 129 Teaching in : Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations

Khamboly Dy

I asked myself whether or not the young generation of Cambodians believe that the crimes did exist in Cambodia. Do they believe what their parents and grandparents have told them about their suffering at that time? Has any author or historian written about this history for of- ficial school curriculum yet? his is the sorrowful impression of Soh Seiha, a female Cham Muslim com- munity leader from Kratie province of Cambodia after visiting the former Khmer Rouge (KR) central security center called Tuol Sleng and the killing fieldsT at Choeung Ek . Some members of her family were killed or had disappeared during the 1975-1979 reign of the Kr . Her concern about the young generation of Cambodians raises a question: Should young people in Cambodia study the history of genocide, crimes and grave human rights abuses in formal classroom settings?

Genocide is the only effective standing the important historical events enables way to prevent future genocide and other grave people, especially the young generations, to human rights violations, foster reconciliation participate in the process of the Khmer Rouge among victims and perpetrators, and continue Tribunal1 that helps to promote accountability to address the question of justice in countries for the abuses of that period . that have experienced genocide . Cambodians However, this vitally and emotionally sensi- cannot talk about justice and reconciliation tive issue remains largely absent from school when the suffering of the victims has not curriculums in Cambodia . The obstacles to been acknowledged . In order to fight against introducing genocide education into class- the possibility of future genocide and other rooms appear in several critical aspects: social, crimes against humanity, young generations economic, political, and pedagogical . of Cambodians have to understand how and During the 1980s, Cambodian school chil- why the genocide happened, to learn about its dren were taught about the KR genocide in effects and consequences . Genocide education politically charged, propagandistic ways, which also helps to preserve the memory of the KR sought to instill in them a desire for violence, atrocities, promote moral and civic values, and hatred and revenge . Because the Cambodian advance democracy and rule of law in a culture society at that time prioritized basic economic long accustomed to impunity . Moreover, under- recovery, the suffering of the Cambodian

129 130  HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS people under the KR became a folktale for Social and Economic Challenges young Cambodians who were born after the regime collapsed . After peace was restored in The KR regime that controlled Cambodia 1993, the volatile issue of KR genocide was from April 1975 to January 1979, destroyed removed from the school curriculum for the almost all of the country’s infrastructures, sake of reconciliation and political stability . In economic system, public and private properties, 2002, the Cambodian government ordered the and the education system . The regime viewed withdrawal of a section of Cambodian modern education through schools and as a history (Cambodia from 1953 to the 1998 waste of time and useless for the revolution and national elections), which included the KR his- the development of the country . As a result, the tory, as a result of the conflict between the two KR regime closed all educational institutions main political parties over the issue of the 1993 from primary to higher education . Teachers, national elections . Research shows that young doctors and other intellectuals (including those generations know very little about the history who wore glasses and spoke foreign languages) of the KR, and many young Cambodians do not were systematically killed since they were re- believe that their parents and relatives experi- garded as bad elements that brought injustice, enced such hardship and unspeakable suffering corruption and exploitation into society and during that period . In addition to this political made the country fall into foreign colonization dispute, the Cambodian Ministry of Education, and imperialism . Youth and Sports (MoEYS) claims that it lacks All children, instead of being sent to schools, resources to teach the history of the Cambodian were forced to labor and attend indoctrination genocide . Moreover, teachers who are capable sessions . The KR claimed that the “hoe is your of conveying the history are few in number, pen; the rice field is your paper . If you wish to and they lack the training to teach effectively get a baccalaureate, you have to get it at dams about genocide . and canals ”. The absence of genocide education is a The results were devastating . As many as two sign that the specter of genocide continues to million people were put to death by execution, haunt Cambodia . Giving a full picture of what starvation, forced labor, torture, and sickness happened, why it happened, how it happened without proper medical treatment . The regime and what the consequences were will provide a left tens of thousands of widows and orphans foundation for students to share what they have in complete poverty and illiteracy . Several other learned at school with their parents, relatives hundreds of thousands of Cambodians fled and friends . Genocide education will also help the county and became refugees . The country to alleviate the suffering of survivors by enabling after 1979 was in complete unrest since people them to share their experiences with their chil- were moving around in search of their lost dren and thereby ensure that their suffering will relatives . Civil war among Cambodian factions be remembered and acknowledged . Since the intensified . The KR left almost no foundation absence of genocide education makes it more upon which succeeding regimes might begin likely that future generations will suffer similar to rebuild education in the country . circumstances, this paper examines the social, The presence of the Vietnamese forces in economic, political, and pedagogical obstacles 1979 ended the KR terror and restored a new to teaching about genocide in a country that regime: the People’s Republic of Kampuchea has recently emerged from tragedy . (PRK) . People received certain basic rights and they were able to own houses, cattle and agricultural tools . Although people still farmed Teaching Genocide in Cambodia:Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations  131 collectively in “mutual aid teams or solidarity during the KR regime severely traumatized all groups,” and had no right to claim ownership Cambodians . Most teachers could not concen- on their land, many farmers viewed the condi- trate on their careers since they worried about tions in the PRK as considerably better than the whereabouts of their family members and those under the KR regime . With assistance their activities for day-to-day living . Having from Vietnam and cooperation from local suffered from KR persecutions and received people, education was restored and primary poor training, teachers mostly conveyed the KR schools were rebuilt throughout the country . history in emotional terms . In addition to the Basic education subjects, including education poor teaching qualifications, the country faced on the KR atrocities, were introduced . Teacher the problem of a lack of teaching materials, training schools were reopened throughout the educational infrastructure, teacher resources country and some educators were sent abroad and textbooks . In higher education, about a to study in socialist countries, especially Viet- hundred students received scholarships to study nam and the former Soviet Union 2. in several socialist countries, such as Vietnam, However, under the PRK Cambodia con- the former Soviet Union, the former East Ger- tinued to face a severe crisis in education . many and Cuba . The recruitment of students Many surviving educators fled the country to was very selective and carefully monitored . the border of neighboring country . The PRK’s Generally, the development of education Ministry of National Education consisted of a during the PRK regime was a slow process . The small number of unqualified officials who had regime not only struggled to put children in little experience in education and few special- schools, but also fought illiteracy among adults ized skills . The regime did not have professional and older people, in addition to many other experts to develop the curriculum . The PRK social problems, including daily incursions from depended heavily on Vietnamese advisors to KR factions as well as international economic train and recruit teachers as well as to develop sanctions . Due to the international political the curriculum at all levels . The structure and tension and the influence of the Cold War, the the management of education were identical to PRK neither got the seat for Cambodia in the those of the Vietnamese . The curriculum intro- United Nations, nor received international aid . duced “political morality” study that aimed at The regime received only limited humanitarian instilling in children the socialist concept in an aid from international organizations, such as effort to turn Cambodia into a socialist state . UNICEF and the International Committee of In the attempt to recruit more teachers, the the Red Cross . However, those agencies could PRK appealed to all educators nationwide to not do much to help the existing mis-oriented register as teachers . The government strategy educational problems, including education on to rescue national education at that time was to the recent events of the KR period . The PRK have “the literate teach the semi-illiterate, and inherited the educational problems from the the semi-illiterate teach the illiterate .” By the Kr . Together with its social insecurity, social early 1980s, the total enrollment of students at unrest, and undeveloped state-controlled all grade levels was more than one million, and economy, the PRK encountered a hard time in as many as 37,000 teachers were recruited and national as well as educational rehabilitation and trained . Unfortunately, only about 10% of these reconstruction during the 1980s . The content teachers had formal educational qualifications 3. on the KR history did not improve through- They knew only what they had learned since the out the entire PRK period and never became pre-revolutionary period (Cambodia during the a national concern . As earlier emphasized, the 1950s and 1960s) . Moreover, the experiences curriculum on the KR history provided by the 132  HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS

PRK’s Ministry of National Education was a Cambodian children will have equal access to political tool designed mainly to justify the education 6. Vietnamese presence in Cambodia . However, the Cambodian government has The transition period under the United not yet solved its social and economic problems Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia that bring a lot of negative impacts to its EFA (UNTAC) also saw little improvement in edu- goal . More importantly, if the government is not cation . In order to maintain a neutral political able to consolidate these problems, it is unlikely environment in Cambodia, UNTAC exercised that it will be able to address other imperative control over five key ministries, including the questions, such as educating students on the Ministries of National Security, Defense, For- subjects of genocide and human rights which are eign Affairs, Consular Affairs and Finance, but necessary to ensure peace, democracy, respect of not the Ministry of Education .4 All political human rights, and the rule of law in Cambodia, factions were more concentrated on political and to prevent future genocide . What are the stability, national security, national reform, elec- social and economic challenges for the present tion campaign, and political as well as military Cambodian government? What should the gov- power . The presence of UNTAC was solely ernment do to meet those challenges? intended to ensure the implementation of the Up to 2002, with assistance from the in- 1991 Paris Peace Agreement on the compre- ternational community, especially the World hensive political settlement in Cambodia . Its Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), mandate, according to its website, included “as- and the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the pects relating to human rights, the organization government managed to devote twelve per cent and conduct of election, military arrangements, of its national budget to education . However, civil administration, maintenance of law and all educational projects focused exclusively on order, repatriation and resettlement of refugees general education, and there has been extremely and displaced persons, and rehabilitation of little effort to put the KR genocide on stage . Cambodian infrastructure 5. ” UNTAC had very Moreover, there has been little effort to little authority to intervene in education reform . foster research on KR history among Cam- With minimal changes in education during bodian students . Since the collapse of the KR this transitional period, students continued to regime, a considerable number of publications study using the old curriculum . No effort was on this issue came out, but they were all writ- made to improve genocide education, which ten by foreigners and in foreign languages . The was not on the list of the country’s priorities books contained theoretical analyses, which at that time . were difficult for Cambodian secondary school After the 1993 elections, the new Cambo- or students to grasp . Some of the dian government made numerous efforts to books were translated into Khmer, but they improve the quality of education at all levels . consisted of hundreds of pages, which made As of 2007, thousands of primary and second- them unlikely good sources of knowledge since ary schools have been built across the country, Cambodian students did not have the habit though the teaching quality and teachers’ living of reading . Among the twenty subjects at the standard have not yet been given full attention Royal University of , the biggest by the government . Today, there are as many and oldest public university in Cambodia, his- as sixty public and private universities . The tory was one of the less interesting subjects . government appears strongly committed to Because of economic constraints, Cambodian achieving its strategic plan of Education for All students tend to study the subjects that could (EFA) whose goal is to ensure that by 2015 all generate earning potential in a short period of Teaching Genocide in Cambodia:Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations  133 time . Not many students enrolled in history cities, and they have to abandon their studies . classes each year . This is one of the important Daughters are also asked to help out in family gaps that the government should address to businesses so that sons are able to continue their raise the students’ awareness of the importance education . This results in high female illiteracy, of history and to give more incentives to stu- and high drop out and repetition rates among dents to enroll in history classes . women and girls at all levels of education . In addition to the absence of significant Corruption within Cambodian society is content about the KR history in the current sec- another social problem that leads to the low ondary school curriculum, university students quality of education . Officials of the Ministry are also given little opportunity to learn about of Education, Youth and Sports (MoEYS) and this dark period . Within the four-year program teachers receive salaries (28 US dollars per of Bachelor of Arts in history, students are month for primary school teachers) that are introduced to various world histories (such as too low to support their daily living expenses . Chinese history, American history, Vietnamese Generally, teachers are not able to survive with history and Thai history) as core courses . In their net income from the government . They contrast, KR history is integrated into Cambo- have to force themselves “to engage in second dian history from 1953 to the present as one income-generating job .”8 The most popular core course in the second semester of the fourth source of income is to charge students extra fees year . Even though the discussions under the in the classrooms, or to keep some important university history course are broader and more lessons for their private classes . Students who detailed than those in the secondary school are unable to pay the charges may not be able subject, they have similar content . Moreover, to pass the comprehensive examination, which a very small number of history course students results in repetition . Unless general education graduate to become teachers in various Cam- is improved, genocide education will never be bodian secondary schools and who are capable become the next issue to deal with . of conveying the history of the Kr . Atrocities during the KR regime directly Moreover, people seem to be either unaware affected every single Cambodian family and of the problem of the absence of genocide edu- indirectly affected those Cambodians who were cation or take it for granted . They are probably born after the regime . Young Cambodian gen- inhibited by their poor living standard, though erations usually receive the burden of earning many of them experienced the KR period . for the family since their parents or adult fam- Parents in the countryside usually discourage ily members died or became disabled during their children from continuing their education the genocide and civil war . The legacy of the to higher levels . They ask their children to help KR has affected people and young children in out in agricultural work or to get jobs in order many ways, especially in terms of education as to ease family burdens . In the paper “Education emphasized earlier . Moreover, the vast majority reforms in Cambodia,” Charlene Tan argues of Cambodian people, both victims and perpetra- that many children from poor families who tors (former KR cadres), have developed some enrolled in primary school “may not be able degree of mental problem without proper treat- to complete their primary school education as ment over the period of almost thirty years since many of them are unable to cope with studying the collapse of the (DK) full-time and working part-time after school to regime . According to a survey done by Cambo- support the family .”7 Mostly female students dia’s Transcultural Psychosocial Organization face this problem . Parents often send their (TPO), “81% of Cambodians have experienced daughters to work as garment workers in the violence, 28 4%. suffer from post-traumatic stress 134  HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS disorder (PTSD), 11 5%. from mood disorders, and settle many of the unclear events during the and 40% from anxiety disorders ”. This is a real KR period that are viewed differently among social problem that the government has to cope politicians and scholars . with in order to enhance the quality of education The Cambodian government has to con- for young children and to foster an environment tinue to alleviate issues related to education if of reconciliation . Cambodia is to develop on the path of democ- Acknowledging the suffering of the victims racy and rule of law . Introducing genocide edu- through formal education is an effective way to cation into the classrooms is one way by which foster reconciliation between victims and per- the government could help shape people’s petrators . Instead of addressing the issue, how- attitude towards respect for human rights . It is ever, the government appears to want to bury one effective dynamic that develops fundamen- the past . Youk Chhang, Director of DC-Cam, tal solutions for other social issues . emphasized that it is important that people start to tell their life stories during the KR era “no matter how hard it is or how horrible your story Political Challenge is ”. He asserted that, “the Khmer Rouge regime is an important part of Cambodia’s history The collapse of the KR regime and the and has touched nearly every Cambodian . . . establishment of the PRK by Vietnam marked We must also teach our children about it and the starting point of a very controversial, po- make sure they learn from our suffering . [Doing litical interpretation of Cambodian history, so] we share the experiences of genocide with particularly the history of the KR genocide . In millions of other Cambodians and many more post-genocide Cambodia, genocide education millions around the world . ”. Though talking became a political tool for parties competing about the past, as Youk Chhang puts it, faces for power . Children in the PRK-controlled ter- “so many barriers: cultural, language, personal ritories were taught that the KR were inhuman and even political,”9 understanding about the devils or monsters that killed people and sucked roots of suffering is an important step to allevi- people’s blood . In contrast, children in the KR- ate the victims’ trauma and free them from the controlled areas were indoctrinated to believe past . This also establishes a sense of empathy that Vietnam was going to annex Cambodia and reduces the spirit of hatred and desire for and that the talk about Cambodians being killed revenge among victims and perpetrators . More during the war and genocide period was an evil importantly, it develops interest in the KR his- trick of the Vietnamese . As a consequence of tory among students . this politicization, the tragedy of Cambodian The Khmer Rouge Tribunal process, history ultimately became a myth . though some analysts believe that it may To justify the Vietnamese presence in Cam- open old wounds and retraumatize victims, bodia, the PRK used textbooks for primary is a good mechanism to uncover the past and school education that described the KR genocide to answer questions about why this atrocity in propagandistic terms . Children from grade happened . The tribunal with its official name one and up were taught via these textbooks to the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of hate and fear the Kr . For example, a reading Cambodia (ECCC) will additionally function textbook for grade one (published in 1979 by as an educational center teaching Cambodian the PRK’s Ministry of National Education) con- young generations as well as people around tained the following two sentences devoted to the world about the atrocities during the KR the KR period: “Our people supplied foodstuffs period . The hearings at the tribunal will uncover to soldiers who were sweeping up the traitors Teaching Genocide in Cambodia:Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations  135

Pol Pot-Ieng Sary clique . The United Front for vowed to teachers and researchers that the National Salvation of Kampuchea eliminated the Ministry of Education would not take the KR traitors Pol Pot-Ieng Sary clique ”. 10 While most history for granted . He was quoted in the local researchers put the number of deaths during newspaper, The Cambodia Daily, saying that, the genocide at between 1 million to 2 million, “We will not rewrite history . History is to be students were taught inaccurately that the KR history . Facts have to remain as they are .”12 killed 3 3. million people . In the reading book for However, the question of when and how to 2nd grade, the following sentences appear: “Pol educate Cambodian students on KR history Pot-Ieng Sary clique killed more than 3 million was still unresolved . people and completely destroyed everything in In 1996, the government was negotiating Cambodia . We are absolutely furious and strong- peace with the KR faction as part of its policy ly struggle against these atrocities ”. 11 In addition, of reconciliation and national unity . At that the pictures in the textbooks included graphic time, a large portion of the KR, led by former depictions of the KR disemboweling people, the DK Foreign Affairs Minister Ieng Sary, agreed cruel tortures at Tuol Sleng prison and killings to dismantle their armed forces and defect to that are too violent for young children to grasp . the Royal Government of Cambodia bringing These textbooks were used to teach the young with him tens of thousand of KR soldiers and Cambodian generations who were born after the cadres back to the government fold . In 1998, KR and during the period of Cambodian civil three other senior leaders (Khieu Samphan, war from 1979 to 1991 . Noun Chea and Ke Pauk) defected to the Royal In 1991, all parties in the conflict, including Government leaving only a small faction of the the KR faction, reached a peace agreement and KR forces near the Thai border . This develop- agreed to hold the first national elections in ment created a pause on the consideration of 1993 under direct supervision of UNTAC . The teaching young children about the Kr . “For elections marked a turning point in Cambo- the sake of national reconciliation,” the govern- dian politics and education system . The PRK’s ment, during this interval period, ignored this textbooks were replaced by new textbooks . But important issue . none of the new textbooks included an account Following the defection of the KR, civil of the KR era . The government claimed that society began to demand that the school cur- the absence of KR history was necessary “for riculum be revised to include an account of the sake of national reconciliation .” Teachers the . The MoEYS finally were instructed not to mention the KR in the revised the existing curriculum in 2000-2001 classrooms . Instead, the new social studies and published new social study textbooks for textbooks focused exclusively on the pre-Ang- grades 9 and 12 . The new textbooks included korean and Angkorean periods (Cambodia an account of Cambodian modern history, before the 12th century and later) and, in the from Sihanouk’s regime up to the recent 1998 modern period, on Cambodia during the 1950s national elections, and an account of the Cam- and 1960s . From 1991 to 2000, political in- bodian genocide . But although the Cambodian stabilities ensured that the account of the KR government, via these textbooks, introduced history would continue to remain absent from KR history into the classrooms, the account school curriculum, even though officials at the was shockingly brief, far too brief to ensure that Ministry of Education had frequently discussed young generations of Cambodians understand about putting the KR atrocities as content of what really happened at that time . Indeed, the the school curriculum . In 1996, Tol Lah, the 9th grade textbook devotes only five sentences then-Cambodian Minister of Education had to the KR era: 13 136  HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS

From April 25 to April 27, 1975, the Khmer Cambodian people to “forgive and forget .”18 Rouge leaders held a special general assembly in Yet members of the MoEYS, especially teachers, order to form a new Constitution and renamed have the responsibility to convey the KR history, the country “Democratic Kampuchea ”. A new especially the events that are still controversial government of the DK, led by Pol Pot, came today, so that students are able to find out into existence, following which the massacre of the truth . Rather than limiting the content, Khmer citizens began . the Committee for Curriculum Development should have allowed the debatable topics to In the 12th grade textbook, the chapter be depicted in the textbooks more broadly . on KR history extends to three pages in the Moreover, Cambodian politicians have to be (about one and a half pages brave in facing history and allow professional in English) . This chapter briefly discusses the and pedagogical experts to decide what should political conditions, the formation of the DK be put into the curriculum . government and economy, and how people Teaching the KR history of genocide in lived 14. But the textbook omits the important classrooms remains an issue in Cambodia today . historical events during DK, and fails to de- The key decision-making about the content of scribe who the KR were and how they came to curriculum still lies in the hands of politicians, power . The textbook neglects to mention the and the depiction of modern Cambodian his- KR four-year plan, the forced labor, purges and tory in the two social studies textbooks remains massacres, and other grave human rights abuses politically controversial . For example, while the that characterized the period . Moreover, the 12th grade textbook mentions the Cambodia’s short chapter ends by echoing the same skewed People Party’s (CPP) victory in the 1998 na- number of deaths given in the PRK’s textbook: tional election, it neglects to mention that the “This regime had more than three million inno- Royalist Funcinpec Party won the first national cent people killed . . the DK plunged the entire election in 1993 . Prince Norodom Ranariddh, country into a real catastrophe in only three then head of the Funcinpec party and Presi- years, eight months, and twenty days .”15 dent of the Cambodian National Assembly, The inclusion of a brief account of KR his- criticized the content of the book for failing tory in the textbooks shows that Cambodian to mention his party’s victory, and called for leaders and educators of the MoEYS saw the further revisions . In response, officials of the importance of genocide education differently . then Ministry of Education agreed to review The way to deal with the past, for them, was the textbook and add more information on to forget the past . The Chairman of the Com- the section of the Khmer Rouge history .”19 mittee for Curriculum Development said that Yet subsequent discussions between the two the texts did not discuss the killings in detail key political leaders, Prime Minister Hun Sen because “we don’t want Khmer children to and Prince Norodom Ranariddh, led to even repeat the bitter history . We try to bury even more omissions . The section on Cambodian the smell .”16 This comment echoes Hun Sen’s modern history, including the account of the remark that “it is time to dig a hole and bury KR era, was removed entirely from the 12th the past even when we consider that the past grade textbook . The new edition of the text- is for thousands of Cambodians an unbear- book was thinner and focused almost exclusively able burden .”17 Similarly, former DK Head on histories of foreign countries . Later, in the State Khieu Samphan, though denying that he middle of the school year in 2002, Hun Sen knew anything of what happened during KR ordered the withdrawal of all 12th grade social regime, apologized for those who died and studies textbooks . Minister of Education Tol suffered during that time and called upon the Teaching Genocide in Cambodia:Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations  137

Lah confirmed the confiscation of the book but are educated about genocide . This can be con- could not answer the question of how long it sidered as the first time that the government took to bring the book back into school 20. It allowed such a political issue to be published was the question beyond his authority . and disseminated throughout the country . Up to the present day, Cambodian students This is the first fruitful move towards genocide study history without a textbook . The Associa- education in Cambodia . tion of Independent Teachers has unsuccessfully The KR period is a politically significant appealed many times to the MoEYS to return event that links Cambodian history from one the book to schools . This decision to withdraw regime to another . When talking about KR the textbook has been seen by many educators history, one cannot avoid discussing events as a violation of civil rights and the freedom of during the French colonial period, Cambodia the press and expression . Moreover, the deci- under Prince Norodom Sihanouk, the Khmer sion of the Prime Minister ethically, though Republic regime and the American bombings . not technically, overlaps the mandate of the Nor can one stay away from discussion of the Ministry of Education that has professional PRK regime, the State of Cambodia (SOC), expertise in developing curriculum . Perhaps, the transitional period of UNTAC and the rather than remove the Cambodian modern second Kingdom of Cambodia . Generally, the history from the school curriculum, the Prime Cambodian situation from the French colonial Minister should have suggested that the MoEYS period up to the present day is an inseparable review and improve the accuracy and the validity collective event, and the KR history is the inte- of the content of the history textbook . gral part of this event . The full dimension of the Seeing this important gap in governmental KR genocide can hardly be understood unless responsibility, the DC-Cam, which has been it is presented in a framework that highlights independently documenting the KR genocide the emergence of the communist movement in since 1995, approved the establishment and Cambodia from the 1940s up to the time of its implementation of a Genocide Education total collapse in 1999 . This approach allows stu- Project . The aim of the project is “to enhance dents to grasp the full picture of the KR regime the capabilities of teachers and the Ministry and enables them to trace the development of of Education to convey the regime’s history the KR movement and to link this movement through the provision of ideas, materials, rec- to other historical events for further research ommendations on curriculums, and a short text and broader understanding . on the history of Democratic Kampuchea .”21 History, by its nature, is always problematic . The project started in September 2004 and However, our understanding of the history ended in March 2007 . The result of the project shapes the way we deal wisely with problems was a hundred-page history book called “A His- in the present . Therefore, the absence of an tory of Democratic Kampuchea ”. 22 Coinciding account of Khmer Rouge history in textbooks with the start of the Khmer Rouge Tribunal and school curriculum presents dangerous process, copies of the book were distributed and possibilities . Historical research, such as the were very well received by students, teachers, history book published by DC-Cam, should be researchers and the public . One thousand five accepted as part of the country’s historical truth hundred copies were delivered to two hundred for teaching history . Philip Short, author of the fifty-nine secondary schools throughout the book, Pol Pot: The History of a Nightmare,was country . In this context, the government seems quoted in the International Herald Tribune to open more opportunities for, and remove claiming that the newly published history book the barriers to, the way Cambodians students “is an accurate and objective account of a very 138  HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS complex period, and it therefore deserves to be The teaching methodology, the way teachers not merely an approved textbook for Cambo- discuss KR history with students, is the second dian schools, but a compulsory text, which all important step . As emphasized earlier, KR Cambodian school children should be required history is politically and emotionally sensitive; to study .”23 This historical research should be therefore, introducing this controversial sub- used in order to formulate historical memory ject can either foster or undermine democracy, and historical consciousness so that history will peace and unity . The outcome hinges largely not repeat itself, and Cambodian young genera- on . How should history be taught? tions are able to get out of the shadow of the What kind of textbook should teachers use to past and find a way to build a better nation . As convey KR history in classrooms? Can teachers such, the truth of the KR history is preserved use other materials besides the state-approved from generation to generation, which is an ef- textbook? How much training should teachers fective measure, as Yair Auron said, to prevent receive? How much time should be devoted to “the forgetting that is always present along side this subject? How can teachers be protected in the memory .”24 an environment where this politically sensitive MoEYS officials said that the Ministry issue may produce violence? What are the roles planned to revise the curriculum and bring the of history teachers? book back into school in 2009 . David Chan- Currently, the MoEYS’s resources (both dler, scholar on Cambodian history, gave his human resources and teaching materials) are impression as quoted by the Associated Press scant . There are very few secondary school that, “the government seems unwilling to teachers who are capable of delivering KR his- produce such a text, or at least does not share tory appropriately and professionally in class . a sense of urgency about exposing this period There are also very few students who have of the past .”25 Political and financial issues may received degrees in History . These students stall the process, and teachers will continue to who are going to become secondary school address KR history informally or convey the teachers in different parts of the country are history inappropriately in class . DC-Cam has trained on various histories - Cambodian, Asian extended its genocide education project to and world . The history course was developed 2010 in the hope of cooperating well with the in 1980 and has been updated gradually with MoEYS in securing the formal inclusion of the assistance from foreign countries and donors . KR history into the school curriculum . How- Moreover, most research books are written in ever, political will is the key factor in solving English and French, which make them even this problem . more difficult for students to comprehend . The KR history is integrated as a small part in Khmer history in the second semester of Pedagogical Challenges the fourth year, forming a limited knowledge on this critical subject . Both history graduate To be able to introduce KR history into students and current secondary school teachers secondary school classrooms in Cambodia, need a generally acceptable history textbook, the production of a short, simple, accurate, study plan, and other supplementary materials unbiased, and understandable textbook of the with accurate historical narratives that do not history of Democratic Kampuchea is the first instill political bias and do not generate hatred crucial step . It is important to make sure that and a desire for revenge . the MoEYS reforms the secondary school cur- Nationwide teacher training on the KR his- riculum so that the content on KR history is tory is important to ensure that teachers have integrated . the necessary knowledge, skill and confidence Teaching Genocide in Cambodia:Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations  139 to convey their country’s history in the most into or taught alongside the human rights objective way and that they are able to pro- study . The combination of study of genocide vide the answers accurately and to assist their and human rights allows students to make students to address the past in a critical and comparisons and, as Schwart argues, “to draw impartial manner . This teacher training will also insights concerning conditions that give rise to enhance the realization of genocide education mass killings, and helps them understand some- in social reconstruction since most post-conflict thing about the behavior of the perpetrators and countries emphasize “subjects seen to have victims of inhumanities .”28 This would not be practical value, such as foreign languages, math, a big challenge since human rights education is science, technology, and vocational training,” widely introduced in the current curriculum of as Elizabeth A . Cole and Judy Barsalou claim in the MoEYS and human rights issues are broadly their report The Challenges of Teaching History expressed and taught to people by many NGOs in Societies Emerging from Violent Conflict .26 in Cambodia . Should teachers be not well trained, even the While teaching KR history objectively, most objective and accurate textbook might be teachers may face conflict of understanding useless and Cambodia might face similar cir- or perception of history not only between cumstances or new forms of social problems . teachers and students but also among teachers In addition to teacher training, the MoEYS due to different experiences, knowledge, and may need to focus on some degree of pedagogi- political interests and thinking . For instance, cal reform to address the question of year levels in Cambodia, some teachers believe that the that should include the study KR history and presence of the Vietnamese in Cambodia is whether this study should be incorporated into in the form of invasion while some others see or taught alongside human rights education . it as an intervention . In a politically-charged These are also major issues in teaching about situation like this, as Cole and Barsalou claim, genocide, crimes and violence . Some analysts history teachers face a “threat to physical safety believe that it is better to introduce the subject and generally are under enormous pressure . . at the primary level since correct attitudes are to play too many roles—from psychologist and formed at the early stage of life . However, in guidance counselor to conflict resolution expert Cambodia, primary school students are too and mediator .” Therefore, before instilling in young to grasp the KR history and too early to the students the knowledge on KR history, it study about torture and killings . With respect is crucial to instill in the teachers the wider to the high illiteracy and high drop out rate as knowledge and understanding on this sensitive well as the on-going crimes and extra-judicial subject and the highly ethical issue in teaching killings happening everyday, young children and conveying KR history . History teachers and the drop-out students are likely to imitate need strong support from people, and particu- the lessons from classes . Other analysts believe larly from the government, to be able to teach that students should attain a certain degree of KR history objectively and with no fear . “emotional maturity and intellectual sophistica- To overcome this challenge, the MoEYS is in tion in order to comprehend the enormity and a better position to seek assistance from outsiders magnitude of the genocide .”27 In this sense, for the training of the Ministry staff, undertaking only secondary school students are mature teacher training, developing teaching materials enough to understand, analyze, and handle the and improving teaching methods and interests lessons appropriately . to make sure that teachers have both passion With this complexity, lessons on KR history and capacity to teach . DC-Cam has played a should pedagogically be either incorporated key role in this process since the beginning . 140  HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS

DC-Cam has offered teaching resources to the believe that adequate security is highly unlikely MoEYS and agrees to help train teachers as well to be accomplished in this politically-charged as to develop a guidebook . More importantly, society that has just emerged from conflict and resources provided by non-governmental or- violence . However, political will and political ganizations are more accurate, objective, and devotion are the keys to removing these barri- politically unbiased than the ones produced by ers . Only when these barriers are opened, can the government . However, these two institutions we proceed to other steps, which are matters have to cooperate together well . of technical solutions . Secondary school curriculum reform: The MoEYS officially adopted DC-Cam’s KR Recommendations history book “A History of Democratic Kam- puchea: 1975-1979” as a core reference to There is an urgent need to introduce geno- write KR history for integration into national cide education in Cambodia . KR history has secondary school social study textbooks, which to be fairly and accurately presented, not to are planned to be revised in 2009 . To resolve be interpreted and placed upon by those with the criticism of the MoEYS that the DC-Cam’s political authority . Cambodian politicians have history book is too long, the four major chap- to stop using the suffering of their people as ters (Chapter 2 [Who were the Khmer Rouge? a political tool and allow practitioners of the How Did They Gain Power?], Chapter 3 [The MoEYS to redraft school curriculum, initiate Khmer Rouge Came to Power], Chapter 6 [The the plan to train history teachers to be able to Four-Year Plan], and Chapter 7 [Daily Life teach KR history, and improve teaching meth- during the Democratic Kampuchea Period]) odology in conformity with this change . It is have been recommended to be used as major necessary to help students uncover the truth materials . Moreover, the Curriculum Reform and realize that the Cambodian genocide is Committee should not make many unnecessary not the designed fate from God or from any changes to the original content of these chap- other mystical power . It is clearly the result of ters if the new textbook revision is to serve its the utopian and radical ideologies of a group prime objectives . The new textbooks should be of Cambodian leaders, the architects of this politically neutral and should serve to advance genocide . Students need to understand how students’ knowledge on the period rather than the Cambodian leaders who were supposed to limit their understanding . In other words, the be highly influenced by a culture of respect for textbooks should pave the way for students to life could commit crimes and kill more than a gain greater insights and new understanding, million of their own people . To meet these chal- enhancing their knowledge and, as Schwart lenges, the following recommendations should puts, giving them “the opportunity to react be considered and undertaken . and express their feeling and to listen to the Political will: Sustainable development and sentiments of their classmates .” Therefore, the enforcement of solutions to these challenges historical narratives have to be as clear, precise, are largely a matter of political will . First and concise, consistent, and cogent, accurate and foremost, politicians have to remove all barri- unbiased as possible . ers, restrictions and pressures that obstruct the In addition to the accuracy of the text, the path to genocide education . The government amount of the text devoted to KR history has should create a secure environment so that writ- to be increased from the previous ones . It is ers, authors, and educators feel safe to address understandable that the MoEYS’s Social Study this politically controversial issue . Most analysts Textbooks from grade 9 to grade 12 comprise of Teaching Genocide in Cambodia:Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations  141 many important lessons and consist of over two Assuming the MoEYS includes, in whole or in hundred pages . The review committee of the part, DC-Cam’s history book into the school MoEYS has raised the concern that incorporat- curriculum, and teachers are permitted to use ing too many pages of the KR history may over- other supplementary sources for reference as load the textbooks and that students may not discussed above, the next question is, how? be able to finish their history study within the This is almost parallel to the activities in uni- academic year . Moreover, the pedagogical re- versity program development, but we go more search committee of the Ministry of Education deeply to develop teachers’ capacity building needs to balance KR history with other history to be able to use history textbooks objectively lessons, and not allow one lesson to displace the and to give instruction in class appropriately . others . However, the coverage devoted to KR Workshops on teaching KR history should be history should be around twenty pages in each convened on a national scale . History teachers grade . In addition, the new curriculum should throughout the country should be invited to at- include supplementary materials such as books tend the workshops and share their experiences about survivors’ stories for students to fully and the challenges they encounter in teaching understand this dark period . KR history . This will allow teachers to form a University curriculum revision: The De- general policy on dealing with those difficulties partment of History of the Royal University and developing new teaching strategies . At this of Phnom Penh (RUPP) needs to revise its stage, teachers can also be updated on newly- curriculum to enable the MOEYS to reinforce produced materials and provided more training its secondary school curriculum reform . These on KR history and genocide in other countries two factors are strongly interconnected . It will to make them understand that genocide did not be useless if the amount of KR history in sec- only exist in Cambodia but also in many other ondary school is increased but the capacity of countries throughout the human history . teachers in teaching history remains the same . This training can be done by DC-Cam in History Departments, which have the respon- collaboration with the MoEYS and other for- sibility to produce history teachers, have to eign institutions that have expertise in genocide increase both study hours and the quantity of studies . During the workshop, the teachers and KR history content . The History Department experts can discuss a teaching manual so that should design the study on KR history as a core they can develop an appropriate guidebook course in its four-year undergraduate program . on history teaching suited to the Cambodian Moreover, the history graduate students should education system . The guidebook will help be provided the opportunity to visit some im- teachers in preparing lesson plans and teaching portant genocide sites, such as the Tuol Sleng methodology . Genocide Museum and Cheung Ek Research and publication: The MoEYS to visualize the artifacts, skulls, mass graves, should encourage researchers and students in torture tools and victims’ photos . They should higher education to do research on Cambodian have a chance to screen original documentary conflicts, war, and genocide to help shape their films . Perhaps the History Department can perception of their own country’s history and develop a program in collaboration with DC- find ways of dealing wisely with the issues . Cam to show KR films to history undergraduate Moreover, the government should create an students . The films can help them learn more environment that allows researchers to share about the KR regime, and thus enable them to their findings with policymakers and educators function more effectively as future teachers . at the MoEys . This is a very urgent need to sup- Teacher training and teaching manual: port the reform of the curriculum in accordance 142  HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS with history education objectives, namely, to participation in solving the problem, support preserve the memory of the past in the most from NGOs, as DC-Cam has done to support objective way, promote social reconstruction, the Khmer Rouge Tribunal, and financial and and build internal empathy and moral devel- technical assistance from foreign donors . opment among students . In other words, the Unlike one or two decades ago, the Cam- dialogue will enable researchers and educators bodian government now has the resources to integrate genocide education, human rights necessary to facilitate the teaching of KR his- education and peace and democracy education tory to young generations . Many researchers in order to promote genocide awareness, geno- and scholars, both foreigners and Cambodians, cide remembrance, and rule of law, respect for have written and published articles and books human rights, peace, democracy and national which can be used as both teaching resources reconciliation as well as national unity . This en- and supplementary materials . In addition, the vironment will also help the MoEYS reduce the Tuol Sleng genocide museum, Choeung Ek burden of its professional work because it lacks memorial site and other memorials, as well as the appropriate resources to write or produce former prisons and killing sites throughout the unbiased lessons or textbooks on its own . The country, are invaluable resources in teaching MoEYS’s request to DC-Cam to help produce KR history . More importantly, Cambodia still KR history lesson in 2000 was an important step has living witnesses, victims and perpetrators showing how education officials work well with who survived the KR killing fields . They are independent researchers to produce the urgent the best resources for consultation and informal lessons for students . discussion . Students can discuss what they have Cooperation with non-governmental learned at school with their families at home . organizations: The MoEYS should continue Financial improvement: In addition, working closely with non-governmental orga- the government should enhance the national nizations (NGOs) that have expertise in KR budget for educational development and history . DC-Cam has done research on and pedagogical research, to ensure that educators collected documents from KR era since 1995 . are able to use the history books appropri- Millions of pages of documents, thousands of ately . Educational reform and development is interview transcripts, and hundreds of docu- a long-term process; consuming much time mentary films as well as research monographs, and financial resources . Therefore, the govern- are housed and preserved in the center’s ar- ment should ensure that education is free from chives . Students, teachers, researchers and the financial disruption, which is one of the major general population can view and do research problems in Cambodia today . This addresses in these archives . Particularly, the MoEYS can one of the urgent needs to improve the quality seek support from DC-Cam to train teach- of teaching-learning, raising the teachers’ liv- ers . Working towards genocide education is ing standard . Low salary discourages teachers a long-term process, not unlike the process from making the effort to improve the quality undertaken by the Cambodian government, of their teaching . international communities, and NGOs in the establishment of a judicial organ to prosecute high ranking members of the Kr . This process Conclusion needs a concerted effort among government, NGOs, people, and the international commu- It has been almost three decades since the nity . We need the government’s willingness to collapse of the DK regime, and yet education on address the problem, people’s awareness and critical events of the KR period has never been Teaching Genocide in Cambodia:Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations  143 accurately, appropriately, professionally, and responsibility to debate, discuss, or find out pedagogically integrated into the Cambodian the truth, have to accept their points of view education system . The conflict over its content as valid historical facts . History, emphasized remains unresolved . Important historical events by Cole and Barsalou, should be taught “in have been interpreted and defined by a number a way that inspires young people to believe in of political perspectives depending on the po- their own ability to effect positive changes in litical atmosphere and political trends . Political society and contribute to a more peaceful and climates shape the way the writers, authors, and just future . ”30 the writing and review committees of the gov- The controversial points in the Khmer ernment education agency convey the history Rouge history are the best examples of this of the KR era . As a result, historical depictions issue . Fair accounts of historical events face in school textbooks represent the interests of political pressure since many politicians in Cam- the ruling political leaders . bodia are not yet able to accept some facts as The absence of KR history in public educa- historical facts, as discussed earlier . This is one tion allows politicians to interpret, modify and of the big crises of the Cambodian education manipulate the presentation of history to convey system, whose resolution needs strong political political messages, rather than historical facts, commitment and devotion . to people, especially the young generations . On The post-conflict and divided-society of the one hand, there is Khieu Samphan claiming Cambodia is subjected to many kinds of po- in his latest interview with the Voice of America litical influences that prioritize the interests of (VOA) in October 2007 that without the KR groups over national interests . Any criticism revolution Cambodia would have become a of this situation usually ends up in favor of Vietnam and that the 1991 Paris Peace Agree- those who are currently in positions of power, ment would not be reached since its faction and who were also in power to end the major was one of the big dynamic forces behind the issues (conflicts, colonization, genocide or negotiation . CPP senior leaders, on the other invasion) that afflicted the country in the past . hand, in many public hearings, especially dur- Moreover, it is hard for Cambodia, a deeply ing the 1980s and 1990s, emphasize very often damaged country, to introduce accurate and that without “7 January” event29 the KR would unbiased account of KR history immediately continue to hold power and hundreds of thou- after emerging from civil war because of lack sands more people would have been killed and of consensus among politicians and educators that Cambodia today would not exist . So what on how the KR history, and the Cambodian is the truth behind this political propaganda? modern history for that matter, should be pre- This is a vicious circle that students find hard to sented . This follows the observation of Cole distinguish without proper education . and Barsalou that “in societies recovering from A study of the various textbooks produced violent conflict, questions of how to deal with for the formal school curriculum since 1979 up the past are acute, especially when the past to date, all history school textbooks mention involves memories of victimization, death, and the glorious events of the succeeding regimes destruction so widespread that a high percent- and talk about all the bad things about the de- age of the population is affected ”. 31 Ultimately, feated regimes . The writers do not include any the question of whether or not this controversial controversial point for debate or discussion in part of Cambodian history should be integrated the classroom . Rather, the writers present clear into school curriculum rests on the willingness, judgments on the debatable issues, which give commitment, devotion, and concession among the sense that students, rather than having the key political leaders . 144  HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS

The Khmer Rouge history is politically and with their parents, grandparents, or relatives emotionally sensitive because it touches and who survived the KR period . But one or two links all parts of Cambodian histories, from generations later, the students may perceive KR the French colonial period up to the present history as well as Cambodian modern history day . It is very important that young children in differently, and may find them irrelevant to the present and future generations fully under- their real lives . But though the KR regime had stand how Cambodian leaders in each regime ended, its legacy of atrocity still remains . Cole shaped the country . It is crucial for students to and Barsalou claim that, “conflict almost always perceive how some former Cambodian leaders continues at some level and violence takes new interjected powerful ideologies into the social forms in the present .” The old forms of violent web that affected the entire population . conflicts should be studied in order to have a The Anatomy of a Crisis of David Ayres32 basis for preventing their recurrence in the fu- best mirrors the Cambodian history . Ayres ture and, if they recur, deal with the new forms wrote that Prince Sihanouk, who ruled Cam- of violence and atrocities . They continue to bodia from 1955 to 1970, was determined to argue that, “if the regime does not address the “mold Cambodians into good Buddhist social- origins of the conflict effectively, they tend to ists committed to the [absolute] monarchy and be the bases of future instability and conflict .” the struggle against underdevelopment,” while In Cambodia, power struggles, sexual abuses, his coup-successor Lon Nol from 1970-1975 prostitution, gangs, domestic violence, social embarked on transforming the people into injustice, human rights violations, corruption, “Neo-Khmer Republicans,” and totally denied illiteracy, and impunity continue to be major the ideas of monarchy and socialism . He further social issues . These problems existed in previ- wrote that in contrast, Pol Pot (1975-1979) ous regimes, with some of them having become aimed to abolish all old models and brought worse today . Cambodia back to “year zero .” He wanted Generally, the social, economic and peda- to achieve an utopian ideal of collectivization gogical challenges to genocide education in and make Cambodia independent politically, Cambodia are not as outstanding obstacles as economically and culturally from foreign influ- the political challenges . When political issues ences . Heng Samrin and Hun Sen from 1979 to are solved, other challenges seem to be easily 1989, as David Ayres mentioned, “attempted resolved or at least do not constitute much to rescue the communist cause in Cambodia” concern since they are largely matters of tech- in the hope that Cambodia could become a nical and professional expertise . If the political socialist country like its neighbor Vietnam .33 institutions do not support genocide education, Finally, awakening from civil war, after the the challenges are highly unlikely to be met and 1993 national elections, all Cambodian politi- the obstacles overcome . The genuine problem cal leaders, with guidance from international at the present time is that the government does communities, agreed that Cambodians should not see the urgent need for genocide education . walk on the path toward multi-party democracy . Though the government, with both encourage- The failure to discover the past problems will ment and pressures, agrees to put the issue on widen the gap and allow the old corrupted so- its agenda, it justifies the decision to exclude the cial structures to recover and reoccur, which is KR history from official curriculum by citing harmful to people and society as a whole . lack of resources (funds included) to do more For the present generation in the decade thorough research and publication . And even of 2000s, secondary school students can talk when the research and publication (KR history and share what they have learned in school book) are undertaken by institutions outside Teaching Genocide in Cambodia:Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations  145 the government, such as international organiza- Cambodians serves the collective interest of all tions, NGOs, or research institutions that have Cambodians and all humanity . It is our history, the expertise in the field, the government has and it is our responsibility to learn it . Under- no political will to incorporate this research into standing the full dimension of KR history will school curriculums . As time passed, and with enable young generations of Cambodians to the existence of the Khmer Rouge Tribunal physically, emotionally, legally, morally, cul- and the demands from students, teachers, and turally, and psychologically engage in solving the general public to learn about Cambodian social problems and participate in the process history, the government has reluctantly agreed of national development . to use the existing history book done by DC- Cam, but with a condition that the MoEYS exercises full right to modify the book without Endnotes outside intervention or firm participation . In the end, the Khmer Rouge history remains a 1 This is the Extraordinary Chambers in the political tool . Courts of Cambodia (ECCC) established jointly Both formal and informal teachings of KR by the Cambodian government and the UN in 2004 to bring to “trial senior leaders of Democratic history at present have improved significantly . Kampuchea and those who were most responsible Although the government did not agree to for the crimes and serious violations of Cambodian endorse the inclusion of the KR history book penal law, international humanitarian law and produced by DC-Cam into secondary school custom, and international conventions recognized by curriculums, they consented to discuss and Cambodia, that were committed during the period share some concerns, which have allowed DC- from 17 April 1975 to 6 January 1979 .” (Article 1, Agreement Between the United Nations and the Royal Cam and NGOs working on educational issues Government of Cambodia Concerning the Prosecution to form a foundation on how to reconcile the Under Cambodian Law of Crimes Committed During concerns and to solve the problem . Moreover, the Period of Democratic Kampuchea, 2003) . the MoEYS review committee’s decision to 2 Duggan, Stephen J ., The Role of International officially allow DC-Cam to publish the history Organization in the Financing of Higher Education in Cambodia (Melbourne: Victoria University, 1997) . book, and distribute copies to secondary schools 3 throughout the country, marks the first time Ibid . 4 yair Auron, The Pain of Knowledge: Holocaust that the Cambodian government has allowed and Genocide Issues in Education (New Brunswick, such a politically controversial publication in the n .J .: Transaction Publishers, 2005), page 155 . Khmer language to be disseminated . 5 united Nations Transitional Authority in Genocide education is the only way to es- Cambodia (UNTAC), February 1992-September tablish a society free from human rights viola- 1993, http://www .un .org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_ tions and wide scale genocide . Cambodia and mission/untac .htm 6 Charlene Tan, "Education reforms in Cambodia: her people have suffered from war, genocide, issues and concerns," for Policy conflicts and violence for many decades . It is and Practice; 6(1):15-24 (2007) . time we learn from our past to build our future 7 Ibid . and use our past experiences as mechanisms to 8 sitha Chhinh, Satisfaction Sources of Cambodian instill in our young generation social cohesion Urban Primary School Teachers, a paper for so that the rhetorical meanings of democracy, Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation, Hiroshima University, 2003 . peace, reconciliation, and rule of law, respect of 9 youk Chhang, Director of DC-Cam, gave a human rights, and national unity employed by speech at a genocide conference at McGill University Cambodian politicians can be put into practice . in Montreal, Canada . Teaching KR history to young generations of 10 Ministry of National Education, Reading Book for Grade 1, Part 1, Publication of the, Phnom Penh, 146  HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS

Cambodia, 1979, page 43 and 46 . 29 This refers to the date when Vietnam entered 11 Ministry of National Education, Reading Book Cambodia – 7 January 1979 . for Grade 2, Part 1, Publication of the, Phnom Penh, 30 Ibid . Cambodia, 1979, page 59 . 31 Ibid . 12 Pin Sisovann and Matt Reed, “Textbook Delay 32 David M . Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis: Education, Reflects Sensitivity of Cambodia’s Recent History,” Development, and the State in Cambodia, 1953-1998, The Cambodia Daily, March 23-24, 2002 . (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000), page 13 Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of 186-187 . the Royal Government of Cambodia, Social Study 33 Ibid . textbook, Grade 9th Lesson 12, page 169, edition 2000 . (Unofficial translation by Bun Sou Sour, Documentation Center of Cambodia) Bibliography 14 Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Royal Government of Cambodia, Social Study Textbook, Grade 12th Lesson 4, edition 2001 . (Unofficial Books and articles translation by Bun Sou Sour, Documentation Center of Cambodia) Chandler, David P . 1992 . A . 15 Ibid . Bangkok: o .s . Printing House . 16 Sisovanh and Reed, op cit . Kiernan, Ben . 1996 . How Pol Pot Came to Power: 17 Suzana Linton, “Reconciliation in Cambodia,” A History of Communist in Kampuchea, 1930-1975 . Documentation Center of Cambodia, Phnom Penh, New Haven and London: Yale University Press . 2004, page 84 . ____ .1996 . The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power and 18 “Khieu Samphan: Sorry and Please Forget the Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975- Past,” Rasmei Kampuchea Daily, January 1, 1999 . 1979 . New Haven and London: Yale University Press . 19 Lor Chandara, “Prince Ranariddh Slams New US Central Intelligence Agency . 1980 . Kampuchea: History Textbook,” The Cambodia Daily, April 27-28, A Demographic Catastrophe . 2002 . Vickery, Michel . 1984 . Cambodia from 1975 to 20 Pin Sisovann, “Prime Minister Orders Recall of 1982 . Bangkok: o .s . Printing House . Textbooks,” The Cambodia Daily, April 29, 2002 . Dy, Khamboly . 2007 . A History of Democratic 21 DC-Cam’s proposal on Genocide Education . Kampuchea (1975-1979) . Phnom Penh: 22 The full text of the book in PDF files can be Documentation Center of Cambodia . found at: http://dccam .org/Projects/Genocide/ Ayres, David M . 2000 . Anatomy of a Crisis: English .htm Education, Development, and the State in Cambodia. 23 Ker Munthit, “New Text Gives Cambodians 1953-1998 . Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press . Glimpse of Khmer Rouge Period,” International Pin Sisovann and Matt Reed, “Textbook Delay Herald Tribune, by, The Associated Press, June 18, ReflectsS ensitivity of Cambodia’s Recent History,”The 2007 . Cambodia Daily, March 23-24, 2002 . 24 Yair Auron, The Pain of Knowledge: Holocaust Lor Chandara, “Prince Ranariddh Slams New and Genocide Issues in Education, New Brunswick, History Textbook,” The Cambodia Daily, April 27-28, n .J .: Transaction Publishers, 2005 . 2002 . 25 Ker Munthit, “New text gives Cambodians Pin Sisovann, “Prime Minister Orders Recall of glimpse of Khmer Rouge Period,” The Associated Textbooks,” The Cambodia Daily, April 29, 2002 . Press, June 18, 2007 . Ker Munthit, “New Text Gives Cambodians 26 Cole, Elizabeth A . and Barsolou Judy, Unite or Glimpse of Khmer Rouge Period,” International Divide? The Challenges of Teaching History in Societies Herald Tribune, June 18, 2007 . Emerging from Violent Conflict, Special Report to the Yair Auron . 2005 . The Pain of Knowledge: Holocaust United States Institute of Peace, 2005 . and Genocide Issues in Education . New Brunswich, 27 Schwartz, Donald, “Who Will Tell Them After NJ .: Transaction Publishers . We’re Gone? Reflections onT eaching ”, Duggan, Stephen J . 1997 . The Role of International The History Teacher Journal, 23/2, February 1990 . Organizations in the Financing of Higher Education in 28 Ibid . Cambodia . Melbourne :Victoria University . Teaching Genocide in Cambodia:Challenges, Analyses, and Recommendations  147

United Nations Transitional Authority in 2006, http://dccam .org/Projects/Genocide/Review Cambodia (UNTAC), February 1992-September %20Committee%20Members .htm 1993, http://www .un .org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_ mission/untac .htm Textbooks Tan, Charlene, “Education Reforms in Cambodia: Issues and Concerns,” Educational Research for Policy Ministry of National Education of the PRK, and Practice; 6(1):15-24 (2007) . Reading Book for Grade 1 (Ho Chi Minh City: 1982) . Chhinh, Sitha, Satisfaction Sources of Cambodian ______Reading Book for Grade 1, part 1 (Phnom Urban Primary School Teachers, a paper for graduate Penh: 1979) . school for International Development and Cooperation, ______Reading Book for Grade 2, part 1 (Phnom Hiroshima University . Penh: unknown date of publication) . Cole, Elizabeth A and Barsolou Judy . 2003 Unite ______Reading Book for Grade 2, part 2 (Unknown or Divide? The Challenges of Teaching History in Societies place of publication: 1981) . Emerging from Violent Conflict, Special Report to the ______Reading Book for Grade 3, part 1 (Ho Chi United States Institute of Peace . Minh City: 1981) . Chhwartz, Donald, “Who Will Tell Them After ______Reading Book for Grade 3, part 2 (Phnom We’re Gone? Reflections onT eaching the Holocaust,” Penh: Rannakse Printing House, 1984) . The History Teacher Journal, 23/2, February 1990 . ______Reading Book for Grade 4, part 2 (Ho Chi Minutes of Meeting of the Committee Members Minh City: 1980) . of the Royal Government of Cambodia on the Review ______Reading Book for Grade 5, part 1 (Phnom of the Draft of “A History of Democratic Kampuchea,” Penh: 1988) . Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, December ______Reading Book for Grade 5, part 2 (Phnom 14, 2006, http://dccam .org/Projects/Genocide/Mi Penh: Education Printing House, unknown date of nute%20of%20the%20Review .htm publication) . Official letter from His Excellency Im Sothy, ______Reading Book for Illiterate Adults, grade 1, Secretary of State of Cambodian Ministry of Education, part 2 (Phnom Penh: unknown date of publication) . Youth and Sports, to His Excellency Sok An, Deputy ______Reading Book for Illiterate Adults, grade 2, Prime Minister in charge of the Office of the Council part 1, (Ho Chi Minh City: 1982) . of Minister, January 3, 2007, http://dccam .org/ ______Reading Book for Illiterate Adults, grade 2, Projects/Genocide/Letter%20from%20the%20Revie part 2, (Phnom Penh: 1980) . w%20Committee .htm ______Reading Book for Illiterate Adults, grade 3, Letter from His Excellency Sean Borat, Cambodian part 1 (Phnom Penh: unknown date of publication) . government education advisor, to Prime Minister ______Reading Book for Illiterate Adults, grade 4, Hun Sen, September 19, 2006, http://dccam .org/ part 1 (Ho Chin Minh City: 1980) . Projects/Genocide/A%20suggestion%20of%20H . Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the E .%20Mr .%20Sean%20Borath .htm Royal Government of Cambodia, Social Study Textbook Resolution on the Establishment of the for grade 9 (Phnom Penh: 2000) Government Working Committee to Review the Draft ______Social Study Textbook for grade 12 (Phnom of “A History of Democratic Kampuchea,” October 6, Penh: 2001) .