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The HOMINOID 2:81-102 (2012)

Essay

MISUNDERSTANDINGS ARISING FROM TREATING THE SASQUATCH AS A SUBJECT OF

John Bindernagel1 *, Jeff Meldrum2

1Courtenay, BC V9N 1C3, 2Department of Biological , State University, 921 S. 8th Ave, Pocatello, ID 83209

ABSTRACT. For a of reasons, the inclusion of the sasquatch as a subject of cryptozoology may be inappropriate. It is suggested that the dismissal of the sasquatch to this category has more to do with unawareness of for its as a North American mammal than the absence of such evidence. In addition, it is suggested that both the long available and recent evidence supporting the existence of the sasquatch has been ignored or misinterpreted. Foremost among the reasons for this resistance are the implications that the sasquatch, if extant, challenges prevailing . This “knowledge” portrays the sasquatch as mythical (in the narrow sense as ), an imaginary or being, a misidentified , or merely a . The unwillingness of relevant to objectively scrutinize the long available evidence appears to be based on uncritical acceptance of prevailing knowledge resulting in the treatment of the sasquatch as a scientifically taboo subject. It is suggested that this treatment (or mistreatment), a subject of increasing interest, will itself become a subject of enquiry in the discipline of of . This essay reiterates the position of a handful of scientists who take a minority position regarding the sasquatch as extant and who have attempted to bring relevant evidence to the attention of colleagues in the larger . It addresses various aspects of scientific resistance to an unfolding discovery, recognizing that the implications of this discovery claim are significant but unpalatable and unwelcome according to prevailing scientific knowledge. Consequently, a number of explanations for the prolonged of the discovery process with regard to the sasquatch are offered. Explanations are also offered regarding the reluctance of relevant scientists to entertain a challenge to prevailing knowledge in scientific and professional conferences. The prolonged discovery of the sasquatch may serve as a model for discovery claims perceived as far-fetched yet eventually proven correct.

KEYWORDS: Criptids, scientific discovery, , ethnozoology, anomalies, forensic evidence

INTRODUCTION branch of devoted to the study and search for cryptids.” Rossi defines cryptids as Cryptozoology (literally “the study of hidden “potential species or subspecies of living animals”) refers to the study of animals animals [which are] not yet officially considered “hidden” to science usually discovered and whose existence is based only because of a lack of conclusive evidence of on circumstantial evidence and witness existence, or the prerequisite type specimen statements, or material evidence considered (Heuvelmans, 1982). The need to refine the insufficient.” definition of cryptozoology has been Many non-scientists (and some scientists) discussed by Lorenzo Rossi (unpubl. abstract). investigating the sasquatch have referred to According to Rossi “cryptozoology is a the sasquatch as a subject of cryptozoology—

*correspondenc to John Bindernagel, email: [email protected]. © RHI

THE SASQUATCH AS A SUBJECT OF CRYPTOZOOLOGY 82

(and hence, a cryptid)—perhaps thinking that classification as a cryptid may have relatively so categorizing it might confer greater little to do with the biological characteristics legitimacy to the subject and to their efforts. of the animal itself, biologists may find it But, although “cryptozoological” difficult to regard cryptozoology as a true may borrow techniques from recognized subdiscipline of zoology. It is not surprising, biological subdisciplines, like ethnozoology, it then, that categorizing the sasquatch as a has so far failed to garner an equivalent subject of cryptozoology has apparently done amount of respect. little to improve its reputation among For a number of reasons the term scientists, particularly when it is grouped cryptozoology has suffered from scientific alongside other cryptids whose possible prejudice. This paper addresses some of these existence is based on considerably less reasons and sources of resistance. This paper evidence. also suggests that the inclusion of the North American sasquatch as a subject of The categorization of an animal as a cryptozoology may have been inappropriate in cryptid based on its perception as that an apparent lack of evidence supporting anomalous and unclassifiable the existence of the sasquatch was actually unawareness of available evidence on the part There appears to be a deep-seated need of relevant scientists, or, in some cases, to categorize or classify a creature before there misinterpretation of such evidence. Because is any willingness to examine its anatomy, cryptozoology has commonly been behavior, and ecology. Historically, the categorized as a subject of pseudoscience, the discovery of the sasquatch has suffered from consequences of being categorized as a problems of classification (Bindernagel, subject of cryptozoology (i.e., a cryptid) can 2010). As noted in an 1891 eyewitness be particularly severe. account from (The Daily One of the problems with cryptozoology as Democrat of Woodland, California. April 9, a category is its attempt to embrace a wide 1891), a sasquatch was described in a variety of species (including mammals, birds, newspaper headline as “An Unheard of reptiles, and invertebrates) according to their Monstrosity,” even though the animal was apparent “hiddenness” or “cryptic” nature. initially thought to be “a man clothed in a suit This hiddenness, in some cases, is based of shaggy fur.” Elsewhere in the article, the merely on a current lack of evidence, lack of animal was variously described as “some kind awareness of evidence, or apparent un- of monstrosity,” “strange creature,” “unnamed classifiability. In this sense, the unifying animal,” “non-descript,” “strange beast,” theme of cryptozoology may have more to do “creature with the strength of a ,” and, with people’s perception or knowledge of finally, returning to the theme, a certain animals than with any inherent aspects “peculiar monstrosity.” Even when of the animals themselves. For instance, many became part of the global canon of mammals, of these species may only be considered the occurrence of a bipedal nonhuman great “cryptids” because they live in remote or in remained excluded from impenetrable habitats (and, of course, these serious consideration. Because the notion of a habitats may only be “remote” and great ape in temperate of North “impenetrable” from a human, or more America was deemed contrary to conventional particularly urbanized human perspective), or wisdom, the evidence supporting this that their reported existence is unexpected has remained unacceptable for (e.g., thought to be extinct). Since an animal’s scientific scrutiny. Scientists have remained

JOHN BINDERNAGEL 83 largely unaware of the observed anatomical called attention to scientific and behavioral similarities between the awareness of an anomaly as an early stage in sasquatch and the nonhuman great . the discovery process: Especially the case for some behaviors attributed to sasquatch seemingly atypical of Discovery commences with the awareness great apes, which turned out to anticipate the of [an] anomaly, i.e., with the recognition recognition of those behaviors in known great that nature has somehow violated the apes, such as eating fish. As a result, the -induced expectations that govern sasquatch has been perceived merely as an . It then continues with a anomaly, and this designation may have more or less extended exploration of the contributed to the perception of the sasquatch area of anomaly. And it closes only when as unclassifiable. the paradigm has been adjusted so Although an anomaly is objectively defined that the anomalous has become the as “something which does not fit,” the term is expected (Kuhn, 1970). sometimes perceived as a pejorative. Philosopher of science , for Dissection of the discovery process for the example, observed that “contradictions to sasquatch may be useful in determining the current scientific conceptions are often extent to which it follows Kuhn’s definition of disposed of by calling them ‘anomalies’; this discovery. The discovery of the sasquatch is the handiest assumption in the epicyclical began with Aboriginal accounts and continued reserve of any theory” (emphasis added) with the earliest published “” reports. (Polanyi, 1958). In the latter, settlers and pioneers familiar with Sociologist Ron Westrum addressed the “normal” North American wildlife species dilemma of publicly reporting an anomaly. He became aware that they had observed an suggested that “the [news] reporter looks to anomaly in the form of a real (i.e., extant) but the opinions of the scientific community as a unusual animal. Such continued guide for his own treatment of reports of with recent eyewitness accounts of the same anomalies. Press interviews with scientists are species, corroborated by photographs and as much for the benefit of the press as they are casts of its tracks. In other words, many for the information of media consumers. people observed an animal in nature that And,” he pointed out, “scientists can usually “violated”—or ran counter to—expectations be counted upon to reject anomaly reports” regarding just which mammals existed, (Westrum, 1980). according to the prevailing paradigm. Indeed, philosopher of science Thomas Paradigm-induced expectations include , Kuhn observed that “it is for the normal, not and—as often related by the mass media— the extraordinary practice of science that costumed . professionals are trained.” He noted that “the However, the final stage of Kuhn’s who pauses to examine every discovery process, in which paradigm theory anomaly he notes will seldom get significant is adjusted, has not yet occurred at this writing work done.” In consideration of this, Kuhn with respect to the sasquatch, although signs suggested that: “We therefore have to ask of a realignment of thought are beginning to what it is that makes an anomaly seem worth appear. The difficulty in completing this last concerted scrutiny.” One of the goals of this stage of discovery was described by historian paper is to document just what it is that makes of biomedical science Ilana Löwy, who the sasquatch, an apparent anomaly, “seem expanded on Kuhn’s ideas in a paper worth concerted scrutiny.” presented at the symposium titled Prematurity

THE SASQUATCH AS A SUBJECT OF CRYPTOZOOLOGY 84 in Scientific Discovery: The sasquatch as an anomaly: the metaphor of the Black Swan The great majority of scientists, Kuhn explains, are not busy contesting accepted In The Black Swan: The Impact of the Highly knowledge or falsifying major claims but Improbable, wrote that instead repeat—with relatively small variants—the work of their predecessors. Before the discovery of , people in Moreover, scientists are organized in the old world were convinced that all distinct and incommensurable communi- swans were white, an unassailable as ties, each shaped by a different disciplinary it seemed completely confirmed by matrix, and they work exclusively within . The sighting of the first the framework of this matrix. black swan might have been an interesting Only occasionally does a great upheaval surprise for a few ornithologists (and others take place: old exemplars and models extremely concerned with the coloring of become invalid, well-established patterns birds), but that is not where the significance of practice disappear, and boundaries of the story . It illustrates a severe between disciplines and specialties are limitation to our learning from observations redefined. Scientists then have to adapt to or experience and the fragility of our an entirely new way of perceiving their knowledge. One single can objects of study. Such a gestalt switch is invalidate a general statement derived from often difficult, and a change of generation millennia of confirmatory sightings of of scientists may be needed to complete the millions of white swans. All you need is transition from the old paradigm to the new one single…black bird. one (Lowy, 2002). Taleb decided to use the black swan Nonetheless, one aspect of the final stage analogy to of discovery has—in a way—been partly fulfilled with regarding to this species. With push one step beyond this philosophical- over 3,000 reports of sasquatches or their logical question into an empirical tracks on file, and with over two hundred reality….What we call here a Black Swan plaster casts of sasquatch tracks from various (and capitalize it) is an event with the parts of North America archived in a single following three attributes. collection at Idaho State University, what was First, it is an outlier, as it lies outside perceived as the anomalous has become the the realm of regular expectations, because expected. But it is expected (or expectable) nothing in the past can convincingly point only for the few scientists who have to its possibility. Second, it carries an familiarized themselves with the data and with extreme impact. Third, in spite of its outlier the trace and physical evidence, and who status, human nature makes us concoct have, in addition, tested and utilized the great explanations for its occurrence after the ape and found that it “works,” i.e., , making it explainable and predictable. that there is a paleontological, biogeographi- (emphasis in original) (Taleb, 2007). cal, and ecological context to the existence of a North American ape; that observed The sasquatch, still widely perceived as an anatomies and behaviors are largely consistent anomaly (or “outlier”) at this writing, remains with those of known apes (Bindernagel, 1998; unrecognized as an existing North American Meldrum, 2006). mammal species. As such it may be—

JOHN BINDERNAGEL 85 metaphorically—a Black Swan. attempt to understand this oversight has Leila Hadj-Chikh, one of the few scientists already begun. But while partial explanations currently involved in sasquatch research, may be found in the treatment of the sasquatch provides a broader perspective in which to as a subject of cryptozoology (i.e., a cryptid), consider the sasquatch in the of or as an anomaly, further explanations are science and our present frameworks of revealed by examining the influence of these knowledge. factors on the scientific process.

If the sasquatch is eventually recognized as FORMS OF EVIDENCE SUPPORTING an existing species, it will be viewed as an THE SASQUATCH AS EXTANT outlier, in that it is an ape indigenous to a continent [North America] with no known It would be almost impossible to fossil record of higher . Its underestimate the significance of the unaware- presence on that continent could be ness of available evidence that results in the explained post hoc (by citing the trans- categorization the sasquatch as a cryptid. Arctic exchange over the Bering land Consequently, it is relevant to briefly review bridge), but it is difficult to argue that its the main forms of long-available evidence and geographic location and biological why they have been ignored, diminished, or idiosyncrasies could have been predicted misinterpreted. prior to its discovery. Its zoological uniqueness illustrates the difficulty of Aboriginal or Indigenous knowledge predicting outcomes in complex systems. In this case, predicting the sasquatch’s While Aboriginal or indigenous knowledge existence would have required predicting provides the oldest form of evidence the outcome of a complex evolutionary supporting the sasquatch as an extant process that had occurred over the course mammal, it may also be the most of millions of years. misunderstood. Aboriginal descriptions of I suppose another way in which the sasquatches have generally been dismissed as sasquatch would be considered a Black accounts of a mythical supernatural being, Swan is that it would represent a large despite the inclusion of anatomical details mammal that had persisted into the twenty- borne out in non-Aboriginal accounts. first century without being officially The occurrence of the sasquatch in the recognized by the scientific establishment. context of myth has been unfortunate in that This too would make it an outlier, and it myth is often narrowly interpreted to mean would certainly have been hard to predict “fictitious” in contrast to its original that the scientific community could ignore etymology from the Greek mythos meaning a a species like that for so long. But, after narrative or story. This was noted by editor W. concluding it had done so, scientists would S. Penn, in his preface to the book The Telling find themselves trying to analyze how that of the World: Native Stories and . There, he had happened, making it “explainable,” at explained that he decided at the outset “that least in retrospect (Hadj-Chikh, personal the word ‘myth’ not appear in the [book’s] communication). title or subtitles, not because some of these stories are not mythic, but because so many For the few scientists who, on the basis of people use the word ‘myth’ to mean false [or] evidence at hand, have already come to regard untrue (Penn, 1996). the sasquatch as an existing species, an In the past, cultural anthropologists have

THE SASQUATCH AS A SUBJECT OF CRYPTOZOOLOGY 86 often interpreted mythical to mean McIlwraith concluded his discussion of this supernatural. Anthropologist Wayne Suttles animal with the comments: recognized this “easy” categorization and cautioned against it: The Bella Coola believe that the boq`s, unlike most supernatural animals, have not It is certainly true that we anthropologists abandoned the country since the coming of have generally dumped sasquatch-like the white man. One man was most insistent beings into a category “” and that they still lived on King Island, and let it go at that. We may have done this promised to point one out if a visit were because we are professionally interested made to that spot. This man refuses to camp more in native culture than in the of at the place where, he affirmed, boq`s are zoology, but I think it is more because we common. Another informant stated that are operating with too simple a version of though he had never seen one of the the Western dichotomy. In fact, if we were , a horde of them surrounded his true to our earlier, Boasian objective of camp near Canoe Crossing for a week. describing the native culture as seen by the Every night he heard them roaring and participants, we ought not to categorize so beating on trees and branches (McIlwraith, freely the creatures our informants tell us 1927). about. (emphasis added) (Suttles, 1972). The tendency for anthropologists such as But despite the orthodox “supernatural” McIlwraith to categorize the subject of such interpretation, at least a few published reports as “supernatural animals” is, as Aboriginal accounts allow for a different described by Wayne Suttles, not surprising. It interpretation. For example, anthropologist T. must be noted, however, that the description F. McIlwraith recorded reports of the Boq`s, a collected and recorded in McIlwraith’s report hairy, human-shaped creature, described by is remarkably consistent with sasquatch the Nuxalk people of the north coast of British reports submitted by non-Aboriginal eye- Columbia early in the twentieth century. In a witnesses in other parts of North America 1925 archaeological report titled “Certain many decades prior to (and subsequent to) the Beliefs of the Bella Coola Indians Concerning period of his anthropological research. Animals,” and later in his two-volume work, Although his report is no less detailed than The Bella Coola Indians, he described the some of the published accounts submitted by Boq`s as told to him by his Aboriginal pioneers, settlers, and modern eyewitnesses, it informants: has been treated differently on the basis of its Aboriginal origin, and the implication that, This beast somewhat resembles a man, its because of this context, it describes one of a hands especially, and the region around the number of supernatural animals. eyes being distinctly human. It walks on its hind legs, in a stooping posture, its long This problem was identified and explained arms swinging below the knees; in height it by folklorist Carole Henderson: is rather less than the average man. The entire body, except for the face, is covered The Coast Indians considered the with long hair, the growth being most wilderness in which they lived to be profuse on the chest which is large, inhabited by many strange creatures, most corresponding to the great strength of the of which can be identified as animals of animal. nature. Others, unknown to Europeans,

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have typically, though perhaps grandparents had warned her not to venture up unjustifiably, been classified as mythical certain canyons or the “monkey-man” would supernatural beings. It cannot be proven get her. that the Indians themselves saw these Such stories sound incredible and may creatures as mythical, but anthropologists seem akin to tales of the Bogeyman that serve and other scholars have generally as an idle reproach to misbehaving children. considered them such (Henderson, 1976). However, their origins may have root in real events. A former park ranger in Uganda Occasionally, aspects of the traditional related an incident in which a accounts of the wildmen which at the time stole a native baby that had been parked seems rather anomalous, actually anticipate beside the fields while its mother labored. The behaviors of great apes not yet fully infant had been killed and partially eaten appreciated — further exemplifying the before the pursuing villagers could retrieve it. anomalous becoming the expected. Ethnologist F.W.H. Migeod, while in Sierra For example, the Kwakiutl, like a number Leon, examined a 12-year-old boy that had of other coastal peoples, distinguish the been attacked and badly torn by a chimpanzee, female element of the wildman separately, as and reported this behavior in an historical the Dsonoqua, who is a hair-covered giantess, account from 1926. Under the heading “Man- with large hanging breasts, nocturnal, and Killing Apes” he wrote, “This species of ape fond of abducting children. The Dsonoqua runs to a large size in Sierra Leone” and frequently adorns totem poles and masks, and “noted for its ferocity…will without hesitation is distinguished by protruding pursed lips, when it gets the chance attack children and indicating its whistling call. run off with them with the intent to kill them.” This alleged behavior of stealing children In a recent news report from Uganda, a was related by a member of an intermountain growing number of such abductions have tribe, who related a traditional account of a come to light. At least eight children have died crying child being snatched from under the over a seven-year period and as many were wall of the teepee. Another tribal member seriously injured. Dr. Michael Gavin, a recounted that her mother often told her and conservation biologist, who documented one her bedtime stories of the be'a'- of the most recent incidents observed, “They nu'mbe' — the "Brother in the Woods" — in [chimps] are just trying to get by. If they can’t order to settle them down for the night. The get enough food in the , they are going mother would occasionally tell the children to wander out in search of what’s available.” It that if they didn’t quiet down, be'a'-nu'mbe' would appear the abduction of human children would come and reach through the window to is a behavior not out of character for an ape. snatch them away and no one would know Perhaps the accounts of Dsonoqua and be'a'- what had become of them. She stressed that nu'mbe' are more than just-so stories to be'a'-nu'mbe' was not portrayed as a monster, encourage children to behave. but rather a long lost brother, who in the mountains and only comes out in times of Published historical accounts distress. There was something out there that was large and powerful and should be Published historical accounts of sasquatch respected. In a similar vein, a young tribal have languished largely unscrutinized by woman who attended an evening seminar at scientists despite the wealth of anatomical and the Idaho Museum of Natural History behavioral detail presented in some of them. remarked afterward that as a child, her This can be attributed in large part to the early

THE SASQUATCH AS A SUBJECT OF CRYPTOZOOLOGY 88 references to the sasquatch as a “monster” or The title of this newspaper article “monstrosity”— an anomalous and un- illustrates the historical perception of the classifiable creature, or legendary animal. An sasquatch as anomalous and unclassifiable, example of this is the 1891 California account longstanding deterrents to its acceptance as an referred to above, in which general existing North American mammal. It also descriptions of the sasquatch are as some kind illustrates that such objections can often be of “monster.” overcome by a more careful of such General terms such as “monster” may have historical accounts. led some scientifically-minded readers to dismiss the creature as fanciful, and are at Recent accounts variance with the more detailed observations described by the observer in this particular In addition to the valuable but generally account. Reading the complete article reveals unexamined historical accounts from the that the observer had actually described the 1800s, there are more recent, even sasquatch not as a monster, but rather, contemporary accounts, which cast light on resembling “a man clothed in a suit of shaggy the sasquatch as readily classifiable. Such fur,” who was “about six feet high when accounts, viewed within the context of modern standing.” In addition, there were several knowledge of great apes and hominid anatomical features noted by the observer. , indicate that it is clearly a These included the short thick neck of the with hominoid anatomical features and mammal which he explained in anatomical elements of behavior. terms: “The trapezie [trapezius] muscles were By the mid-1900s, newspaper and very thick.” His account also referred to “its magazine accounts of sasquatches were deep set eyes.” becoming increasingly common and These two anatomical features allude to the increasingly articulate in describing the apelike anatomy of the sasquatch. In addition, detailed anatomy of the sasquatch. For the observer recorded ape-like elements of example, there is the 1956 behavior such as chest-beating, branch- account of William Roe, which begins with breaking, and branch-wielding. He concluded his assumption that he was observing a bear that it was “a creature with the strength of a (Figs. 1 and 2): gorilla,” alluding to its beyond-human strength which was demonstrated when “it Then I saw it was not a bear….My first would break off the great branches of trees impression was of a huge man…almost that were around it, and snap them as easily as three feet wide….But as it came closer I if they had been so many toothpicks. Once it saw by its breasts that it was female. pulled up a sapling five inches through at the And yet its torso was not curved like a base, and snapping it in twain.” female’s. Its broad frame was straight from It must be born in that European shoulder to hip. Its arms were much thicker witnesses of the early 19th century had little than a man’s arms, and longer, reaching knowledge or familiarity with either the nature almost to its knees. Its feet were broader of great apes or extinct fossil hominids. The proportionately than a man’s…. only context for such experiences was the The nose was broad and flat. The lips European tradition of wildmen – hair-covered, and chin protruded farther than its nose. long-bearded figures, occasionally of giant But the hair that covered it…made it height, wielding clubs, often depicted resemble an animal as much as a adorning heraldic crests and seals. human….and its neck was also unhuman,

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thicker and shorter than any man’s I had and elements of behavior. ever seen (Green, 1968). Corroboration of tracks More recently, in a 1982 account from Northern , a moose hunter described In addition, the documentation of its tracks in the anatomical features of a sasquatch which photographs and casts affirms its existence as first intimidated him by club-wielding and a track-leaving North American mammal. rock-throwing, and then revealed itself when it Such track casts not only affirm the existence stepped onto the same logging road on which of the sasquatch as a track-leaving mammal, the hunter was walking: but provide opportunities for further anatomical study of the sasquatch , study It was big—seven or eight feet tall. Its legs which reveal aspects of its apelike nature. were short, but its arms were long. They Numerous of hung down to its legs. Its shoulders were have been documented across the wide. The sides of the neck went straight up North American continent. These have to the head. Its head was rounded. Its hair generally been assumed by the archeologists was dark, not jet black but sort of a to depict human feet or footprints. However brownish-black.…It walked on two feet, many can be recognized by the very upright, just like a man. I couldn’t see its distinctions that appear to differentiate tracks face because it was walking away from me. attributed to sasquatch from those of humans, i.e. broad heel, archless midfoot, more He later backtracked the animal from where it subequal pads disposed more squarely had come out of the bush: across the foot. A remarkable stone carving of a foot resides in a museum in British The tracks were big, at least a foot long, Columbia. What has been taken as merely and had five just like a human. I stylized representation again appears to depict noticed they were square across the toes, quite accurate anatomical details of the very not slanted towards the little toe like in a distinguishing features attributed to the human foot. They were more straight sasquatch foot. across. The heel and toes made an imprint, The photographing and casting of even in the dry ground. sasquatch tracks beginning in the mid-1900s was an enormous step forward in The moose hunter’s report is of particular corroborating eyewitness descriptions, interest because it describes two unique especially those in which the broad flexible elements of sasquatch intimidation behavior: foot of the sasquatch had been noted and the brandishing of a tree limb as a club and the described. Track casts especially are a throwing of rocks in his direction. permanent form of track evidence. Even if the certitude of the observations of Unfortunately the cast of the first sasquatch experienced eyewitness is questioned, such track known to have been cast has been lost accounts will eventually be recognized as but a tracing of it survives (Fig. 3). A few having pointed the way, of guiding a handful track casts, however, date back the 1950s and of open-minded scientists and other readers to a plethora of sasquatch tracks were cast during the possibility of an existing bipedal hominoid the 1970s and 1980s. in North America, and to the need for further The process continues at present as the study. Moreover, they also point to its primate importance of this form of evidence is nature based on reported anatomical features increasingly being recognized. An archive

THE SASQUATCH AS A SUBJECT OF CRYPTOZOOLOGY 90 consisting of virtual footprints from 3-D scans – V more subequal than human toe row; of casts of 3D scans of casts of footprints digit I typically most distally projecting, attributed to sasquatch, is being assembled at although occasionally digit II is equally the Idaho Virtualization Laboratory of Idaho long or more distally projecting. Step State University. The archive will make this length generally greater than 2.5 times foot body of evidence accessible to serious length (Meldrum, 2007). researchers (Fig. 4). A degree of formal acknowledgement of Unfortunately, the uncritical acceptance of the significance of the evidence claims of track hoaxing based on crudely came when the conventions of ichnotaxonomy carved wooden feet appears to have dissuaded (the naming of footprints left by an unknown most relevant scientists from scrutinizing trackmaker) were applied to these data. The actual sasquatch track casts. In the face of this nomen Anthropoidipes ameriborealis scientific resistance on the part of the larger MELDRUM 2007 applies to the tracks attributed scientific community, only a small cohort of to sasquatch, according to the following: scientists has recognized the importance and implications of the track evidence. Diagnosis: Plantigrade, pentadactyl, ent- axonic, elongate footprints of a hominoid Hair evidence biped, that differ from Homo sapiens

footprints in their larger absolute size, Footprints constitute trace evidence, however greater relative breadth, elongated heel hair is physical evidence. It originates from a segment, lack of a longitudinal arch and physical biological entity. A collection of hair evidence of midfoot flexibility. samples that defy attribution to known Description: Large, plantigrade, penta- wildlife species exhibit a consistent suite of dactyl, entaxonic, elongate footprints of a morphological characteristics: hominoid biped. Footprint is flat, lacking a fixed longitudinal arch typical of human Mean diameter 65 um; cross-section footprints. Frequently, indication of a round to slightly flattened; medulla transverse axis of flexion at midfoot absent; cuticle irregularly waved mosaic; present, occasionally producing a midtarsal scale distance intermediate, margins pressure release ridge or disc. Ball is poorly smooth to mildly crenulate; color varies differentiated from surrounding forefoot; with proportion of pheomelanin to rarely transected by a flexion crease, if sole eumelanin, from reddish blonde to pad extends sufficiently distal beneath mahogany black. proximal phalanges. Widest part of the foot lies at inferred position of metatarsal heads. These samples clearly exhibit primate Heel is elongate, broad and rounded. characteristics and in many regards are very Relative breadth-to-length ratio exceeds similar to human hair. Herein lies the that of human footprints. Deepest part of challenge. Their similarity to human hair the footprint often beneath the forefoot; makes definitive identification as an unknown lacking evidence of distinct heel-strike elusive. It permits a superficial dismissiveness typical of human striding gait. Digit of the potential evidence by skeptical impressions are short and rounded to scientists. Only quite recently have advances elongate ovals; toe stems often visible in DNA extraction and sequencing techniques when digits extended. Digit I approxi- made the prospects of successful genetic mately 50% wider than digits II-V; digits II discrimination more likely. Even then a

JOHN BINDERNAGEL 91 negative result is perceived as evidence that echo the most compelling aspects of the sasquatch does not exist, rather than a Patterson-Gimlin film. The proliferation of conclusion that an unidentified hair sample these marginal videos addresses the critical did not come from an unknown species of question, Why in this age of smart phones and hominoid. Stray hair fibers are ubiquitous in palmcorders hasn’t someone got a picture of the environment and indiscriminant sampling sasquatch? In fact many may well have, but it in association with an alleged encounter with is hardly surprising that most amateur sasquatch provides no certitude that the hair photographers rarely have the skill, let alone sample originated from the entity in question. the composure to capture a convincing still photograph or video when encountering such Photographic evidence an unexpected creature.

Capturing quality photos, films or videos of REASONS FOR UNAWARENESS wildlife is challenging in nearly any natural OF EVIDENCE setting. It is even more challenging when the target species is largely nocturnal, solitary, Unawareness of evidence as a source of far-ranging, generalized in its behavior and resistance may appear at first glance to be a diet, and intelligent. Since no professional simplistic explanation. Nevertheless, medical photographers have undertaken the objective historian Ernest Hook explained that among the of capturing an image of the sasquatch, it is five reasons that some scientists may reject a hardly unexpected that alleged pictures of the hypothesis at first offering, the first and most sasquatch would be rare and of marginal obvious is simply that “they are unaware of it.” quality. (Hook, 2002). Unawareness is particularly The most notorious exception is the important in the discovery process of the Patterson-Gimlin film, less than a minute of sasquatch because it is both a source of 16mm film shot along northern California’s resistance and a result of resistance. It is Bluff Creek in 1967. After 45 years it remains recognized here as a particularly important the most compelling and the most contested source of resistance to perceiving the sasquatch piece of photographic evidence purporting to problem as a scientific problem and to its being depict a sasquatch. In spite of rumored categorized as a cryptid. Two obvious questions accomplices, a supposed death-bed confession regarding unawareness are: (1) Why have and charges of a case of a “man-in-a-fur-suit,” scientists been unaware of the evidence? and (2) the film has withstood ever increasingly Why has this unawareness persisted so long? sophisticated analyses by the few experts willing to objectively examine it. Still the Undue reliance on authoritative opinion accepted consensus of the scientific community is that it must be a hoax. As noted by philosopher of science Michael Given the prejudice, or at ambivalence, Polanyi, toward this Patterson-Gimlin film, which set the bar exceptionally high early on, it is clear The amount of knowledge which we can that anything short of that mark would have justify from evidence directly available to little impact on a skeptical scientific us can never be large. The overwhelming community. And yet when the best of the brief proportion of our factual beliefs continue snippets of various videos are reviewed therefore to be held at second hand through systematically, the best contenders present a trusting others, and in the great majority of remarkably consistent suite of criteria that cases our trust is placed in the authority of

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comparatively few people of widely CRYPTOZOOLOGY AND acknowledged standing (Polanyi, 1958). PSEUDOSCIENCE

Philosophers Theodore Schick Jr. and Pseudoscience (“false science”) normally Lewis Vaughn further explain and justify such refers to science conducted improperly, i.e., reliance on expert evaluation of evidence: unscientifically, in which case or reasoning is treated as scientific when in fact We should not defer to the experts because it is not. Astronomer compared they are always right—they aren’t. But they science and pseudoscience: are more likely to be right than we are. One reason they are usually right is that they are Pseudoscience differs from erroneous usually privy to more information than we science. Science thrives on errors, cutting are. Another reason is that they are usually them away one by one. False conclusions better judges of that information than we are drawn all the time, but they are drawn are (Schick and Vaughn, 1995). tentatively. Hypotheses are framed so they are capable of being disproved. A In the case of the sasquatch, it has become succession of alternative hypotheses is clear that most experts—relevant scientists confronted by experiment and observation. such as primatologists, mammalogists, and Science gropes and staggers toward wildlife biologists—are not aware of and not improved understanding. Proprietary privy to the results of sasquatch research. A feelings are of course offended when a university biologist once explained to a scientific hypothesis is disproved, but such reporter why he dismissed the sasquatch as disproofs are recognized as central to the merely a “story:” “People believe in these . things because they like to believe in them, and Pseudoscience is just the opposite. it keeps on going because people like it. And Hypotheses are often framed precisely so why not? It’s a charming story.” (Watts, 1994). they are invulnerable to any experiment Because of such attitudes and opinions, the that offers a prospect of disproof, so even in statements of academics on this subject may principle they cannot be invalidated. not be as authoritative as they are sometimes Practitioners are defensive and wary. perceived. Weighing the value of authoritative Skeptical scrutiny is opposed. When the opinions, Galileo once wrote that: “In science pseudoscientific hypothesis fails to catch the authority of the opinion of a thousand is fire with scientists, conspiracies to suppress not worth as much as a spark of reason in one it are deduced (Sagan, 1995). man.” But, of course, in challenging the opinion In The Scientific Endeavor: A primer on of authorities, proponents of controversial scientific principles and practice, geographer hypotheses should not mistake scientific Jeffrey Lee notably associated pseudoscience resistance for persecution, and even if some with amateur research and a lack of peer were to perceive it that way, it would not review: absolve them from the responsibility of proving their case. As once Pseudoscientists…attack scientific ortho- remarked: “A man does not attain the status of doxy from outside the system. Typically Galileo merely because he is persecuted, he they have little training in, and often a must also be right.” (Gould, 1977). flawed comprehension of the topic they study. They also tend to present their ideas

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directly to the general public, most of Each field of science has its own whom have little understanding of science. complement of pseudoscience. Geophysi- By skipping the system of cists have flat Earths, hollow Earths, with scientists it is often easy to publish wildly bobbing axes to contend with, [heretical] ideas (Lee, 2000). rapidly rising and sinking continents, plus earthquake . Botanists have plants But many scientists have applied the term whose passionate emotional lives can be pseudoscience to subjects such as the monitored with detectors, anthropolo- sasquatch as if such subjects are, by their very gists have surviving ape-men, zoologists nature, pseudoscientific and not amenable to have extant dinosaurs, and evolutionary scientific study. biologists have Biblical literalists snapping Examples of this are provided by both at their flanks (Sagan, 1995). Jeffrey Lee and Carl Sagan. Lee described his understanding of cryptozoology as It appears that both Jeffrey Lee and Carl Sagan may have categorized the sasquatch (or the study of mythical creatures which have ) as a subject of pseudoscience largely not yet been identified by science. These on the basis of whether or not it has been include Bigfoot (also called Sasquatch), scientifically or unscientifically treated, (or the Abominable Snowman), and allowing past treatment of the subject by some the Monster. Much like UFOs, amateur investigators and by the mass media these creatures may exist but the evidence to define the merits or deficiencies of the is insufficient to warrant acceptance of subject itself. But they may also have been them as real (Lee, 2000). largely unaware of the far-reaching power of scientific gatekeepers in the peer-review Elsewhere in The Scientific Endeavor, Lee process with regard to this taboo subject. Such included cryptozoology along with “, treatment may have erroneously prejudiced , UFOs, paranormal phenomena, other scientists from pursuing a scientific , and the Bermuda study of such subjects. triangle” as subjects of pseudoscience. Ironically, it has been decisions made by Lee’s categorizing of cryptozoology as an scientists themselves that have been largely example of pseudoscience is apparently shared responsible for the situation in which by astronomer Carl Sagan, who noted that: sasquatch investigation has been primarily undertaken by untrained amateurs. While this, Typical offerings of pseudoscience and by itself, may not necessarily have resulted in —this is merely a represent- pseudoscientific treatment of the subject, there tative, not a comprehensive list—are may have been an increased possibility of this astrology; the , “Big Foot” occurring. Some investigators of the North and the ; ; the American sasquatch may have proceeded with “”; … sasquatch investigation in a non-scientific (or (ESP), such as , , pseudoscientific) manner, especially regarding telekinesis, and “” of distant interpretation of observations. Lapses in places; the belief that 13 is an “unlucky” organization, methodology, and interpretation number (Sagan, 1995). were targeted in two recent books aimed at discrediting sasquatch research as pseudo- He noted, in addition, that science (Buhs, 2008; McLeod, 2008).

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But there are also scientists who challenge discovery provides additional insight into the the premature designation of certain subjects process of acknowledging a “new” mammal as “pseudoscience.” In his book At the Fringes species, which was formally recognized of Science, physicist Michael W. Friedlander relatively recently in historical terms. addressed the problem of how new ideas are Although the okapi is generally considered perceived and treated by the scientific to have been discovered in 1901 when it community. He observed that “it is scientists became known to western science, it may whose opinions are going to determine what is have been documented by the ancient welcomed and then incorporated as new Persians. An animal depicted by the Persians components of science or be rejected as in a frieze or bas-relief in the ruins of the erroneous or pseudoscientific.” He suggested temples of Persepolis, which date back to that even if a theoretical basis for a claim was approximately 515 BCE, strongly resembles lacking, this might not justify ignoring the okapi (Fig. 5). Despite this resemblance, evidence: not all scientists are in agreement regarding the identity of this depiction. Pseudoscientific claims are often rejected During the discovery—or rediscovery—of because they have no theoretical the okapi by western science in the late 1800s, foundation. This objection is not always it was misclassified several times, first as an valid.…It is the reality and correctness of antelope, then as a donkey, then—because of the observations that must be examined, its stripes—as a “forest zebra,” before it was and the theory will follow in due course if finally recognized—after its official the observations are correct (Friedlander, discovery—as a close relative of the giraffe. 1995). An interesting stage in the okapi discovery process occurred while Sir Harry Johnson, Citing his own experience in particle , now recognized as its discoverer, was being Friedlander recalled that “our particle guided by local Africans. When he first discoveries were totally independent of any observed the cloven-hoofed tracks of the theory. There was no theory, no paradigm to okapi he found them inconsistent with his guide us.” He observed that “as new fields expectations. Perhaps basing his expectations open through accidental discoveries, there on the name “forest zebra,” he had anticipated may be no theory to support them.” tracks resulting from single-toed hooves (such as those of a perrisodactyl), rather than A recent mammal discovery: the okapi the tracks of a cloven-hoofed animal related to the even-toed (artiodactyl) such as The okapi is of special interest to cattle, buffalo, antelopes, and giraffes. cryptozoologists because of its emblematic Consequently, according to Lindsey et al., “he status as a logo image for Cryptozology, the suspected that the Mbuti [guides] might be journal for the International for misleading him intentionally.” Cryptozoology, a status related to its late When the okapi was described in Europe discovery and the confused discovery process around 1900—initially on the basis of leading up to its recognition. The okapi drawings and two bandoliers made from the (Okapia johnstoni), is a central African forest skin of an okapi—it was greeted with mammal best known for its close relationship and disbelief. As noted by Susan to the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), Lyndaker Lindsey and her colleagues in The despite its dissimilar appearance and Okapi: Mysterious Animal of Congo-Zaire: preference for dense forest habitat. Its

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Newspapers soon circulated the news that conclusive , while dismissing all evidence of a new, large, living animal had evidence presently available a priori. been discovered in Africa. Rumors and One form of “missing” evidence raised is speculations began to fly across Europe and fossil evidence. The possibility that an animal America. Was this a concocted tale? Was known only from the fossil record is this animal a hoax? How could an animal discovered to be extant millions of years later this large go undetected for so long? is not nearly as unlikely as it may first appear. It is general knowledge that the coelacanth, a The authors noted that there was additional fish previously known only from fossil speculation: evidence, was found to be to be extant in 1938, revealing a gap in the known fossil If the stories were true, what kind of an record of over 65 million years. The animal could it be?…Could it be the fabled “patchiness” of the fossil record is especially unicorn, mentioned in ancient Greek and well recognized by paleoanthropologists, who Roman writings? Some thought it might be are aware of how much chance has played a a “missing link” to an ancient animal that part in not only the fossilization process but lived thousands of years ago (Lindsey et also in the discovery of fossil remains. al., 1999). DNA evidence is another form of evidence not yet available for the sasquatch at this The discovery of the sasquatch shares a writing. There are several reasons for this, one number of commonalities with previous being that it has only recently been possible to zoological discoveries. These include: (1) a conduct DNA testing. Some eyewitness prolonged discovery process, (2) the accounts suggest that significant opportunities ascription of supernatural attributes to an to collect DNA have arisen in the past, but undiscovered mammal (for example, the eyewitnesses were obviously unaware at the gorilla), and (3) repeated misidentifications of time that such samples could be used for a recently discovered animal based on an future DNA analysis. initial inability to classify the animal correctly. When the committee reviewing papers for With respect to the okapi, it also illustrates, in presentation at a 2002 international ape addition, the suspicion of a hoax. conference rejected a paper illustrating evidence for the North American sasquatch, Overemphasis on unavailable evidence the reason given was that until there is conclusive DNA evidence for the existence of Scientific gatekeepers have frequently the sasquatch, conference organizers were requested forms of evidence which appear to unwilling to include a paper on this subject. be unavailable or missing, rather than The review committee concluded that papers admitting for scrutiny the evidence which is would be restricted to the known ape taxa of available. This attitude was echoed in the Africa and : gorillas, , statements of skeptic , who , , and . opined that the science starts when you have a Scientific gatekeepers, by demanding thus- body (Shermer, 2003). Similarly, when far-unavailable forms of evidence—such as challenged concerning what evidence was DNA or a body—rather than admitting trace worthy of objective consideration, skeptic evidence that is available for scrutiny, may responded—a body. There have impeded examination of available is this disconnect from the process of evidence. Such scrutiny could actually have discovery —a leap to a requirement of improved the likelihood of acquiring DNA

THE SASQUATCH AS A SUBJECT OF CRYPTOZOOLOGY 96 evidence, by potentially generating a greater are not available commit the of level of interest in sasquatch evidence within argumentum ad ignorantiam (argument the scientific community. This in turn could from ignorance). The fallacy of argu- have helped address some of the problems mentum ad ignorantiam is committed faced until recently in acquiring DNA whenever it is argued that a proposition is evidence, such as poor sampling protocols, true simply on the basis that it has not been and limited interest among molecular proved false, or that it is false because it biologists in analyzing possible sasquatch has not been proved true. But our ignorance DNA samples. of how to prove or disprove a proposition Furthermore, the inability to apprise clearly does not establish either the or scientific colleagues of important evidence the falsehood of that proposition. may have enhanced the perceived of the hoax hypothesis. Scientists may This suggests that competing hypotheses incorrectly equate the lack of particular forms should be weighed against each other based on of evidence with a general lack of evidence the evidence which does exist in their favor, supporting the sasquatch as extant. The rather than by forming conclusions based on misconception that no evidence exists to what evidence is absent. Nonetheless, as noted refute hoax claims may have significant by Copi, “it is curious how many of the most consequences. enlightened people are prone to this fallacy As philosophers Theodore Schick, Jr. and (Copi, 1982). Lewis Vaughn noted: These comments identify the need for scientists to become more aware of the There are those…who measure the available evidence which supports the credibility of a claim, not in terms of the existence of the sasquatch, rather than evidence in its favor, but in terms of the continuing to uncritically—and perhaps lack of evidence against it. They argue that fallaciously—accept hoax claims as an since there is no evidence refuting their explanation for all sasquatch accounts. position, it must be true. Although such The authors have experienced frequent arguments have psychological appeal, they rejection of abstracts addressing these various are logically fallacious. Their conclusions , when submitted to professional don’t follow from their premises because a venues. In one instance a dissenting reviewer lack of evidence is no evidence at all. offered this as rationale for rejection – “This Arguments of this type are said to commit subject is not of general interest to the the fallacy of appeal to ignorance….All a anthropological community.” These are lack of evidence shows is our own instances of gatekeepers restricting the ignorance; it doesn’t provide a reason for dissemination of technical evaluation of believing anything. evidence through conventional channels of the A claim’s truth is established by the scientific community. In contrast, on those amount of evidence in its favor, not by the occasions that abstracts have been accepted lack of evidence against it (Schick and and opportunity afforded to present finding in Vaughn, 1995). professional scientific venues, the reception by many colleagues has been enthusiastic, Philosopher Irving Copi provided a more while betraying the very level of unawareness formal description of this fallacy: we have been describing here. To address this situation, a scholarly Those who focus on forms of evidence that refereed journal, The Relict Hominoid Inquiry

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(www.isu.edu/rhi) has been established (2012) scientists regarding some entities categorized to provide a venue for objective review and as cryptids. Such categorization has resulted in publication of manuscripts dealing with the the treatment of such as subjects unrelated to subject of potential relict hominoids globally, other biological species. Their pursuit by non- and thereby distinguishing it from general scientists, who have sometimes assigned submersion within crptozoology. paranormal attributes to cryptids, may have The theme of the journal is beginning to exacerbated this. Indeed Lorenzo Rossi has gain traction in the scientific community. The lamented how cryptozoology has acquired a growing fossil record of hominoid evolution reputation for being “the study of fantastic attests to the contemporaneity of multiple creatures for which no empirical evidence species throughout the past. Furthermore exists.” He notes that “many among the most ongoing discoveries indicate the recent famous exponents of cryptozoology continue persistence of a number of lineages. Given to spread this image…through websites and this situation the possibility of relict books with little or no scientific value.” populations of diverse hominoid species in Consequently, it is suggested that the term various corners of the globe, including a relict cryptozoology (and cryptid) be used cautious- population of large North American apes, is ly and applied sparingly in connection with hardly so “far-fetched” as was once perceived sasquatch , and other relict hominoids. In (Meldrum, 2012a). The notion that Homo particular, it should be determined whether or sapiens is the last hominin standing cannot be not there is an actual paucity of evidence taken for granted. In recognition of this supporting the existence of the species in development, New Scientist devoted a cover question, or whether the apparent lack of story to the theme of the ten biggest puzzles of evidence is merely the result of unawareness today. One of these puzzling or misinterpretation of such evidence, as questions for future research is “Are other appears to have been the case for the hominins alive today?” (Meldrum, 2012b). sasquatch for many decades. Increased exposure and dissemination of scholarly DISCUSSION treatment of the existing evidence and more methodical documentation and collection of In summary, the term cryptozoology, as it has evidence in the field are critical steps in been commonly used, may have been a overcoming the preconceptions and ingrained hindrance to the acceptability by relevant unawareness that prevails.

LITERATURE CITED Green, J (1968) On the Track of the Sasquatch. Agassiz, BC: Cheam. Bindernagel, J (1998) North America’s great ape: The Henderson, MC (1976) Monsters of the West: the sasquatch. Courtenay BC: Beachcomber Books. Sasquatch and the , In: Fowke E, editor, Bindernagel, J (2010) The discovery of the sasquatch. of Canada,. Toronto: McClelland and Courtenay, BC: Beachcomber Books. Stewart. pp. 251-262, 310-311. Buhs JB (2009) Bigfoot: The and times of a . Heuvekmans, B (1982) What is cryptozoology? Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cryptozoology 1:1-12. Copi M (1982) Introduction to . 6th ed. : Hook EB, editor (2002) Prematurity in scientific MacMillan. discovery: On resistance and neglect. Berkeley: Freidlander MW (1995) At the fringes of science: University of California Press. Science, science contested, and pseudoscience. Kuhn T (1970) The structure of scientific revolutions. Boulder: Westview Press. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gould SJ (1977) Ever since Darwin: Reflections in Lee JA (2000) The scientific endeavor: A primer on natural history. New York: W. W. Norton. scientific principles and practice. San Francisco:

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Addison Wesley Longman. Hominoid Inquiry 1:51-56. Lindsey SL, Green MN, and Bennet CL. (1999) The Meldrum DJ (2012b) Are other hominins (hominoids) okapi: Mysterious animal of Congo-Zaire. Austin: alive today? The Relict Hominoid Inquiry 1:67-71. University of Press. Penn WS, editor (1996) The telling of the world: Native Löwy I (2002) Fleck, Kuhn, and Stent: Loose stories and art. New York: Stewart, Tabor, and Reflections on the Notion of Prematurity. In: Hook Chang. EB, editor, Prematurity in scientific discovery: On Polanyi M (1958) Personal knowledge: Towards a post- resistance and neglect, Berkeley: University of critical philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago California Press. pp. 295-303. Press. McLeod M (2009) Anatomy of a beast: Obsession and Sagan C (1995). The demon-haunted world: Science as myth on the trail of Bigfoot. Berkeley: University of a candle in the dark. New York: Random House. California Press. Schick . Jr. T and Vaughn L (1995) How to think about McIlwraith TF (1927) Certain beliefs of the Bella Coola weird things: for a . Indians concerning animals. In: Orr RB, editor, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Thirty-fifth annual archaeological report 1924- Shermer M (2003) Show me the body. Scientific 1925, (being part of) Appendix to the Report of the American 288(5), 27. Minister of Education, Toronto: Printed by Order of Suttles W (1972) On the cultural track of the sasquatch. the Legislative Assembly of Ontario by the Printer Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 6(1): 65- to the King’s Most Excellent Majesty. pp. 17-27. 90. Meldrum DJ (2006) Sasquatch: Legend meets science. Taleb NN (2007) The black swan: The impact of the New York: Tom Doherty books. highly improbable. New York: Random House. Meldrum DJ (2007). Ichnotaxonomy of giant hominoid Watts R (1994) Prints, Dusk Cries Stir Boffin to Hunt trackways in North America. In: Lucas SG, Island Sasquatch, Victoria Times Colonist, January Spielman JA, and Lockley MG, editors, Cenozoic 7, 1994. Vertebrate Tracks and Traces. Westrum R (1980) Sasquatch and Scientists: Reporting Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin Scientific Anomalies. In: Halpin M and Ames M, 42:225-231. editors, Manlike monsters on trial: Early records Meldrum DJ (2012a) Adaptive radiations, bushy evo- and modern. : University of British lutionary trees, and relict hominoids. The Relict Columbia Press, pp. 27-36.

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Figure 1. This drawing was done by observer William Roe’s daughter on his instructions. Note the long arms, flat nose, prognathic jaw, and receding forehead.

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Figure 2. Field guide drawings of an upright black bear (left) and sasquatch (middle, based on eyewitness descriptions) and a human hiker (right). Note the distinguishing field marks, especially the squarish shoulders of the sasquatch compared with the tapered shoulders of the bear, and, in profile, the flat face of the sasquatch compared with the prominent snout of the bear; the placement of the ears and the contrasting limb proportions. The human figure typically distinguished by the common accessories: pack, walking stick, hat; clothing.

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Figure 3. Tracing of the earliest known sasquatch track cast, made in 1941 in southern British Columbia. Note the very broad flat footprint with comparatively subequal toes aligned rather straight along the leading edge of the foot—common anatomical features of sasquatch tracks.

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Figure 4. Three-Dimensional scans of examples of sasquatch footprint casts from the western and Canada (credit: IVL).

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Figure 5. A bas relief of what appears to be an Okapi in the ruins of Persepolis in Iran (formerly Persia), dating from circa 513 BCE (A and detail in B; Lindsey et al., 1999); An Okapi (Okapia johnstoni) in a zoo (C; credit: Lewis Hall).