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Disclosive Search Ethics: Illuminating the Gatekeepers of Knowledge

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Disclosive Search Ethics: Illuminating the Gatekeepers of Knowledge Calhoun: The NPS Institutional Archive DSpace Repository Theses and Dissertations 1. Thesis and Dissertation Collection, all items 2019-12 DISCLOSIVE SEARCH ETHICS: ILLUMINATING THE GATEKEEPERS OF KNOWLEDGE Vogelsong, Benjamin; Nelson, Rebecca L. Monterey, CA; Naval Postgraduate School http://hdl.handle.net/10945/64091 Downloaded from NPS Archive: Calhoun NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA THESIS DISCLOSIVE SEARCH ETHICS: ILLUMINATING THE GATEKEEPERS OF KNOWLEDGE by Benjamin Vogelsong and Rebecca L. Nelson December 2019 Thesis Advisor: Bradley J. Strawser Second Reader: Timothy C. Warren Approved for public release. Distribution is unlimited. THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK Form Approved OMB REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instruction, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302, and to the Office of Management and Budget, Paperwork Reduction Project (0704-0188) Washington, DC 20503. 1. AGENCY USE ONLY 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED (Leave blank) December 2019 Master's thesis 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. FUNDING NUMBERS DISCLOSIVE SEARCH ETHICS: ILLUMINATING THE GATEKEEPERS OF KNOWLEDGE 6. AUTHOR(S) Benjamin Vogelsong and Rebecca L. Nelson 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING Naval Postgraduate School ORGANIZATION REPORT Monterey, CA 93943-5000 NUMBER 9. SPONSORING / MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND 10. SPONSORING / ADDRESS(ES) MONITORING AGENCY N/A REPORT NUMBER 11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES The views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government. 12a. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE Approved for public release. Distribution is unlimited. A 13. ABSTRACT (maximum 200 words) Search engines connect people to information, from current events to dark secrets. Integral in the navigation of so many people’s daily lives, search engines hold immense power and influence; yet, the process is opaque with little public accountability. Given search engines’ ubiquity of use, and the perception that they are a public service, the profit model of selling user data raises unique ethical concerns. This paper identifies these ethical concerns and proposes guiding theories for how ethical internet search should work in democratic societies. We apply a disclosive computer ethics model to internet search, evaluating the concerns against principles of justice, freedom, privacy, and democracy, and then considering how ethical theories could be applied through laws and regulation, societal norms, market forces, and technological architecture. We argue that current governance approaches are insufficient to address these concerns. Our research shows these concerns are especially troubling given the surprising lack of transparency for something so universal and integral for the navigation of daily life. Search engine companies have become the gatekeepers of knowledge, yet innovations in technology outpace public awareness of the inherent ethical concerns and resulting social implications of how these companies operate. 14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF algorithms, algorithmic bias, disclosive ethics, distributive justice, epistemic justice, ethics, PAGES internet search, search, search engines, policy, regulation 107 16. PRICE CODE 17. SECURITY 18. SECURITY 19. SECURITY 20. LIMITATION OF CLASSIFICATION OF CLASSIFICATION OF THIS CLASSIFICATION OF ABSTRACT REPORT PAGE ABSTRACT Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified UU NSN 7540-01-280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89) Prescribed by ANSI Std. 239-18 i THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK ii Approved for public release. Distribution is unlimited. DISCLOSIVE SEARCH ETHICS: ILLUMINATING THE GATEKEEPERS OF KNOWLEDGE Benjamin Vogelsong Major, United States Army BA, Virginia Tech, 2005 MA, American Military University, 2016 Rebecca L. Nelson Major, United States Army BA, Alaska Pacific University, 2011 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN INFORMATION STRATEGY AND POLITICAL WARFARE from the NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL December 2019 Approved by: Bradley J. Strawser Advisor Timothy C. Warren Second Reader Kalev I. Sepp Chair, Department of Defense Analysis iii THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK iv ABSTRACT Search engines connect people to information, from current events to dark secrets. Integral in the navigation of so many people’s daily lives, search engines hold immense power and influence; yet, the process is opaque with little public accountability. Given search engines’ ubiquity of use, and the perception that they are a public service, the profit model of selling user data raises unique ethical concerns. This paper identifies these ethical concerns and proposes guiding theories for how ethical internet search should work in democratic societies. We apply a disclosive computer ethics model to internet search, evaluating the concerns against principles of justice, freedom, privacy, and democracy, and then considering how ethical theories could be applied through laws and regulation, societal norms, market forces, and technological architecture. We argue that current governance approaches are insufficient to address these concerns. Our research shows these concerns are especially troubling given the surprising lack of transparency for something so universal and integral for the navigation of daily life. Search engine companies have become the gatekeepers of knowledge, yet innovations in technology outpace public awareness of the inherent ethical concerns and resulting social implications of how these companies operate. v THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK vi TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................1 II. BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................5 A. WHAT IS SEARCH? ................................................................................5 B. SEARCH AS A PUBLIC SERVICE ........................................................7 C. METHODS OF GOVERNANCE .............................................................9 D. PREDOMINANT ETHICAL THEORIES ...........................................12 III. COMPUTER ETHICS ........................................................................................19 A. SEARCH ENGINE ETHICS ..................................................................20 B. DISCLOSIVE ETHICS ...........................................................................24 IV. DISCLOSED ISSUES ..........................................................................................27 A. PERSONALIZATION ............................................................................28 1. Issue: Reinforcing Bias and Polarization ...................................29 2. Issue: Collecting and Exploiting Personal Data ........................30 3. Issue: Government Surveillance .................................................32 4. Issue: Lack of Consent and Voluntary Disclosure ....................33 B. JUDGMENT .............................................................................................33 1. Issue: Algorithmic Bias................................................................34 2. Issue: Objectivity and Neutrality ...............................................36 3. Issue: Misinformation ..................................................................38 C. SCALE ......................................................................................................40 1. Issue: Stifling Competition ..........................................................41 2. Issue: Accountability ...................................................................41 3. Issue: Universality ........................................................................41 4. Issue: Permanency and the Right to Be Forgotten ...................42 5. Issue: The Internet of Things and Non-public Internet Devices ...........................................................................................42 6. Issue: Complexity .........................................................................43 V. ETHICAL PRINCIPLES ....................................................................................45 A. PRIVACY .................................................................................................45 1. Issues: Personalization.................................................................46 2. Issues: Judgment ..........................................................................47 3. Issues: Scale ..................................................................................49 B. JUSTICE ...................................................................................................50 1. Issues: Personalization.................................................................50 vii 2. Issues: Judgment ..........................................................................51
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