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Animal Husbandry, Nomadic Breeding, and Domestication of Animals - Andrew B THE ROLE OF FOOD, AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FISHERIES IN HUMAN NUTRITION – Vol. I - Animal Husbandry, Nomadic Breeding, and Domestication of Animals - Andrew B. Smith ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, NOMADIC BREEDING, AND DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS Andrew B. Smith Department of Archaeology, University of Cape Town, South Africa Keywords: Origins of domestic animals, traditional pastoralism, transhumance, communal grazing, future of pastoralism, brideprice, tragedy of the commons, Pleistocene, biomass, forage, water, sedentarization, ecological niches, gazelles, ovicaprids, Mesolithic, ranching, ritual, animal disease Contents 1. Introduction to Animal Husbandry 1.1. What is Animal Husbandry? Why Domesticate? 1.2. Nomadic Pastoralism 1.3. Sedentary Stockowners 1.4. Domestication of People 2. Trends Toward Domestication of Animals 2.1. Hunters becoming Herders 2.2. Changes in Social and Economic Conditions 2.3. Choice of Domestic Animals 2.4. Archaeological Evidence of Early Domestication of Animals 2.4.1. Zagros Mountains of Iran 2.4.2. The Coastal Area of the Levant and Interior 2.4.3. Africa 2.4.4. Europe 2.4.5. Asia 2.4.6. South America 2.5. Modern Examples/Problems of Transition to Food Production 3. Distribution of Modern Pastoral People 3.1. Africa 3.2. Near East 3.3. Eurasia 3.4. South America 3.5. ComparisonUNESCO of Strategies – EOLSS 4. Traditional Animal Husbandry 4.1. Transhumance 4.2. Mixed HerdsSAMPLE CHAPTERS 4.3. Maintenance of Herd Quality and Quantity 4.4. Breeding of Stock 4.5.Veterinary Techniques/Indigenous Knowledge 4.6. Idea of Commonage/“Tragedy of the Commons” 5. Social Parameters 5.1. Color and Identification 5.2. Use of Animals in Ritual 5.3. Age Grades and Castes 6. Changes in the Pastoral Way of Life in the Early Twenty-First Century ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) THE ROLE OF FOOD, AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FISHERIES IN HUMAN NUTRITION – Vol. I - Animal Husbandry, Nomadic Breeding, and Domestication of Animals - Andrew B. Smith 6.1. Different Roles of Age Grades 6.2. Pressures on Land Use 6.3. Sedentarization and Taxation 6.4. War, Drought, and Famine 7. Future of Nomadic Pastoralism 7.1. Demands for Meat 7.2. Commercial Ranching 7.3. Marginalization 7.4. Space Needs and Population Pressures Glossary Bibliography Biographical Sketch Summary Domestication of animals was a major step humans took toward food production. This shift resulted in significant and enduring social changes, based on the responsibility of people for animals, and on the potential for social inequalities through ownership. The earliest domesticated animals (goats and sheep) first appeared in the Near East about 10 000 years ago, at the end of the Pleistocene, but were followed independently in Mesoamerica, the Indian subcontinent, and, some would argue, Africa. The potential range of animals for domestication was huge, and experimentation with controls over many animals occurred, but only a selected few were chosen. By taking on the responsibility for animals, hunters had to make radical changes to their way of life. The close proximity of people to their stock might even be seen as a domestication of people. No longer could people be as free to hunt and gather when they needed to, because the animals increasingly had to be taken to pasture and water. The animals were such valuable assets for exchange and ritual purposes that they needed protection against both human and nonhuman predators. In the twenty-first century, traditional pastoral people occupy the open grassland plains and shrub steppes where rainfall is too low or irregular for grain agriculture. Such semi- arid environments require a mobile transhumant lifestyle, with the pastoralists taking their animals to grazing and water. The herders know empirically how to maintain their animals against epizootic diseases endemic to their area. They usually stress quantity, rather thanUNESCO quality, because their wealth –and prestigeEOLSS are tied to the number of animals, which can be distributed among a number of dependents to spread risk and political power, or for bridewealthSAMPLE payments. CHAPTERS While there has never been an “empty land” with hunter/gatherers, pastoralists, and agriculturalists successively using the spaces and exploitation areas, pastoral people are more and more under pressure from expanding population growth, and there is less room to practice transhumant strategies. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, pressures on land are affecting the grazing space of pastoral people, with rich and politically “connected” people dominating the pastoral economy and markets. In addition, many of the people of Africa and Central ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) THE ROLE OF FOOD, AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FISHERIES IN HUMAN NUTRITION – Vol. I - Animal Husbandry, Nomadic Breeding, and Domestication of Animals - Andrew B. Smith Asia have been subjected to nasty conflicts where large numbers of automatic weapons disrupted their lives. These have compounded life in the somewhat precarious rangeland environments where droughts and subsequent famines have resulted in huge animal losses. Even so, transhumant pastoralism still remains the most efficient and sustainable use of these event-driven rainfall areas, and even though some “modern” descendents of pastoralist families may look down on their parents’ way of life, the majority cling to the lifestyle as both rewarding and fruitful in psychosocial and economic terms. 1. Introduction to Animal Husbandry 1.5. What is Animal Husbandry? Why Domesticate? The word husband derives from the Old English meaning of “husbond,” a substantial farmer in the northern part of feudal England who lived in a house (in contrast to cotters who lived in cottages), and who was bonded to do work for the Lord of the manor. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, “husbandry” is the “business or occupation of a husbandman or farmer; tillage or cultivation of the soil (including also the rearing of livestock).” This article will be concerned with traditional livestock rearing, and how this fits into the economic and social life of subsistence farmers and pastoralists in various parts of the world. A person who rears livestock would be different from someone who hunted wild animals. Herders have their stock immediately to hand, but need to look after them. Hunters, by contrast, allow the wild game to take care of themselves. At one level this difference lies in access to meat and animal products, but at a more basic level the contrast is social, with animals being used in quite different ways, such as to cement social relationships, or for ceremonial needs. Recognizing this difference leads to the question: why domesticate animals? To answer the question, a number of factors will be considered, such as when and where domestication occurred, and the social and economic ramifications of the responsibility for keeping stock (see Historical Origins of Agriculture). 1.6. Nomadic Pastoralism When one thinks of pastoral societies one usually has the impression of people on the move withUNESCO their domestic stock. In many – part s EOLSSof the world grassland adaptation permits high biomass of large ungulates, such as the Serengeti plains of northern Tanzania, which are used bySAMPLE people with stock. The adaptive CHAPTERS strategy requires residential mobility, because grazing animals will eat up the grass within an area and will need to move on. With livestock herding, such a pattern of movement is called transhumance and often requires whole family groups to move to new camps on a regular basis. Usually, however, this is not a random movement, but part of a yearly cycle where herders will use seasonal pastures and jealously guard their territories. The greater the pressure from animal and human population density, the more rigid the group boundaries become, unless there is an agreement between groups to allow access to forage. Such negotiation is crucial where droughts are common, or highly localized rainfall is the norm. Thus, where rains may fall in different places in different years, pasture areas become ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) THE ROLE OF FOOD, AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FISHERIES IN HUMAN NUTRITION – Vol. I - Animal Husbandry, Nomadic Breeding, and Domestication of Animals - Andrew B. Smith common property, and rights to pasture seldom prohibit access when the necessary protocol is followed. Other pasture systems may follow a serial use of the land, with one group moving in and out of a region, to be followed by another. This way tensions around access to pasture can be avoided. Access to pasture is not the only resource that has to be negotiated. Water is another crucial factor in the adaptive strategy equation. After the rains, water can be widely available in surface pools or pans, but during the dry season families with animals are often forced to rely on permanent water sources, such as wells or riverbeds. Deep wells need to be maintained, and the person(s) who keeps the well open would be considered the “owner.” In Mali, lower-status Tuareg men do this heavy work and own pulleys used to draw water. Anyone else has to pay to use the pulleys. Within the strategy of nomadic pastoralism, the dry season is the make or break time of year, and this will be conditioned by the distance the herds have to travel between pasture and water. As the dry season progresses, the radius around a water hole from where pasture might be obtained increases to a point that the animals may become too weak to make the journey. 1.7. Sedentary Stockowners Not all stockowners need to be transhumant. Animal holdings among farmers can be considerable, with their wealth tied up in cattle. Animal husbandry among such groups might entail the bulk of the herd being taken away from the homestead where fields are to be found for considerable periods of time, with the young men herding them staying in cattle camps. Alternatively, the animals can be given to other people to be looked after.
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