Masaryk University Faculty of Arts Department of English and American Studies English Language and Literature

Karla Mikulova

The Development of Swing and Its Influence on The Inter-War American Society Bachelor's Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Christopher Adam Rance, M.A. 2021 I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the sources listed in the bibliography.

Author's signature I would like to thank my supervisor, Christopher Adam Ranee, M.A., for his help, valuable advice, kindliness, and patience. I would also like to thank my friends for their helpfulness, support, and tolerance. Finally, I would like to thank my family and Hugo for bearing with me, and for cheering me on when I needed it most. Table of contents

Abstract 5

Introduction 6

1. Theoretical section 8

1.1 History 8

1.1.1 Understanding the Circumstances 8

1.1.2 The Historical Turning Points for American Society 11

1.1.3 The Advances of Technology 11

1.1.4 Culture 15

1.2 Music 19

1.2.1 Swing in Terms of Music 19

1.2.2 Louis Armstrong 21

1.2.3 Benny Goodman 24

1.3 Dance 27

1.3.1 The Gentleman and The Goddess 27

1.3.2 Whitey' s Lindy Hoppers 29

1.3.3 Lindy Hop and Its Variations 30

2. Empirical Section 34

2.1 Comparing the Legendary and the Successful 34

2.2 The Wild and the Mellow 37

2.3 Swing and the American Society 39

3. Conclusion 41

Bibliography Chyba! Záložka není definována. Abstract

The bachelor's diploma thesis focuses on the relationship between swing, music and dance,

and the society of inter-war America, providing insight into its development. The aim is to

demonstrate how swing culture affected American society and explain why only certain

branches of this culture resisted the tides of time. The evidence and comparison are focused on

the differences of the white and the African American music icons and dance styles, which are

pointed out in the empirical section of the thesis. Key words:

Swing, Lindy hop, Louis Armstrong, Benny Goodman, Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, Frankie

Manning, Norma Miller, Fred Astaire, Ginger Rogers, film, music, dance, American society,

exploitation.

Abstrakt

Tato bakalářská práce zkoumá vztah mezi swingovou kulturou, tj. hudbou a tancem, a

meziválečnou americkou společností. Cílem práce je porozumění, jaké faktory zapříčinily, že

některé směry swingové kultury postupně vymizely a jiné zůstaly natrvalo v povědomí lidí a

ovlivnily tak celou americkou společnost. Empirická část bakalářské práce zkoumá a porovnává

vliv swingové kultury na obyvatelstvo jednak afroamerické a jednak bělošské, a zaměřuje se na její hudební reprezentanty a varianty tance swing.

Klíčové pojmy:

Swing, Lindy hop, Louis Armstrong, Benny Goodman, Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, Frankie

Manning, Norma Miller, Fred Astaire, Ginger Rogers, film, hudba, tanec, americká společnost,

vykořisťování.

5 Introduction

The relationship between the white and the African American U.S. citizens have always been precarious at best. Many times, the latter have been suppressed or shunned. There have also been numerous instances of the exploitation of their inventions, be they technological or cultural. Undeniably, the two sides influenced one another in various ways. This thesis is dedicated to studying the interracial interactions during the Swing Era of late 1920s through early 1940s.

The reason why the two communities of swing are examined is the notion that, even though they have conflicts, people are willing to tolerate each other more on the dance floor. In general, people go to dance parties to have fun and forget their everyday worries. This also correlates with the period of Great Depression struck in the late 1920s, and continued throughout the following decade, as people were, more than ever, trying to find distractions. The mutual longing to not think about having to survive another day through possible poverty allowed the younger generation to get along for the sake of enjoying their limited carefree time.

Swing culture laid foundations for tolerance between African Americans and white

Americans. This thesis demonstrates how the swing culture affected the development of modern

American society and determines why only one branch of swing is associated with the inter- war America and led to the emergence of new dance styles (Černý). The focus is on finding the reasons why and presenting the evidence how the emergence of swing led to the eventual dissipation of African American variations of the dance and music. The final undertaking is to connect this occurrence to American society's future development. Although not perfect, the contemporary American society undertook a long journey to acceptance and understanding, with the people of inter-war America at its pinnacle

The relevant documents supporting the research consist of various journals, articles, books, films, and music recordings. Most notably, Gunter Schuller provides excellent analysis of the

6 shift from jazz to swing, as well as the core of the successful and influential musicians of the

1920s and 1930s. An autobiography by Frankie Manning, an African American swing dance star, allows a peek at some developments in the Lindy hop and the process of filming musicals with dance scenes. Next, the recordings of Louis Armstrong and Benny Goodman's songs and pieces were found in great quality on Spotify, providing suitable material for examination. Last but not least, the free to watch movie scenes from Swing Time, A Day at the Races,

Hellzapoppin', and Buck Privates ensured authentic swing dancing for analysis, capturing the divergence in styles as well.

The thesis is separated into two main sections. The theoretical section provides contextual information that led to the rise of swing and its culture. First, the past historical events and current circumstances are addressed, including the contemporary development of technology and culture. Next, the topic of music explains the terminology of swing versus jazz and introduces the two main representatives of both social groups, namely Louis Armstrong and

Benny Goodman. Lastly, the Lindy hop icons, Fred Astaire with Ginger Rogers and Frankie

Manning with Norma Miller, are presented along with the explanation of what swing dance encompasses.

The empirical section is dedicated to providing evidence that support the thesis statement.

In the first chapter, a piece and a song by Benny Goodman and Louis Armstrong respectively are compared, discussing why one of them was more successful and reached modern society's ballrooms and social events. The second chapter addresses a similar issue from the viewpoint of dance styles through comparison of four films in total, two of each are dedicated to one of the two main dance communities. The final part explores the thesis's aim of linking the reasons how and why the Swing Era affected the positive development of American interracial relationship.

7 1. Theoretical section

This section is dedicated to the prerequisite information to enable the thesis to explain and

present the evidence of its goal. There are three main parts consisting of total ten subchapters,

dealing with the American history, music, and dance in this order.

1.1 History

This chapter deals with the historic events that preceded, and are linked to, the changes in

the inter-war American society and its culture. First, the situation of African Americans is

addressed, giving a brief survey of the important events affecting their community. Next, the

general American history, in close relation to the rise of swing, is discussed, along with the

devices which enabled culture to become widespread among the citizens. Lastly, the portion of

culture linked to both music and dancing is described to provide context in which they rose in

popularity.

1.1.1 Understanding the Circumstances

Hot mess would be the best expressive way to describe the historical background leading

up to the time period in question due to several reasons; although the Civil War ended over half

a century before, promising the freed slaves a new beginning (Hart-Davis et al., Dejiny 314),

African Americans were still struggling due to ongoing segregation, the enforcement of Jim

Crow Laws, which were not abolished until the 1960s, and the ever-present terror of lynching,

to name a few factors ("History"). The strivings of the oppressed for a better tomorrow gave

foundation to the cultural and artistic movement known as the Harlem Renaissance, which

became prominent in post-World War I America, when people could finally turn away from the

trying times of the great conflict to fully enjoy life once more. This chapter is included to

provide theoretical background so the situation current in the 1920s and 1930s U.S. is

8 comprehensible for the modern-day reader, firstly explaining the problem of the Jim Crow

Laws, next introducing the organization which supported African Americans, and lastly dealing

with the aftermath of the First World War.

Shortly after the end of the Civil War, the Jim Crow Laws were devised and enacted at the

turn of the 20th century. The events that preceded the decision to let them take effect can be

found in the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which, "Barred discrimination in public accommodations

and on public conveyances on land and water. Prohibited exclusion of African Americans from jury duty" ("Constitutional Amendments"). This act was meant to further stabilize and make

equal grounds for African Americans when faced with white citizens; however, due to the

prevailing racism, this only intensified the discrimination and hateful behaviour, as is supplied

with the evidence from the famous Plessy v. Ferguson case. According to the Oyez website,

which specializes in recording the various acts of the Supreme Court of the United States,

Plessy, considered black though seven-eighths white, was asked by the Louisiana citizens to

challenge the Separate Car Act by boarding a car intended for Caucasian people only.

Predictably, he was arrested and convicted, even though his "lawyers argued that the Separate

Car Act violated the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments1" ("Plessy v. Fergusson").

Even though the segregation and discrimination laws passed by each state posed a threat

and obstacles to African Americans, it could be speculated that these struggles also allowed

their society to flourish in the way it did. Firstly, many of the achievements accomplished by

the people, and spreading awareness of them, was courtesy of the National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People, or NAACP in short, established in 1909 ("About the

NAACP"). This organization has had various goals, mainly focusing on fighting against racism

1 The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in 1865 right after the Civil War ended. The Fourteenth Amendment supported the previous one in that it "Declared that all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. were citizens and that any state that denied or abridged the voting rights of males over the age of 21 would be subject to proportional reductions in its representation in the U.S. House of Representatives" ("Constitutional Amendments").

9 and for equal rights and opportunities for the African Americans when faced with their

Caucasian fallow citizens. These objectives are summarized in the official "vision statement":

"The vision of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People is to ensure a society in which all individuals have equal rights without discrimination based on race" ("About the NAACP"). Many influential people of colour were part of the organization, along with some white sympathizers supporting the goals, such as W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells-Barnett and

Moorfield Storey, to name a few ("Nation's Premier").

More changes in the American society and culture occurred with the end of World War I in

1918 (Hart-Davis et al., Dejiny 375) that shaped it into the idyllic idea of Roaring Twenties, and the romanticization of the vintage times. The greatest influence on the modern idealization is, without doubt, literature, and namely The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, which depicted the 1920s in this glamorous robe; however, the reality quite differed. Although the

NAACP was finally able to make the House of Representatives take action against the brutal lynching throughout the U.S., the effort to stop these hideous acts failed, and it would take a decade before anyone tried to pass the bill ("NAACP History"). Next, the infamous Eighteenth

Amendment took effect in 1919, starting the era of prohibition with the obstruction of

"manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors" ("18th Amendment"). This action would later encourage filmmakers to portray the hidden cabarets, where people indulged in drinking alcohol. One such example could be found in the 1959 film directed by Billy Wilder

Some Like It Hot, in which two musicians become wanted criminals for partaking in the illegal activities. Lastly, the advance of technology, and innovative artistic expression is what the time

1920s and 1930s are best-known for, thus they have separate chapters that immediately follow, for the information could have been poorly organized otherwise.

10 1.1.2 The Historical Turning Points for American Society

World War I undeniably changed the whole world when it broke out in 1914. Though the

United States first only supported the nations united against the German forces and their allies, this involvement had to change in 1917 when the Germans announced they would attack any ships on their way to the United Kingdom. The now enemy nation sent a telegram to Mexico, encouraging them to attack the U.S. Unsurprisingly, the discovery of the telegram only outraged the American citizens and in turn led them to join the allied nations to fight against Germany

(Hart-Davis et al., Dejiny 375). The engagement in war would cause the rise of the Lost

Generation and fast development in certain technologies, both addressed in the following chapters.

The crash of the stock market on Wall Street in 1929 was another turning point; the day called Black Thursday brought about years of suffering, driving many people into poverty.

Those who retained their job had their wages significantly lowered. This caused people to seek to take out mortgages, which led to the chain of events like the bankruptcy of banks, citizens having to live in slums as a consequence of not being able to pay their mortgages, in the process affecting the whole world. It wasn't until Franklin D. Roosevelt won the presidential campaign in 1932 that the Great Depression would be dealt with (Hart-Davis et al., Dejiny 384-385). Due to the circumstances, people would seek to have fun, which led to the development and the raising popularity of swing.

1.1.3 The Advances of Technology

The first half of the twentieth century is famous for the revolutionary inventions in the technological field, especially the automobile industry, and the development of electrical gadgets intended for everyday use. The achievements of these times were staggering, and a number of them directly affected American society. Such accomplishments of creating and

11 developing new devices include the radio, the cinema, the gramophone, and the television.

These pieces of technology are introduced in the text following due to their role in spreading awareness of racial issues, in the process documenting them, and allowing the different branches of culture, swing in this instance, to reach more people than ever before.

Radio broadcasting had a crucial role in making music available to the general public, and thus popularizing it. Discoveries about radio waves reach as far as the 1864, when a Scottish physicist foretold of their existence, though it was more than a decade later that another scientist finally discovered and identified them for the first time, and it took almost ten more years to produce them artificially by the hands of Heinrich Hertz (Hart-Davis et al. Veda 268). Nikola

Tesla was another very innovative person who created the first radio machine, though its appearance differs from a typical radio of nowadays. Lastly, who made it possible to stabilize the radio waves so they could be used as people today know were the Canadian inventor

Reginald Fessenden and the American inventor Edwin H. Armstrong (Hart-Davis et al., Veda

268-269). It was precisely due to the hard work of all these brilliant minds that radio was brought to the public as a daily used piece of technology. However, before the first official news broadcast could have been heard, the radio was monopolized by the American government in the times of World War I. The announcement of such occurrence was in the article titled WAR! in a magazine for radio enthusiasts called QST: "By the virtue of the authority given the

President... I hereby direct the immediate closing of all stations for radio communications..."

(3).

The sudden stop of civilian radio announcements did not hinder the development of radio, as can be noticed in an article citing Maurice Warner, a former soldier, in the Musical America press from 1919 titled "How Sailors Danced to Music Sent By Wireless": "The music was played near the wireless telephone apparatus... which gave out the sounds as if coming from a

Victrola. The music was also conveyed to other ships as well" (25). However, it was not until

12 after the war ended and some years more that the radio started becoming more mainstream

(Schiffer 46). These circumstances - the development of the radio and the interest of the public

- made it possible for music to reach more people, and so jazz, and later swing, were finally accessible to more people, giving the African American musicians more air play to get the recognition they deserved, and to spread a part of America's new cultural discoveries.

Another factor influencing the nation and world-wide spread of jazz and swing music was the enhancement of gramophone. The first device of this nature, capable of capturing sound, was created by Thomas Edison, and was then called phonograph2. This invention caused a thrill among scientists and the public, though it was discovered this device had many shortcomings, such as every recording was only done at once, and the quality of sound got worse every time the recording was played. Emile Berliner presented the solution to this problem with his invention that is nowadays known as gramophone, easily gaining popularity due to the storable flat discs and the consistent quality of sound they produced. In the 1920s there was a change from mechanical to electronic recording methods, along with the improvement enabling the listener, or user of the device, to amplify the sound coming out (Hart-Davis et al., Veda 266).

Thanks to this progress, the recordings of African American and white musicians could get distributed among the U.S. citizens, raising jazz and swing's popularity.

Next, the boom of cinema finds its roots in the late 1920s, when the first film with accompanied music, The Jazz Singer, entered the scene (Hart-Davis et al., Veda 267), according to the studio's archive, the ground-breaking movie started a "whole new era..., with pictures that talked" ("Company History"). The following few years brought further refinement in the art of filmmaking, for example "talking" movies, or building entire studios with the use of soundproofing for certain places, as well as buildings where the sound for films could be created under the control of the director and other people involved ("Company History"). However,

2 This term was used to differentiate Edison's invention with the modern-day concept of the word "gramophone".

13 with the cinema becoming more popular, the screen time for blackface became more noticeable than ever, and it would take almost thirty years more before this shameful portrayal saw its decline with the abolition of the Jim Crow laws throughout the 1950s and 1960s ("History").

Hand in hand with the film-making industry goes television, which was finally made usable by John Logie Baird. The Times wrote the following about his discovery in 1926: "The image as transmitted was faint and often blurred, but substantiated a claim that through the 'Televisor' as Mr. Baird has named his apparatus, it is possible to transmit and reproduce instantly the details of movement, and such things as the play of expression on the face" (qtd. in "The

'Televisor'"). This invention would later become known as a mechanical television, which became functional enough to allow long distance broadcasting, although in the second half of

1930s Baird's system was replaced with a different, more efficient, system fully using electricity ("John Logie Baird"). Nevertheless, Baird's device enabled broadcasting the news, films, or even commercials, and so allowing the cultural and current events to become widely known among the public, as well as enabling the African Americans to indirectly interact with the white U.S. citizens, thus giving foundations to acceptance and tolerance between them.

The inventions discussed and their becoming widespread enabled the recording of some of the most prized artistic expressions, be they films, or pieces of music. Had it not been for the intellectuals and their devices, there would have been no visual and audio evidence of the brilliant artists, consequently leaving the future generations wondering how, for example,

Henderson's band performance sounded, or how it was to experience Armstrong's musical genius first-hand from the period recording. Finally, the African American musicians and actors or dancers became more accepted by the white American citizens. These are the reasons why the chapter on technology is a part of the whole topic of swing, and why they are considered necessary to be mentioned.

14 1.1.4 Culture

The end of the First World War brought about many new opportunities for artists to explore and express themselves. The cause for this is explained in The Norton Anthology of African

American Literature:

For many of [the writers], the 1920s was a decade of unrivalled optimism, and

all through the generations of slavery and neo-slavery, black American culture

had of necessity emphasized the power of endurance and survival, of love and

laughter, as the only efficacious response to the painful circumstances

surrounding their lives. (1st ed, 932)

This craving to have fun and forget some of the daily struggles was reflected in many areas that deal with artistic expression, though the most noticeable nowadays are fine arts, literature, music, and film. This subchapter deals with the popularization of the newly emerging genres, explaining the causes for the most important that led to the future emergence and popularity of swing, beginning with the best-known African American movement.

The Harlem Renaissance is nowadays known as the most impactful movement in terms of arts and culture when speaking about African American Heritage. What is surprising, however, is that this collocation became commonly used only after it appeared in a magazine called

Freedomways in 1963 (Mitchell 651). Until then, "Negro Renaissance", first appearing in the

1920s, was being used due to its more extensive implication. Mitchell explains that this older term better expresses its "long-term interracial cultural vision", as Harlem Renaissance is often associated only with the Harlem district, the 1920s, and the African American contribution

(660). The modern understanding of the Harlem Renaissance is weighed down by the impression that it was a black only movement. However, theorist Alain Locke argues that the white people were at the heart of the cultural and artistic boom: "Some of the most effective and welcomed spokesmen were not Negro" (Mitchell 645). He also specifies that the Negro

15 Renaissance had been "open to all who might be interested on the basis of collaboration and mutual understanding", therefore uniting various people regardless of race to try to attain the same, or a similar, goal (Mitchell 645). Aside from Alain Locke, some other influential personalities include W.E.B. Du Bois and Ida B. Wells-Barnett, who have been mentioned above, and Langston Hughes, who also had his hand in making others better understand what was happening in the African American communities (English 808).

In terms of fine art, cubism, modernism, and art deco3 were becoming increasingly popular for their appeal of strangeness. When the word cubism is uttered, many think of Picasso's works, for he is best-known in this field; the style is based on the analysis of shapes from various points of view and depicted with a restricted colour range. Modernism finds its inspiration from other styles that were trending in Europe, such as expressionism, and later transforming to become fragmented and even abstract. Art deco, on the other hand, could be called a contrast to modernism, as it puts emphasis on preserving shape (Graham-Dixon et al. 416-486). Many of the people of colour artists found their calling in the new opportunities brought by the development of artistic styles, for example Aaron Douglas, Jacob Lawrence, or Augusta

Savage. Aaron Douglas's art combined elements of art deco and cubism to create a style that later became considered as "visual signature of Harlem Renaissance" (Anderson).

Literature saw its bloom in many different directions thanks to the American authors' quest for something new. One of the literary giants who explored a unique territory was Ezra Pound, who is credited with establishing imagism, which was likely inspired by the modern fine art then entering the world. Becoming popular before the war, imagism, as its name suggests, tries to evoke a clear depiction of the meaning without having to wonder what the poet meant by saying that. The next influence over the literary world, aside from fine art such as cubism, is credited to the Lost Generation, a group of authors and painters who survived the horrors of the

3 These artistic styles were chosen for their significance in the Harlem Renaissance movement.

16 war and had to deal with the consequences it caused to their well-being. Ezra Pound is one of the group as well, though the most famous among modern population are Ernest Hemmingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald. Ernest Hemmingway is known for the minimalistic expression of his deep and complicated thoughts, creating an interesting contrast (Pospíšil). F. Scott Fitzgerald, as mentioned earlier, depicted the underlying problems of the American dream and decadent society in The Great Gatsby, ironically creating the stereotypical modern view of the Roaring

Twenties as the best time to be alive.

Next, as has been discussed in the previous subchapter, the development of technologies played a major role in acquainting the public with new and old music and branches of culture.

The development of radio and gramophone enabled the public to fall in love with various music genres, with jazz taking the spotlight and becoming mainstream in the 1920s, before giving way to swing in the following decade. Prior to that, jazz was not as popular due to the limited means of advancing through town districts, cities, and states, and the obstacles to the entertainment industry in the period when America joined World War I (Shaw 14; Hart-Davis et al. Dějiny

375). According to Shaw, the year 1917 could be marked as the beginning of jazz's popularity with a white New Orleans's band called the Original Dixieland Jazz Band - ODJB for short - that travelled around the eastern part of the U.S., performing in places like Chicago and New

York (14-15).

The ODJB became like a breath of fresh air to the people and musicians alike, inspiring others to emulate what it was doing. One musician later expressed his thoughts upon hearing the ODJB: ".. .my first move was to copy them... we made the switch from schmaltzy music to the drive of Dixieland that does something to the adrenal glands" (qtd. In Shaw 16). To him and many others jazz was something new and exciting, something they could turn to in dire wartime to soothe their need to escape reality and relax. Interestingly enough, the war caused other musicians to move and look for work in port cities due to the New Orleans's then famous

17 red-light district being shut down; this would later cause the cities, namely New York,

Memphis, and Chicago, to become famous precisely for the music the African Americans brought with them (Shaw 14). It is in Chicago, where Louis Armstrong started on his path to success. He was working with King Oliver, a famous jazz player considered the true king of music by some African Americans (Schuller 6), before leaving the band on the prompting of his wife who believed Armstrong could become better than anyone if he pursued success without King Oliver's band (Shaw 20). Perhaps the future generations of musicians should be most grateful to her for encouraging her husband, who later created and popularized various improvements in musical techniques, and who, unfortunately, stood in the background in the

Swing Era even though he had invented the swing genre (Schuller 159).

Another aspect of culture associated with the inter-war period which has also been partly discussed is the filmmaking industry and the development of the equipment needed to create films. The Jazz Singer as the first movie with sound included was the game-changer; prior to the introduction of the film, the movie theatres, due to the nonexistence of audio equipment, would use live orchestras to give the audience more stimulation (Crafton 72). The audience, critics, and filmmakers, as well as the inventors, must have been greatly elated when such a miracle happened in front of their eyes, or in this case ears. One such critic, Deems Taylor, wrote in his 1943 book that the development of new devices "turned the film industry topsy• turvy and consigned the silent picture to the scrap heap" (202). Due to this progress and swing becoming mainstream among the Americans in the inter-war period, Lindy hop, the swing dance, started to get featured in various films, which shall be discussed further in the following chapters, and caused this culture to become part of general knowledge.

18 1.2 Music

This section is reserved to explain the differences in jazz and swing, and to present the most influential musicians of the era. Louis Armstrong's work and thought process in creating swing pieces are going to be discussed, as well as Benny Goodman's contribution to the world of music. Fletcher Henderson, who ensured Goodman's success, must not to be forgotten, and is included in the same subchapter as him. It is important to understand how the swing music came to be, as it is greatly involved in the development of the Lindy hop and the interracial interaction in 1920s through 1940s America.

1.2.1 Swing in Terms of Music

When people talk about the 1920s, they call it "The Jazz Age" or "The Jazz Era"; when discussing 1930s, it becomes "The Swing Era". To the modern day listener, these genres may hold little difference except trying to tell them apart by the tempo and guessing which is which.

Telling a jazz or a swing lover that it does not matter, because it all sounds the same anyway would certainly be upsetting, hence this section is reserved for the explanation of major differences between the two genres.

Jazz, as mentioned earlier, is African American music originating in the red-light district in

New Orleans, which became increasingly popular via a white band, the ODJB, after the First

World War. This genre combines elements of ragtime and blues, and places great importance in improvisation. During the time jazz became popular, the Harlem Renaissance was taking

America by storm, and so it also became one of its symbols, gaining a political connotation to an extent. Schuller supplies this perspective: "For some minorities the period represented another small but significant step up the ladder of social and cultural integration; and, for many blacks, opportunities in music- in jazz, that is - were to open new vistas of economic and social

19 Status" (4). Understanding how significant jazz was, the question of how it was possible that its fame fell and was later replaced with swing for over a decade arises.

The explanation is quite simple; in the late 1920s, a new stylistic direction of the genre was starting to become popular. According to Schuller, who based this claim on observing historical events, when a split of any kind in art happens, either the new replaces the old, or vice versa

(4). This is precisely what happened to jazz in the early 1930s as the consequence of various factors. Firstly, there were numerous breakthroughs in the creation of music, brought about by great African American personalities: Louis Armstrong, trumpeter and singer, Duke Ellington, a composer, Bennie Moten, a pianist, and Fletcher Henderson, a pianist and composer. These authorities made advances in either the rhythm - Armstrong - or orchestra - Moten leaning on improvisation and Henderson more on new arrangements, separating himself from Ellington as well. In a way, jazz as it had been could not keep up, and The Great Depression could be considered the final blow that caused its decline in popularity (Schuller 3-4).

Jazz, being too politically and socially loaded in meaning, was not the greatest match for the trying times of The Great Depression. People were looking for ways to escape their everyday worries, turning to cinema or literature that caused them to feel a little bit of happiness.

Swing, the new branch of the music genre provided exactly what the public needed: first, it was devoid of the heavy themes associated with the Harlem Renaissance, and second, listening to the upbeat tempo with light-sounding notes causes the great majority of listeners to feel happy and carefree, if only for the duration of the piece or the song.

There are several ways to explain what swing is. It could be called the stylistic split that overtook jazz in 19324, a blend of the classical practiced music with improvisation (Puckett), or a creative process described in Louis Armstrong's song What Is This Thing Called Swing?, but perhaps it is best described as the immediate relationship of the people and music: "This

4 In hope of not confusing the reader in the thesis, the 1932 stylistic split differentiation will be used to separate swing from jazz more clearly.

20 special identity between a people and its music is perhaps the happiest and most significant

aspect of the Swing Era, a quality impossible to recapture now, and, for those who did not

actually experience it, difficult to savor in retrospect" (Schuller 4). Although feelings are

nowadays hard to recreate, if at all possible, people still continue with the legacy of enjoying

swing through the all-accepting dance communities and the re-enactment of the big band

concept of the Swing Era, reaching further than the American soil from where it originated.

1.2.2 Louis Armstrong

Any person interested in music or culture must have heard the name Louis Armstrong; this just shows how much of an impact he has had on other musicians. In fact, quite a number of his

recorded songs have been included even in recent films - most people are familiar with the song

What a Wonderful World thanks to the films and many TV advertisements, where it was

featured. His role and the legacy he left in the music industry was so immense that, even in the

1970s, he was credited with his contribution to various music genres, although the link may not

seem clear at first glance (Monroe 367). Schuller also agrees with that opinion; he states that

all jazz and most other popular, musicians are indebted to him (159). The music giant has

several distinctive qualities in his songs and pieces which led to his success, and which shall be

discussed in the following paragraphs, though only the chosen - and major - ones.

To begin with, those who have heard Armstrong's voice will surely agree it has a certain

coarse or harsh quality to it, so distinct it is most likely impossible to confuse his voice with

any other singer. Monroe argues that it was precisely due to this quality as well as the emotions

put into the singing that forced people to listen, and in the end, become enamoured with the

singer's voice: "It was Louis who got across the idea that you don't need a pretty voice to sing

a song" (367). Schuller supplies this with his explanation of the dynamics of Armstrong's

21 singing and playing. According to him, the singing has more a secondary nature, for it reflects the melody, and so, contrasts with the trumpet playing (Schuller 160-163).

An article published in "The Musical Quarterly" deals with the analysis, development, and influence of Armstrong's voice and singing style. The author gives great credit to the musician thus: "And probably no single musician more fully encapsulated the era's most radical vocal innovations, and through the sheer degree of his originality and personal magnitude shaped the course of American popular singing, than Louis Armstrong" (Givan 189). The secret of the singer's success lies in in rough quality and singing style, as has been mentioned, and the delivery of it, which is very reminiscent of normal speech - such techniques would nowadays be most found in rap or similar genres. It is actually difficult to wholly and concisely explain the effect Armstrong has on his listener due to the uniqueness of the vocal presentation (Givan

190); on that account, it is best the listeners experience his singing for themselves to understand what the scholars mean when they find it difficult to translate the vocals into words.

Aside from Armstrong's unique speech-like singing, it was also his sense for musicality that stands out to the present time. Many critics and researchers studied his music to discover what made it so special, and usually came to the same conclusion - that the musician was

"playing around the beat" (Collier G. and Collier J. 463). According to various sources in the research paper by Collier G. and Collier J., and also by any other author dealing with Louis

Armstrong, the African American artist was the one who made jazz solos so popular that other musicians tried to emulate what he performed on the stage (464). This conclusion is also supported by the many statements of other musicians, for example: "every other trumpet player... were copying Louis's style" as told by a swing era guitarist, or another testimony by a trombonist of the same time period: "I guess that was just about everywhere... musicians were listening to Louis' records" (qtd. in Collier G. and Collier J. 464).

22 The method of "playing around the beat" consisted mainly of either delaying notes or making them predictable for a set amount of time before changing them again (Collier G. and

Collier J. 464). This strategy is clear to see in many of Armstrong's songs and pieces. A clear example is seen the 1927 recording of Savoy Blues with the guitarist Lonnie Johnson; while the accompanying guitar plays in a very predictable way, the trumpet, on the other hand, changes every so often. At first, it goes along with the guitar, then slows down and prolongs the notes, before ceasing completely, only to start again in a whimsical way as if dancing around the consistent guitar and teasing it.5

Armstrong portrays his creative process of bringing swing to life in the song What Is This

Thing Called Swing? from 1939. The lyrics, or in this case description, states the following:

Is it jazz or dragtime?

Futuristic ragtime?

What is this thing called swing?

Now if swing's the thing you talk about,

I might have the boys to beat it out!

First of all, our saxophones

Gonna rattle off some mellow tones...

... that rhythm section's comin' up

and they're really on the spot...

... Now when Gabriel starts his jamboree,

He's got to blow six brass for me...

... show the world what swing's about...

5 All of the imagery was evoked by the author listening to the piece, to give the reader a better understanding without having to go and find it immediately.

23 Wait ya lemme get this organ to my mouth...6 (Armstrong, What Is This

Thing Called Swing?)

Throughout the whole song, the band reacts to the text accordingly. The "mellow tones" are playful, though slightly predictable, and not at all aggressive like the next instruments; "that rhythm section" refers to the distinct beat of the drums, which build up the momentum before stopping abruptly; the following "six brass" seem to continue where the drums stopped, almost reaching an imaginary climax with the powerful tones of brass instruments. The last two cited lines bring the song to its pinnacle with one of the solos Armstrong is best known for, and which many other musicians of the Swing Era tried to copy (Schuller 159).

1.2.3 Benny Goodman

The white swing icon is, to this day, Benny Goodman, who also deserves the moniker "The

King of Swing" for incorporating a few very effective strategies into the jazz and swing music styles. However, it is important to note at the beginning of this chapter that while white people looked up to Benny Goodman as a great model or a legendary musician, there were still people of colour who did not recognize him, and refused to do so, as he did not exactly follow the tradition of African American musicians, who had set the foundations for jazz and swing

(Schuller 6). As influential as Benny Goodman was, he was inspired and influenced by other great artists as well, namely Fletcher Henderson, an African American who later became a part of his band, and Franz Schoepp, his music teacher. To understand why Goodman became such an icon later on, it is best to first introduce the two men, and the impact they had on his music career.

Information regarding Franz Schoepp is, unfortunately, quite scarce, even though his name is mentioned in many essays and books about talented clarinettists. The various descriptions of

6 Lyrics transcribed by the author.

24 Schoepp usually include the collocation "classically trained clarinettist" (Wang), and also his involvement in musicians' schooling as their instructor or teacher. In The New York Times article from June 14, 1986, a day after Goodman's death, Goodman said about Schoepp that he:

"did more for me musically than anyone I ever knew" (Wilson). From the statement, it is apparent the man played a major role in forming Goodman into the music sensation he later became. Schuller also argues Schoepp made Goodman value the routine of practicing and rehearsing pieces and techniques, bringing a controlled way of playing into jazz music, even though it was expected to be looked down upon by others, as jazz was meant to be a free expression of music, and not bound by the practices of classical music (11). While Franz

Schoepp gave Benny Goodman a sturdy foundation for his music, Goodman was lacking in terms of possessing a genius for composing. He was more of a virtuoso performer, and due to this, he might have had a harder time when trying to gain recognition in the entertainment industry, had he not met the man who presented him with the opportunities that changed the tides for him by introducing Henderson to Goodman.

Fletcher Henderson had been known for his talent in creating exciting arrangements even before he came into contact with Goodman. He was the leader of a jazz band commonly called the "Henderson band" or "Henderson orchestra". However, even though the band was supplied with interesting arrangements, there were a number of factors that caused its disbandment. One of the reasons was a car crash, which Henderson experienced in 1928, and which led to him losing the motivation to stay the strong band leader he had been. Next, the Great Depression played a major role in the further destabilization of the orchestra, as the club and ballroom bookings became less frequent for the establishment owners gave more opportunities to newer bands. Finally, the orchestra was disbanded in 1934 after the departure of Coleman Hawkins, a band member, who went on to Europe, where jazz seemed to be more appreciated while

America was dealing with the Depression (Schuller 7-10, 323-325).

25 From the description, it may appear as though Henderson would not have such a bright future, and it might have happened that way had he not been introduced to Benny Goodman by

John Hammond, a record producer, who knew many great musicians of the time, and who also knew Goodman was then struggling to form a band of his own. John Hammond's idea of trying to make them work together stemmed from his admiration for the Henderson band, which definitely managed to excite the audience with their pieces. This arranged encounter of

Goodman and Henderson through Hammond played into Goodman's cards, for although he saw little worth in orchestras, he knew they were crucial to make musicians successful - and so, Henderson became Goodman's chief arranger, turning the tides in the process for him with what Schuller calls "stylistic injections"(ll-12), or in other words, interesting and exciting components of the pieces. It must be noted that Goodman's success lies in the exploitation of the Black genius, although that was and sometimes still is a common practice. Had it not been for Goodman's presentation of Henderson's arrangements, swing and jazz would most likely not become as popular and they had (Schuller 7-9).

Henderson, just like many other musicians, was greatly influenced by Armstrong (Collier

G. and Collier J. 464). The inspiration projects itself in the majority of the pieces he presented to Benny Goodman. An example can be found in the 1935 recording of Sometimes, I'm

Happy1'(Benny Goodman). Although the piece becomes easily predictable, with not much to offer in the beginning, soon enough, the drums and clarinet make themselves known by gaining intensity; it is at this point that the clarinet becomes disconnected from the perfectly organized orchestra and turns playful. This essence of the clarinet's playfulness stems from the imitation of Armstrong's trumpet solos. This had been discussed in the previous chapter to provide a chance of better understanding what actually made these solos so special others wanted to copy

Armstrong to an extent in the Swing Era (Schuller 159-160).

7 Found on the official Benny Goodman account on Spotify.

26 1.3 Dance

This chapter introduces the best-known swing icons, whose fame survived the tide of time, and offers an insight into the subdivisions of the swing dance style, mentioning the films used for comparison in the empirical section of the thesis. First, the white icons shall be discussed, as they may already be part of the modern person's knowledge. Second, the African Americans that caused their audience to marvel at their art, are going to be presented. Lastly, the variations of swing dancing, and their racial, or cultural, connotation are explained.

1.3.1 The Gentleman and The Goddess

"The incandescent magic of their partnership is easier to marvel than describe." (Ware 551)

Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers8 are without doubt, the timeless icons embodying the swing of white American citizens. The duo showed their artistry in ten films, most produced in the

1930s. Nowadays, those interested in swing dancing have most likely come across the duo; in fact, most Lindy hop dance schools' websites at least mention their influence over the world of dancing. Fred and Ginger, as they are fondly called by the public, came together after they were hired by the RKO Radio Pictures film studio (Ware 551). It is thanks to these dance partners that swing had a chance to affect the future development of new dances, and dance communities.

Fred Astaire came from an immigrant family that supported him from early age in the matters of artistic expression. The root of his knowledge and showmanship started with his parents' decision to let Fred and his sister Adele, who began dancing earlier than her younger brother, gain the performative skills in Alviene Master School of the Theatre and Academy of

To prevent confusion, only their stage names shall be used.

27 Cultural Arts. This institution claimed to be the first specialized school for performative arts, and upon the encounter of the siblings with the founder, he supposedly said: "We're going to make a big star out of you" (Riley 21). Since then both Fred and Adele went through the hands of many great teachers that let the two future stars' talent bloom. In 1925, their former arts teacher wrote in a manual that the dancing style is chosen based on the person's personality and that: "It is because of this quality that the performance of stars like... Fred and Adele Astaire leaves a lasting impression" (Riley 30).

The brother-sister duo had already been performing since their enrolment into the Alviene

Master School; however, they became better known when they started performing on Broadway in 1917. The two parted only after Adele's marriage in 1932, with her leaving the stage completely and Fred deciding to pursue success on his own (Riley 146). It was shortly after the end of their long partnership that he received offers from Hollywood, though he only acted upon them a year later in 1933 (Ware 551). There, he was paired with Ginger Rogers, who became his fated partner and fuelled their success in dancing to reach future generations.

Ginger Rogers, just like Fred Astaire, had the family conditions to become successful in the performative arts. Though her childhood was not easy, her mother had been a pillar she could always seek support from, and it was her who sparked Ginger's interest in theatre. The young girl used to accompany her mother, a theatre critic, on her job and in the process learnt the art in the Majestic Theatre's backstage. She had the habit of watching and then mimicking some of the performances her mother took her to while working.

Ginger's interest did not fade and in 1925 she won a Charleston competition in Texas, which led her to tour with the vaudeville group she was part of. Finally, she found her place in New

York's Broadway, easily gaining popularity in the theatre. During her time in Broadway, she shot a few films with the Paramount Pictures before ending their partnership in 1931. Ginger

28 then began working with the RKO Radio Pictures, where she would meet Fred Astaire in two years' time (Ware 551).

1.3.2 Whitey's Lindy Hoppers

In the world of swing dancing, the group brought together by Herbert "Whitey" White stands out the most. The former soldier landed a job as Savoy Ballroom's bouncer, where he became interested in the young people's expression on the dance floor. It didn't take long before he, along with about ten pairs, created the first professional group focused on Lindy hop performances, with the Savoy Ballroom's racially neutral ground as their main base. Whitey's

Lindy Hoppers started performing in early 1930s at various venues, gaining fame with each completed show. Finally, the group's job offers began coming in from over-seas and the filmmaking industry; the dancers shot a number of films, of which Hellzapoppin' is the most prominent one (Stevens T. and Stevens E. 68-69; Manning and Millman 177).

Frankie Manning, often described as the ambassador of Lindy hop, came from humble roots.

His family moved to Harlem due to economic reasons, and though the money was not abundant in their household, thanks to the location where he was growing up, he became acquainted with performative arts. During the time he was attending school, he started with the habit of watching shows at a vaudeville theatre, where his mother's friend let him in whenever he came by.

Because of his mother's connection to the world of dancing and music, Manning was able to go to a formal event in his early teens, where he encountered the ballroom activities for the first time and immediately became intrigued (Manning and Millman 31-44).

From a young age, he had been an eager student, always trying to get better at everything, at first to please his mother, and then to compete with himself. When he joined the other children from the street he grew up at in their various shenanigans. In his autobiography, Manning writes that he had been interested in all activities that involved competition and the use of his muscles:

29 "Occasionally, my fascination with physical challenges got me int hot water" (39). It is this fascination that later also sparked his interest in the Lindy hop, and subsequently led to his participation in the Whitney's Lindy Hoppers, where he would meet Norma Miller (Manning and Millman 61-181).

Norma Miller, often dubbed Queen of Swing, grew up in Harlem just like Manning. She was born into poverty, having lost her father even before she breathed her first. Her mother, who could not work with two little children and an infant as they had no one to look after them, faced a difficult time raising them up. One of the joys in Miller's life consisted of watching and learning Charleston from the guests that slept over at their home, this was one of the ways her mother earned money for the family (Miller 19-20).

When the Harlem Renaissance was blooming, she became exposed to other kinds of dances that piqued her interest (Miller 22). Her loving mother encouraged the young girl to get to know dancing better, enrolling her for classes that took place each Saturday. Her enthusiasm for the body expression grew even more when musicals entered her life. Miller recalls: "I tried to memorize all the dance numbers that I had seen in movies, and I knew all the songs" (25). This fervour is what later led her to the Savoy Ballroom, where she met Frankie Manning, and other great swing dancers of the Whitey's Lindy Hoppers group.

1.3.3 Lindy Hop and Its Variations

"The whole floor was... dancing! The band was pounding. The guys up there were wailing!

The music was rompin' and stompin'. Everybody was movin' and groovin'." (Manning and

Millman, 62)

Dancing has been around since humanity developed first music, and throughout history new dance styles emerged. Just like the Viennese waltz caused uproar in European society when

30 young people started dancing so close their bodies touched, dancing styles inspired by the

African Americans were frowned upon in the inter-war America (Černý; Carney 13).

The break of a new century brought along new dance styles and their variations, of them all, foxtrot and Charleston remained in the public awareness to this day. Foxtrot, appearing in

1910s, survived the longest most likely due its prestige as one of the ballroom dances.

Throughout the following decade or two, foxtrot had been usually danced to hot jazz9, which would later be considered the Lindy hop music. Charleston became popular in 1923 when a successful musical showcased the dance during the performance. This dance style is said to have more in connection with Lindy hop than foxtrot, which used the same music to an extent, because of they both were very energetically charged (Spring 184-185).

Some people who encountered a dance like Charleston for the first time, described it as barbaric, or eccentric at best (Harker 71; Spring 186). To others, this invention in body movement must have been thrilling; one such person was a writer for the New Republic magazine: "It added the movements of the hips, thighs, buttocks.... The exciting thing is the individual use of the entire body - even the head and neck participate in the movement" (qtd in

Spring 186). The variations of Charleston and similar dances had a chance to bloom in the white audience only Cotton Club in Harlem, where Duke Ellington's Orchestra regularly performed.

Many of new dance figures were introduced in the club, as there were competitions that encouraged individuality and innovation (Manning and Millman, 111; Harker 72-93).

However, the best-known club in terms of dancing is the Savoy Ballroom, also called the cradle of Lindy hop. This place acted as a haven for music and dance lovers, regardless of their race, which implies that Savoy could be considered revolutionary, or scandalous, for the interracial interaction among people. Another aspect that led to its success was that it was not expensive to partake in the activities, perhaps due to its location in the Harlem neighbourhood.

9 "Jazz that is emotionally charged and intense and marked by strong rhythms and improvisation." https://www.thefreedictionary.com/hot+jazz

31 The Savoy Ballroom, according to the Swing Queen Norma Miller, was the only place where people could learn Lindy Hop, which also secured the popularity the club would attain (Spring

189).

According to Harker, the 1920s and 1930s were filled with various changes in dancing elements. The most important one is called "rhythm tap", which places emphasis on complex steps, speed, and the continuity of movement and changes throughout the dance activity (Harker

93). In response to this rhythmic change, the musicians reflected the steps in their own pieces and songs; Louis Armstrong's playing is a great example as it showcases all the difficult, fast, and almost acrobatic way of performing the music. Spring and Harker share the opinion that the relationship between swing music and dance is about reciprocation, one side always giving feedback and inspiration to the other (200; 97).

At that time, the people were not concerned with terminology, and only sought out to better their previous dancing skills and peers. George Snowden, who is credited with coining the term

"Lindy hop", stated that this particular style had been around for a while already, but that no one thought of naming it (Spring 190). The first appearance of Lindy hop on screen was in 1929 movie called After Seben (Gould), where three pairs of contestants show off their skill in a competition. This early representation of swing is quite similar to how it is danced today on a beginner level, though it later evolved into its even more exciting, and dangerous form.

In the late 1920s when Lindy hop entered the scene, many dance teachers belittled those interested in picking it up, because they expected the dance to go out of fashion soon, and disregarded Lindy hop as a suitable dance for ballroom events. Due to this opinion, it was hard to learn it anywhere else than the Savoy Ballroom by experiencing it first-hand. To the disdain of the teachers, and older generation, the younger people were greatly taken by Lindy, going as far as ignoring the racial differences just for the chance to have a good time on the dance floor

(Spring 189).

32 Defining Lindy hop simply proves problematic as there are many elements that make the style as distinct as it is. Perhaps its most noticeable attributes could be tapping, jumping, and improvisation, though with varying intensity (Harker 71-72). These differences seem to be linked to skin colour, or more accurately to the influence of public opinion. To support this claim, four films in total featuring the white and the African American dancers are going to be examined further in following section of the thesis.

33 2. Empirical Section

This chapter of the thesis is dedicated to providing evidence of the differences between the

African American musicians and dancers and their white counterparts to find out how swing affected the American society. Firstly, the comparison of Louis Armstrong and Benny

Goodman's music is made with compositions that were recorded not too far apart in terms of time. Next, the dance styles represented in four different films shall be put into contrast based on their main characteristics. Lastly, combining the previous comparisons, with the representation in film taken into consideration, the thesis's aim is brought to a conclusion.

2.1 Comparing the Legendary and the Successful

Undeniably, both Benny Goodman and Louis Armstrong had impact on the whole world through the decades. However, there are nuances in their swing music that can explain why most modern people know Sing, Sing, Sing performed by Goodman's band. Armstrong's Swing

That Music might have been lauded by critics, but it did not make it to the 21st century as successfully. The reasons for this occurrence shall now be explored.

Nowadays Swing That Music10 could be called the epitome of swing music, as it has all the elements that create the sensation - an upbeat tempo, and a choice of instruments and rhythms that leave the listeners feeling happy, bobbing to the music, and restless to get on the dance floor and dance. The song was catapulted into the world in 1936 and caused quite the sensation among critics and the audience. For its time, it was very dynamic with its changing rhythmic patterns, in which Armstrong goes from middle range and Cs to, at its time high, E-flat major in the final chorus, and thus creating something "more acrobatic stunt than great art" (Schuller

190). The song reflects Armstrong's concept, gradually building up the rhythmic momentum

10 The examination of this song is based on the official account for Louis Armstrong on Spotify, which has two minutes and fifty-three seconds.

34 until its climax in a way the audience has easy time following the changing patterns of the music. Schuller calls the feat a "staggering achievement" that nobody could equal at the time, for any other musician would have most likely tried to speed up the tempo as the notes go higher

(191).

The lyrics and Armstrong's singing also supply the song with the impact it has on the audience. Whereas the singing is more focused on the melody and harmonic aspect, maybe sounding a bit disconnected from the rhythm to some people, the lyrics11 reflect the feelings audience may get while listening to it:

My heart gives a chill,

I feel such a thrill,

My feet won't keep still,

When they swing that music,

Rhythm like that puts me in a trance,

You can't blame me for wanting to dance... (Armstrong, Swing That Music)

In a way, Armstrong made the song very pleasant to listen to even if played on repeat nowadays, thanks to the smooth and soft quality of the base, or background, music, accompanied and accentuated by the singing; Swing That Music shows and confirms his musical genius with the subtle sense of improvisation, which, however, made it slightly difficult to adapt to whilst dancing on the dance floor.

To compare with the pieces performed by the clarinet virtuoso Benny Goodman, the 1937 recording of Sing, Sing, Sing has been chosen. It would have been better to compare a piece produced in the same year as the Louis Armstrong's song; however, the recording of Air Play from 1936 is hardly found on the internet, which is why the one-year older piece is used as a substitute that hopefully suffices the purpose. Sing, Sing, Sing is, to this day, one of the greatest

11 The lyrics are transcribed by the author.

35 hits performed by Benny Goodman, though ironically to its name, it doesn't involve any singing. This timeless hit can nowadays be heard during dancesport competitions, or during formal events in ballrooms, and it is quite easy to see and understand why the piece survived the test of times; the exciting sound of drums, which build up the tension, accompanied by the free-spirited clarinet create a powerful dynamic. Yet while listening to the piece, some of the structures do become clearly predictable and repetitive, destroying the excitement and the tension that was being carried in the first half of the piece. This is perhaps caused by the length of the piece as well, for it is over eight minutes12 (Goodman Sing, Sing, Sing), while the standard time of a recording used to be around three minutes, as can be seen from either Louis

Armstrong's or any other musicians' recordings13.

The differences might sound a bit unclear thus far, and so they shall be now put next to each other to make it easier to understand why Benny Goodman's recording was more successful and why it withstood the passage of times better than Louis Armstrong's song. As has been mentioned earlier in the chapter about Goodman, the virtuoso placed great importance on the rigorous practice of the orchestra, giving the music a more polished look. Swing That Music does not sound as polished, but there is a sense of spontaneity with the seemingly random sounds of the trumpet. The overall feeling a listener may get from Goodman's piece is that of excitement and momentum built up by the distinct sound of drums, whereas Armstrong's song is what most people would nowadays describe as chill, or more formally relaxed, due to the non-aggressive sound of the drums, which come across as the background accompaniment for his singing and trumpet playing. To conclude, Goodman's piece was a better reflection of the dancers' demands, providing more opportunities for expressing musicality in their dancing due to the predictable and fun passages, which is why the music is still being played in ballrooms.

12 Information about the length taken from the official Benny Goodman account on Spotify. 13 Compared by going through contemporary pieces and songs.

36 2.2 The Wild and the Mellow

Different communities accommodate dancing style to their own image and swing was no exception. Lindy hop emerged from combination of various elements of other inter-war era dances. As discussed earlier, the main influences were Charleston, foxtrot, and tapping. These nuances were captured on the "talking" films and provide material for comparison. The representation for the African Americans is A Day at the Races from 1937 and Hellzapoppin' from 1941. For the white dance communities Swing Time from 1936 and Buck Privates from

1941 were chosen.

A Day at the Races and Hellzapoppin' showcase Manning and Miller, along with the other members of Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, the African American professional dance group. Despite the same dancers participating in both films, there is a clear development in the style between the times the movies were filmed four years apart. The characteristics of the swing dance overlap, though at varying degrees.

In the earlier film, the dance scene projects an overall happy feeling from moving to music.

There are a lot of fast moves that seem almost frantic, which are only amplified by the noticeable jumping in the basic steps. Another very noticeable feature is the seemingly spontaneous kicking and acrobatics that surprisingly make the scene seem authentic, as though it was filmed during a dance party. The reason for this may lay in the setting, as they evoke the everyday situation of taking a break at work and taking part in an impromptu dance battle.

Hellzapoppin' on the other hand, feels almost forced. The scene opens with people picking up instruments one after the other and joining in to create music through improvisation, as had been popular during the 1920s and 1930s. However, the dancing greatly contrasts this, because the dance routine looks heavily practiced due to the very complicated acrobatic movements.

Kicking, jumping, and tossing the women into the air while in the similar setting of dance battle at work looks almost ridiculous, especially with the rapid rhythm. The dancing shown here is

37 most likely the result of the strivings to create new dance moves and see how far Lindy hop can evolve.

The 1936 film Swing Time showcases something completely different. The most prominent influence on the dance style is the foxtrot and tapping. At the dance studio, Fred and Ginger begin dancing timidly in a closed position and all the spinning around the dance floor is reminiscent of the foxtrot. Later, the two break apart and dance next to each other to show off their footwork, which heavily derives from tapping. Throughout the scene, the solo passages dominate over the partnering, thus making the observers aware of the dance being more of a show than spontaneous need to move.

The dancers in Buck Privates avoided this rigidity through various means. Most importantly, the relaxed and fun celebratory setting provides more opportunities to be expressed in the dancing. The moves feel very authentic to what could be seen in ballrooms thanks to the occasional faults, for example losing balance, missing a step, or turning over too much. Other than that, the occasional kick or fall-and-catch spice the dancing routines.

Though all four films showcase the popular styles of the swing era, there are some noticeable differences. Firstly, it is the energy which is quite low in the movies with white dancers when compared to the African Americans. Second, the vertical versus the horizontal line is an important factor in dancing, because when people become more grounded in their knees and relax their whole body, they can move faster and display their flexibility, be it through kicks or somersaults, whereas when the people are focused on holding an upright line of their spine, like Fred and Ginger demonstrated, the dancing appears very light and dainty. In these differences lies one of the reasons why the white variation of Lindy hop stayed popular and could later influence the future development of new dance styles.

38 2.3 Swing and the American Society

Thanks to the development of existing and new technologies, both dancing and music spread throughout the United States. The creation of gramophone and sound capturing devices for films meant that some parts of culture could be documented and shared among the people.

The radio broadcasting, swiftly enhanced during wartime by the army, could feature artists and inform the listeners of any news or events. The new technologies providing entertainment became means of soothing everyday suffering when the Black Thursday struck, and swing was also considered one of the ways to escape reality.

Swing, both dance and music, started developing in African American communities.

However, when the people of colour had to move for jobs shortly after U.S. joined the First

World War, it was the white ODJB group that first popularized jazz, the predecessor of swing.

This is the first instance of the exploitation of African American culture in connection to swing.

The next, and maybe much more significant, was when Benny Goodman performed Fletcher

Henderson's arrangements to the white public. Schuller explains that people were not concerned about authorship (160), and that was the main reason why Goodman is regarded as

The King of Swing, while Henderson and Armstrong, whom Henderson imitated, are given little recognition in the Swing Era.

Dancing was in a similar boat. Though there is evidence that African Americans invented the Lindy hop, most people remember Fred and Ginger, the white dancer partners. The problem here may lie in the divergent tendencies that only became more prominent when the dance scenes started becoming incorporated in the films (Swing Time; A Day at the Races). The experimental dancers took inspiration in the dances which created the swing dance at varying degrees. Some added more tapping, other more foxtrot, some went back to the roots to make the dance more grounded and tried to engage their whole body in the steps.

39 Especially the African Americans, Manning and Miller in the forefront, revelled in creating complicated dance figures, many of those consisted of high kicking or acrobatics. The evidence of such development can be found in the films which have been compared in the previous chapter, where the audience can observe how A Day at the Races seemed more danceable and not as difficult when compared to the four-years younger film Hellzapoppin'. To contrast, the scenes with the white Americans in Swing Time and Buck Privates appear like the first steps of a new-born foal. The moves became more believable in the second film thanks to the various errors the dancers made in the scene, and the lack of complicated dance figures. To put it plainly, Lindy hop danced by the white Americans was not as physically demanding and looked more sophisticated than the variation of their African American counterparts, which is most likely why the easier to dance variation reached modern society and caused emergence of new dance styles.

Though the innovations brought by African Americans caused another case of exploitation in their long history, it is undeniable that dancing and music became the mutual understanding for both parties. The cooperation of Henderson and Goodman could be a clear example of the common ground. The Savoy Ballroom, and likely any other venues, is known as a place where people mingled with each other regardless of race. The young people enthusiastic about Lindy hop overcame in the obstacle of the skin colours in their own way when seeking entertainment, and therefore laying foundations for a more tolerant and accepting society.

40 3. Conclusion

The aim of the thesis was providing evidence of swing culture laying foundations for tolerance between the white and African American U.S. citizens. Firstly, the theoretical section provided relevant historical and cultural context, which allowed the dance and music swing communities to be researched. Secondly, possible evidence in music and in film were examined.

And lastly, the evidence was put into the social and historical setting to reach a conclusion.

The historical context was presented first to highlight possible clues for the further cultural development that had immediate influence on swing culture. Foremost, trouble African

Americans experienced and their strivings for better futures were discussed. Next, the immediate effect of the world war and the Great Depression were addressed. Finally, the question of spreading culture among the people was supplied, as well as the newly emerging ideas and movements after World War I ended.

The explanation of swing music and introduction of its representatives was provided. The terms "swing" and "jazz" were differentiated to establish a foundation to build upon the next topics. The African American music icon, Louis Armstrong, and his influence on the world of music were presented. Then, the explanation for Benny Goodman's success was given, without forgetting the chief person who ensured it. Their cooperation could be considered one of the cornerstones for tolerance and acceptance of the African Americans and white Americans.

Finally for the theoretical section, the dance icons were presented and the dancing itself was described. Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers, the best-known dance partner in modern times, and

Frankie Manning and Norma Miller, the pioneers of Lindy hop, had their initial interest in dancing put into context. The swing dancing was given explanation in its origins and in the contemporary definition. The Savoy Ballroom, where people mingled regardless of race, was another cornerstone of the interracial relationship of U.S. citizens getting better.

41 All of the theoretical information was then taken into account in the empirical section. First, the music and the divergence of Armstrong and Goodman's styles was examined on the song and the piece respectively. Second, the swing dance styles represented by the two communities were compared in four different films with consideration of the time gap among them. Lastly, these nuances were taken into consideration within the historical context and reached a conclusion with swing at its pinnacle.

The reason why Benny Goodman became a world-renowned musician lies at first glance in the exploitation of African American innovations in jazz and swing, because his arrangements came from Fletcher Henderson, however, it has now been established that the two musicians willingly cooperated with each other. Unfortunately, Louis Armstrong was not given enough credit for everything he had done in the world of music, as the general white American society accepted other white musicians more readily. A similar conclusion was reached in the topic of dance, though with another factor considered. From the research, the cause for the dissipation of the African American variation of Lindy hop was its complexity and the highly demanding physical skills. Although exploitation was happening, the dance community was willing to overcome the conflicts for the sake of music and dancing, thus laying foundations for tolerance and acceptance for the future generations.

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