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The Second Generation and the Labour Market THE SECOND GENERATION AND THE LABOUR MARKET: THE CASE OF GHANAIAN-CANADIANS IN TORONTO BOADIAGYEKUM A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS GRADUATE PROGRAM IN GEOGRAPHY YORK UNIVERSITY, TORONTO, ONTARIO JUNE 2012 © Boadi Agyekum, 2012 Library and Archives Bibliotheque et Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-90089-5 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-90089-5 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distrbute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. Canada ABSTRACT This exploratory study is one of the first to examine the perceptions and experiences of second generation Ghanaian-Canadians in the Toronto labour market. It highlights the complex intersections among socioeconomic status, race, gender and space/place that the second generation confronts in the labour market. The study uses in-depth interviews and focus group discussions to procure empirical data from Ghanaian-Canadians residing in the Jane-Finch neighbourhood and Brampton. The findings indicate that the second generation's performance in the labour market was identified as being influenced by their multiple identities (i.e. race, gender, socioeconomic status and place of residence), which form a complex interrelationship to influence their performance. Again, their perceptions about the labour market are highly driven by their lived experiences. ii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Mr. & Mrs. Agyekum, to my wife, Mrs. Rebecca Agyekum, and to my dear daughter, Konadu Akosua Agyekum. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are many people who assisted me throughout this challenging and rewarding process. First and foremost, 1 would like to thank my supervisor. Professor Joseph Mensah whose comments, critiques and suggestions have made this a reality. Your encouragement and support throughout my master's thesis are greatly appreciated. 1 would also like to thank Professor Philip Kelly for meeting with me on numerous occasions to discuss my thesis. Your valuable recommendations have contributed in significant ways to this thesis. I would like to thank Professor Valerie Preston for her initial recommendations to this thesis. Next, I am grateful to these people: Professor Peter Long, Dr. David Firang, Yvonne Yim, Robert Bridi and Asutosha Acharya. Each one contributed in significant ways to this thesis. I am thankful to the entire Ghanaian community in Toronto, especially the respondents who agree to participate in this study. Finally, I would like to thank the entire Graduate Program in Geography for your support throughout my studies. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Dedication iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v List of Tables viii List of Figures ix Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.1 Problem Statement 2 1.2 Research Objectives and Questions 3 1.3 Study Settings 5 1.4 Why Studying The Second Generation Ghanaian-Canadians in Toronto 8 Chapter Two: Review of Literature 10 2.1. The Second Generation and the Socioeconomic Status of Parents 10 2.2. Summary 15 2.3. Race and Ethnicity 16 2.4. Gender 25 2.5. Spatial Constraints and Neighbourhood Effect 28 2.6. Background, History and Context of Ghanaian Immigrant 36 2.7. The Decline of Ghanaian Immigrants to Canada 36 2.8. Spatial Distribution of Ghanaians in Canada 40 vi 2.9. Spatial Distribution of Ghanaians in Toronto 43 2.10. Summary 44 Chapter Three: Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 46 3.1. Theories in Labour Market Analysis 46 3.1.1. Labour Market Segmentation Theory 47 3.1.2. The Vertical Mosaic Thesis 47 3.1.3. Human Capital Theory 49 3.1.4. Social Capital Theory 51 3.2. Intersectionality and the Labour Market 52 3.3. Summary 57 Chapter Four: Methodology 58 4.1. Qualitative Method 58 4.2. Qualitative Research Design 61 4.3. In-depth Interviews 61 4.3.1. Participant Recruitment 62 4.3.2. In-depth Interview Participants 63 4.3.3. Participants' Profile (Jane and Finch) 65 4.3.4. Participants' Profile (Brampton) 66 4.4. Focus Group 67 4.3.2. Focus Group Design and Recruitment 69 4.3.3. Participants' Profile (jane and Finch) 70 4.3.4. Participants'Profile (Brampton) 71 4.5. Positionality 71 4.6. Data Validation Procedure 73 Chapter Five: Data Analysis 75 vii 5.1. Experiences and Perceptions of Labour Market Barriers in Toronto 75 5.2. Gender and the Labour Market 82 5.3. Social Ties and Family's Socioeconomic Status 86 5.4. Spatial and Neighbourhood Effects 86 5.5. Differences and Similarities in Participants' Experiences and Perceptions 98 5.6. Intersectionality 102 5.7. Summary 103 Chapter Six: Conclusion 105 6.1. Summary of the Key Findings 105 6.2. Limitations of the Study 108 6.3. Policy Implications and Suggestions for Future Research 110 6.4. Conclusion Ill Appendices 113 Appendix A: Solicitation Flyer 113 Appendix B: Informed Consent Form 115 Appendix C: In-depth Interviews Questionnaires 117 Appendix D: Focus Group Discussions Questionnaires 121 References 123 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Arrival of Ghanaian Immigrants in Canada 38 Table 2.2: Spatial Distribution of Ghanaians in Canada 41 Table 2.3: Spatial Distribution of Ghanaians in CMA's in Canada 42 Table 4.1: Jane and Finch Participants for in-depth interview 63 Table 4.2: Brampton Participants for in-depth interview 66 Table 4.3: Focus Group One Participants 70 Table 4.4: Focus Group Two Participants 71 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Study Setting 7 Figure 2.1: Arrival of Ghanaian Immigrants in Canada 39 Figure 2.2: Spatial Distribution of Ghanaians in Toronto 43 Figure 3.2: The Intersectional Approach 56 x CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION This thesis explores the labour market experiences of second generation Ghanaian-Canadians in two localities within the Toronto Census Metropolitan Area (CMA), specifically, the Jane-Finch neighbourhood and Brampton. The study examines how their perceptions of discrimination in the labour market vary by gender, space/place and family socio-economic status. In addition, the study examines the challenges faced by second generation youth in the labour market and analyses the strategies they use to mitigate these challenges. Even though second generation visible minorities in Toronto have significantly higher levels of educational attainment than those of the non-visible minorities (Reitz 2010), and third-and-higher generation counterparts (Picot and Hou, 2012), they are underemployed (there might be exceptions in specific communities). Since labour market outcomes and educational attainment are interdependent, the study looks at perceptions and experiences of second generation Ghanaian-Canadians, on educational attainment and labour market access in Toronto. Ornstein (2000, 2006) found the Ghanaian community to be at the margins of the socio-economic life of the Toronto CMA. His studies are consistent with a study by Galabuzi (2012) that finds a considerable percent of the racialized population in Canada experiences unequal outcomes to the labour market. This difference in labour market access according to the study, leads to disparities in incomes, because the labour market determines the level and distribution of income through wages and salaries (Galabuzi, 2012). 1 This thesis relies on data from focus groups and in-depth interviews to tease out perceptions of challenges facing the second generation Ghanaian youth in the labour market. The thesis contributes to the existing knowledge on labour market discrimination based on race, gender, place and socio-economic status in Toronto, in particular, and Canada at large. Available data indicate 23,230 Ghanaians in Canada by 2006, the bulk of them calling Toronto home (Statistics Canada, 2006). There are now over 1,600 second generation Ghanaian-Canadians in Toronto (Statistics Canada, 2006), most of whom are either in school or have recently entered the job market. The evidence of the low socio-economic status of Blacks (Mensah, 2010), in general, and the lack of research on second generation Ghanaian-Canadians in Toronto, in particular, underscore the need for this research. 1.2. Problem Statement Issues concerning race, immigration, and integration in multicultural countries have influenced my interest in exploring how visible minority youth in Canada access the labour market. Some experts (Reitz 2010; Block and Galabuzi 2011; Galabuzi 2012) claim that these young adults will not do as well as previous waves of immigrants, due to the lack of high-paying manufacturing jobs, poor public schools, and an entrenched racial divide.
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