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Late Antique and Medieval Islamic Legal Histories: Contextual Changes and Comparative (Re)Considerations

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Late Antique and Medieval Islamic Legal Histories: Contextual Changes and Comparative (Re)Considerations Late antique and medieval Islamic legal histories: contextual changes and comparative (re)considerations by Lena Salaymeh A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor Ira Lapidus, Co-Chair Professor Beshara Doumani, Co-Chair Professor Wael Hallaq Professor Maria Mavroudi Professor Laurent Mayali Spring 2012 Copyright © 2012, Lena Salaymeh, All Rights Reserved Abstract Late antique and medieval Islamic legal histories: contextual changes and comparative (re)considerations by Lena Salaymeh Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, Berkeley Professor Ira Lapidus, Co-Chair Professor Beshara Doumani, Co-Chair This dissertation demonstrates the contingent and contextual nuances of Islamic legal history by balancing precise legal case studies with broad-spectrum jurisprudential surveys. This work places Islamic legal history within diverse late antique (seventh to tenth centuries CE) and medieval (tenth to fifteenth centuries CE) contexts through specific comparisons with rabbinic legal traditions. By delineating intricate legal changes involving several generations of jurists, my research demonstrates the flexibility, expansiveness, and contingency of Islamic legal traditions within a meta-narrative about the transformations of law in the “Near East.” I offer a historical understanding of the ambiguous and mutable nature of law and illustrate the complexity of legal pluralism and the struggle for legal-politcal authority that underlies the formation of orthodoxy. This research challenges common reifications of “Islamic law” as an inevitable outcome or a static, monolithic whole. Introduction. This chapter provides a literature review of contemporary Islamic legal historiography and comparative studies of Jewish and Islamic law. I demonstrate that (1) Islamic law is not an independent entity with an identifiable “birth” or unchanging/fundamental characteristics and (2) Islamic and Jewish legal similarities result not from “borrowing,” but from historical instances of dialectical interchange, from shared customary traditions, and from shared contexts. The introduction outlines the dissertation’s objective of introducing critical readings of non-legal sources to Islamic legal historiography in order to reconstruct legally heterodox practices of jurists in the late antique era. Chapter 1: Legal historiography – a case study in international law. This chapter uses a variety of underused historical and legal sources (sīrah, maghāzī, muṣannafāt, masānīd) to reconstruct the treatment of prisoners of war during the Prophetic era (610-632 CE) in Medina and in the decades immediately afterward. I argue that both historical narratives and late antique juristic opinions indicate that it was likely impermissible to execute prisoners of war, a position that differs from medieval juristic rulings that generally permitted the execution of prisoners of war. This chapter proposes that medieval Muslim jurists participated in the writing of Islamic historiography – a process that inherently involved the fusion of pre-Islamic 1 traditions and a modification of the historical evidence. In so doing, these medieval jurists facilitated and created the historical bases for their legal opinions, which should be understood not as simply outcome-determinative, but as a complex process of legal norm articulation. Chapter 2: Legal heterodoxy – a case study in taxation. Building upon the first chapter, this chapter further investigates the overlapping roles of historians and jurists in Islamic late antiquity through a case study on the charity tax. This case study scrutinizes a variety of underexploited historical and legal sources in order to clarify how historiographic “certainty” can be achieved through the critical reading of heterodox (i.e. non-orthodox and legally pluralist) sources. Some late antique and medieval jurists made the charity tax incumbent on minors or others lacking full legal capacity because they conceptualized the category of “Muslim” in ways that were distinct from ritual practices. This chapter argues that Islamic charity was unique in its degree of regulation by comparing Islamic doctrines with their rabbinic counterparts. I use the category of taxation to emphasize the administrative aspects of charity and to expand conceptualization of late antique religious identity from a purely confessional model to a quasi-citizenship model, thereby expounding how legal history enriches social history. Chapter 3: Legal changes – a case study in family law. This chapter presents two chronologies of legal changes in Jewish and Islamic legal history related to wife-initiated divorce using a wide array of legal texts and documentary evidence. Interweaving these two narratives of wife-initiated divorce, I argue for a historicized, contextual understanding of law by demonstrating that the changes in each legal system were part of a regional, socio-political process of juridical professionalization. I demonstrate that the characterization of a particular Gaonic decree related to wife-initiated divorce as an “innovation” caused by Islamic “influence” is historically inaccurate and reflects a broad struggle for legal authority. In both legal systems, divorce – in terms of jurisprudence and practice – transformed from contract dissolution to contractual breach. I argue that these changes were the result of contingent socio-political contexts of empire expansion, professionalization of jurists, and elaboration of urban market structures. Conclusion. The conclusion brings together the theoretical and methodological approaches implemented in each of the dissertation’s three chapters to argue for a specific approach to the study of Islamic legal history. I advocate that overcoming contemporary Islamic legal historiography’s major weakness – the de-contextualization of late antique Islamic legal practices – requires exploring relatively unexploited historical sources and grounding Jewish-Islamic legal comparisons in actual cases. The culmination of these claims is the periodization for Near Eastern legal history that I offer as an alternative to the traditional periodization of Islamic law. By contrasting late antique Jewish and Islamic legal doctrines with medieval Jewish and Islamic legal doctrines, this conclusion reveals that both legal systems formulated a legal “orthodoxy” during roughly the same period. 2 dedication for amjad, whose absence is painfully ever-present and whose ephemeral presence was my supreme lesson in the essence of being i Table of Contents Preface ............................................................................................................................................................................ iv Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................................ v Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 1 I. Limitations of contemporary Islamic legal historiography ....................................................................... 3 Misconstruing “Islam” 5 Misjudging law 10 Misunderstanding historical change 12 Mistaking methodologies as truth-generating 13 II. Alternatives to contemporary Islamic legal historiography ................................................................... 17 Re-conceptualizing Islamic society 17 Redefining “law” 18 Re-reading the sources: textual criticism, contextualization, and protagonist voices 19 III. Intersections: Jewish and Islamic comparative law .................................................................................. 20 Social context, instead of textual focus 23 Relationships, instead of similarities and differences 24 Legal systems, instead of doctrine 25 IV. Sources in the dissertation case studies ....................................................................................................... 26 Chapter 1: Legal historiography – a case study in international law .................................................................. 29 I. Prisoners of war in Islamic history: the Prophetic period ........................................................................ 30 II. Late antique jurists ........................................................................................................................................... 35 III. Professional Islamic legal discourse .............................................................................................................. 37 Silent authority and precedents of “professional” jurists 38 Qurʾān and precedents in “professional” Islamic legal discourse 40 IV. Prisoners of war in Qurʾān and its exegesis ................................................................................................. 43 V. Slippage: the complexity of historical categorization ............................................................................... 45 VI. Historical exegesis of the Qurʾān? ................................................................................................................. 48 VII. Another possibility ........................................................................................................................................... 50 VIII. Conclusion
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