■ GENOCIDE Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction is the most wide-ranging textbook on geno- cide yet published. The book is designed as a text for upper-undergraduate and graduate students, as well as a primer for non-specialists and general readers interested in learning about one of humanity’s enduring blights. Over the course of sixteen chapters, genocide scholar Adam Jones: • Provides an introduction to genocide as both a historical phenomenon and an analytical-legal concept. • Discusses the role of imperalism, war, and social revolution in fueling genocide. • Supplies no fewer than seven full-length case studies of genocides worldwide, each with an accompanying box-text. • Explores perspectives on genocide from the social sciences, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science/international relations, and gender studies. • Considers “The Future of Genocide,” with attention to historical memory and genocide denial; initiatives for truth, justice, and redress; and strategies of intervention and prevention. Written in clear and lively prose, liberally sprinkled with illustrations and personal testimonies from genocide survivors, Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction is destined to become a core text of the new generation of genocide scholarship. An accompanying website (www.genocidetext.net) features a broad selection of supplementary materials, teaching aids, and Internet resources. Adam Jones, Ph.D. is currently Associate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University. His recent publications include the edited volumes Gendercide and Genocide (2004) and Genocide, War Crimes and the West: History and Complicity (2004). He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (www.gendercide.org). GENOCIDE A Comprehensive Introduction Adam Jones First published 2006 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2006 Adam Jones This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Jones, Adam, 1963– Genocide : a comprehensive introduction / Adam Jones. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0–415–35384–X (pbk. : alk. paper) – ISBN 0–415–35385–8 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Genocide. 2. Genocide–Case studies. I. Title. HV6322.7.J64 2006 304.6’63–dc22 2005030424 ISBN10: 0–415–35385–8 ISBN13: 978–0–415–35385–4 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–415–35384–X ISBN13: 978–0–415–35384–7 (pbk) ISBN10: 0–203–34744–7 ISBN13: 978–0–203–34744–7 (ebk) For Jo and David Jones, givers of life, and for Dr. Griselda Ramírez Reyes, saver of lives. So let us not talk falsely now, the hour is getting late. Bob Dylan, “All Along the Watchtower” ■ CONTENTS List of illustrations xiii About the author xv Introduction xviii PART 1 OVERVIEW 1 1 The Origins of Genocide 3 Genocide in prehistory, antiquity, and early modernity 3 The Vendée uprising 6 Zulu genocide 7 Naming genocide: Raphael Lemkin 8 Defining genocide: The UN Convention 12 Bounding genocide: Comparative genocide studies 14 Discussion 19 Personal observations 22 Contested cases 23 Atlantic slavery 23 Area bombing and nuclear warfare 24 UN sanctions against Iraq 25 9/11 26 Structural and institutional violence 27 Is genocide ever justified? 28 Suggestions for further study 31 Notes 32 2 Imperialism, War, and Social Revolution 39 Imperialism and colonialism 39 Colonial and imperial genocides 40 Imperial famines 41 The Congo “rubber terror” 42 The Japanese in East and Southeast Asia 44 The US in Indochina 46 vii CONTENTS The Soviets in Afghanistan 47 A note on genocide and imperial dissolution 48 Genocide and war 48 The First World War and the dawn of industrial death 51 The Second World War and the “barbarization of warfare” 53 Genocide and social revolution 55 The nuclear revolution and “omnicide” 56 Suggestions for further study 59 Notes 60 PART 2 CASES 65 3 Genocides of Indigenous Peoples 67 Introduction 67 Colonialism and the discourse of extinction 68 The conquest of the Americas 70 Spanish America 70 The United States and Canada 72 Other genocidal strategies 75 A contemporary case: The Maya of Guatemala 77 Australia’s Aborigines and the Namibian Herero 78 Genocide in Australia 78 The Herero genocide 80 Denying genocide, celebrating genocide 81 Complexities and caveats 83 Indigenous revival 85 Suggestions for further study 87 Notes 89 4 The Armenian Genocide 101 Introduction 101 Origins of the genocide 102 War, massacre, and deportation 105 The course of the Armenian genocide 106 The aftermath 112 The denial 113 Suggestions for further study 115 Notes 116 5 Stalin’s Terror 124 The Bolsheviks seize power 125 Collectivization and famine 127 The Gulag 128 viii CONTENTS The Great Purge of 1937–38 129 The war years 131 The destruction of national minorities 134 Stalin and genocide 135 Suggestions for further study 137 Notes 138 6 The Jewish Holocaust 147 Introduction 147 Origins 148 “Ordinary Germans” and the Nazis 150 The turn to mass murder 151 Debating the Holocaust 157 Intentionalists vs. functionalists 157 Jewish resistance 158 The Allies and the churches: Could the Jews have been saved? 159 Willing executioners? 160 Israel and the Jewish Holocaust 161 Is the Jewish Holocaust “uniquely unique”? 162 Suggestions for further study 163 Notes 165 7 Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge 185 Origins of the Khmer Rouge 185 War and revolution, 1970–75 188 A genocidal ideology 190 A policy of “urbicide”, 1975 192 “Base people” vs. “new people” 194 Cambodia’s holocaust, 1975–79 195 Genocide against Buddhists and ethnic minorities 199 Aftermath: Politics and the quest for justice 200 Suggestions for further study 202 Notes 202 8 Bosnia and Kosovo 212 Origins and onset 212 Gendercide and genocide in Bosnia 216 The international dimension 219 Kosovo, 1998–99 220 Aftermaths 222 Suggestions for further study 224 Notes 224 ix CONTENTS 9 Holocaust in Rwanda 232 Introduction: Horror and shame 232 Background to genocide 233 Genocidal frenzy 238 Aftermath 245 Suggestions for further study 246 Notes 247 PART 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 259 10 Psychological Perspectives 261 Narcissism, greed, and fear 262 Narcissism 262 Greed 264 Fear 265 Genocide and humiliation 268 The psychology of perpetrators 270 The Zimbardo experiments 274 The psychology of rescuers 275 Suggestions for further study 281 Notes 282 11 The Sociology and Anthropology of Genocide 288 Introduction 288 Sociological perspectives 289 The sociology of modernity 289 Ethnicity and ethnic conflict 291 Ethnic conflict and violence “specialists” 293 “Middleman minorities” 294 Anthropological perspectives 296 Suggestions for further study 301 Notes 302 12 Political Science and International Relations 307 Empirical investigations 307 The changing face of war 311 Democracy, war, and genocide/democide 314 Norms and prohibition regimes 316 Suggestions for further study 320 Notes 321 x CONTENTS 13 Gendering Genocide 325 Gendercide vs. root-and-branch genocide 326 Women and genocide 329 Gendercidal institutions 330 Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331 Are men more genocidal than women? 332 A note on gendered propaganda 334 Suggestions for further study 336 Notes 337 PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343 14 Memory, Forgetting, and Denial 345 The struggle over historical memory 345 Germany and “the search for a usable past” 349 The politics of forgetting 350 Genocide denial: Motives and strategies 351 Denial and free speech 354 Suggestions for further study 358 Notes 358 15 Justice, Truth, and Redress 362 Leipzig, Constantinople, Nuremberg, Tokyo 363 The international criminal tribunals: Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366 Jurisdictional issues 367 The concept of a victim group 367 Gender and genocide 367 National trials 368 The “mixed tribunals”: Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370 Another kind of justice: Rwanda’s gacaca experiment 370 The Pinochet case 371 The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373 International citizens’ tribunals 375 Truth and reconciliation 377 The challenge of redress 379 Suggestions for further study 381 Notes 382 16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388 Warning signs 389 Humanitarian intervention 392 xi CONTENTS Sanctions 393 The United Nations 394 When is military intervention justified? 395 A standing “peace army”? 396 Ideologies and individuals 398 The role of the honest witness 398 Ideologies, religious and secular 400 Conclusion 404 Suggestions for further study 404 Notes 405 Index 410 xii ■ ILLUSTRATIONS 1.1 Raphael Lemkin 10 2.1 Imperial genocide: Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 43 2.2 British soldiers go “over the top” at the Battle of the Somme, 1916 52 2.3 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki, 1945 57 3.1 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosí, Bolivia 72 3.2 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre, 1890 74 3.3 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucatán,