take on Ovidian narrative, the epyllion (in classical terms), is Keach’s ‘Elizabethan erotic narrative’. To emphasize the role of Ovid, however, I’ll most often refer to it as epyllion or ‘Ovidian narrative’. 24. Sharrock, ‘Gender and Sexuality’, 104. 25. Plato, ‘Symposium’, in The Works of Plato, The Jowett Translation, ed. Irwin Edman (New York: The Modern Library, 1956), 353–8. 26. Jacques Lacan, ‘God and the Jouissance of the Woman. A Love Letter’, in Feminine Sexuality: Jacques Lacan and the école freudienne, trans. Jacqueline Rose and ed. Juliet Mitchell and Jacqueline Rose (New York: W.W. Norton, 1982), 137–61, 138, 158. Other critics have noted that Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis seems to replicate Lacan’s theory of desire. See especially Catherine Belsey, ‘Love as Trompe-l’oeil: Taxonomies of Desire in Venus and Adonis’, Shakespeare Quarterly 3 (1995): 257–77; James Schiffer, ‘Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis: A Lacanian Tragicomedy of Desire’, in Venus and Adonis: Notes to Chapter 1 199

Critical Essays, ed. Philip C. Kolin (New York: Garland, 1997), 359–76; and Richard Halpern, ‘“Pining Their Maws”: Female Readers and the Erotic Ontology of the Text in Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis’, in Venus and Adonis: Critical Essays, ed. Philip C. Kolin (New York: Garland, 1997), 377–88. 27. See especially Sonnet 50, but also 14, 43, and 96. 28. Hardie, Ovid’s Poetics of Illusion, 63. 29. Hardie, Ovid’s Poetics of Illusion, 45–6. 30. Hardie, Ovid’s Poetics of Illusion, 68. 31. I am indebted to Brandy Stark for noting this reference. Both the Latin and English translation of Catullus are cited from Gaius Valerius Catullus, The Poems of Catullus: A Bilingual Edition, trans. and ed. Peter Green (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 48–9. 32. See Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare, 172–3. 33. Dawson, Lovesickness and Gender, 20–2. 34. William Vaughan, Directions for Health, Both Naturall and Artiﬁcial (London, 1617), 113; quoted in Dawson, Lovesickness and Gender, 25. 35. Dawson, Lovesickness and Gender, 25. 36. Dawson, Lovesickness and Gender, 26 37. Wack, Lovesickness in the Middle Ages, 72. 38. Marion A. Wells, The Secret Wound: Love-melancholy and Early Modern Romance (Stanford University Press, 2007), 7. 39. Wells, The Secret Wound, 1–59, esp. 11–12, 58. 40. Freud, ‘Mourning and Melancholia’, SE 14: 243–58, 245–6. 41. Freud, SE 14: 246. 42. Wells, The Secret Wound, 12. 43. Richard Rambuss, ‘“What it Feels Like for a Boy”: Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis’, in A Companion to Shakespeare’s Works, vol. IV, Poems, Problem Comedies, Late Plays, ed. Richard Dutton and Jean Howard (Malden, VA: Blackwell, 2003), 240–58, 247. On Titania and Bottom, also see the Coda of this book. 44. Although the sonnets do not appear in print until 1609, Shakespeare may have been composing and revising them between 1591 and 1604, which would overlap with Venus and Adonis (Walter Cohen, introduction to Venus and Adonis, The Norton Shakespeare [New York and London: W.W. Norton], 1937). Many critics have made connections between Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis and his sonnets, both biographically (Shakespeare’s patron, Wriothesley, as the object of desire in both) and thematically. In each case, Venus and Adonis is interpreted, like the sonnets, as a poem that explores homoerotic desire. Keach points out thematic similarities between Sonnets 53 and 129 with Venus and Adonis. Ted Hughes goes further to treat the Sonnets 18–126 as a ‘matrix’ for Venus and Adonis and Sonnets 127–54 as a parallel of perspectives developed in Venus and Adonis – with Shakespeare’s young patron, Wriothesley, as the young man/Adonis figure. For Hughes, Venus and Adonis works on two levels – internally, it deals with his desires for the young nobleman; externally, it appeals to Lord Burghley and Wriothesley’s mother, who were urging him to wed. See Hughes, Shakespeare and the Goddess of Complete Being (New York: Faber and Faber, 1992), 50–64. The latter position has also been fully developed by Patrick M. Murphy (‘Wriothesley’s Resistance: Wardship Practices and Ovidian Narratives in Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis’, in Venus and Adonis: Critical Essays, ed. Philip C. Kolin [New York: Garland, 200 Notes to Chapter 2

1997], 323–40), who sees Venus and Adonis as Shakespeare’s advice to his patron on the question of marriage urged by his mother. 45. Interestingly, Hughes reads the poems after Sonnet 17 as reflecting an ‘abject self-prostration of Shakespeare’s sonnets’ that ‘not masochistic[ally]’, he claims, leads Shakespeare to develop an idea of love that is ‘unconditional’ and ‘self-sacrificing’ (Shakespeare and the Goddess of Complete Being, 59–60). Although I agree with Hughes’s interpretation, I would argue that, from a modern perspective, these desires could be considered as ‘masochistic’. 46. See especially Goran V. Stanivukovic, ‘“Kissing the Boar”: Queer Adonis and Critical Practice’, in Straight with a Twist: Queer Theory and the Subject of Heterosexuality, ed. Calvin Thomas (University of Chicago Press, 2000), 90–1, 87–91; and Rambuss, ‘What it Feels Like for a Boy’, 240–58. 47. Marshall, The Shattering of the Self, 7, 58. 48. Marshall, The Shattering of the Self, 57. 49. Marshall, The Shattering of the Self, 61, 58, 61–2. Marshall refers here to Jacques Lacan, The Seminar of Jacques Lacan, Book I: Freud’s Papers on Technique, 1953–1954, ed. Jacques-Alain Miller, trans. John Forrester (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991), 172. 50. See Introduction for a full discussion of these theories. 51. Rambuss describes Venus’s look here as a ‘traumatic gaze’, but he does not discuss her actions here in terms of trauma (‘What it Feels Like for a Boy’, 249). 52. On Hecuba as an Ovidian figure of grieving, see Fox, Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 105–6. For a full discussion of Innogen’s association with Hecuba, see Coda. 53. Dympna Callaghan points out that Venus in her mourning resembles Mater Dolorosa in this Pietà, the images of which were still prevalent in England at this time (‘The Book of Changes in a Time of Change: Ovid’s Metamorphoses in Post-Reformation England and Venus and Adonis’, in A Companion to Shakespeare’s Works, vol. IV, Poems, Problem Comedies, Late Plays, ed. Richard Dutton and Jean Howard [Malden, VA: Blackwell, 2003], 27–45, 39–42). I also note the connection between Venus with ‘child’, Isis, and Pietà, as well as associations with images of the body of Christ in depictions of the Death of Adonis in Starks, ‘That’s Amores!’, 86–8.

2 Shakespeare’s Perverse Astraea, Martyr’d Philomel, and Lamenting Hecuba: Ovid, Sadomasochism, and Trauma in Titus Andronicus

1. James, Shakespeare’s Troy, 48–81. I fully agree with James’s position here, but I would add that it is crucial to note Marlowe’s role in the intertextual chain that leads back to Ovid’s revision of Virgil. 2. The Complete Works of Christopher Marlowe, ed. Fredson Bowers, vol. 1 (Cambridge University Press, 1973). 3. Patrick Cheney also makes this connection, in Marlowe’s Counterfeit Profession, 99, 102–3. As Heather James explains, these references have selected meanings, focusing only on the positive connotations of Dido as a regal, noble, intelligent queen – not as a heartbroken tragic figure who takes her own life (Shakespeare’s Troy, 18–19). Notes to Chapter 2 201

4. For more on violence and environment in Ovid, see Parry, ‘Ovid’s Metamorphoses’; Segal, Landscape in Ovid’s ‘Metamorphoses’; Wilkinson, Ovid Surveyed, 53–4. 5. James, Shakespeare’s Troy, 57. 6. Emma Buckley, ‘“Live false Aeneas!” Marlowe’s Dido, Queen of Carthage and the Limits of Translation’, Classical Receptions Journal 3.2 (2011): 129–47. 7. For Carolyn Sale, Aaron’s ‘hue’ as a black Aeneas, coupled with Bassianus’s smug description of him as a ‘swart / Cimmerian’ (2.3.72–3), suggests not only the otherness of the Moor but also that of the ancient Britons, a subversive force in a play that challenges the imperialist legacy of Rome in early modern culture, in ‘Black Aeneas: Race, English Literary History, and the “Barbarous” Poetics of Titus Andronicus’, Shakespeare Quarterly 62.1 (2011): 25–52. 8. See Herodotus, The History, trans. George Rawlinson (New York: Dutton, 1862), 1:201–14. On the legends of Tamyris, see Sale, ‘Black Aeneas’, 42. 9. Jonathan Sawday, The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human Body in Renaissance Culture (London: Routledge, 1996), 50–1, 184. 10. Sawday, The Body Emblazoned, 189. 11. Some portions of this paragraph and elsewhere are adapted from my article, Starks-Estes, ‘Transforming Ovid’. 12. Diodorus Siculus, Diodorus of Sicily (Bibliotheca historica), vol. 1, Loeb Classical Library Edition, trans. C.H. Oldfather et al. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 359–425). 13. Giovanni Boccaccio, ‘De Semiramide Regina Assyriorum (Semiramis, Queen of the Assyrians)’, in Famous Women, ed. and trans. Virginia Brown (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 2001), chapter 2, 16–25. 14. On the legends of Semiramis, see Alice Mikal Craven, ‘Representing Semiramis in Shakespeare and Calderon’, Shakespeare 4.2 (2008): 157–69; and Niall Rudd, ‘Pyramus and Thisbe in Shakespeare and Ovid’, in Shakespeare’s Ovid: The Metamorphoses in the Plays and Poems, ed. A.B. Taylor (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 113–25, 173. 15. Also see Sale, ‘Black Aeneas’, 42. 16. For a full discussion of this image, especially in relation to Renaissance poets and masochism, see the Coda of this study. 17. See Evelyn Gajowski, ‘Lavinia as “blank page” and the Presence of Feminist Critical Practices’, in Presentist Shakespeares, ed. Hugh Grady and Terence Hawkes (London and New York: Routledge, 2007), 131–3, for an excellent reading of Chiron and Demetrius’s literal blazon of Lavinia. 18. Enterline, The Rhetoric of the Body, 8. 19. Marshall, The Shattering of the Self, 109. Katherine Rowe also discusses the body parts as fetish in the play, but for her, they signify political and personal agency, not eroticism. See ‘Dismembering and Forgetting in Titus Andronicus’, Shakespeare Quarterly 45 (1994): 279–303. 20. As Enterline notes, in Marcus’s blazon Lavinia’s ‘branches’ align her with Daphne, the ‘heavenly harmony’ of her voice with Orpheus; in both cases, she ‘exceeds’ the original, as she does in embodying a Philomela who has lost both her tongue and hands (The Rhetoric of the Body, 8). 21. The sexuality of this image has been noted by several critics, including Clark Hulse, who describes Lavinia’s ‘staff in mouth’ as ‘enacting fellatio, re-enacting her own violation’ (‘Wresting the Alphabet: Oratory and Action in Titus 202 Notes to Chapter 2

Andronicus, Criticism 21 [1979]: 116). Mary Laughlin Fawcett also discusses the ‘erotic possibilities for the image of a bloody mouth’ (‘Arms/Words/Tears: Language and the Body in Titus Andronicus’, ELH 50 [1983]: 208). 22. Rudd also makes this connection (‘Pyramus and Thisbe’, 114); as does Fox, Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 110. 23. Marshall, The Shattering of the Self, 134. 24. See David Willbern, ‘Rape and Revenge in Titus Andronicus’, ELR 8 (1978): 171–3. 25. Thomas P. Anderson also deals with martyrdom and trauma in the play, but he does not deal with the erotic dimension. Instead, he focuses on ‘[t]he play itself ... [as] a martyr to history, in that with Lavinia’s tortured body it bears witness to the continuing impact of the traumatic events depicted in Foxe’. See Performing Early Modern Trauma, 21. 26. Marshall, The Shattering of the Self, 110–30; Starks, ‘Transforming Ovid’, 60–1. 27. See Julia Reinhard Lupton, Afterlives of the Saints: Hagiography, Typology, and Renaissance Literature (Stanford University Press, 1996), 46–8. She cites Jacques Lacan, The Seminar 2: The Ego in Freud’s Theory and in the Technique of Psychoanalysis, 1954–1955 (Cambridge University Press, 1988), 244–5; and Écrits: A Selection, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Norton, 1977), 11. 28. Lupton, Afterlives of the Saints, 48. 29. See Kristeva, Black Sun, 131; and Silverman, Male Subjectivity. I note that Silverman draws from the ideas of Theodor Reik, Masochism in Modern Man. For a full discussion of the martyr in Christian masochism, see my Introduction. 30. See Lacan, The Seminar of Jacques Lacan, Book I, 172; Lacan, Écrits, 3. Marshall discusses these concepts in The Shattering of the Self, 61. 31. Marshall, The Shattering of the Self, 61. 32. Fox, Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 112. 33. Interpreting the tableau from a different perspective, James sees the mutilated body of Lavinia as an emblem of Rome itself, embodying its foundation built on rape and violence (Shakespeare’s Troy, 44). Fox comes closest to my interpretation in her insightful reading of Lavinia’s body as a ‘type of Ovidian grief’ (111). 34. Deborah Willis also treats the theme of trauma (as PTSD) in Titus Andronicus in ‘The gnawing vulture’. However, her approach is much different than mine. She interprets the characters as individuals who suffer from trauma and work through it via revenge. Instead, I see these characters as figures that have meaning within the framework of Ovidian mythology and legend. 35. There are many important feminist readings of Lavinia in this play. Some articles, besides those already mentioned, include Douglas Green, ‘Interpreting “Her martyr’d signs”: Gender and Tragedy in Titus Andronicus’, Shakespeare Quarterly 40 (1989) 317–26; Cynthia Marshall, ‘“I can interpret all her martyr’d signs”: Titus Andronicus, Feminism, and the Limits of Interpretation’, in Sexuality and Politics in Renaissance Drama, ed. Carole Levin and Karen Robertson (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1991), 193–211; and Marion Wynne-Davies, ‘“The Swallowing Womb”: Consumed and Consuming Women in Titus Andronicus’, in The Matter of Difference: Materialist Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare, ed. Valerie Wayne (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 129–51. 36. See Amy Richlin, ‘Reading Ovid’s Rapes’, in Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome, ed. Amy Richlin (Oxford University Press, 1992), 158–79. Notes to Chapter 3 203

37. See Fox, Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 36. 38. For a full explanation of Medusa’s silent ‘O’, see Enterline, The Rhetoric of the Body, 17–18. 39. Enterline, The Rhetoric of the Body, 15. 40. See Enterline, The Rhetoric of the Body, 18. I agree with her that the concept of fluid subjectivity is the most vital point that psychoanalysis offers feminist theory (see esp. 35). 41. Sarah Carter provides an extremely useful and thorough discussion of the figure of Hecuba in Renaissance literature in Ovidian Myth, 46–52; Fox also addresses the significance of Hecuba as an emblem of extreme sorrow in Titus Andronicus (Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 118–21). 42. Carter argues the opposite in a very thorough discussion of the figure of Procne in early modern literature (Ovidian Myth, 35–46). Although I see the strength in her argument, I contend that Tamora as a revenge figure is much more strongly aligned with that of the composite Tamyris-Semiramis, described above, and Tereus than Procne. As I discuss below, I see Titus as embodying the figure of Procne in Shakespeare’s play. 43. Fox discusses Procne’s silence, like that of Hecuba’s, as indicative of extreme grief, but she does not connect it to trauma (Ovid and the Politics of Emotion, 118–19). 44. Katharine Eisaman Maus, Introduction to Shakespeare, Titus Andronicus, The Norton Shakespeare, ed. Stephen Greenblatt et al., 2nd edn (New York and London: W.W. Norton, 2008), 401.

3 Dido and Aeneas ‘Metamorphis’d’: Ovid, Marlowe, and the Masochistic Scenario in Antony and Cleopatra

1. Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid, 39. For more on Marlowe’s imitatio of Ovid and Lucan, see Timothy D. Crowley, ‘Arms and the Boy: Marlowe’s Aeneas and the Parody of Imitation in Dido, Queen of Carthage’, English Literary Renaissance 38 (2008): 408–38. 2. Sara Munson Deats, Sex, Gender, and Desire in the Plays of Christopher Marlowe (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1997). 3. On the term metamorphis’d, see Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid, 42–3. 4. As Heather James discusses, these references have selected meanings, see Chapter 2, n. 3, p. 200. 5. I discuss Tamora as ‘perverse Astraea’ in Chapter 2. Frances Yates also notes the connection of Astraea here to Elizabeth I in Astraea: The Imperial Theme in the Sixteenth Century (London and New York: Routledge, 1975), 74–6; as does James, Shakespeare’s Troy, 17–19, 48, 72–3. 6. James, Shakespeare’s Troy, 48–81. I fully agree with James’s position here, but I would argue that it is crucial to examine Marlowe’s role in the intertextual chain that leads back to Ovid’s revision of Virgil. Moreover, I believe it is important to examine this treatment in light of Shakespeare’s later explora- tion of the Dido-Elizabeth image in Antony and Cleopatra. 7. See Starks, ‘Immortal longings’, 251 and Arthur L. Little, Jr, Shakespeare Jungle Fever: National-Imperial Re-Visions of Race, Rape, and Sacrifice (Stanford University Press, 2000), 160. For additional commentary on parallels 204 Notes to Chapter 3

between Cleopatra and Queen Elizabeth I, see Theodora A. Jankowski, ‘“As I am Egypt’s Queen”: Cleopatra, Elizabeth I, and the Female Body Politic’, Assays 5 (1989): 91–110; and Keith Reinhart, ‘Shakespeare’s Cleopatra and England’s Elizabeth’, Shakespeare Quarterly 23 (1972): 81–6. 8. Portions of the following section are taken from my article, Starks, ‘Immortal longings’, 250. 9. See Lacan, ‘God and the Jouissance of the Woman. A Love Letter’, 138, 158. I discuss connections between Lacan’s theory and lovesickness in Chapter 1. 10. See Deleuze, ‘Coldness and Cruelty’, 20–1, 47, 51, 55, 62, 73. For a full discussion of Deleuze’s theory and its relationship to Shakespeare’s tragedy, see Starks, ‘Like the lover’s pinch’. Some portions below are adapted from that article. 11. For a full discussion of these traditions, see Introduction. 12. See Starks, ‘Like the lover’s pinch’, 59. 13. Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid, 207. 14. Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid, 207. 15. Portions of the next few paragraphs are taken from Starks, ‘Immortal longings’, 246, 249. On these splittings, ruptures, castration, and psychoanalysis, see Kristeva, Black Sun, 132. 16. Arthur L. Little, Jr describes Antony in these terms, but his Antony is a figure anatomized by the blazon who takes on a ‘feminine’ identity, one whose suicide can be described as an attempted ‘virgin sacrifice’ (see Jungle Fever, esp. 102–42). Although I fully appreciate Little’s emphasis on the erotic dimen- sions of the play and Antony’s body, I would argue that Antony plays a male (albeit alternative) rather than female role, his penetrated body signifying the erotics of the male martyr, not the feminized body. 17. Cynthia Marshall, ‘Man of Steel Done Got the Blues: Melancholic Subver- sion of Presence in Antony and Cleopatra’, Shakespeare Quarterly 44 (1993): 385–408, 386. 18. Antony’s most relevant outbursts occur in Act Four, esp. 4.12.10–17, 24–30, and 32–42. 19. On Cleopatra as Isis, see esp. Michael Lloyd, ‘Cleopatra as Isis’, Shakespeare Survey 12 (1959): 88–94; Constance Kuriyama, ‘The Mother of the World: A Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra’, English Literary Renaissance 7 (1977): 324–51; and Barbara J. Bono, Literary Transvaluation: From Vergilian Epic to Shakespearean Tragicomedy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 199–200. 20. For a full discussion of the trope of ‘dismemberment’ and the heroic subject, see Susanne L. Wofford, ‘The Body Unseamed: Shakespeare’s Late Tragedies’, in Shakespeare’s Late Tragedies: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Susanne L. Wofford (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996), 1–21. Wofford also reads the movement in the play from ‘dismembering’ to a ‘greatly imagined whole’ (13), but not in the context of male masochism. As Janet Adelman and Constance Kuriyama have argued, these frequent references to Isis in Antony and Cleopatra and its sources give Cleopatra status as a mother goddess through whom Antony’s rebirth is possible. See Janet Adelman, Suffocating Mothers: Fantasies of Maternal Origin in Shakespeare’s Plays, ‘Hamlet’ to ‘The Tempest’ (New York: Routledge, 1992), 184; Kuriyama, ‘The Mother of the World’, 335, 337. Notes to Chapter 4 205

21. Plutarch, ‘Life of Marcus Antonius’, in Plutarch’s Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romanes, trans. Sir Thomas North (1579), in Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, vol. 5, ed. Geoffrey Bullough (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), 254–318; for more on Plutarch’s designation of Antony as Osiris and Cleopatra as Isis, see Frederick E. Brenk, ‘Antony-Osiris, Cleopatra-Isis: The End of Plutarch’s Antony’, in Plutarch and the Historical Tradition, ed. Philip A. Stadter (New York: Routledge, 1992), 159–82, 160–7. 22. Plutarch, ‘Isis and Osiris’, in Plutarch’s Moralia, vol. 5, trans. Frank Cole Babbitt (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969), 7–191, 67–191. 23. Plutarch, ‘Isis and Osiris’, 29–55. 24. See Starks, ‘Immortal longings’, 246–7. 25. See James, Shakespeare’s Troy, 120–42. 26. Little also notes the association of Cleopatra–Isis–Elizabeth I–Virgin Mary, but he associates Caesar, rather than Antony, with Christ ( Jungle Fever, 160, 157). 27. On the medieval ‘false Aeneas’ tradition, see Chapter 2. 28. Ovid, ‘Dido to Aeneas’, in Heroides, trans. Grant Showerman, in The Complete Works of Ovid (Delphi Classics: Kindle ebook edition, 2012). 29. See Little, Jungle Fever, 2–3, 160. 30. James, Shakespeare’s Troy, 146; and Bono, Literary Transvaluation, 212.

4 ‘A wretched image bound’: Neo-Stoicism, Trauma, and the Dangers of the Bounded Self in The Rape of Lucrece

1. See Chapter 1, n. 17. 2. For a full discussion of Shakespeare as an Ovidian poet-playwright, see Cheney, Shakespeare, National Poet-Playwright, esp. 13–79. For a brief sum- mary of this view, see Introduction. 3. On the ‘Ovidian narrative’ and matters of genre, see Introduction and Starks, ‘That’s Amores!’ 4. For more on the neo-Stoics’ views of Augustan Rome, see Bouwsma, ‘Two Faces of Humanism’, 35. 5. See Bouwsma, ‘Two Faces of Humanism’, 35–6. Richard Strier discusses Bouwsma’s distinction between Stoic and Augustinian strains of humanism and Renaissance views on passions in ‘Against the Rule of Reason’. 6. Bouwsma, ‘Two Faces of Humanism’, 47. 7. See Schoenfeldt, Bodies and Selves, 74–95, esp. comments on Sonnet 94 on 84–5. 8. On Shakespeare’s uses of Ovid, see Enterline, The Rhetoric of the Body, esp. 1–15. 9. For an extensive discussion of puns on the name ‘Will’ and issues of rape in the poem, see Joel Fineman’s ‘Lucrece, Shakespeare’s Will: The Temporality of Rape’, in The Subjectivity Effect in Western Literary Tradition (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991), 165–221. I agree with Enterline that Fineman’s analysis does not take into account the narrator’s strong identification with Lucrece in this poem. 10. Owls appear throughout Ovid’s Metamorphoses, as do other animals that recur in the imagery of The Rape of Lucrece, such as weasels, wolves, lambs, and so on. Mortals who disobey by committing sins or transgressive actions 206 Notes to Chapter 4

(for example, Nyctimone, Book 2; Ascalaphus, Book 4) are transformed into owls; others who blaspheme against gods and goddesses (for example, Galanthis, Book 9) are changed into weasels. 11. I am indebted to Lizz Angello for first alerting me to the importance of objects in this poem. In her conference presentation, ‘“The Needle His Finger Pricks”: A Grammar of Agency in Shakespeare’s The Rape of Lucrece’ (Presentation at New College Conference on Medieval and Renaissance Studies, Sarasota, FL, March 2008), Angello fully elaborates on the significance of the ‘grammatical agency’ of objects. 12. Angello provides an extended discussion of the needle and its connection to the many ‘pricks’ throughout the poem in ‘A Thing and No-thing: or, Lucrece’s Needle-work’ (Shakespeare Association of America Annual Meeting, Boston, MA, April 2012). 13. On Petrarchan conventions in the poem, especially the blazon, see Nancy J. Vickers, ‘“The blazon of sweet beauty’s best”: Shakespeare’s Lucrece’, in Shakespeare and the Question of Theory, ed. Patricia Parker and Geoffrey Hartman (New York: Routledge, 1990), 95–115. 14. On issues of extreme virtus in Coriolanus, see Chapter 6. 15. For a description of lovesickness, see the Introduction and Chapter 1. 16. Philomela is raped and transformed into the nightingale in Ovid’s Metamorphoses. 17. See the Coda of this study for a full discussion of Philomela as nightingale. 18. Enterline, The Rhetoric of the Body, 155–6. 19. Enterline, The Rhetoric of the Body, 5. 20. I examine this theory fully in the Introduction to this volume and, in relation to post-Great War silent films of Hamlet, in Starks, ‘Remember me’. 21. For a full discussion of early modern trauma, see Introduction. 22. Enterline, The Rhetoric of the Body, 167. 23. Ovid, Fasti, trans. James G. Frazer, in The Complete Works of Ovid. 24. Enterline, The Rhetoric of the Body, 153. 25. See Carolyn Walker Bynum, Wonderful Blood: Theology and Practice in Late Medieval Northern Germany and Beyond (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), esp. 17 and 19. See also Chapter 5 for a full discussion of cruor and other medieval and early modern notions of blood and bleeding in relation to Julius Caesar; see Chapter 6 for a brief discussion of this topic in relation to Coriolanus. 26. Catherine Belling notes that within Galenic physiology, this divided and tainted blood would be diagnosed as an infection called ‘cacochymia’. See ‘Infectious Rape, Therapeutic Revenge: Bloodletting and the Health of Rome’s Body’, in Disease, Diagnosis, and Cure on the Early Modern Stage, ed. Stephanie Moss and Kaara L. Peterson (Aldershot and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004), 118–19. 27. See note 25 above. 28. For a full account of these views and versions of the Lucretia story, see Ian Donaldson, The Rapes of Lucretia: A Myth and its Transformations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982). 29. Lupton, Afterlives of the Saints, 46. 30. See Katharine Park, The Secrets of Women: Gender, Generation, and the Origins of Human Dissection (New York: Zone Books, 2006), esp. 19. Notes to Chapter 5 207

5 Bleeding Martyrs: The Body of the Tyrant/Saint, the Limits of ‘Constancy’, and the Extremity of the Passions in Julius Caesar

1. Geoffrey Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), 5:21. 2. Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:18–24. 3. Park, The Secrets of Women, 65, 150–1. 4. See esp. David Kaula, ‘“Let Us Be Sacrificers”: Religious Motifs in Julius Caesar’, Shakespeare Studies 14 (1981): 204–8. On the Galenic versus newly bounded body, see Introduction. 5. The Tragedy of Julius Caesar, in The Norton Shakespeare, 2nd edn, ed. Stephen Greenblatt et al. (New York: W.W. Norton, 2008), see esp. 2.1.135, 168, 171, 180, 288; 2.2.21, 78, 85, 88; 3.1.37, 40, 53, 67, 107, 115, 166, 185, 258, 199, 201–2, 207, 260–4, 268; 3.2.129–31, 172, 182–9; 4.2.25, 71; 5.1.14; 5.3.61. 6. Carolyn Walker Bynum, ‘Violent Imagery in Late Medieval Piety’, 15th Annual Lecture of the German Historical Institute, 8 November 2001, Bulletin of the German Historical Institute 30 (Spring 2002): 3, www.ghi-dc.org/ publications/ghipubs/bu/030/3.pdf. 7. Bynum, Wonderful Blood, 3. 8. Paster, The Body Embarrassed, 97. 9. Bynum, Wonderful Blood, 17. 10. Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:42. 11. See Bynum, Wonderful Blood, 19, 100; Jack Heller, ‘“Your statue spouting blood”: Julius Caesar, the Sacraments, and the Fountain of Life’, in Word and Rite: The Bible and Ceremony in Selected Shakespearean Works, ed. Beatrice Batson (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010), 79–85. Heller also reads these versions of Calpurnia’s dream as indicative of religious sacrament. However, he sees the difference between the two as ‘baptismal’ and ‘Eucharistic’, relating to Protestant as opposed to Catholic theological interpretations of Christ’s blood and sacrifice. 12. Paster, Body Embarrassed, 107. 13. Quoted in Bynum, Wonderful Blood. For a full discussion on this matter, see Richard Rambuss, Closet Devotions (Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press, 1998), esp. 35–6. 14. Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:38. 15. Katharine Eisaman Maus, Introduction to Julius Caesar, The Norton Shakespeare, 2nd edn (New York: W.W. Norton, 2008), 1551. 16. Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:55. 17. Kaula, ‘Let Us Be Sacrificers’, also examines the assassination as sacred ritual (see esp. 197). 18. Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:43 19. Bynum, Wonderful Blood, 19. 20. Walter Benjamin, The Origin of German Tragic Drama, trans. John Osborne (London: New Left Books, 1977), 217. Quoted in Lupton, Afterlives of the Saints, 42. 21. Lupton, Afterlives of the Saints, 42–3. 22. Park, The Secrets of Women, 19. 23. Benjamin, Origin of German Tragic Drama, 3 and 23. 208 Notes to Chapter 6

24. Bynum, ‘Violent Imagery’, 70. 25. See also Caroline Walker Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption: Essays on Gender and the Human Body in Medieval Religion (New York: Zone Books, 1991), 271–9; and Margaret E. Owens, Stages of Dismemberment: The Fragmented Body in Late Medieval and Early Modern Drama (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2005), 57. 26. Bynum, ‘Violent Imagery’, 20. 27. See Bynum, Wonderful Blood, 3. 28. For more on Christ’s wounds as blazon in visual arts and drama, see Chapter 6. 29. Paster, Body Embarrassed, 109. 30. James Casey also questions the frequent assertion that wounds automatically result in penetrated male bodies being gendered as feminine, in ‘Cuts, Cuts, and Scars: Wounds and Masculinity in Shakespeare’, Shakespeare Association of America, Bellevue, Washington, 8 April 2011. 31. Sawday, The Body Emblazoned, 117. See also Park, The Secrets of Women, 14. I discuss this topic in relation to the emblazoned male body in Coriolanus (Chapter 6). 32. Lupton, Afterlives of the Saints, 46. 33. See Heller, ‘Your statue spouting blood’, 79. 34. Kaula, ‘Let Us Be Sacrificers’, 202. 35. Kaula, ‘Let Us Be Sacrificers’, 198–9. 36. For a full discussion of neo-Stoicism and Augustinian philosophy, see Introduction. For the importance of these strands of humanism in The Rape of Lucrece, see Chapter 4; in Coriolanus, see Chapter 6. 37. Maus, Introduction, 1551. 38. See Bynum, Wonderful Blood, 4. 39. These two scenes pose problems. Brutus appears to be hearing of Portia’s death for the first time in 4.2.241, but he discusses her death with Cassius earlier in that scene. The duplication may be an error in Shakespeare’s revision or may be an instance of Shakespeare pointing out aspects of Brutus’s character, as I indicate here. For a full discussion of textual inconsistencies, see Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:48–9. 40. See Introduction. 41. Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:49. 42. Bouwsma, ‘Two Faces of Humanism’, 47. For a full discussion of these strands of humanism, see Introduction. For their importance in Shakespeare’s Rape of Lucrece, see Chapter 4, and in Coriolanus, Chapter 6. 43. Literal and figurative references to fire include 1.2.10, 16, 25, 177–8; 1.3.63, 129; 2.1.109, 119, 331; 2.2.19, 31; 3.1.37, 64, 172, 273–5; 3.2.141, 196, 243–6; 3.3.35–6; 4.2.208; 5.3.13; and 5.5.55. 44. Quoted in Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:83.

6 ‘One whole wound’: Virtus, Vulnerability, and the Emblazoned Male Body in Coriolanus

1. On his differing view, see Schoenfeldt, Bodies and Selves, 15. 2. Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails. Hillman extends the earlier ideas of Norbert Elias on the emergence of homo clausus, or the bounded subject. Elias Notes to Chapter 6 209

theorizes the evolution of the notion of the self as ‘ego’ completely separate from the environment. See Elias, History of Manners. 3. Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails, 8–9. 4. Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails, 8. 5. Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails, 17. 6. Hillman, Shakespeare’s Entrails, 21. 7. The fable is later adapted by Livy, Plutarch, Sidney, and Camden. See Claudia Corti, ‘The Iconic Body: Coriolanus and Renaissance Corporeality’, in Questioning Bodies in Shakespeare’s Rome, ed. Maria Del Sapio Garbero, Nancy Isenberg, and Maddalena Pennacchia (Goettingen: V&R Unipress GmbH, 2010), esp. 59–61; and Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:506. 8. In Janet Adelman’s view, Coriolanus fears the mother will devour him, which is developed throughout the play in the recurrent images concerning food, eating, being eaten, and cannibalism. This image-pattern and its significance has been fully explored by Adelman, Suffocating Mothers, 51–61; Stanley Cavell, Disowning Knowledge in Seven Plays of Shakespeare (Cambridge University Press, 1987; updated edn, 2003), 250–3 and 262–3; and Emmett Wilson, Jr, ‘“Coriolanus”: The Anxious Bridegroom’, American Imago 25 (1968): 224–41, esp. 226. 9. See 1.6.17–18; 1.7.68–9; 1.9.8–10; 1.10.92; 2.2.105; 3.1.80; 5.1.10–11. 10. James Kuzner describes Coriolanus’s love of blood and battle as his desire to exceed the boundaries of the self, part of his ‘self undoing’ that he enacts in the play in ‘Unbuilding the City: Coriolanus and the Birth of Republican Rome’, Shakespeare Quarterly 58 (2007): 174–99, esp. 189. Conversely, Harry Newman argues that ‘Coriolanus’s desire to be attacked and wounded is largely motivated by a need for somatic coherence’ – just as Rome becomes cohesive through battle, Coriolanus sees his body becoming cohesive through repeated acts of wounding and healing (‘Impressive Healing in Coriolanus’, Seventh Annual British Graduate Shakespeare Conference, 11–13 June 2009). I would argue that both of these views are true, as long as they are seen as interdependent, not mutually exclusive. In my view, Coriolanus’s uncontrollable drive to exceed the boundaries of the self erupts from his simultaneous desire to achieve somatic coherence. 11. See 1.5.22–3; 1.7.76; 1.9.8–10; 2.1.148; 2.2.106; 4.1.30; 5.6.117. For Kuzner, Coriolanus does not wish for autonomous selfhood, but rather the destruction of it (‘Unbuilding the City’, 175–91). Although I agree that Coriolanus moves toward this self-undoing, he nevertheless does repeatedly insist on himself as independent, alone, autonomous. As noted above, I see his ‘self-undoing’ as an unconscious reaction against that move toward the bounded self. 12. Paster, Body Embarrassed, 97. 13. Bynum, Wonderful Blood, 17. Bynum cites Vincent of Beauvais (1264), who describes blood as the main life-affirming humor. It is when it rushes out (‘cruor’) that it becomes ‘corrupted’, thereby aligned with ‘cruelty (crudelitas)’ (17–18). 14. Lupton identifies flaying as one of the ‘principal tortures’ of the martyr, along with ‘whipping’ and ‘racking’. See Afterlives of the Saints, 44. 15. Sawday, The Body Emblazoned, 186. Cynthia Marshall and Rodney Poisson also connect Coriolanus to the figure of Marsyas. See Marshall, ‘Wound- man: Coriolanus, Gender, and the Theatrical Construction of Interiority’, 210 Notes to Chapter 6

in Feminist Readings of Early Modern Culture: Emerging Subjects, ed. Valerie Traub, M. Lindsay Kaplan, and Dympna Callaghan (Cambridge University Press, 1996), 107; and Poisson, ‘Coriolanus I. vi. 21–24’, Shakespeare Quarterly 15 (1964), 449. 16. Bynum, ‘Violent Imagery’, 11. 17. Bynum, ‘Violent Imagery’, 5. 18. Bynum, ‘Violent Imagery’, 3. 19. Bynum, ‘Violent Imagery’, 3, 20. 20. Bynum, ‘Violent Imagery’, 70. 21. Bynum, ‘Violent Imagery’, 5–27; and see also Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption, 271–9; and Owens, Stages of Dismemberment, 57. 22. Bynum, ‘Violent Imagery’, 20. 23. On poetry, see Bynum, ‘Violent Imagery’, 20–2, and Douglas Gray, ‘The Five Wounds of Our Lord’, Notes and Queries 10.3 (1963), 163–4. On sermons and drama, see Owens, Stages of Dismemberment, esp. 57–62. 24. Owens, Stages of Dismemberment, 57. 25. For more on Lavinia as martyred body, see Chapter 2. For more on the staging of Lavinia’s emblazoned body and shifting gendered signification, see my article, Starks, ‘Transforming Ovid’. 26. Sawday, The Body Emblazoned, 117. 27. Marshall relates the body of Coriolanus to the figure of the ‘Wound-man’ in anatomical illustrations, although she does not link this figure to that of Christ. See Marshall, ‘Wound-man’, esp. 103–5. 28. Park, The Secrets of Women, 14. 29. Park, The Secrets of Women, 33–5. 30. Park, The Secrets of Women, 229. 31. In Plutarch’s Lives of Noble Grecians and Romans, ‘Marcius [Coriolanus] following this custome, shewed many woundes and cuttes apon his bodie, which he had receyved in seventeene yeres service at the warres’ (quoted in Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:518). 32. Marshall addresses the question of how the wounds may have signified onstage, discussing the audience’s desire to see the wounds (‘Wound-man’, 96). She also stresses, as I do here, how the body of Coriolanus becomes an object on display (‘Wound-man’, 108). 33. Russell West-Pavlov, Bodies and their Spaces: System, Crisis, and Transformation in Early Modern Theatre, Costerus New Series 156 (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2006), 128. 34. On Christian masochism and martyrdom, see Introduction. 35. Other critics have linked Coriolanus’s refusal to show his wounds to Christ. Cavell interprets Coriolanus as a kind of rival or counter-Christ figure, contrasting him to Christ showing wounds to the three women and Christ on the cross, denying rather than offering to feed the multitude; he also comments on other references, such as Coriolanus as ‘lamb’, which I note below (Disowning Knowledge, 157–67). Eve Rachele Sanders relates the scene to Christ with ‘doubting Thomas’ (‘The Body of the Actor in Coriolanus’, Shakespeare Quarterly 57.4 [2006]: 390), as does Nicole E. Miller, who sees the scene and figurative association of tongues in wounds as part of a language of exchange, a sacred economy (‘Sacred Life and Sacrificial Economy: Coriolanus in No-Man’s-Land’, Criticism 51.2 [2009]: 285). Although these Notes to Chapter 6 211

views support my point, they differ. I am connecting resonances of meaning in text and image between Coriolanus in this scene and medieval representations of Christ’s body. 36. See Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption, 278–9. Figure 7.6 (278) provides a perfect example of the sexualized wound as an object separate from Christ’s body, the central panel (Arma Christi) of Altarpiece with Cycle of the Life of Christ (Cologne Master, c. 1340–70). As she notes in the caption, medieval Christians often wrote about ‘entering into Christ’s side as into a womb’. Some representations, however, suggest the anus. 37. See Rambuss, Closet Devotions, esp. 35–6. 38. Kenneth Burke points out the connection in the play’s language to the anus in Language as Symbolic Action (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), 96. Cavell relates Burke’s comments to motifs of feeding and digestion that he noted in his earlier article on Coriolanus in a Postscript added to his later edition (Disowning Knowledge, 69–77). Extending this idea, Jonathan Goldberg fully traces imagery of the anus in the play, in ‘The Anus in Coriolanus’, in Historicism, Psychoanalysis, and Early Modern Culture, ed. Carla Mazzio and Douglas Trevor (New York and London: Routledge, 2000), 262–71. None of these critics specifically relates the wounds-as-anus to depictions of Christ’s wounds or to the emergence of the newly bounded body. 39. Jennifer A. Low, ‘“Bodied Forth”: Spectator, Stage and Actor in the Early Modern Theatre’, Comparative Drama 39.1 (2005): 19. 40. Many critics have cited this scene as proof of Coriolanus’s fear of castration, such as Robert Stoller, ‘Shakespearean Tragedy: Coriolanus’, Psychoanalytic Quarterly 35 (1966): 263–74, esp. 286; and Wilson, ‘Coriolanus’, esp. 231. In this sense, his hyper-masculinity can be interpreted as a disavowal of lack in his own manhood. The wounds, Adelman has suggested, provide a link of wound-to-mouth, and thus suggest his own oral dependence and vulnerability. See Suffocating Mothers, 155. This interpretation is also a valid reading, especially given the Third Citizen’s comment, ‘For if he show us his wounds and tell us his deeds, we are to put our tongues into those wounds and speak for them’ (2.3.5–7). 41. West-Pavlov, Bodies and their Spaces, 136. 42. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), esp. 159. Taylor cites late sixteenth-century neo-Stoics Justus Lipsius and Guilloume duVair as particularly influential in this shift. He also stresses differences between ancient and neo-Stoics (esp. 125), as do Charles and Michelle Martindale, who note that neo-Stoicism of the Renaissance was a ‘therapeutic rather than analytic philosophy’ (Shakespeare and the Uses of Antiquity, 169). Taylor sees the soul/ body split and the rising focus on autonomy and ‘self-mastery’ as a step toward the Cartesian model. It is important to note that Taylor’s view of Descartes has been critiqued as a ‘grand narrative’ that glosses over shifts and conflicts by scholars like William Ian Miller, who has traced notions of inwardness in Icelandic Saga in ‘Deep Inner Lives, Individualism, and People of Honour’, History of Political Thought 16 (1995): 190–207; and John Sutton in Philosophy and Memory Traces: Descartes to Connectionism (Cambridge University Press, 1998), 41. Sutton notes how much Descartes’s philosophy shows residual emphasis of humoral theory. On these critiques, see 212 Notes to Chapter 6

Gail Kern Paster, Katherine Rowe, and Mary Floyd-Wilson, eds, Reading the Early Modern Passions: Essays in the Cultural History of Emotion (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 15–16. 43. Bouwsma, ‘Two Faces of Humanism’, 39. 44. Bouwsma, ‘Two Faces of Humanism’, 25. 45. Quoted in Bouwsma, ‘Two Faces of Humanism’, 39. 46. Bouwsma, ‘Two Faces of Humanism’, 42. 47. Interestingly, the theory of humors is used self-consciously and humorously (pun intended) in this play. For example, Menenius calls a prescription from Galen ‘quakish’ (2.1.103–5), but Menenius seems to follow Galen’s views of the influence of diet on behavior, as in his comic inquiry about whether or not Coriolanus has had his dinner, as it would affect his decision about ceas- ing war against Rome (5.2.35–6). 48. Coeffeteau, Table of Humane Passions, 4–5 and 16–17. 49. Thomas Wright, The Passions of the Mind in Generall (London: Printed by Valentine Simmes for Walter Burre, 1604), 69–71. 50. Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy, I. 69; quoted in Marshall, The Shattering of the Self, 15–17. 51. Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy, I. 118, 269, 292–5. 52. Sharrock, ‘Gender and Sexuality’, 97. 53. Greene, The Erotics of Domination, xiii. 54. Quoted in Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:506. 55. Karl Galinsky, Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction (Princeton University Press, 1996), 84. 56. Quoted in Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:519. 57. Joo Young Dittmann, ‘“Tear him to pieces”: De-Suturing Masculinity in Coriolanus’, English Studies 90 (2009): 656–8. 58. This view is shared by other critics. For instance, Robin Headlam Wells argues that Coriolanus becomes ‘Shakespeare’s last and most emphatic denunciation of heroic values’ (Shakespeare on Masculinity [Cambridge University Press, 2000], 176), and R.A. Foakes claims it ‘contains Shakespeare’s most powerful critique of the heroic code and of war’ (Shakespeare and Violence [Cambridge University Press, 2003], 180). 59. Low, ‘Bodied Forth’, 19. 60. Gary Spear, ‘Shakespeare’s “Manly” Parts: Masculinity and Effeminacy in Troilus and Cressida’, Shakespeare Quarterly 44 (1993), 409. As many com- mentators on the subject have observed, Coriolanus fears the feminine in himself, so he plays the hyper-masculine warrior of his mother’s creation. See Coppélia Kahn, Man’s Estate: Masculine Identity in Shakespeare (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 168–9; Adelman, Suffocating Mothers, 147–64; and Stoller, ‘Shakespearean Tragedy’, 287. 61. See Adelman, Suffocating Mothers, 164. 62. For a full discussion of the idea of acting and anti-theatricality in the play, see Sanders, ‘The Body of the Actor’. 63. See Stoller, ‘Shakespearean Tragedy’, 287; Charles K. Hofling, ‘An Interpretation of Shakespeare’s Coriolanus’, American Imago 14 (1957): 413; Adelman, Suffocating Mothers, 150; Wilson, ‘Coriolanus’, 225, 238; Ralph Berry, ‘Sexual Imagery in Coriolanus’, Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900 13 (1973): 302. Notes to Chapter 6 213

64. See Wilson, ‘Coriolanus’, 229. 65. I disagree with West-Pavlov’s contention that Coriolanus’s closed body indi- cates a personal self that becomes equated with a ‘new civic virtue’ (Bodies and their Spaces, 134). Coriolanus rejects the ritual rite to passage for the warrior to enter into public service when he refuses to show his wounds. His actions do not indicate a desire to develop this kind of virtue; rather, they show the opposite. Coriolanus will only do it his way, rather than sway with theirs. His duty is to himself – and his mother, who is an extension of the self – not to the larger good of the state. I am more inclined to agree with Wells, who notes that, in Coriolanus, Shakespeare demonstrates that militarism is counter to civic-humanist ideals (Shakespeare on Masculinity, 175). 66. In Plutarch, Coriolanus’s rival does not appear until they meet in Antium (see Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, 5:478). 67. Kahn, Man’s Estate, 169. 68. See Berry, ‘Sexual Imagery’, 301–10; and Wilson, ‘Coriolanus’, 225–9. 69. Bruce Smith, in Homosexual Desire, 54–9, and ‘Making a Difference: Male/ Male “Desire” in Tragedy, Comedy, and Tragi-Comedy’, in Erotic Politics: Desire on the Renaissance Stage, ed. Susan Zimmerman (New York: Routledge, 1992), 133–4; Goldberg, in ‘The Anus in Coriolanus’, esp. 266–7, and Kuzner, in ‘Unbuilding the City’, esp. 193–7, have commented on the sexual dimension of this relationship and homoeroticism in this play in general. Kuzner also relates Coriolanus to the figure of the sodomite as ‘gay outlaw’, a char- acterization of the legal construction of the sodomite as subversive figure or traitor (see esp. 194–7). 70. ‘Boy’ suggests effeminacy. In the OED ‘effeminate’ (both adjective and noun) can mean ‘womanish, unmanly, enervated’, or ‘feeble’ (1.a.); ‘deli- cate’ (1.b.); ‘gentle, tender, compassionate ... without implying reproach’ (1.c.). The dictionary also notes that ‘[t]he notion “self-indulgent, volup- tuous” … seems sometimes to have received a special colouring from a pseudo-etymological rendering of the word as “devoted to women”. As a noun, the term designates a man who possessed any or all of the above qualities – a “wanton, young effeminate” or a “sexually passive sodomite”’, as indicated in the thesaurus column in the online version of the OED (Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edn, 1989; online version March 2012, accessed 1 May 2012), www.oed.com.ezproxy.lib.usf.edu/view/Entry/59701; quoted in Spear, ‘Shakespeare’s “Manly” Parts’, 411; see also 410–12). I see Aufidius using this term here to associate Coriolanus with the ‘sexually passive sodomite’. Berry also notes that when Aufidius calls Coriolanus a ‘boy’, he is referring to him as a ‘pathic’; but Berry calls this meaning ‘latent’, one of Aufidius’s ‘hints’ (‘Sexual Imagery’, 312–13). I, on the other hand, see nothing ‘latent’ or subtle in this most obvious slur based on the fear and hatred of the sexually passive sodomite. 71. In ancient Greek and Roman culture, the dynamic of male–male sexual relationships was determined by distinctions of class and age. Neither Greek nor Roman culture thought highly of the submissive partner, and even in Greek idealizations of male/male love, it was necessary that the ‘passive’ partner be a youth temporarily engaging in a feminine role. Plutarch called ‘those who enjoy the passive part as belonging to the lowest depth of vice’ (Moralia, trans. W.C. Helmbold, Loeb Classics Library [Cambridge, MA: Harvard 214 Notes to Coda

University Press, 1969], 425); quoted in David Greenberg, The Construction of Homosexuality [University of Chicago Press, 1988], 9). 72. Despite their acceptance of homoerotic relationships, ‘the Greeks showed little toleration for adults who took the passive role in any homoerotic relationship’ (Vern Bullough, Sexual Variance in Society and History [University of Chicago Press, 1976], 109). The effeminate, womanly male – in contrast to the soldier who loves his comrades or the warrior who is in ‘the noblest hateful love’ with his rival – served to quench rather than fuel the fires of war. Conversely, for Aristotle, Plutarch, and Montaigne, among others, male/male friendships (homoerotic or not) were, of course, considered to be superior to male/female relationships. For a detailed discussion of male ‘Comrades and Combatants’ from ancient Greece to early modern England, see Smith, Homosexual Desire, 32–77. 73. Gregory Bredbeck, Sodomy and Interpretation: Marlowe to Milton (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), 35. 74. My thanks to Keith Botelho who pointed out this connection to me. 75. Bruce R. Smith, Shakespeare and Masculinity, Oxford Shakespeare Topics (Oxford University Press, 2000), 35. 76. Dittmann sees this moment as ‘symbolic dismemberment’, the ‘fragmentation of the hypermasculine hero’ (‘Tear him to pieces’, 655).

Coda

Philomela’s Song: Transformations of Ovid, Trauma, and Masochism in A Midsummer Night’s Dream and Cymbeline 1. Colin Burrow charts a course of Shakespeare’s treatment of Ovid from his early to late works, claiming that the playwright still deals with Ovidian sexual violence and primitive aggression in his later plays; but, in contrast to his earlier work, he aligns them with ‘the power of the imagination’, wherein Shakespeare develops a ‘theatrical self-consciousness’ that stands in for Ovid’s ‘literary self- consciousness’ (‘Re-embodying Ovid: Renaissance Afterlives’, 310). Although I agree with Burrow on the extent of Ovid’s influence in Shakespeare’s career and his transformation of Ovidian literary into a theatrical self-consciousness, I do not see the same linear movement from violence to the imagination. Rather, I argue that Shakespeare joins Ovidian myth with the subject of the imagination as early as Midsummer and Venus and Adonis. 2. For a full discussion of early modern appropriations of the tale and the figure of Philomela, particularly in terms of sexuality, see Carter, Ovidian Myth, 14–36. 3. Bruce W. Holsinger, Music, Body, and Desire in Medieval Culture: Hildegard of Bingen to Chaucer (Stanford University Press, 2001), 104. 4. Holsinger, Music, Body, and Desire, 228–9. 5. Holsinger, Music, Body, and Desire, 230, 33. 6. Holsinger, Music, Body, and Desire, 195, in reference to Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (Oxford University Press, 1985), 8. 7. Holsinger, Music, Body, and Desire, 226. 8. Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid, 111. 9. Sean Keilen, Vulgar Eloquence: On the Renaissance Invention of English Literature (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006), 107. Notes to Coda 215

10. Keilen, Vulgar Eloquence, 19. 11. Keilen, Vulgar Eloquence, 19–21. 12. Keilen, Vulgar Eloquence, 91, 107. 13. On the shift in attitudes about Ovid, see Chapter 1. 14. Sarah Carter examines the relationship of the emblem to the latter, claiming that ‘figuratively, the masochistic nightingale also continually re-enacts her rape using the phallic thorn to penetrate and mutilate itself. Philomela- as-nightingale thus embodies both unrestrained desire and violence, and thereby becomes an ominous omen for lovers’ (Ovidian Myth, 16). Although Carter refers to the nightingale here as ‘masochistic’, she does not examine masochism as a form of ‘deviant’ (meaning non-procreative) sexuality in her otherwise extensive and thorough study. 15. See Chapter 1, n. 17. 16. Deborah Uman, ‘Translation, Transformation, and Ravishment in A Midsummer Night’s Dream’, Allegorica 22 (2001): 68–91, 70. 17. Uman, ‘Translation’, 75. 18. Uman, ‘Translation’, 76. 19. Bruce Boehrer and Richard Rambuss both discuss the play in terms of sodomy and eroticism, but neither mentions Ovid. See Bruce Boehrer, ‘Economies of Desire in “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”’, Shakespeare Studies 32 ( January 2004): 99–117, 55–9; and Richard Rambuss, ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Shakespeare’s Ass Play’, in Shakesqueer: A Queer Companion to the Complete Works of Shakespeare, ed. Madhavi Menon (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011), 234–44. 20. Rambuss, ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’, 238. 21. Uman, ‘Translation’, 83. 22. Uman, ‘Translation’, 70. On meanings of this term, see also Deborah G. Burks, ‘“I’ll Want My Will Else”: The Changeling and Women’s Complicity with their Rapists’, ELH 62 (1995): 759–90, 769. 23. Brown, ‘Philomela’. 24. Rambuss discusses this imagery in detail, in ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’, 234–44. 25. Melissa E. Sanchez, ‘“Use me but as your spaniel”: Feminism, Queer Theory, and Early Modern Sexualities’, PMLA 127 (2012): 493–511. 26. Oberon gives the blessing in the Quartos; in the Folio, Oberon is not given these lines; instead, they are set off in italics and labeled ‘The Song’. 27. See Introduction for a full discussion of the relationship between early modern melancholy and trauma. 28. Giacomo’s comment is a reference to the myth of Gordius, King of Phrygia, who was unable to untie the knot that Alexander swiftly cut through with his sword. 29. Ann Thompson fully discusses parallels between Shakespeare’s uses of the Philomela–Tereus myth in Titus Andronicus and Cymbeline, particularly in the theme of decapitation (‘Philomel in Titus Andronicus and Cymbeline’, Shakespeare Survey 31 [1978]: 23–32). 30. Peggy Muñoz Simonds, Myth, Emblem, Music in Shakespeare’s Cymbeline: An Iconographic Reconstruction (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1992), 96–107. 31. James, Shakespeare’s Troy, 152–70. 216 Notes to Coda

32. The false Aeneas tradition is discussed fully in Chapter 2. 33. For more on this debate concerning Ovid, see Chapter 1. 34. On the desultor Amoris, see Stapleton, Harmful Eloquence, iii, 7–36. The figure is also discussed in Chapter 1. 35. Other critics have compared Giacomo and Cloten to the Ovidian lover in different ways: James has claimed that Giacomo represents the ‘debased’ Italian legacy passed down from Ovid and Boccaccio, and Geoffrey Bullough has referred to Cloten as a ‘stock Ovidian lover’. See James, Shakespeare’s Troy, 156; and Geoffrey Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, vol. 8 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975), 29. 36. See Martindale, Introduction to Ovid Renewed, 8. 37. See Simonds, Myth, Emblem, Music, 76; James, Shakespeare’s Troy, 159. 38. Carmine Di Biase also makes the point that Giacomo and Cloten are doubles, both associated with the figure of Actaeon (‘Ovid, Pettie, and the Mythic Foundation of Cymbeline’, Cahiers élisabéthains 46 [Oct. 1994]: 59–70, 61). 39. In connecting Cloten’s head to Orpheus, James extends the association to Pentheus, who is also dismembered by Bacchantes. She sees Innogen in her blazon as Agave, Pentheus’s mother, who unknowingly tears off the first limb and then finally the head of her son in the frenzy of Bacchae rites (Meta., 3.874–921). See Shakespeare’s Troy, 172–3. This interesting reading taps into the topos of bodily fragmentation in the play, but I would argue that it obscures what I see as the main Ovidian subtext here, that of Ovid’s Hecuba and Polydore. 40. See Simonds, Myth, Emblem, Music, 76; Di Biase, ‘Ovid, Pettie, and the Mythic Foundation’, 67; James, Shakespeare’s Troy, 172–4, 177; Joan Carr, ‘Cymbeline and the Validity of Myth’, Studies in Philology 75 (1978): 316–30, 317; and David Armitage, ‘The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Mythic Elements in Shakespeare’s Romances’, Shakespeare Survey 39 (1987): 123–33, 128. 41. James, Shakespeare’s Troy, 161. 42. In Charles Martin’s contemporary translation, this passage reads: The Trojan women screamed, but Hecuba was silent in her grief, which had devoured the tears and the cry that sprang up deep inside her; she stood stone still and fixed her angry gaze now on the ground and now upon the heavens, and sometimes staring at her dead son’s face and sometimes, and more often, at his wounds, as surging rage armed and instructed her. (13.783–91) 43. James sees Innogen’s reference to Hecuba in connection with the character in Virgil’s Aeneid. Although certainly this interpretation is valid, especially in light of her overall argument that Cymbeline is an undoing of Virgil’s epic, it does not, I think, account for the full register of meaning with the figure of Hecuba in Innogen’s speech, this entire scene, and the overall treatment of sorrow in the play (Shakespeare’s Troy, 162). 44. For a full discussion of extreme virtus in Coriolanus, see Chapter 6. 45. Di Biase contends that Shakespeare uses versions from both Golding and George Pettie in his Petite Pallace of Pettie His Pleasure (1576). She draws parallels between the tale of Cephalus and Procris and Cymbeline and also points Notes to Coda 217

out specific references (‘Ovid, Pettie, and the Mythic Foundation’, 59–70). She does not, however, discuss Shakespeare’s use of the tale to explore issues of trauma. 46. Besides the tapestry of Diana mentioned above, described in 2.4.81–5, the goddess is directly mentioned in 1.6.134, 2.3.65, and 5.6.180. 47. Charles and Michelle Martindale note this reference in Shakespeare and the Uses of Antiquity, 55, but they do not fully discuss Shakespeare’s appropria- tion of the tale on other levels. Di Biase also notes this passage, but she does not see the influence of Ovid’s Ceyx and Alcyone beyond this reference (‘Ovid, Pettie, and the Mythic Foundation’, 65). 48. Simonds counts 12 species of birds in the play and fully discusses their iconographic meanings in Myth, Emblem, Music, 198–232. Bibliography

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abuse blood, early modern conceptions of, childhood, 23, 189 131–3 childhood sexual, 29–30, 191 cruor and sanguis, 127, 132, 135, 148 domestic, 28 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 88, 216 Adelman, Janet, 204, 209, 211 De Genealogia Deorum, 4 Aelius Galenus, see Galen Famous Women, 87 Aeneas, false, 85, 86, 174 body Aesop, 147 binary of soul and, 36–7 Alcati: Emblemata, 4 as bounded, 54, 57–8, 116, 122, allegoresis, see allegory: medieval 125–6, 145–6, 151 allegory Cartesian notions of the, 36, 211 medieval, 3–4 early modern concepts of male, 58, Plato’s, 6, 185 133, 145, 150 Amazon (women), 83, 88 emblazoned, 51, 58, 119, 149, 158 Anderson, Thomas P., 33–4, 55, female, 75–6, 91, 125–6, 130, 149, 202 160 Angello, Lizz, 206 fragmented, 15, 92, 107, 111, 148, animals of prey, 118, 205 158 Apuleius: Golden Ass, 163 Galenic concept of, 53–5, 57, 91, Aquinas, Thomas, 36, 129 116, 125–6, 128, 131, 145–7 Aristotle, 36–8, 41 martyred, 56–8, 83, 92–3, 128, 135 De Anima, 38 Ovidian conceptions of, 14–16, 93 arma Christi, 136, 149, 150, 211 Boehrer, Bruce, 215 Augustinianism, see Renaissance bondage, erotic, 77, 78, 87, 103, 104, humanism 166; see also sadomasochism Bono, Barbara J., 111 Bacchus, 1, 106–7, 176 Bouwsma, William J., 52, 141, 152, Barkan, Leonard, 2, 14 196 Barolsky, Paul, 187 Braden, Gordon, 2, 7, 185 Bate, Jonathan, 9, 14, 99, 104, Bredbeck, Gregory, 157 161 Breuer, Josef, 22–3 Bates, Catherine, 46–8 bricolage, 10, 175 Belau, Linda, 26 Bright, Timothie Bellamy, Elizabeth, 197 A Treatise on Melancholie, 39 Belling, Catherine, 206 Britain, origin myth, 162 Benjamin, Walter, 135 Bromley, James M., 46, 194 Berengario, 149 Brown, Georgia, 4, 11–12, 186 Berry, Ralph, 213 Brown, Sarah Annes, 2, 10, 168 bestiality, 14, 166 Buckley, Emma, 85 blazon, 44, 48–51, 58, 89–93, 101, Bullough, Geoffrey, 133, 140, 208, 105, 107, 119, 136, 145–59, 216 172, 176, 216 Bullough, Vern, 214 Petrarchan, 50, 73, 76–7 Burke, Kenneth, 211

229 230 Index

Burrow, Colin, 4, 9, 11, 63, 197, 214 cuckoo, 165 Burton, Robert, 41–2, 123 cult of blood, 130, 131, 148–9 Anatomy of Melancholy, 38, 122, 153 cult of wounds, 136, 149; see also Bynum, Caroline Walker, 125, 131–2, wound 148, 206, 211 Cvetkovich, Ann, 29, 31, 34

Caesar, Augustus, 5, 8–9, 12, 57, 60, Dawson, Lesel, 41–2, 46, 72 65–6, 110, 115, 116, 130, 139, death, as euphemism for sexual 143–4, 173–4, 198 orgasm, 80, 102 Caesar, Julius, 12, 34, 58, 66, 109, death drive, Freudian, 45–6, 80–1 129–44 Deats, Sara Munson, 99 Caesarian birth, 130 Dekker, Thomas, 63 Caesar, Octavius, 105–8, 111, 127 Deleuze, Gilles, 47, 102 Cahill, Patricia A., 33–4, 35, 55 Descartes, René, 36–7, 51, 191, 211 Callaghan, Dympna, 200 desultor amoris, 67, 70, 71, 74, 174, 176 cannibalism, 96–7 Di Biase, Carmine, 179, 216, 217 Carter, Sarah, 11, 15–16, 187, 203, dismemberment, 7, 13, 49–50, 86–92, 215 106, 122, 136, 158, 176, 204, 216 Caruth, Cathy, 29–31, 34, 192 Dittmann, Joo Young, 154, 214 Casey, James, 208 domination, erotic, 47, 66, 77, 166, Catullus, Gaius Valerius, 65–6, 69, 168 71–2, 79, 102 ‘thousand kisses’, 70 elegy, love, 43, 47, 65–6, 70 Cavell, Stanley, 210, 211 Elias, Norbert, 196, 208–9 Chaucer, 115 Elizabeth I, 44, 83–5, 88, 99–101, 111, Knight’s Tale, 163 167, 203 Legend of Good Women, 161 Enterline, Lynn, 14–16, 90, 93–4, 121, Cheney, Patrick, 3, 11, 115 124 chivalry, 103, 118, 154, 190 epic Christ, Jesus, 53, 132, 136–7, 148, 151 Greek, 65 body of, 43, 51, 58, 92, 133, 136, Latin, 65–8, 85–6 145 Virgilian 11–15, 65, 84, 97, 98, 109, passion of, 74, 161 198 as warrior, 150–1 epyllion, 65, 68, 198; see also Ovidian Cicero, 129, 143 narrative Claudius Galenus, see Galen erotics of cruelty, 15, 18, 64, 83, 89 Coeffeteau, Nicolas, 152 erotomania, see lovesickness Table of Humane Passions, 40 Eve, biblical figure of, 111 Comes, Natalis: Mythologiae, 4 conceit (metaphoric), 67, 75, 95, 100, Farrell, Kirby, 20 119, 135 fassussque nefas, 2, 55 military, 119–20 Fawcett, Mary Laughlin, 202 Petrarchan, 50, 89, 118–19, 168 femina nova, 67 Cooper: Thesaurus, 4 Ferenczi, Sándor, 28 corpses, display of, 57, 135–7, 159 Ficino, Marsilio, 73 courtly love, 43, 47, 67, 103, 111, Fineman, Joel, 205 118, 120; see also chivalry Foakes, R.A., 212 Creation myth, 5, 68–9 forest, the, 13, 84, 98, 99, 169; cuckold, 85, 165 see also woods Index 231

Fox, Cora, 6, 12, 13, 16–17, 93, 185, Ovidian representations of, 16–18, 202, 203 59, 79, 94, 96, 177–8, 181–2, 202 Freud, Sigmund, 22–38, 44–6, 51–3, see also melancholy 93, 122, 191, 205 ‘The Aetiology of Hysteria’, 22–3 hagiography, 51, 135–7 Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 24–6, canonicity, 135 44–6 iconicity, 135, 136 and Hamlet, 74 reliquary, 135, 136 ‘Interpretation of Dreams’, 23 Hardie, Philip, 69–70 Introduction to Psycho-analysis and Harrison, Stephen, 198 the War Neuroses, 27–8 hart, conceit of the, 48, 89, 135; Studies in Hysteria, 22–3 see also hunt three types of masochism, 44 Harvey, Gabriel, 54, 115, 146 Heller, Jack, 207 Galen, 36–8 Henry VIII, 68, 130 Ars Parva, 37, 193 Herman, Judith Lewis, 29 three faculties, 37 Herodotus, 86 Galenic model, 51–8 Heyworth, Gregory, 11, 12 in Coriolanus, 145–7, 151 Hillman, David, 54–5, 146 in Julius Caesar, 131, 134–5 Hirschfeld, Heather, 32, 34 in The Rape of Lucrece, 116–17, 126 Hoeniger, F. David, 193 Galenus, see Galen Holocaust, the, 21, 28, 29–32 Galinsky, Karl, 153 Holsinger, Bruce, 161 Gallus, 65 homoeroticism, 14 Gascoigne, George: The Complaynt of ancient Greek, 157, 214 Phylomene, 161 early modern, 69, 78–80, 156–7, gaze, the, 51, 149, 174, 195 199, 213 gender, 13, 15, 44, 122–3, 163 Roman, 72, 79, 99, 102, 156–7 and identity, 3, 13, 27, 42, 154 Horace, 63, 65 and lovesickness, 41, 42 Hughes, Ted, 199, 200 Ovidian fluidity of, 3, 42, 56, 64, Hulse, Clark, 187, 198, 201 102, 197 humanism, 52, 117, 122, 138, 159; reversal of, 13–14, 50, 78–9, 100, see also Renaissance humanism 102, 104, 106, 137, 166, 168 humoral imbalance, 39–40, 53, 72, Goldberg, Jonathan, 211 134, 141, 143 Golding, Arthur, 2–9, 17–18 humoral theory, 40, 72, 135, 138, influence on Shakespeare, 5–6, 7–8, 141, 143, 146, 151, 211 78, 162, 165, 166, 177, 179–82 humors, microcosmic, 118, 141, 144 Metamorphoses, 2, 7, 17–18, 64, 73, hunt, conceit of the, 13, 48, 50, 67, 71, 75, 77, 78, 80, 91, 96, 106, 111, 78–9, 84–5, 89–90, 118, 169–70 118, 124, 139, 143, 148, 165, hysteria, 22–7, 191 166, 169, 170, 173, 176–7, 180, 181 imagery, 17, 35, 41, 85, 169 Gosson, Stephen, 4 Christian, 111, 137, 166 Greene, Ellen, 67, 153 of marble, stones and rock, 17, 18, 81, grief, extreme 87, 88, 95, 110–11, 177, 180, 182 early modern concept of, 74–5, 81, of the sea, 95 95–6, 111, 121–4, 127–8, 140, imago pietatis, 136 142, 173, 178–9 imitatio Christi, 139, 161 232 Index incest, 14, 82, 86, 168 Ganymede, 99 Isis Tamburlaine, 195 and Cleopatra, 98–101, 106–7, 109–11 Marshall, Cynthia, 46–7 Egyption myth of, 50, 56, 106 Marston, John, 63 Martindale, Charles, 186, 211, 217 James, Heather, 11, 14, 84–5, 99, 108, martyr 111, 173, 176, 198, 200, 202, Christian, 47, 50–2, 128, 138, 150 203, 216 female, 56, 83–97, 121 Jonson, Ben, 63–5 the making of a, 57, 129–32, 135–6 Poetaster, 63, 65 male, 133, 137, 204 Justus: De Constantia, 152 Mary Queen of Scots, 100 masculinity, 24, 41, 47, 58, 65, 74 Kahn, Coppélia, 155 early modern conceptions of, 98, Kardiner, Abram, 28 109, 131, 133, 145–6, 148, Kaula, David, 138 150–1, 153–4, 159 Keach, William, 9, 14, 198, 199 Roman, 14, 56, 66–8, 83, 103, 120, Keilen, Sean, 161–2 153; see also virtus Keith, Alison, 65 Stoic, 109, 116, 139, 191 Krafft-Ebing, Richard Freiherr von, 44 masochism, 13, 26, 44–50, 73, 80, Kristeva, Julia, 50, 92 103, 105, 109, 160–83 Kuriyama, Constance, 204 Christian, 50–2, 92, 121 Kuzner, James, 209, 213 feminine, 168 Maus, Katharine Eisaman, 97, 133, Lacan, Jacques, 68, 80, 92–3, 102, 198 139 LaCapra, Dominick, 33 McDowell, Sean, 36 Lafont, Agnès, 11, 14–16 Medusa, figure of, 17, 91, 93 Laplanche, Jean, 26, 45 melancholia, 55, 74–5, 78 Laurentius, M. Andreas, 41–2, 49 melancholy, 40, 44, 48, 59, 193 Leys, Ruth, 21–5, 29–31 and Antony and Cleopatra, 105 Liebestod, 43, 102, 108 and Coriolanus, 152 Little, Arthur L., Jr, 203, 205 and A Midsummer Night’s Dream and love-melancholy, 41–3, 46, 64, 72–4, Cymbeline, 169–71, 176, 178–9 195; see also lovesickness and The Rape of Lucrece, 122–5 lovesickness, 35, 41–55, 63–103, 116, and Venus and Adonis, 63–4, 71, 121, 166, 169 74, 81 causes of, 72–3 memoria, 38, 40, 193 see also love-melancholy militia Christi, 148, 151 Low, Jennifer A., 151, 154 Miller, Nicole E., 210 Luckhurst, Roger, 21–3, 26, 191 Miller, William Ian, 211 Lupton, Julia Reinhard, 92, 128, 135, misogyny, 49, 154, 175 137, 209 mourning, 75, 79, 180, 200 Lydgate, John: Troy Booke, 85 mutilation, 13, 49, 89, 91–5, 149, 202, Lyne, Raphael, 5, 7, 8, 185 215

Marlowe, Christopher, 2–3, 9, 12, 33, necrophilia, 14, 102, 119, 172 56 Neely, Carol Thomas, 42 Amores, 9, 63 Neoplatonism, 64, 67, 73–4, 173 Dido, Queen of Carthage, 56, 84–5, neo-Stoicism, 53, 57–8, 116–28, 138–40, 98–9, 100, 103, 108–10, 112 141, 145, 151–4, 159, 211 Index 233

Newman, Harry, 209 Myrrha, 74, 82 new Ovidianism, 8, 14–15, 186 Niobe, 13, 55, 64, 71, 73 nightingale, masochistic, 59, 88, 121, Orpheus, 7, 13, 69, 79, 89–92, 165, 166, 169–71, 178, 182–3 105, 121, 175–6, 201, 216 North, Sir Thomas, 106 Pyramus and Thisbe, 87, 91, 162, Plutarch, 163 163, 167 Pythagoras, 5 Oakley-Brown, Liz, 4 Salmacis and Hermaphroditus, 9, ore medusaeo, 93 55, 64, 77–8, 166 orgasm, sexual, 80, 102–3 Tereus, Procne, and Philomena, Otis, Brooks, 198 1–2, 10, 13, 17–18, 40, 43, 50, Ovid 56–9, 75, 83, 88–94, 96, 97, Amores, 2, 8–9, 14, 55, 59, 63, 64, 118, 121–4, 160–83 66, 69–70, 115 Ulysses, 12 anti-Virgilian/Augustan, 11–12, 55–7 Venus and Adonis, 2, 13, 41, 50, exile, 17, 115, 198 55, 64, 68–70, 71, 73, 75, 77, Fasti, 40, 57, 118, 122, 127 82, 177–8 Lucretia, 97, 115–16, 124 Venus and Mars, 70, 76–7, 103–4, Heroides, individual letters 106 Dido to Aeneas, 85–6, 109–10, 112 moralizing Ovid, 7, 9, 64–5, 185 Lole to Hercules, 103, 104 translations, English, 4–5, 10 Metamorphoses, individual tales Arthur Golding, 2–9, 17–18, 64, Apollo and Daphne, 7–8, 67, 161–3, 165 69–70, 74, 90, 91, 148, 166, Tristia, 4, 17, 175 168, 201 Ovide Moralisé, 3, 5 ‘Apotheosis of Julius Caesar’, 130 Ovidian narrative, 15, 47, 68–9, 74, Arachne’s weaving, 124, 173 115–16; see also epyllion Atalanta and Hippomenes, 77 Ovidian poetics, 35, 55–9, 112 Baucis and Philemon, 175 Ovidian transformation, 15–18, 55, Cephalus and Procris, 59, 71, 84, 63, 108 100, 174, 179–80, 182, 216 Owens, Margaret E., 149 Ceyx and Alcyone, 17, 59, 174, 179–83 pain, erotic, 13, 15, 44, 48, 92, 102, Diana and Actaeon, 7, 10, 13, 17, 161–2 48–50, 67, 78, 85, 89, 105, 122, Park, Katharine, 135, 137, 149 158, 169, 175–6, 216 Parry, Hugh, 188 Echo and Narcissus, 9, 13, 55, 64, Paster, Gail Kern, 53, 132–3, 137, 71, 73–4, 77 147–8, 196 Europa, 166 pathic, 157, 213 Eurydice, 70, 79 Pax Romana, 116, 173 Ganymede, 11, 49, 99, 157 Peacham, Henry, 130 Hecuba, 94–6, 121, 122, 124–5, Pearcy, Lee T., 186 128, 174, 176–8, 180 Pecham, John: ‘Philomena Praevia’, Ino and Athamas, 17–18, 23 161 Iphis, 13, 56, 106, 111 Petrarchan love, rhetoric of, 42, 44, Isis and Osiris, 106 48–9, 57, 74, 79, 116 Marsyas, 1, 11, 58, 86, 145, 148, Petrarchan poetry, 47, 67, 72, 80, 89, 150 118, 120, 168; see also sonnets Midas, 166, 169 Petrarchan tradition, 14, 47, 49, 91, 122 234 Index

Pettie, George, 216–17 sadism, 13, 44, 45 phantasm, 72, 73, 76, 80 sadomasochism, 16, 43–50, 59 Plato, 6, 36–8, 45, 68, 73, 78 Sale, Carolyn, 201 Symposium, 45, 68, 78 Sanchez, Melissa E., 46, 168 Platonism, 32, 140–1 Sanders, Eve Rachele, 210 Plutarch, 163, 210, 213, 214 Sappho, 66, 69, 102 and Antony and Cleopatra, 56, 98, Sawday, Jonathan, 86, 137, 148, 149 106–7, 111 Scarry, Elaine, 161 and Coriolanus, 150, 153–4 Schoenfeldt, Michael C., 53, 117, and Julius Caesar, 130–4, 143 196 Lives, 106 Segal, Paul, 186 Moralia, 106 self, notions of the, 36, 52, 55, 57–8, pneuma, 37, 72 83, 92–3, 116–17, 145, 151, pornographic images, 91–2 158, 209 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, see splitting of the, 24, 45, 71 PTSD Seneca, 127 Propertius, 65 Phaedra, 163 p sychoanalytic theory, 14, 26, 44, 46, Shakespeare, William 101 and Arthur Golding, 5–8 psychology, 21 and Christopher Marlowe, 2–3, 9, early modern, 36, 37, 40, 51 12, 33, 42, 46, 56, 63–4, 68, 84, PTSD, 19–22, 28–32, 35, 122 85, 98–101, 108–12 Pythagoras, 5, 192 education of, 4 Pythagorean world, 101, 118 Antony and Cleopatra, 50, 56, 98–112, 173, 195 Queen, The Virgin, see Elizabeth I As You Like It, 49 queer theory, 64, 79–80, 168 Coriolanus, 55, 57–8, 105, 116–17, 133, 136, 145–59, 175, 178, railway spine, 22, 189; see also trauma 209, 210, 211, 212, 213 Rambuss, Richard, 78–9, 150, 166, Cymbeline, 58–9, 81–2, 160–83 200, 215 Hamlet, 32, 53, 54, 75, 115, 152, rape, 13, 16, 84, 85, 97, 127, 167, 172, 154, 190, 206 175, 184, 197; see also Ovid: Henry IV (part 1), 154 Tereus, Procne, and Philomena; Julius Caesar, 12, 34, 53, 57–8, Shakespeare: The Rape of Lucrece 129–44, 147 Reik, Theodor, 51, 92 Macbeth, 38, 154 Renaissance humanism, 35, 52–3, Measure for Measure, 102 57–8, 116–17, 138–41, 145, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 43, 59, 151–2, 154, 159 65, 78, 160–75 Renaissance lyric poetry, 46–7, 67–8, Othello, 102, 172, 175 89–90, 97, 111, 118 The Rape of Lucrece, 39–40, 43, 53, Renaissance Ovidianism, 8–12, 14–17, 55, 57, 115–28, 160, 172, 175, 42–4, 52, 63, 67–8, 78, 89–94, 205 97, 116 sonnets, 49, 50, 53, 64, 69, 76, revenge play, 56, 84, 89, 97 78–9, 91, 102, 117, 197, 199, Reynolds, Edward, 53 200 Rivers, W.H.R., 28, 190, 191 Titus Andronicus, 2, 15, 32, 34, 41, Rowe, Katherine, 201 49–50, 53, 56, 83–97, 98–100, Rudd, Niall, 202 107, 149, 160, 171–2, 175, 202 Index 235

Twelfth Night, 48, 49, 79 Traub, Valerie, 14–16 Venus and Adonis, 2, 41, 50, 55, trauma 63–82, 101, 104, 115–16, 120, contemporary theory, 16, 29–35, 45 168, 172, 175, 178, 197, 199, defining, 18–21 214 early modern conceptions of, 32–5, Sharrock, Alison, 14, 65–6, 68, 153 38–41, 51, 52, 54, 54–7, 69, 71, shell shock, 2, 24, 26–8, 122; see also 78, 81–2, 83, 93, 122 trauma history of, 21–9 Showalter, Elaine, 27, 191 Ovidian, 15, 40, 64 Siegel, Carol, 46 and sexuality, 22–3, 28, 45; Siler, Dennis J., 10 see also Sigmund Freud Silverman, Kaja, 51, 91 see also PTSD Silverstone, Catherine, 34, 188 Trojan War, 117, 122, 173 Simonds, Peggy Muñoz, 48, 173 Troy, the fall of, 40, 85, 94, 124–5 Smith, Bruce R., 43, 157, 213 Solodow, Joseph B., 187 Uman, Deborah, 163–5, 195 sonnets, 14, 44, 67, 90 Petrarchan, 67, 68, 72, 80, 89, 118, valor, 14, 49, 58, 65, 95, 103–5, 109, 120 130, 148, 151, 153–5, 157; Shakespeare’s, see Shakespeare: see also virtus sonnets Venus armata, 85 soul, conceptions of the, 5, 37–8, 126, Vickers, Nancy J., 49 192 violence tripartite, 36 eroticized, 14, 64, 66–7, 89, 92–3, Spear, Gary, 154, 212 116, 118–19, 160–1, 164 stage Moor villain, 85–6 to the self, 127; see also suicide Stanivukovic, Goran V., 14–16, 186 sexual, 2, 84, 88–9, 93, 125, 160, Stapleton, M.L., 67, 174 163, 170, 188, 214, 215; Starks, Lisa S., 195, 200, 204 see also rape Stoller, Robert, 211 and trauma, 6, 13, 15–18, 64, 80, stones, see imagery 83, 95, 97 Strier, Richard, 192, 196, 205 Virgil, 11–13, 63–4, 65, 84–5, 98, 101, submission, male, 16, 42, 43, 47, 66–7, 108–9, 112, 130, 184, 198, 200, 72, 77, 86, 103, 106, 166, 168 203 suicide, 63, 109–10, 111, 127, 140–1, Aeneid, 12, 56, 65, 84–5, 88, 98–9, 142, 204 108, 173, 216 Sullivan, Garrett A., 40 Virgin Mary, figure of the, 56, 76, 111 Sutton, John, 211 virtus, 11, 13, 56–8, 65–6, 84, 95, 98–9, 103, 105, 107–9, 120, tableau, Shakespearean, 51, 83, 89–93, 139, 145–59, 171, 178–9 109, 158, 172, 202 Taylor, A.B., 7 Wack, Mary Francis, 48, 74, 195 Taylor, Charles, 151, 211 war, 20–34, 65, 66 theology, Christian, 5, 38 war neuroses, 24, 26–7, 32; see also Thompson, Ann, 215 trauma thorns, 88, 121, 161, 215 Wells, Marion A., 74–5 Tibullus, 65 Wells, Robin Headlam, 212, 213 Timanthes, 39, 123 West-Pavlov, Russell, 150–1 transvestitio, 10 Willbern, David, 91 236 Index

Willis, Deborah, 32, 202 Wright, Thomas, 40, 53, 153 Wilson, Emmett Jr, 21 Wriothesley, Henry, 79, 197, 199 woods, trope of the, 84, 88; see also Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 68 forest wound, the, 18, 41, 43, 55–7, 68–9, Yates, Frances, 203 74, 80–1, 91, 121–8, 136–7, Yealland, Leavis R., 191 145–59, 167, 210, 211 Young, Allan, 19, 20