DOCSLIB.ORG

Teaching Genocide in Cambodia: Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Teaching Genocide in Cambodia: Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations 129 Teaching Genocide in Cambodia: Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations KHAMBOLY DY I asked myself whether or not the young generation of Cambodians believe that the Khmer Rouge crimes did exist in Cambodia. Do they believe what their parents and grandparents have told them about their suffering at that time? Has any author or historian written about this history for of- ficial school curriculum yet? his is the sorrowful impression of Soh Seiha, a female Cham Muslim com- munity leader from Kratie province of Cambodia after visiting the former Khmer Rouge (KR) central security center called Tuol Sleng and the killing fieldsT at Choeung Ek . Some members of her family were killed or had disappeared during the 1975-1979 reign of the Kr . Her concern about the young generation of Cambodians raises a question: Should young people in Cambodia study the history of genocide, crimes and grave human rights abuses in formal classroom settings? Genocide education is the only effective standing the important historical events enables way to prevent future genocide and other grave people, especially the young generations, to human rights violations, foster reconciliation participate in the process of the Khmer Rouge among victims and perpetrators, and continue Tribunal1 that helps to promote accountability to address the question of justice in countries for the abuses of that period . that have experienced genocide . Cambodians However, this vitally and emotionally sensi- cannot talk about justice and reconciliation tive issue remains largely absent from school when the suffering of the victims has not curriculums in Cambodia . The obstacles to been acknowledged . In order to fight against introducing genocide education into class- the possibility of future genocide and other rooms appear in several critical aspects: social, crimes against humanity, young generations economic, political, and pedagogical . of Cambodians have to understand how and During the 1980s, Cambodian school chil- why the genocide happened, to learn about its dren were taught about the KR genocide in effects and consequences . Genocide education politically charged, propagandistic ways, which also helps to preserve the memory of the KR sought to instill in them a desire for violence, atrocities, promote moral and civic values, and hatred and revenge . Because the Cambodian advance democracy and rule of law in a culture society at that time prioritized basic economic long accustomed to impunity . Moreover, under- recovery, the suffering of the Cambodian 129 130 HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS people under the KR became a folktale for Social and Economic Challenges young Cambodians who were born after the regime collapsed . After peace was restored in The KR regime that controlled Cambodia 1993, the volatile issue of KR genocide was from April 1975 to January 1979, destroyed removed from the school curriculum for the almost all of the country’s infrastructures, sake of reconciliation and political stability . In economic system, public and private properties, 2002, the Cambodian government ordered the and the education system . The regime viewed withdrawal of a section of Cambodian modern education through schools and universities as a history (Cambodia from 1953 to the 1998 waste of time and useless for the revolution and national elections), which included the KR his- the development of the country . As a result, the tory, as a result of the conflict between the two KR regime closed all educational institutions main political parties over the issue of the 1993 from primary to higher education . Teachers, national elections . Research shows that young doctors and other intellectuals (including those generations know very little about the history who wore glasses and spoke foreign languages) of the KR, and many young Cambodians do not were systematically killed since they were re- believe that their parents and relatives experi- garded as bad elements that brought injustice, enced such hardship and unspeakable suffering corruption and exploitation into society and during that period . In addition to this political made the country fall into foreign colonization dispute, the Cambodian Ministry of Education, and imperialism . Youth and Sports (MoEYS) claims that it lacks All children, instead of being sent to schools, resources to teach the history of the Cambodian were forced to labor and attend indoctrination genocide . Moreover, teachers who are capable sessions . The KR claimed that the “hoe is your of conveying the history are few in number, pen; the rice field is your paper . If you wish to and they lack the training to teach effectively get a baccalaureate, you have to get it at dams about genocide . and canals .” The absence of genocide education is a The results were devastating . As many as two sign that the specter of genocide continues to million people were put to death by execution, haunt Cambodia . Giving a full picture of what starvation, forced labor, torture, and sickness happened, why it happened, how it happened without proper medical treatment . The regime and what the consequences were will provide a left tens of thousands of widows and orphans foundation for students to share what they have in complete poverty and illiteracy . Several other learned at school with their parents, relatives hundreds of thousands of Cambodians fled and friends . Genocide education will also help the county and became refugees . The country to alleviate the suffering of survivors by enabling after 1979 was in complete unrest since people them to share their experiences with their chil- were moving around in search of their lost dren and thereby ensure that their suffering will relatives . Civil war among Cambodian factions be remembered and acknowledged . Since the intensified . The KR left almost no foundation absence of genocide education makes it more upon which succeeding regimes might begin likely that future generations will suffer similar to rebuild education in the country . circumstances, this paper examines the social, The presence of the Vietnamese forces in economic, political, and pedagogical obstacles 1979 ended the KR terror and restored a new to teaching about genocide in a country that regime: the People’s Republic of Kampuchea has recently emerged from tragedy . (PRK) . People received certain basic rights and they were able to own houses, cattle and agricultural tools . Although people still farmed Teaching Genocide in Cambodia:Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations 131 collectively in “mutual aid teams or solidarity during the KR regime severely traumatized all groups,” and had no right to claim ownership Cambodians . Most teachers could not concen- on their land, many farmers viewed the condi- trate on their careers since they worried about tions in the PRK as considerably better than the whereabouts of their family members and those under the KR regime . With assistance their activities for day-to-day living . Having from Vietnam and cooperation from local suffered from KR persecutions and received people, education was restored and primary poor training, teachers mostly conveyed the KR schools were rebuilt throughout the country . history in emotional terms . In addition to the Basic education subjects, including education poor teaching qualifications, the country faced on the KR atrocities, were introduced . Teacher the problem of a lack of teaching materials, training schools were reopened throughout the educational infrastructure, teacher resources country and some educators were sent abroad and textbooks . In higher education, about a to study in socialist countries, especially Viet- hundred students received scholarships to study nam and the former Soviet Union .2 in several socialist countries, such as Vietnam, However, under the PRK Cambodia con- the former Soviet Union, the former East Ger- tinued to face a severe crisis in education . many and Cuba . The recruitment of students Many surviving educators fled the country to was very selective and carefully monitored . the border of neighboring country . The PRK’s Generally, the development of education Ministry of National Education consisted of a during the PRK regime was a slow process . The small number of unqualified officials who had regime not only struggled to put children in little experience in education and few special- schools, but also fought illiteracy among adults ized skills . The regime did not have professional and older people, in addition to many other experts to develop the curriculum . The PRK social problems, including daily incursions from depended heavily on Vietnamese advisors to KR factions as well as international economic train and recruit teachers as well as to develop sanctions . Due to the international political the curriculum at all levels . The structure and tension and the influence of the Cold War, the the management of education were identical to PRK neither got the seat for Cambodia in the those of the Vietnamese . The curriculum intro- United Nations, nor received international aid . duced “political morality” study that aimed at The regime received only limited humanitarian instilling in children the socialist concept in an aid from international organizations, such as effort to turn Cambodia into a socialist state . UNICEF and the International Committee of In the attempt to recruit more teachers, the the Red Cross . However, those agencies could PRK appealed to all educators nationwide to not do much to help the existing mis-oriented
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Recovering Life After Social Death in Post-Genocide Cambodia
    - The UNESCO Slave Route Project: Healing the Wounds of Slavery - Life After/Ward: Recovering Life After Social Death in Post-Genocide Cambodia Khatharya Um That which wounds me has no name- Rithy Panh1 1 Rithy Panh and Christophe Bataille, The Elimination (New York: Other Press, 2013), 4 - Life After/Ward: Recovering Life After Social Death in Post-Genocide Cambodia - Introduction When asked if he ever dreams of his tortured victims, Kaing Guek Eav, better known by his nom de guerre “Duch,” who oversaw the Tuol Sleng S-21 extermination center where at least 12,000 people were tortured and killed, said unequivocally: “No. Never.”2 The survivors of the genocidal regime of which he was a leading figure, however, are not afforded that luxury. Over four decades in the aftermath, in Cambodia and in the diaspora, genocidal haunting continues to torment not only the survivors but also the postgenocide generations. In commemoration of the 45th anniversary of the Khmer Rouge genocide during which almost a quarter of the country’s population perished in less than four years, this paper reflects on the afterlife of genocide. It illuminates the ways in which genocidal haunting continues to unfold in the postgenocide everyday, and the struggles of Cambodians to make meaning of, and work through, this historical trauma. Attentive to the gaps and tensions between state rhetoric and survivors’ agency, it interrogates the possibilities and limits of international tribunals in delivering justice, reconciliation and, above all, healing in the genocide aftermath, and reflects on acts of repair, big and small, public and private, that individuals and communities have undertaken to transcend, if not heal, this collective wounding.
    [Show full text]
  • Entanglements of Modernity, Colonialism and Genocide Burundi and Rwanda in Historical-Sociological Perspective
    UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS Entanglements of Modernity, Colonialism and Genocide Burundi and Rwanda in Historical-Sociological Perspective Jack Dominic Palmer University of Leeds School of Sociology and Social Policy January 2017 Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy ii The candidate confirms that the work submitted is their own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. ©2017 The University of Leeds and Jack Dominic Palmer. The right of Jack Dominic Palmer to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by Jack Dominic Palmer in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would firstly like to thank Dr Mark Davis and Dr Tom Campbell. The quality of their guidance, insight and friendship has been a huge source of support and has helped me through tough periods in which my motivation and enthusiasm for the project were tested to their limits. I drew great inspiration from the insightful and constructive critical comments and recommendations of Dr Shirley Tate and Dr Austin Harrington when the thesis was at the upgrade stage, and I am also grateful for generous follow-up discussions with the latter. I am very appreciative of the staff members in SSP with whom I have worked closely in my teaching capacities, as well as of the staff in the office who do such a great job at holding the department together.
    [Show full text]
  • Cambodia Submission (2018-2021) for the Education Sector Programme Implementation Grant 2018 - 2021 from the Global Partnership for Education
    Cambodia Submission (2018-2021) For the Education Sector Programme Implementation Grant 2018 - 2021 from the Global Partnership for Education Submitted by UNICEF on behalf of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, Cambodia 13 February 2018 Acronyms CBI core breakthrough indicator CDPF Capacity Development Partnership Fund CDMP Capacity Development Master Plan CPD continuous professional development CSES Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey D&D decentralization and de-concentration DGAF Directorate General of Administration and Finance DGE Directorate General of Education DGPP Directorate General of Policy and Planning DTMT district training and monitoring team ECE early childhood education EFA Education For All EGMA Early Grades Mathematics Assessment EGRA Early Grades Reading Assessment EMIS Education Management Information System EQAD Education Quality Assurance Department ESP education strategic plan ESPIG Education Strategic Plan Implementation Grant ESWG Education Sector Working Group EU European Union GA grant agent GDP gross domestic product GPE Global Partnership for Education GSC GPE3 Steering Committee HACT Harmonized Approach to Cash Transfers IIEP International Institute for Educational Planning INSET in-service training JSR joint sector review JTWG – Ed. Joint Technical Working Group-Education LDC Less Developed Country LEG local education group (in Cambodia known as JTWG) M&E monitoring and evaluation MEF Ministry of Economy and Finance MoEYS Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport MTR midterm review NER net enrolment rate
    [Show full text]
  • Cambodia Region: East Asia and the Pacific Income Group: Low Income Source for Region and Income Groupings: World Bank 2018
    Cambodia Region: East Asia and the Pacific Income Group: Low Income Source for region and income groupings: World Bank 2018 National Education Profile 2018 Update OVERVIEW In Cambodia, the academic year begins in October and ends in July, and the official primary school entrance age is 6. The system is structured so that the primary school cycle lasts 6 years, lower secondary lasts 3 years, and upper secondary lasts 3 years. Cambodia has a total of 2,997,000 pupils enrolled in primary and secondary education. Of these pupils, about 2,112,000 (70%) are enrolled in primary education. Figure 3 shows the highest level of education reached by youth ages 15-24 in Cambodia. Although youth in this age group may still be in school and working towards their educational goals, it is notable that approximately 5% of youth have no formal education and 24% of youth have attained at most incomplete primary education, meaning that in total 29% of 15-24 year olds have not completed primary education in Cambodia. FIG 1. EDUCATION SYSTEM FIG 2. NUMBER OF PUPILS BY SCHOOL LEVEL FIG 3. EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT, YOUTH (IN 1000S) AGES 15-24 School Entrance Age: Post- Secondary Primary school - Age 6 Upper Secondary Secondary 8% No Education 276 Complete 5% 5% Duration and Official Ages for School Cycle: Primary Incomplete 24% Primary : 6 years - Ages 6 - 11 Lower Secondary Lower secondary : 3 years - Ages 12 - 14 609 Upper secondary : 3 years - Ages 15 - 17 Academic Calendar: Primary Complete 9% Primary Starting month : October 2,112 Secondary Incomplete 49% Ending month : July Data source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics Data Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2015-2017 Data source: EPDC extraction of DHS dataset 2014 SCHOOL PARTICIPATION AND EFFICIENCY The percentage of out of school children in a country shows what proportion of children are not currently participating in the education system and who are, therefore, missing out on the benefits of school.
    [Show full text]
  • The Introduction of Multilingual Preschool Education in Cambodia
    The 2017 Asia-Pacific Regional ECD Conference, Siem Reap, Cambodia 1-3 March 2017 The Introduction of Multilingual Preschool Education in North-East of Cambodia PRAK KOSAL Deputy Secretary General of NC-ECCD, and Director of Early Childhood Education Department, MoEYS Language and education context in Cambodia for ethnic minorities. Consistently lower enrolment and completion rates in remote areas with predominant ethnic minority populations. 24 ethnic minority groups represent 10% of the population but are the majority in 5 remote provinces ( Census 2008) Trained Khmer state school teachers do not stay at their posts. High rate of both teacher and student absenteeism. Language barrier: Ethnic minority children and Khmer teachers do not share a language so cannot communicate with each other. Multilingual education introduced to address these issues. Extent of Multilingual education in primary schools in Cambodia. Activity 2003 2011 2012 2017 Number of multilingual schools 6 30 39 78 Number of ethnic minority 2 4 4 4 languages used in formal programs. Number of ethnic minority 278 2307 2800 5600 children receiving multilingual education. Number of trained ethnic 13 134 174 226 minority community teachers. Number of remote provinces 1 3 4 4 conducting formal multilingual programs ✓ The government shall support early childhood care and education from age of zero to before preschool, generally provided at childcare centre in communities or at home. ✓ Preschool shall commence education prior to primary education for preparation to attend primary school. “All Cambodian children, from conception to age under six, especially disadvantaged, vulnerable and poor children, shall be provide with care and development services”.
    [Show full text]
  • Preventing Future Genocide: a Vision for Peace Museum in Cambodia
    ARTICLE Preventing Future Genocide: A vision for Peace Museum in Cambodia Soth Plai NGARM ※ Abstract Genocide is a crime against humanity which is beyond the parameters of war crime as the perpetrators could choose to prevent it. It is specifically about the tragedy of human lives caused by human action to accomplish political, social or spiritual goals. Genocide is unique from one place to the other. For example, the genocide in Cambodia was different from that in Rwanda or Bosnia. Similarly, each situation has its source and is characterized by its historical evolution in the given context, but all are based on the choice to commit such a crime. Moreover, every situation can impact on different perspectives and rationales. It depends on the stand point from where we look. The three stages of pre, during and aftermath of genocide; each contain interesting related political dynamics and each stage paradigms a simple but critical question: Before a period of genocide, what are the elements pushing people? When would have been the effective moment to stop the situation, before it went too far? And when it has already happened, how can we ensure similar experiences never happen again? For example in Cambodia, politics in the aftermath of the Khmer Rouge genocide, any political argument contains power struggle and lacks humanity. Throughout the last 15 years of peace in Cambodia, the question of justice and reconciliation still remains unanswered. Although, the establishment of an international tribunal for Khmer Rouge leaders is soon to be established; it is far short of ensuring such crimes against humanity will be prevented in the future.
    [Show full text]
  • Strategies and Policies for Basic Education in Cambodia: Historical Perspectives Sideth S
    International Education Journal Vol 5, No 1, 2004 http://iej.cjb.net 90 Strategies and Policies for Basic Education in Cambodia: Historical Perspectives Sideth S. Dy Institute of Comparative and International Education, Graduate School of Education, Hiroshima University [email protected] This article examines the process of development and change in the state of education in Cambodia over four decades preceding the 1990 Jomtien World Conference on Education for All. The author argues that during the 1950s and 1960s, efforts to enhance basic education opportunities for all Cambodians were largely unsuccessful due to the lack of adequate infrastructural mechanisms and a guiding framework for action. Of the periods considered in this study, only the Prince Sihanouk regime (1950s-1960s) was relatively socioeconomically advanced, and saw a growth in the number of modern school buildings, teacher training centres, and universities. The succeeding regimes in the 1970s not only failed to maintain the development, but by the second half of the 1970s the formal education system had been completely dismantled. The collapse in 1979 of the Pol Pot regime made way for the rebirth of traditional socio-cultural structures and the wide expansion of schooling opportunities throughout the 1980s. National rehabilitation and reconstruction during the 1980s, despite lingering social insecurity, marked considerable and fundamental progress towards the present educational situation of this struggling nation. Cambodia, basic education, policy, strategy, educational development INTRODUCTION The developing world has made tremendous strides in expanding primary education in the past three decades, and many countries have achieved universal primary enrolment. Most developing countries are, however, still a long way from achieving universal primary completion.
    [Show full text]
  • The Relationship Between Space, Resources, and Genocide
    Ruling the Bloodlands: The Relationship between Space, Resources, and Genocide Connor Mayes Advisor: Dr. Kari Jensen, Department of Global Studies & Geography Committee: Dr. Zilkia Janer, Department of Global Studies & Geography, and Dr. Mario Ruiz, Department of History Honors Essay in Geography Fall 2017 Hofstra University Mayes 2 Contents Part 1: The Meaning of Genocide................................................................................................ 3 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 3 Positionality and Purpose ......................................................................................................... 5 Definitions: Genocide, ethnic cleansing, crimes against humanity, and war crimes .......... 6 Part 2: Genocide and Resources ................................................................................................ 10 Material Murder: The Link between Genocide and Resources ......................................... 10 Land .......................................................................................................................................... 13 Natural Resources ................................................................................................................... 19 Human Resources .................................................................................................................... 25 Cultural and Urban Resources .............................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • EDUCATION – Policy Brief 2017
    EDUCATION – Policy Brief 2017 The Royal Government of Cambodia has made significant progress in establishing legal foundations and a set of comprehensive policy frameworks to promote education for all in Cambodia. However, challenges remain with access to education, quality of education, and gaps in the implementation of many policies. Key Recommendations: World Vision calls for the Royal Government of Cambodia to: Develop an inter-ministerial legal framework for early childhood education (ECE) and expand support for wider coverage of ECE. Make quality education more inclusive and equitable for the most vulnerable children, including children with disability (CWD), by training teachers about inclusive education for all. Focus on improving the knowledge and skills of primary school teachers to effectively instruct children in basic literacy and mathematics through cooperation with INGOs for equivalency certification as part of the MOEYS’s aim for upgrading teachers. Ensure that schools are safe environments for children through effective implementation of the Policy on Child Protection in Schools (2016) and the Safe School Guidelines (2013). Improve responsiveness and accountability of local decision makers by fully supporting scale-up of the Social Accountability Framework (ISAF) as part of Cambodia’s decentralization process. Current State of Education in Cambodia childhood education, access by all children to education, and the quality of that education. Rebuilding its national public educational system has been Cambodia’s top priority
    [Show full text]
  • Education in Japan and Cambodia: Past, Present, and Future
    International Journal of Education, Learning and Development Vol. 8, No.6, pp.30-38, July 2020 Published by ECRTD-UK Print ISSN: 2054-6297(Print), Online ISSN: 2054-6300(Online) EDUCATION IN JAPAN AND CAMBODIA: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE Chhy Sothy Master of Entrepreneurship and Project Management Human Resources Director, Newtonthilay Community (Institutional Educations), Cambodia Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT: This paper explored the context, distinctive nature of Japanese and Cambodian education systems history, and establishment by preliminary document studies. It briefly described education reforms and trends towards twenty-first-century education globally. The paper reviewed the evolution and modernization of education in the past, present, and future of both countries. It presented the historical education systems and reforms from one regime to another involving the fundamental education laws, education administration, and school management policies before, during, after world war II, and current education management systems in Japan. The paper also stated the education systems and schooling in Cambodia started at Buddhist monastic (wat) as schools, the education structures and reforms before and after World War II, zero education during Pol Pot regime, and development education with precisely education strategic plan by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports (MoEYS) at present. The paper addressed the education trends toward education globally by 2030 of both countries. This study would be a significant academic source for educators and other researchers. The paper recommended further study on i) the impacts of education reforms and ii) the relationship between current education implementation and its trend of both countries. KEYWORDS: education in Japan and Cambodia, past, present, and future INTRODUCTION The education systems and practices have been dramatically reformed in different countries in the world.
    [Show full text]
  • Education in Cambodia Findings from Cambodia’S Experience in PISA for Development
    Education in Cambodia Findings from Cambodia’s experience in PISA for Development FOR DEVELOPMENT Academic Health and performance well-being Attitudes towards school Educational and learning attainment Resources Inclusive environments Learning Family and time community support Quality instruction This report was developed by Cambodia jointly with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), which assisted in the design of the report and provided input, guidance and assistance in its development. The report is published under the responsibility of Cambodia and does not necessarily represent the official views of the OECD or its Member countries. Please cite this publication as: MoEYS (2018). Education in Cambodia: Findings from Cambodia’s experience in PISA for Development. Phnom Penh: Author. Cover photo: Education Prosperity Framework by Willms (2018) used for PISA-D Assessment and Analytical Framework © MoEYS 2018 You can copy or print this publication for your own use in documents, presentations, blogs, websites and teaching materials, provided that suitable acknowledgement of MoEYS as source and copyright owner is given. Foreword The Ministry of Education's purpose is to shape an education system for our country that delivers equitable and excellent outcomes for all ofour children and young people. A strong focus on student leaming and well-being underpins all our policy and the services we provide. It is to help us achieve our Ministry's purpose that we joined the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment for Development, PISA-D. This programme aims to evaluate education systems worldwide by assessing the extent to which l5-year-old students, near the end oftheir basic education, have acquired key knowledge and skills that are essential for full participation in modern societies.
    [Show full text]
  • Learning and Teaching Traditional Music in Cambodia: Challenges and Incentives
    Learning and teaching traditional music in Cambodia: Challenges and incentives Author Grant, Catherine Published 2017 Journal Title International Journal of Music Education Version Accepted Manuscript (AM) DOI https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761415619394 Copyright Statement © 2015 International Society for Music Education. This is the author-manuscript version of the paper. Reproduced in accordance with the copyright policy of the publisher. Please refer to the journal's website for access to the definitive, published version. Downloaded from http://hdl.handle.net/10072/125278 Griffith Research Online https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au This is an author-produced PDF of an article published in International Journal for Music Education. Copyright SAGE. The definitive publisher-authenticated version is available online. The citation information of the definitive version is: Grant, C. (2015). Learning and teaching traditional music in Cambodia: Challenges and incentives. International Journal for Music Education [Online First], pp. 1-12. DOI: 10.1177/0255761415619394 Learning and teaching traditional music in Cambodia: Challenges and incentives Catherine Grant1 University of Newcastle / Griffith University Substantial efforts have been made since the Khmer Rouge regime to revitalise traditional Cambodian music genres. While they have met with some success, local circumstances still present many difficulties for the transmission of traditional music to the younger generations. This study explores the challenges in learning and teaching traditional Cambodian music, as well as incentives, from the viewpoint of a group of students, teachers and master-artists involved in the transmission activities of one NGO. Better understanding the challenges may help policy-makers, NGOs, and artists themselves to overcome them; better understanding the factors that encourage young people to learn (and older people to teach) may help safeguarding efforts at a critical juncture in the future of these art forms.
    [Show full text]