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Home , Edward Teller, Franck Report, Szilard petition

S PECIAL F EATURE: W AR AND P EACE

www.iop.org/journals/physed The —a part of history

Ann-Marie Martensson-Pendrill˚

Department of Physics, University of Gothenburg, SE-412 96 G¨oteborg, Sweden

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Current physics textbooks tend to exclude military applications, but it is explained here how a study of the Manhattan project—the devastatingly successful attempt to develop an atomic bomb—can show students how the lives and work of physicists are shaped by events in society. Much of the original source material is available in books and on the internet (and referenced here), which allows students to discover the views of the scientists for themselves.

In the early morning hours of July 16 important for shooting cannons and guns and drop- 1945, a truck driver in New Mexico ping bombs. In older textbooks, these examples reported that he saw the sun about to rise often dominate, whereas more modern texts are at 4 am. The sun decided it was too early, likely to include or even focus on more everyday he said, so it went down again and came applications such as throwing balls or jumping. up an hour later [1]. There is also a trend to include more historical as- Robert Oppenheimer quoted the Bhagavad- pects which can give an opportunity to focus on the Gita: ‘I have become death, the shatterer of development of ideas in physics. Still, many newer worlds.’ The picture of the mushroom cloud textbooks mention the bomb very briefly, if at all. carries a strong symbolic load. It demonstrates How could a discussion of the Manhattan project vividly that the fruit of knowledge can contribute contribute to the image of physics or physicists? not only to the benefit of mankind but also bring The Manhattan project represented a water- immense destructive power and be a root of evil. shed in the relationship between physics, physi- Over the post-war decades, the public image of cists and politics [3]. science and scientists has changed from hero to After the war, physicists were often asked a common stereotype view of a ‘’, often evil and selfish [2]. The turning away to go to Washington and give advice from science studies, which is a concern in many to various sections of the government, countries, may be not only because of lack of especially the military. What happened, knowledge or understanding of science, but rather I suppose, is that since the scientists from encountering its dark side. Physics can no had made these bombs that were so longer claim innocence. ‘I have become death, the important, the military felt we were shatterer of worlds.’ useful for something. Feynman [4, p 53]. The Manhattan project can show us physicists Physics teaching choices at work, and how their lives and research are Should physics teaching include military applica- shaped by the events in society (and sometimes tions? The understanding of projectile motion is shape them). Since many physicists have

0031-9120/06/060493+09$30.00 © 2006 IOP Publishing Ltd P HYSICS E DUCATION 41 (6) 493 A-M Martensson-Pendrill˚ after the Manhattan project. Towards the end of Timeline the course we then made a very informal roleplay, where I provided a timeline as a plan for the lesson, 1938 Fission of discovered (Hahn, Meitner, Strassmann, Frisch) and the students took turns in the involvement of 1939 2 August, Letter to President ‘their’ physicist. Some chose a detached approach, Roosevelt (Einstein, initiated by Szilard) but many did their presentations in the first person; 1941 Heisenberg visits Bohr in some even dressed up. The informal character of 1942 23 September, Oppenheimer the class made it natural to stop for discussions appointed scientific director of the at any time. The audience was only ourselves. Manhattan project at Los Alamos Discussions of the responsibilities of scientists 1942 2 December, The first controlled become more interesting and thought-provoking , , against a backdrop of historical events and the reactor reflections from those involved. The roleplay 1945 3 July, opened up ethical discussions through the voice 1945 16 July, test—world’s first of another person, which is often easier. Many of atomic blast the students also remarked on the deep impression 1945 6 and 9 August, and made by the discovery of how much the physicists 1949 Start of ‘Oppenheimer affair’ had already achieved at a young age. 1952 First hydrogen bomb explosion Socio-scientific issues, such as this one, are 1953 Oppenheimer faces a security hearing multidisciplinary in their character. In a school that ultimately recommended that situation, a possibility would thus be to do his security clearance be ended such a project together with, for example, the history and/or English teacher. A more ambitious More detailed timelines can be found, e.g. at approach could involve a drama teacher and aim NuclearFiles.org (www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/ for a performance for another class or at a school timeline/html index.htm) and at the WWW open-house day. In this issue Kofoed describes pages from the National Atomic Museum in how the decision to drop the bomb has been New Mexico (www.atomicmuseum.com/tour/ used in a roleplay in secondary-school classroom atomicage.cfm). situations [5]. One might argue that the Manhattan project described the period in their autobiographies, it is not really part of physics, but could and should gives us an opportunity to meet the physicists as be left for the history teacher, if included at persons, dealing with difficult ethical problems. In all. However, this approach could easily add to addition, many original documents, for example the image of scientists as lacking conscience and from various hearings, have been released and concern for society and maintain or widen the gap are often easily accessible on the WWW. We between ‘the two cultures’. From a physicist’s have the possibility to read their words, and point of view, the roles, thoughts and actions of sometimes even to listen to their voices from the our older colleagues are of particular interest. past. I have used these sources to help physics I present below a brief summary of what teacher students develop a richer understanding may be included and references to useful sources. of the context of atomic and and Wherever possible, I have provided WWW links, physicists and their relation to society. I have also because I have found that this considerably used a similar approach within interdisciplinary facilitates the administration of the task. I have courses for future teachers. To initiate the project, made a personal choice of quotes from much I provided a list of names of physicists with longer texts. I have tried to find examples of significant roles in the development, together with physicists struggling with the questions of the web addresses, and some journal articles and role of physics and physicists. Are the quotes books. representative? Find out! An important aspect The students (in a of 15–20) were asked of this project is to develop an awareness that to sign up for one of the physicists, and read up one need not depend only on textbook or other on their involvement before, during and sometimes presentations, but that it is possible to go back

494 P HYSICS E DUCATION November 2006 The Manhattan project—a part of physics history to original sources and form more independent theory and design and acted as a scientific father opinions. I strongly encourage you to make confessor to the younger men.... His real function use of the richness in internet access and read there was that he made the enterprise which looked the original documents for yourself and let your so macabre seem hopeful’ [11]. students have a chance to read the previously top Many physicists’ flights include adventures. secret documents and hear some of the voices from When Bohr flew from Stockholm to London in the history of physics. the bomb bay of the plane, he fainted from lack of oxygen. Enrico Fermi, whose wife was Jewish, Ideas, politics and adventures never returned to Italy after the Nobel prize award ceremony, but continued directly on to New York. The photographs [6] from the early Solvay conferences show the key physicists of the 1920s getting together for discussions about the Los Alamos fundamentals of quantum physics, laying the Because of the danger that Hitler might ground for our understanding of atoms and nuclei. be the first to have the bomb, I signed This period is delightfully described in Gamow’s a letter to the President which had ‘Thirty Years That Shook Physics’[7], which gives been drafted by Szilard. Had I known a human side to the results presented in textbooks. that the fear was not justified, I would The Nobel museum (www.nobelprize.org)also not have participated in opening this has extensive information on the life and work of Pandora’s box, nor would Szilard. For many of the physicists involved. my distrust of governments was not The developments in Europe during the 1930s limited to Germany. Einstein [12]. changed the lives of many people, including scientists. Both before and during the war, The Manhattan project brought together a many physicists were forced to move abroad. remarkable collection of the leading physicists When fission of uranium was discovered in 1938, of the time. Many of the names we recognize in experiments prepared by Hahn, Meitner and from groundbreaking works presented in physics Strassmann, was already exiled in textbooks. It marks the first large-scale physics Sweden. The explanation for fission was found collaboration. The appointment in 1942 of Robert while her nephew Otto Robert Frisch visited her Oppenheimer as the scientific leader in December 1938. This story is told in many was a marvellous choice. Los Alamos sources [8] and has even reached some textbooks. might have succeeded without him, but Weisskopf describes how “Bohr traveled certainly only with much greater strain, every year to the ‘to sell his Jews less enthusiasm, and less speed. As it to American universities’, as we called it” [9]. was, it was an unforgettable experience Weisskopf came to the US in 1937, and was for all the members of the laboratory. impressed with how the new country welcomed Bethe [13]. it refugees. In 1941, Heisenberg visited Bohr in Copenhagen, when Denmark was occupied. This The Los Alamos site was an exciting visit was in focus in Frayn’s play ‘Copenhagen’ brewing pot of creative brains focusing on very from 1998 [10] and is also discussed in many difficult problems, involving both theoretical other sources. We may know the ‘initial and final challenges, technological development, logistics states’, but a detailed knowledge of the interaction and numerics. is inaccessible. Their accounts of the discussion For today’s generation, brought up with easily differ, but it is clear that it related to the possibility accessible computing power, it is hard to under- of using fission to create a powerful bomb—and stand how advanced numerical computing could that a deep friendship and creative relation was be possible with mechanical calculators, slow shattered. CPUs and small memory capacities accessed with In 1943, Bohr himself fled from Denmark. punch cards. Nevertheless the Los Alamos pe- Although he did not take up residence at Los riod marks an intensive development of numeri- Alamos, he ‘made several extended visits [during cal computing. For example, Feynman worked out which] he showed a vigorous interest in both a technique to run several calculations in parallel

November 2006 P HYSICS E DUCATION 495 A-M Martensson-Pendrill˚ witnessed it. [18], who remained at Los Alamos, observed: ‘You could tell at once they had had a strange experience. You could see it on their faces. I saw that something very grave and strong had happened to their whole outlook on the future.’ The physicists’ experiences in connection with this explosion have been described in various essays and other contexts. Gleick, in his Feynman biography ‘Genius’[15] writes: ‘Feynman tinkered with radios again at the century’s big event. Someone passed around dark welding glass for the eyes. put Figure 1. The author together with Norman Ramsey on sun lotion and gloves. The bomb makers discussing thallium shifts during a conference were ordered to lie face down, their feet toward in Stockholm in 1987. (Photo: Ingvar Lindgren). ground zero, twenty miles away, where their gadget sat atop a hundred-foot steel tower.... Then, suddenly, music, the eerie, sweet sound on the punched-card machines and von Neumann of a Tchaikovsky waltz floating irrelevantly from formulated ways to translate mathematical proce- the ether. It was a shortwave transmission on a dures into a language of instructions for the early nearby frequency, all the way from San Francisco. electronic computers [14]. The signal gave Feynman a bench mark for his The historical accounts of the work at Los calibrations.’ Alamos rarely mention any women involved in the project, except possibly as wives and In an unclassified eyewitness account from 8 participants in the array of people forming an days after the explosion, Weisskopf recalls [19]: assembly line for numerical calculations, set up After about three seconds its intensity by Feynman and Metropolis [15]. In fact, at least was so low I could remove the dark glass 85 female scientists and engineers helped design and look at it directly. Then I saw a and construct the atomic bomb [16], including reddish glowing smoke ball rising with a Chien-Shiung Wu and future Nobel laureate Maria thick stem of dark brown colour. This Goeppert-Mayer, who was invited to Los Alamos smoke ball was surrounded by a blue by Edward Teller. glow which clearly indicated a strong As the scientists gathered for the Trinity radioactivity and was certainly due to the test, they placed bets on the explosive power of gamma rays emitted by the cloud into the the ‘gadget’. Edward Teller picked the highest surrounding air. with 45 ktons of TNT; Bethe placed his bet at 8 ktons; Robert Oppenheimer went lower, For many of the physicists, the initial reaction 800 tons; Norman Ramsey went lowest: zero. was excitement over a spectacular demonstration Isidor Rabi came late and made the last bet: of the successful ‘technologically sweet’ joint 18 ktons [17]. effort leading up to ‘the gadget’, as it was known: ‘[W]e started for a good reason, then you’re The events at the Trinity test site working very hard to accomplish something and it is a pleasure, it is excitement. And you stop Suddenly, there was an enormous flash of thinking, you know; you just stop.’ [4, p 136]. light, the brightest light I have ever seen However, many of the descriptions also reflect or that I think anyone has ever seen. It the tension between the physical and emotional blasted; it pounced; it bored its way right experience. Gleick [15] tells us: ‘The yellow– through you. It was a vision which was orange sphere surrounded by a blue halo—a colour seen with more than the eye. Rabi [15]. that Weisskopf thought he had seen before, on The test at Jornada del Muerto created an altarpiece at Colmar painted by the medieval unforgettable memories and thoughts in all who master Mattias Gr¨unewald to depict (the irony was

496 P HYSICS E DUCATION November 2006 The Manhattan project—a part of physics history disturbing) the ascension of Christ.’ Gleick also In Chicago a committee, chaired by Franck, tells how “when the hot clouds dissipated, Rabi felt discussed in considerable detail the consequences a ‘chill which was not the morning cold’ ”. of an armament race and possibilities for Fermi’s wife Laura found that when he came international control and agreements. They back later that day, he seemed ‘shrunken and aged, recommended that ‘a demonstration of the new made of old parchment, so entirely dried out and weapon may best be made before the eyes of browned was he by the desert sun and exhausted representatives of all United Nations, on the desert by the ordeal’ [18]. or a barren island’ [22]. Fermi’s eye-witness account shows him In early July, Szilard, who was part of the always ready to perform estimations: Franck committee, circulated a petition which was signed by physicists at Chicago and, some days About 40 s after the explosion the air later, by physicists at Oak Ridge [23], totalling 137 blast reached me. I tried to estimate signatures. (At Los Alamos Edward Teller chose its strength by dropping from about six not to circulate Szilard’s petition.) feet small pieces of paper before, during, and after the passage of the blast wave. Discoveries of which the people of the Since, at the time, there was no wind I United States are not aware may affect could observe very distinctly and actually the welfare of this nation in the near measure the displacement of the pieces of future. The liberation of atomic power paper that were in the process of falling which has been achieved places atomic while the blast was passing. The shift bombs in the hands of the Army.... was about 2 1 metres, which, at the time, 2 In the cover letter to the colleagues at Oak Ridge, I estimated to correspond to the blast that Szilard wrote would be produced by ten thousand tons of TNT [19]. However small the chance might be that our petition may influence the course of Peierls comments: ‘I am not sure for what events, I personally feel that it would be I admire him most—his ingenuity in thinking of a matter of importance if a large number the method, or his control in letting the scraps of of scientists who have worked in this field paper go at the right time’ [20]. Later, data from went clearly and unmistakably on record various instruments gave a more accurate result, as to their opposition on moral grounds about 19 ktons. Rabi won the bet! to the use of these bombs in the present phase of the war. The decision They were soon to know that the petition was One month before the Trinity test, a scientific unsuccessful. panel, consisting of Compton, Lawrence, Oppen- heimer and Fermi presented Recommendations on The responsibility of a scientist the Immediate Use of Nuclear Weapons [21], not- ing that the scientists are not unanimous and that With the background above, we can understand Oppenheimer’s comments: With regard to these general aspects of the use of atomic energy, it is clear A scientist should assume responsibility that we, as scientific men, have no for the fruits of his work. I would proprietary rights. It is true that we are not argue against this, but it must be among the few citizens who have had clear to all of us how very modest such occasion to give thoughtful consideration assumption of responsibility can be, how to these problems during the past few very ineffective it has been in the past, years. We have, however, no claim how necessarily ineffective it will surely to special competence in solving the be in the future [24]. political, social, and military problems Could scientists be held responsible for the which are presented by the advent of way results are used? Should certain areas of atomic power. science be avoided because of possible destructive

November 2006 P HYSICS E DUCATION 497 A-M Martensson-Pendrill˚ use? After all, what has been discovered cannot with a maintained creativity and interest in physics be undiscovered. Should allowable fields be and life. regulated—and if so, who should decide? Who The names of the Los Alamos physicists can predict the possible outcome of different occur again and again in textbooks and in investigations? At what stage should work be groundbreaking papers. Their names have become stopped? There are many difficult questions, names of effects, approximations and equations: which are not, in themselves, of physical character. for example, Feynman diagrams, the Bethe How could Einstein have known that his famous logarithm and the Bethe–Salpeter equation in equation, E = mc2, would come to be associated quantum electrodynamics mechanics, the Born– with mass destruction? In the view of a historical Oppenheimer approximation in molecular physics, situation, with strong emotional load, opinions the Rabi frequency, the Franck–Hertz experiment, may be easier to form before considering the the Jahn–Teller effect, the Fermi distribution, details. However, looking into a chain of events fermions, .... Often the name becomes so closely should help students develop more balanced views. related to the effect that we tend to forget that it Expressing views through the voices of others can refers to a person. In my own research, I have also help to widen the range of discussable views worked with the Bohr–Weisskopf effect, due to the in a classroom situation. distribution of magnetization in the nucleus. I have heard Weisskopf talk about nuclear disarmament The true responsibility of a scientist, as but also, for example, tell the story of a visit to we all know, is to the integrity and vigor Israel where he learned from a Kabbalist that the of his science [24]. integer 137 (which is very close to the reciprocal Is this sufficient? Oppenheimer’s assertion is of the dimensionless fine structure constant) means likely to provoke discussions. The American Kabbalah. I have read many of Weisskopf’s texts, Physical Society and Institute of Physics codes but only with conscious effort do I make the of ethics [25] focus mainly on aspects related to connection between the person and the different ‘misconduct’. Many engineering societies include aspects of his work. a concern for other aspects: engineers use ‘their Let us not forget to show our students that knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human physics and physics research is a creative and welfare’ [26] and include also a consideration of challenging human activity, where people interact the consequences in their codes. A stronger Code not only through equations and fields but also of Ethics for Scientists was formulated in 1984 by through their personalities. a group of scientists at Uppsala [27]. It troubles me that the public sees physics Still, the consequences of fundamental physics only as the mother of technology....No research are often hard to predict. Although, one any longer pays attention to—if I as a post-doc at the University of Washington may call it—the spirit of physics, the idea in 1978–80, I was financed by the Department of discovery, the idea of understanding. I of Energy, the work on methods for relativistic think it is difficult to make clear to the many-body calculation in connection with parity non-physicist the beauty of how it fits non-conservation seemed far removed from appli- together, of how you can build a world cation. However, some years later, when we were picture, and the beauty that the laws of developing methods to treat correlation effects, physics are immutable [28]. dealing with heavy two-electron ions as test cases, we found that numerical results coming out were In 1988, I spent three months at a workshop sought after by the SDI—the ‘Star Wars’ initiative. at the Institute for in Santa Barbara. One of the participants in residence was Bethe. As I read the description [15]ofBetheas Is physics human? the Battleship and Feynman as the Mosquito Boat, Being a physicist is a wonderful privilege, giving I recall how Bethe’s former student, Gerry Brown, you the opportunity to meet and interact with many always left the coffee room, following closely in dedicated people with strong personalities, and the wake as soon as Bethe left. you can also see how many of them grow old might have appeared old and fragile but he was

498 P HYSICS E DUCATION November 2006 The Manhattan project—a part of physics history telling us about physics and of Los Alamos— different physicists gave a good mixture of repeti- without manuscript or other aids. During a whale- tion and variation. By following the same physicist watching trip he was standing with his binoculars, through different periods the connections between always at the best viewing spot, his curiosity as physics, life and society were more accessible. strong as ever. Feynman was on the list of participants, but Science and society disease and death prevented his participation. Also New frontiers of the mind are before us, Rabi, whom I have met at several conferences, and if they are pioneered with the same died that spring. vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this war we can create a Scientists in school? fuller and more fruitful employment and Direct contact with the Los Alamos physicists a fuller and more fruitful life [29]. is, of course, not an option for our students. But in reading the documents related to the These optimistic words written in November 1944 Manhattan project, and sometimes listening to are part of the letter from president Roosevelt to recordings, they can get closer to the persons , which led to the July 1945 report behind textbook names and learn how great men Science—the Endless Frontier laying the ground have dealt with difficult questions. The Manhattan for many years of research policy and to the project abounds with interesting aspects and can establishment of the National Science Foundation be used as examples for students in many different (NSF). After the war, many physicists also played ways. In my first contacts with general courses important roles as science advisors. in teacher education in our university, I was a The period after the war showed some bit taken aback by a common attitude to science dark sides of the relation between physics and and technology as a ‘root of all evil’, with the society. After the Second World War Edward bomb as a prime example. I decided to have the Teller concentrated on developing the hydrogen students learn more about the development. A few bomb, leading to a first explosion in 1952. times I had the students prepare different mini- The documents from the McCarthy era and the lessons about different aspects: history, politics, Oppenheimer affair show us the action of the physics, biology, ethics, where each group of Los Alamos physicists, with pride, integrity and students could make use of their speciality. The conflicting loyalties, in a slightly different context first time I used it in physics courses in the where scientific openness and judgement clash teacher programme, I had the students choose with national security issues [30]. Although different aspects and tell the rest of the class. I sufficiently long ago to be unclassified, this type have also asked one group of students to do a of problem is not outdated. However, the post-war short dramatization, staging an imagined dinner period also offers many examples of concerned conversation taking place an evening before a physicists getting involved with society-related conference, when some of the physicists got questions in a much more active way than before. together again, sharing reminiscences from Los Many physicists worked in different ways to Alamos. All these approaches have worked reduce the nuclear threat. reasonably well, although, on occasion, one or two The Federation of Atomic Scientists (later, students might drift deep into weapons technology Federation of American Scientists, FAS) was or military strategies. With open-ended tasks, it formed in 1945 by atomic scientists from the is always a question of subtle balance to give the Manhattan project ‘who felt that scientists, students freedom to feel ownership of their work, engineers and other innovators had an ethical and still provide sufficient instruction to help them obligation to bring their knowledge and experience maintain the intended focus. to bear on critical national decisions, especially I found that asking the students to choose one pertaining to the technology they unleashed— physicist and study his/her work, actions and re- the Atomic Bomb’ [31]. The Bulletin of the actions brought a good focus to their preparations. Atomic Scientists, also founded in 1945, continues The human aspects were inevitable—but so was to ‘educate citizens about global security issues, physics. Seeing the same event through the eyes of especially the continuing dangers posed by nuclear

November 2006 P HYSICS E DUCATION 499 A-M Martensson-Pendrill˚ and other weapons of mass destruction, and the Sjøberg S 2002 Science for the Children? Report appropriate roles of ’ [32]. from the SAS-project, a cross-cultural study of factors of relevance for the teaching and In 1955, Russell and Einstein launched a learning of science and technology manifesto [33] asking scientists of every country folk.uio.no/sveinsj/sas report new%20.pdf to meet to devise ways of avoiding nuclear war. [3] Horowitz J 1998 Building bombs, talking peace: One of the 11 signatories was Joseph Rotblat, who the political activity of Manhattan Project physicists BA Thesis History and Social founded the Pugwash Conference in 1957. Rotblat Sciences, Harvard seti.harvard.edu/grad/jhpdf/ and the Pugwash Conferences were awarded the thesis.pdf 1995 Nobel peace prize. [4] Feynman R P (as told to R Leighton) 1985 Surely, What is the role of physics in society? Physics You are Joking, Mr Feynman—Adventures of a Curious Character (New York: Norton) has unleashed nuclear energy and there is no going [5] Kofoed M 2006 Phys. Educ. 41 502–7 back. Weisskopf, in the preface to his book The [6] Photos from the Solvay conferences can be found Privilege of Being a Physicist still maintained an e.g. at the Emilio Segr`e visual archives at the optimism concerning the role of scientists: American Institute of Physics photos.aip.org/ A short movie from the 1927 conference is Science is a truly human concern; its con- available at www.maxborn.net/ cepts and language are the same for all [7] Gamow G 1966 Thirty Years That Shook Physics: The Story of Quantum Theory (Garden City, human beings. It transcends any cul- NY: Anchor Books) tural and political boundaries. Scien- [8] Sime R L 1996 Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics tists understand each other immediately (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press) when they talk about their scientific prob- Rife P 1999 Lise Meitner and the Dawn of the Nuclear Age (Basle: Birkh¨auser) lems; it is therefore easier for them to [9] Weisskopf V F 1989 Thoughts of a Hitler refugee speak to each other on political or cul- The Privilege of Being a Physicist (New York: tural questions and problems about which Freeman) p 203 they may have divergent opinions. The [10] Frayn M 1998 Copenhagen (London: Methuen Drama) scientific community serves as a bridge See also e.g. Ziman J 1998 An evening with the across boundaries, as a spearhead of in- Bohrs Phys. World (June) physicsweb.org/ ternational understanding [34]. articles/review/11/6/5 Durani M 2001 Secret letters cast light on Copenhagen Phys. World (November) Acknowledgments physicsweb.org/articles/world/14/11/2 [11] Pais A 1994 ’s Times—in Physics, I would like to thank many colleagues, both at Philosophy, and Polity (Oxford: Clarendon) the physics department and at the department of p 497 education, in particular Aadu Ott, for inspiration to [12] American Institute of Physics Einstein try alternative forms of teaching and assessment. Exhibit www.aip.org/history/einstein/ae44.htm [13] Bethe H A J. Robert Oppenheimer Obituary Helpful comments from physics teacher Conny published at www.nap.edu/readingroom/ Modig, professors Aant Elzinga and Gunnar books/biomems/joppenheimer.pdf Tibell, as well as from the editors, were very much [14] Los Alamos National Laboratory 1995 Evolving appreciated. from Calculators to Computers, 50th Anniversary Article www.lanl.gov/history/ atomicbomb/computers.shtml Received 15 August 2006, in final form 29 August 2006 [15] Gleick J 1992 Genius: The Life and Science of doi:10.1088/0031-9120/41/6/001 (London: Pantheon) excerpts available on-line from Gleick’s site www. around.com/genius.html References [16] Howes R H and Herzenberg C L 2000 Their Day [1] Weisskopf V F 1985 Forty Years After: Thoughts in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project of a Nuclear Witness (New York: Freeman) (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press) (reprinted in 1989 The Privilege of Being a www.temple.edu/tempress/titles/1222 reg.html Physicist) Contributions of Twentieth-Century Women to [2] Sjøberg S 2003 Science and technology Physics cwp.library.ucla.edu education: current challenges and possible [17] Moody S 1995 Proving ground An Albuquerque solutions Innovations in Science and Journal Special Reprint (July) www. Technology Education vol VIII, ed abqjournal.com/trinity/trinity3.pdf E Jenkins (Paris: UNESCO) folk.uio.no/ [18] Fermi L 1995 Atoms in the Family: My Life with sveinsj/STE paper Sjoberg UNESCO2.htm Enrico Fermi (cited in Kitchens S A 2005

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1945; Dead Old Parchment) see also Gustafsson B, Ryden L, Tibell G and www.2020hindsight.org/2005/07/16/ Wallensten P 1984 Focus on: the Uppsala code [19] Dannen G (transcriber) 1945 Trinity Test, July 16, of ethics for scientists J. Peace Res. 21 (4) 1945—Eyewitness Accounts www.dannen. [28] Bethe H A 1991 The Road from Los Alamos see com/decision/trin-eye.html also www.aip.org/history/newsletter/fall2005/ [20] Peierls R 1985 Bird of Passage (Princeton, NJ: bethe.htm Press) p 202 [29] Bush V 1945 Science—The Endless Frontier [21] Compton A H, Lawrence E O, www.nsf.gov/about/history/vbush1945.htm Oppenheimer J R and Fermi E 1945 [30] The Atomic Archive www.atomicarchive.com/ Recommendation on the Immediate Use of Docs/Oppenheimer/ includes transcripts of Nuclear Weapons, June 16, 1945 transcribed testimonies in the Oppenheimer affair by G Dannen (June) www.dannen.com/ See also www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/ decision/scipanel.html [22] Franck J et al 1945 Report of the Committee on nuclear-weapons/history/cold-war/ Political and Social Problems, Manhattan oppenheimer-affair/index.htm and www.yale. Project ‘’, University edu/lawweb/avalon/abomb/oppmenu.htm of Chicago, June 11, 1945 (The ) [31] Federation of Atomic Scientists www.fas.org/ transcribed by G Dannen at www.dannen.com/ static/about.jsp decision/franck.html [32] Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists www.thebulletin. [23] Szilard L 1945 Petition transcribed by G Dannen org/ at www.dannen.com/decision/45-07-03.html [33] Russell B and Einstein A 1955 The Russell and www.dannen.com/decision/45-07-04.html Einstein Manifesto www.nuclearfiles.org/ and www.dannen.com/decision/ menu/key-issues/ethics/issues/scientific/ [24] Oppenheimer J R 1947 Physics in the russell-einstein-manifesto.htm contemporary world MIT Lecture, published in [34] Weisskopf V F 1989 The Privilege of Being a Great Essays in Science 1994 ed M Gardner Physicist (New York: Freeman) pp 7–8 (New York: Meridian) p 205 [25] Statements of Ethics by the APS www.aps.org/ Ann-Marie Martensson-Pendrill˚ is statements/index.cfm and by the IoP, www.iop. professor in physics at G¨oteborg org/aboutus/The Institute of Physics/ University, with a background in Governance/Ethics/page 1863.html computational atomic physics. She is a fellow of the American Physical Society [26] Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions and of the Institute of Physics. Her at IIT, Codes of Ethics Online— teaching involves engineering, physics Engineering ethics.iit.edu/codes/engineer.html and teacher programmes and she is [27] The Uppsala Code of Ethics for Scientists involved with different forms of informal available on-line at user.it.uu.se/∼pugwash/ learning, including amusement park Etik/uppsalakodex.html physics.

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