Primer May 2019 Targeted Universalism Policy & Practice by john a. powell, Stephen Menendian, Wendy Ake

HAASINSTITUTE.BERKELEY.EDU This primer is published by the Haas Institute for a Fair and Inclusive Society at UC Berkeley

About the Authors Editors john a. powell is the Director Stephen Menendian of the Haas Institute for a Wendy Ake Fair and Inclusive Society and Professor of Law, African Copyeditor American, and Ethnic Studies Stacey Atkinson at the University of California, Mirror Image Publishing Berkeley. Layout / Design Stephen Menendian is the Rachelle Galloway-Popotas Assistant Director and Director of Research at the Haas Cover Art and Institute for a Fair and Inclusive Custom Illustrations Society where he oversees the Column Five Institute’s research initiatives and projects, including the Report Citation Inclusiveness Index, fair powell, john, Stephen Menendi- housing policy and opportunity an and Wendy Ake, “Targeted mapping project, and universalism: Policy & Practice.” community engagement. Haas Institute for a Fair and Inclusive Society, University Wendy Ake directs the Haas of California, Berkeley, 2019. Institute’s Just Public Finance haasinstitute.berkeley.edu/tar- project. She also consults on geteduniversalism. the Institute’s application of the targeted universalism policy Published in May 2019. framework and inclusive strate- gic philanthropy. Wendy’s work Contact explores exclusive economic structures and the potential of 460 Stephens Hall inclusive transformational eco- Berkeley, CA 94720-2330 nomic systems. Tel 510-642-3326 haasinstitute.berkeley.edu Contents Introduction 5 Categorizing Strategies 7

Universal Strategies...... 7 Targeted Strategies...... 11 Targeted Universal Strategies...... 15

Creating a Targeted Universalism Framework 21

Step 1: Establish a universal goal...... 21 Step 2: Assess performance relative to goal...... 22 Step 3: Identification of different performance between goal and overall population...... 23 Step 4: Assess and understand the structures ...... 24 Step 5: Develop and implement targeted strategies...... 26

Targeting Within a Targeted Universalism Framework 29

Transactional versus Tranformative Change 35

Universal Goals and Limited Resources 38

Building the Table for a Targeted Universal Framework 39

Conclusion: Equity 2.0 42

Endnotes...... 44 Further Reading...... 46 There is a hunger for fresh approaches and urgent demand for novel policy methods that can break through our political gridlock, address the problems of our time and create new avenues for thriving individuals and communities. Targeted universalism is an approach that supports the needs of the particular while reminding us that we are all part of the same social fabric.

4 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute Introduction

THE WORLD IS BESET by a range of overwhelm- group benefits, or benefits disproportionately, then ing challenges and intransigent problems that de- other groups may feel left behind or overlooked. mand a policy response. Although political leaders The insistence that government and other public may agree on the need for action, there is often institutions remain neutral is eroded by a sense disagreement over what constitutes an appropriate that the government is taking sides or has taken and legitimate response.i For example, the waves of the wrong side. refugee and migrant crises and the issue of widen- In an era of political polarization and fiscal auster- ing economic inequality are two recent examples of ity, policy debates too readily become trapped in crises in which policymakers are deeply divided on a binary of either universal responses or targeted 1 the best path forward. The seemingly diminished solutions. Universal responses enjoy a degree of capacity of government to address or forestall re- legitimacy in a diverse and pluralistic society, but peated waves of social crises across the globe is they may also be viewed as unaffordable and overly exacerbated by political polarization regarding what ambitious, while also inadequate at helping those constitutes an appropriate or effective response. most in need. Therefore, the most marginalized Many policy disagreements are framed by familiar people are often the most skeptical of ostensibly debates about the role of government and the na- universal policies. Targeted policies may be more ture or extent of the problem, as well as pragmatic efficient and less costly, but by targeting a partic- concerns about how to structure or formulate ular group, these approaches are often viewed as policy for sustainable impact. More than differenc- unfairly helping one group over another, seeding es of ideology or disagreement over facts, howev- hostility and resentment. er, underlie these divides. Political polarization is Even well-intended policy interventions may inad- fueled by a growing feeling of unfairness and the vertently exacerbate inequality, but the absence of perception that policy is a zero-sum game. If one viable methods and workable policy frameworks ensures the perpetuation of “in-groups” and “out- i Policy interventions follow three sequential steps: First, recog- groups.” There is hunger for fresh approaches and nition of a social, economic, political, or environmental problem. policy methods that can break through our political In some cases, there is a lack of consensus that a problem ex- gridlock, address the problems of our time, and cre- ists. For example, despite the overwhelming scientific evidence, ate new avenues for thriving individuals and commu- some political leaders deny that climate change is an environ- nities. Targeted universalism is an alternative to either mental problem. Second, policymakers must decide that the problem requires and merits a policy response. Not every gov- universal or targeted strategies with the potential to ernmental entity has jurisdiction to address or respond to policy bridge our most intransigent policy divides. problems that arise within their jurisdiction. And, for prudential Targeted universalism means setting universal or ideological reasons, some political leaders may believe that the problem, such as it exists, does not merit governmental goals pursued by targeted processes to achieve intervention. Third, policymakers must select an appropriate and those goals. Within a targeted universalism frame- effective policy response, and develop sufficient consensus work, universal goals are established for all groups to promulgate and implement it. Policy debates often involve concerned. The strategies developed to achieve disagreement at each step. Sometimes, however, policymakers debate the same issue at different steps, and thereby talk past those goals are targeted, based upon how different each other. This report focuses on the third step, and assumes groups are situated within structures, culture, and that there is consensus on the first and second steps, but dis- across geographies to obtain the universal goal. agreement at the third step. We acknowledge that this may not Targeted universalism is goal oriented, and the always be the case, and therefore the framework in this primer processes are directed in service of the explicit, may not be able to help resolve every policy debate. universal goal.

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 5 Targeted universalism is a platform to operation- alize programs that move all groups toward the universal policy goal as well as a way of communi- cating and publicly marketing such programs in an How to Use inclusive, bridging manner. It is an approach that supports the needs of particular groups, even the This Primer politically powerful or those in the majority, while Read it. This publication explains the framework reminding everyone that we are all part of the same of targeted universalism, discusses its advantages, social and civic fabric. As such, targeted universal- and provides a process and step-by-step frame- ist policies are more resistant to the critique that work for deriving targeted universal strategies. government programs serve special interests, who- Reading the document will provide a comprehen- ever that might be. sive understanding of targeted universalism me- We urgently need aligned and coherent strate- chanics and potential. gies that create belonging and promote bridging. Apply it. This publication offers a workbook expla- Targeted universalism provides an approach for nation of how to operationalize what is otherwise orchestrating these efforts. Targeted universalistic a seemingly abstract policy methodology. In our interventions undermine active or passive forces experience, targeted universalism is simple con- of structural exclusion and marginalization, and ceptually, but complex in application. Therefore, we promote tangible experiences of belonging. Out- encourage you to work with the process, consider groups are moved from societal neglect to the how it may frame your current work, or attempt center of societal care at the same time that more concrete applications of the strategy in your work. powerful or favored groups’ needs are addressed. Please reach out to us to provide further support or The implementation strategies derived from a tar- clarification. We enjoy working with a large number geted universalism framework come in many forms. of partners who implement and design targeted Some may be simple technical fixes or modest universalist strategies and will be happy to make changes to existing programs. Others may be more connections to further this valuable work. sweeping changes or deeper structural reforms. Contribute to its revision. This is a living docu- Although the targeted universalism framework ment. The potential of targeted universalism is best supports a wide range of policy interventions, the realized in practice. We hope you will participate process for deriving implementation strategies un- with us in documenting and collaborating in efforts locks the potential for transformative change. Such to implement targeted universalism reforms. We changes cannot arise without unraveling the narrow would like to grow the community of people engag- range of preconceived implementation possibilities ing with us to make its explanation and application held by many policymakers and reconstructing clearer, more relevant, and more widely appreci- aspirations for an equitable society in which every- ated. We are interested in case studies, stories one can thrive. By emphasizing the universal goal of success, implementation, and challenges with as a way of justifying a diversity of implementation applying the concept and using this document. We strategies, transformative change possibilities can are also interested in continuing to learn from you be envisioned, pursued, and aligned. and others. This primer is offered in the spirit of sharpening Did you find this primer relevant for thinking about and contributing to a large body of policy models. and developing your work? Have you put it to Targeted universalism is a platform that jettisons an use as a workbook? What needs to be expanded overly formalistic, one-size-fits-all policy formula in upon? Please let us know. We continue to refine favor of an approach that is more outcome-orient- this framework and appreciate learning from your ed. As such, targeted universalism opens up the experiences implementing the framework or chal- possibilities for experimentalist, manifold pathway lenges with the process. We plan to periodically policy regimes. It is a framework that adds nuance update and reissue this primer. Your feedback and that can complement and accommodate the best contributions will help it evolve and grow. work within the domain of innovating policy change. This type of agenda requires deliberate strategizing, ground-truthing, and smart organizing. The growing community of powerful policy, advocacy, commu- nity-based organizations and others can meet the challenge. Indeed, they are already well on the way.

6 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute Categorizing Strategies

TARGETED UNIVERSALISM is an alternative and targeted strategies, their nuances and subtle- framework to design policies and implementa- ties and their advantages and flaws. Finally, we will tion strategies to achieve policy goals. Targeted turn to a discussion on how targeted universalism universalism is sensitive to structural and cultural strategies exceed the potential of both universal dynamics in ways that often elude both targeted policies and targeted policies while exploiting their and universal strategies. As such, it is also a way benefits and avoiding their weaknesses. of communicating, a vernacular to build support for inclusive policies. CONCEPT 1 Despite what the term suggests, targeted univer- salism is more than a hybrid approach. It borrows Universal Strategies the strengths and avoids the weaknesses of both Universal policies are those that aspire to serve targeted and universal approaches. Yet, it is also everyone without regard to group membership, categorically distinct in both conception and execu- status, or income. They often establish a goal or tion. This distinction is important since a common minimum protection for the general population. For misconception is that the targeted universalism example, national universal health care programs, framework is essentially “targeting within a univer- such as single-payer systems, apply to everyone sal” approach—i.e., pursuing targeted strategies in the jurisdiction; there are no other qualifying that respond to the urgent needs of some people, standards that must be met, besides, possibly, and wrapping those strategies in a universal goal citizenship in that jurisdiction. Similarly, the Fair that holds wide appeal. But targeted universalism Labor Standard Act’s minimum wage policies is more than that. It is an entirely distinctive platform provide a uniform floor of benefits irrespective of for resolving problems that are often unaddressed or group membership, such as race, religion, or sexual exacerbated by targeted or universal policies. orientation.2 In contrast, targeted universalism programs are Universal approaches have been developed and designed so that people, or groups, can achieve a applied in a wide range of policy contexts to ad- universal policy goal, such as all people being ad- dress critical social problems, from health care equately fed, producing housing for all those who to unemployment insurance to education. Broad- need shelter, or having affordable health care for based social programs, such as Social Security’s all. Targeted universalism is based on exploring the unemployment insurance or old age benefits, are gaps that exist between individuals, groups, and often referenced as the paradigmatic form of pol- places that can benefit from a policy or program and icy universalism. The assumption is everyone who the aspiration-establishing goal. Targeted universal- meets certain work requirements is eligible for ism policy formulations do more than close or bridge the program, and the program provides the same such gaps, but ultimately clarify and reveal the bar- protections regardless of status or group member- riers or impediments to achieving the universal goal ship (see Table 1). Similarly, free, universal public for different groups of people. The focus on gaps, education is generally seen as an emblematic while important, should be measured by reference to universal policy. a universal goal, not just between groups. Universal policies have been defined as those that To understand these differences, we must first “guarantee a uniform floor of rights or benefits for better understand the difference between universal all persons or, at least, offers guarantees of a set

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 7 TABLE 1 Types of Universal Programs

Type of Policy Components Examples

Truly universal They apply to everyone Universal basic income within a national jurisdic- tion. No cost or fee. No age or income baseline or minimum. No activity required.

Broadly universal A universal policy with Universal suffrage some minimal exceptions, based upon activity.

Conditionally universal A policy that applies con- Social Security’s ditionally, but not based on unemployment insurance inherent characteristics. and old age benefits; minimum wage: requires working

of rights or benefits to a broad group not defined tion, the benefit levels provided by Social Security’s according to identity axes.”3 Accordingly, universal old age provisions depend upon the contributions policies generally apply to everyone, to all groups, made to the program, which in turn depend upon within the policymaker’s or administrator’s jurisdic- prior working life. tion. That does not mean, however, that all universal Even minimum wage laws, which ostensibly provide policies work the same way. a uniform floor of benefits, typically exempt cer- There are many gradations between universalistic tain occupations (such as tipped employees) and policies. Some universal policies are truly universal, sometimes minor workers. In this way, such laws applying equally to everyone within a jurisdiction. are broadly or conditionally universal, but not nec- Others are broadly universal, exempting or exclud- essarily truly universal. ing some groups within a jurisdiction. And others Universal policies have many advantages. The ap- are conditionally universal, depending on certain peal of the Universal Basic Income (UBI) is that it qualifying conditions or fees. applies equally to everyone, irrespective of group Universal suffrage, a basic principle of modern status, but also of need, previous employment, or democracy, protects the right to vote irrespective wealth.4 Its universal scope means that there is of gender, race, or religion. Nonetheless, universal less opportunity for a demagogic politician to rail suffrage is generally restricted to adults attaining against such a policy on the basis that it is a give- some age of majority, such as 18 or 21. In that away for special interests, or that the government is respect, even this broadly universal policy excludes siding with one group against another. By providing many people. Similarly, both free, universal public the same benefit to everyone equally, a UBI is less education and old age benefits, such as those likely to feed resentment within one segment of the provided by Social Security, depend on age qualifi- population to another. cations, with the latter beginning at age 62. In addi- For these reasons, universal approaches are more

8 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute durable politically and judicially.5 By providing pro- it more difficult for the poor, but especially poor tections to everyone, without respect to group mem- Black Americans, to vote. Before the adoption of bership within the class, universal approaches enjoy the amendment, many anti-poll tax advocates had a broader and more resilient base of political sup- sought a federal anti-discrimination law that would port and are less likely to be viewed as benefiting a have scrutinized the use of the poll tax when used particular group. Moreover, as legal scholars have to disenfranchise Black voters. By creating a blan- documented, universal approaches are less likely to ket prohibition, rather than an antidiscrimination be construed narrowly by courts and judges.6 standard, as many of the anti-poll tax advocates Despite their scope, many universalistic policies initially sought, the Twenty-Fourth Amendment solved a problem disproportionately faced by a have their genesis in problems that were dispro- 8 portionately affecting specific groups or particular racial minority with a universal policy. In this form, segments of the population. The aforementioned the constitutional amendment enjoyed broader tactical advantages and the greater resilience of support, including from white voters who were also universalistic policy design has motivated policy- impacted by such laws. Similarly, the National Voter makers to broaden policy responses to targeted Registration Act and the Help America Vote Act are problems. Consider, as two examples of this, the both examples of voting legislation that is universal Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) and the in scope, despite addressing problems confronted by particular communities and groups, including the adoption of the Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the 9 United States Constitution. Both examples illustrate issues arising from the 2000 presidential election. the particular advantage of a universalistic policy Universal approaches are not defined by the prob- design frame. lems they are attempting to solve, but by their The FMLA was a major legislative achievement of scope of coverage or application, and by how they the Clinton administration.7 The legislative effort establish or provide broadly uniform minimums began with recognition that new parents lacked or protections. Just like minimum wage laws, the federal employment protections if they wanted or provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act, Twen- needed to take time off of work to care for their ty-Fourth Amendment, and the FMLA apply re- infants. Evidence was gathered and presented that gardless of status or need. Moreover, the broader, children and families benefited from having some universalistic policy frame made each of these laws baseline protections lacking in the United States, more politically popular and durable. especially by comparison to other advanced na- Universal policies are lauded for their tactical ad- tions. In its initial iteration, the legislation required vantages, but they suffer a number of disadvantag- employers to permit parents to take at least 12 es as well. Universal policies are perceived—and weeks of leave without fear of termination or risk of not unjustifiably so—as entailing greater costs on dismissal. The final bill, however, was broadened account of greater benefits.10 Where these bene- and extended its protections not only to parents fits are not minimum legal protections, but involve of children, but the care of older parents or spous- treasury outlays or higher pay or benefits, those es. Despite arising out of a pressing, and more costs can be directly passed on to taxpayers or narrowly framed policy problem, the FMLA was consumers. As noted before, some UBI proposals broadened to include benefits for people without would provide identical payments to everyone, children, and thus made into a broadly universal regardless of income.11 Under a UBI, millionaires policy (see Table 1), serving the universal goal of and billionaires would receive the same payments employment stability despite urgent family caretak- as the extreme poor. As such, universal policies are ing needs.ii susceptible to the critique that they provide bene- Another example of a universalistic solution to a fits to individuals or groups who do not need them, targeted problem was the multi-decade effort to and therefore are inefficient or wasteful of collective curtail the racially discriminatory effects of the poll resources such as government funds. tax as a qualification for voting. This solution ulti- Perhaps the most trenchant cost critique of univer- mately resulted in the Twenty-Fourth Amendment, sal policies arose in the debates in recent years which prohibited the use of a poll tax. Poll taxes over universal pre-K. In his 2013 State of the Union were typically used by Southern states to make address, President Barack Obama proposed a universal pre-K program. Debate over his proposal centered largely on the cost, which was estimated ii The FMLA could have been made more “universal” by ex- to be $12.3 billion each year.12 The estimated cost tending its coverage to a broader range of kinship relationships, but the final bill was broadened from its originally targeted form. inclined many commentators to suggest that a tar-

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 9 geted program for low-income children would be a health care system is necessary to help reach under- better policy approach.13 However, the experience served populations. of the popular universal pre-K program instituted by Universal approaches can exacerbate disparities the de Blasio administration in New York City illus- by addressing only one barrier to achieving the trates the benefits, political and educational, of the goal. This was perhaps most evident in the original 14 universal approach. implementation of the Social Security Act’s various Another critique of universal approaches is that programs. Not only did the act exempt domestic they exacerbate disparities and deepen inequality and agricultural job classifications, occupations or injustice in society. This critique of universal pol- primarily filled by Black Americans and women, but icies is counterintuitive, but is well-supported by it also provides benefits that scale to pay.19 Conse- experience. Consider, for example, Massachusetts’ quently, in a discriminatory labor market, the bene- 2006 statewide universal health care law.15 The goal fits of the program were dramatically uneven.20 was to provide all of the state’s citizens with access In a similar vein, consider job training programs that to health care through a mixture of subsidies and typically focus on the provision of technical skills penalties. As a result of the program, 96 percent of and credentials. The presumption is that technical the state’s residents were able to obtain health in- skills and credentials are what blocks potential 16 surance, above the national average of 84 percent. employees from finding employment. Barriers to This indicates that the policy was a significant jobs include not only technical and vocational skills, achievement in that many more people were able to but soft skills and social skills needed to interview obtain health insurance. The problem was that the and land the job, knowledge of job openings, and provision of health insurance did not translate into transportation to a job or access to a car. A job access to health care for individuals or groups with training program that treats everyone the same may 17 inadequate access to health care providers. also exacerbates disparities. For people who simply could not afford a doctor, While the potential for universal approaches to the provision of insurance solved that problem. But exacerbate or deepen group-based disparities is for individuals residing in neighborhoods without or perhaps their most problematic feature, there is proximate to few or no health care providers, hav- a more fundamental flaw. Universal strategies in ing health insurance did not solve the problem of practice often function like targeted strategies. All lack of access to health care providers. For people universal policies assume a norm or a universal in poor urban or rural communities with too few situation. For example, the Social Security Act was doctors or health care facilities, or who lacked a implicitly designed to make changes that would lift car or transportation to reach one, health insurance up the conditions of a white, able-bodied, working alone could not resolve that problem. Nor did it age man. People who were disabled were less solve language barriers or other obstacles to se- likely to benefit from the program. And people who curing access to a provider. were no longer of working age could not benefit The result of the state’s universal program was to ex- from the program either. At the core of any univer- acerbate racial disparities in health coverage. A few sal approach is an implicit universal norm, assum- years into the program, 78.9 percent of the state’s ing that everyone it attempts to serve is similarly Hispanic population was insured compared to 96 situated. Therefore, in the end, when the policy is percent of the non-Hispanic white population.18 It implemented, it only serves some or a few people— has further been demonstrated that Hispanic groups that is, it proves to be a targeted program. with limited English proficiency and Spanish-speak- The Massachusetts universal health care policy ing groups did not advance toward the goal of reflects this deficiency. For some groups, the only universal coverage. The universal policy assumed thing that stood between them and health care that one strategy—making health insurance avail- was health insurance. Groups with limited English able—would both enable everyone to have insurance proficiency needed health insurance, assistance and would improve access to health care. However, with the enrollment process, and access to qual- for many groups, additional strategies were needed. ity health care providers in their communities. Increasing the availability of primary care physicians Groups with low income needed health insurance in underserved areas was a barrier for some groups. and a cost-reduction mechanism for medical care. Some groups faced a language barrier in enrolling in The universal policy, with its singular strategy, the program and in finding care providers. Simplify- moved some to the goal, but left others behind. ing the enrollment process, providing assistance in finding care providers, and helping to navigate the Universal health care plans hold great appeal for

10 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute many involved in social justice work. When imple- legislation. Antidiscrimination norms are enacted mented, the plans made solid measurable gains. because of the prevalence of discrimination on However, there is an outstanding need for consid- the basis of group membership. Additionally, many ering the underlying goal and the diverse array of features of antidiscrimination law provide for spe- barriers to that goal for specific groups within the cial treatment for the targeted group. For example, general population. the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires Now that we have described universal policies in not only equal treatment, but also special accom- concept, as well as in their varying forms, present- modations for persons with disabilities, including ed a range of illustrative examples, and laid out their the provision of ADA accessible easements, en- advantages and disadvantages, we turn to targeted trances, and seating in public accommodations. policies for the same treatment. The accommodation provisions are more than simple equal treatment mandates; they require affirmative accommodation by government, em- CONCEPT 2 ployers, or public businesses.23 Targeted Strategies Similarly, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) of 1967 did not simply prohibit discrimina- Targeted policies single out specific populations tion on the basis of age, but it specifically extended or make provisions for selected groups, generally, its protections to workers “over the age of 40.”24 to the exclusion of others. Benefits or protections This was set in recognition of a targeted problem. based on targeted policies depend on group Namely, among others reasons, that “older workers membership or another categorical basis of eli- find themselves disadvantaged in their efforts to gibility, such as status or income. In this respect, retain employment, and especially to regain em- they neither set nor pursue a universal strategy ployment, when displaced from jobs.”25 Thus, by or goal, at least not explicitly.21 Rather, the policy targeting workers over the age of 40 with special is tailored to the needs of the people it aims to protections, the ADEA is a targeted policy. serve or protect. This produces a binary program design, where members of the target groups Perhaps the most well-known and controversial benefit while members of other groups, no matter class of targeted policies are affirmative action how well-off, do not receive the benefit or protec- policies, which, in the contexts of employment, tion. This is often a source of claims of unfairness. admissions, and government procurement, estab- lish targets or soft goals for the hiring, contracting, Like universal policies, targeted policies are ubiq- enrollment, or promotion of underrepresented or uitous and broadly familiar. Programs such as the historically disadvantaged groups. In a notable ex- Food Stamp Program (now redesigned as the ample, the University of California at Davis medical Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program, school set an enrollment quota of 16 seats for dis- or SNAP) epitomize targeted policies, providing advantaged racial minorities in the early 1970s.26 food to low-income families who might be at risk Other examples include specific set-asides, such of hunger or malnutrition. As we will discuss, as procurement or contract dollar targets, as en- each of these strategies may prove insufficient to acted in the State of Ohio’s Minority Business achieve their policy goal, and not simply because Enterprise Program. of inadequate funding. Any program or policy with means-tested eligibility requirements or other in- While some may think that distributing access to come parameters are likely examples of targeted college, jobs, or other limited resources cannot policies. For example, in contrast to a UBI, a nega- or should not be based on race, the distribution tive income tax would provide benefits only to the of such public or private goods based on grades lowest income brackets, and thus would condition or test scores results in an uneven distribution of benefits on income eligibility. such goods. Nonetheless, the assumption is that the latter such distributions are neutral, fair, or Targeted strategies may also provide public benefits “meritorious,” whereas programs such as affirma- to particular groups, such as veterans or people with tive action are not. Whether the selection criteria disabilities. The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of is based on race or some seemingly neutral merit 1944, also known as the GI Bill, may be one of the criteria, the program is still “targeted.” most successful targeted policies in American histo- ry, providing subsidized education, loans, and health Despite the association of targeted policies with care to veterans returning from World War II.22 protections for certain racial or other minorities, most targeted policies or approaches do not rely Targeted policies are prominent in civil rights

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 11 Equity Imagery in the Context of Targeted Universalism

A common set of images used to illustrate the difference between formally equal treatment and supports that help individuals reach the “universal goal” are those that feature people behind a fence and trying to catch the view on the other side. The fencing imagery is often framed as distinguishing between “equality,” meaning strictly “equal treatment,” and “equity” or fairness. In the ‘“equality” version of the image, people of different heights have equally sized boxes to help lift them in an aid to see above the fence. Each person is given an identically sized box to help them see over the fence—but only the taller person is able to see over the fence when they stand on the box. The same box doesn’t help people of different heights see over the fence. In this way the visual metaphor demonstrates the idea that treating “different people” equally is not a solution. When we map this image onto the concept of Source: Family Futures (2014) targeted universalism it may be said that the universal strategy of distributing identical boxes to different people did not enable everyone to reach the goal. Targeted universalism does advocate for different people receiving different strategies or greater resources—in this case everyone could see over the fence if they had different sized boxes or more than one box. However, this image doesn’t serve as the best metaphor for targeted universalism. From this analysis of the image we presume that the universal goal was to make it so that everyone could see over the fence. A more careful analysis can point out the fact that the fundamental goal would be to remove the fence—and the goal would be to have everyone see and enjoy the baseball game. If the fence were gone, no one would need to stand on boxes—whether that’s one or more boxes. This is definitely a more durable solution and doesn’t require the perpetual distribution and production of boxes. Removing the fence is universalistic—helping everyone to see the game— and does not single out a particular group based on height. This enables strategy design that solves the problem for the shortest people and the

12 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute Sources: Variations of these images have been created by Craig Froehle, Angus Maguire, the Center for Story-Based Strategy and the Interaction Institute for Social Change.

tallest people. In so doing, figuring out how to take apart the fence does not focus on the “deficits” of individual people. Taking apart the fence is also a structural— rather than an individual—fix, is more durable, and benefits everyone. Reading even more into this metaphor, we can appreciate the role of institutions, structures, and systems. One version of this image sometimes reconstructs the fence—see the final figure above. The wooden privacy fence has been replaced by a chain link fence. This is also a false solution—people can see the game but there is an enduring structural artifact that keeps people out of the facility. Certainly, in an image without a fence, we imagine that the team up for bat would usher the new game attendants to the bleachers and off the expanded field. Changing a literal structural barrier can make the existing rules of the game add people to the bleachers. There is a presumption in this figure that everyone wants to see a baseball game—an exceptionally long, and some may say boring, game. If more people were allowed into the game as spectators, then there is more potential for their desires to sway decisions. Maybe the publicly funded sports field can begin to host many different kinds of sports of interest to different people.

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 13 on group-based membership. Perhaps the most If a targeted policy directs focus to these individu- famous bundle of programs that embodied target- als, negative stereotypes and beliefs about those ed approaches are the set of programs developed groups undermine support for an “underserving” under the auspices of the so-called War on Pover- out-group. Many of the most marginalized groups ty. These include the aforementioned Food Stamp are also the least favored in the larger public imag- Act of 1964, the Elementary and Secondary Edu- ination. Too often, the prevailing assumption is that cation Act (ESEA), and the Economic Opportunity the condition of that group lies with them rather Act of 1964, which created the Community Action than with society or the means by which benefits Program, Job Corps, and Volunteers in Service are distributed. For that reason, targeted programs to America. The ESEA created a new channel for for the elderly are more likely to be well-received providing federal funding for primary and second- and politically sustainable than targeted benefits for ary education for underresourced communities and marginalized populations based on race or ethnic- school districts. Although, in practice, nearly every ity. Means-tested programs are susceptible to the school district received so-called Title I funds, the erosion of political will due to powerful and incor- funds are ostensibly targeted at the most underre- rect stereotypes as well as the averred unfairness sourced districts.27 of unequal benefit provision. Slashing social wel- As suggested by the resilience of universal pol- fare programs, in particular, is a top policy objective icies, targeted programs are more vulnerable by and refrain of conservative politics. comparison. In addition to the long-running attack We can see the distinction between popular sup- on affirmative action as “reverse racism,” the entire port for strategies that target out-groups versus War on Poverty program came under sustained in-groups—particularly with corporations—when political assault in the 1970s, an attack which comparing federal social welfare spending ver- continued through the ’80s and early ’90s. In this sus corporate subsidies. For example, while $59 environment, some wondered whether anti-poverty billion was spent on social welfare programs in programs should be more narrowly targeted to 2014, $92 billion was spent on corporate subsi- apply only to “the truly disadvantaged.”28 Others dies.30 Social welfare programs were publicly and wondered if the targeted nature of these programs consistently attacked, while corporate tax credits made them particularly susceptible to political at- were largely left out of any public spending debate. tack, some calling to mind the nineteenth century Similarly, popular housing subsidies that primarily poorhouses and other policies that proved ultimate- benefit the upper-middle class and affluent, includ- ly unsustainable for similar reasons.29 ing the mortgage interest deduction, may cost the 31 To some politicians and citizens, singling out a treasury hundreds of billions of dollars per year. particular group to receive benefits, while excluding In contrast, the federal government spends only a others, may seem unfair. An ethos of distributing fraction of that amount (estimated at $46 billion per resources equally is strongly held in our polity. But year) on affordable housing. Moreover, President even when carefully justified, demagogic politi- Obama’s 2017 budget estimated that it would cost cians can use the unequal distribution to claim that only $1 billion more a year over 10 years to com- 32 government is unfair, or taking sides. The refrain pletely eliminate homelessness in the US. frequently leveled against social welfare programs, Popular support for social welfare programs has such Temporary Assistance for Needy Families eroded by associating those programs with out- (TANF) or SNAP, is exactly that, and has been the group stereotypes that run against the grain of operating logic underwriting decades of cutbacks popular societal values of independence, autono- in social welfare programs. my, and individual motivation. Such inaccurate and brutalizing stereotypes include poor people being A weakness of targeted cast as “lazy” and the racialized and gendered stereotype of the “welfare queen.” Since the 1970s programs is their welfare support programs were attacked with a dis- vulnerability to political course tying racial stereotypes to such programs. challenge, particularly when This discourse ties the negative way people un- consciously feel about stereotyped groups to their the targeted group is an decision to support or oppose a policy.33 “outgroup” or perceived as Despite the perception that many targeted policies, undeserving. especially those associated with the War on Poverty, have failed, targeted policies tend to be successful

14 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute in achieving their policy aims when fully implemented on a sustained basis. The tailored nature of the tar- Targeted universalism geted policy means that it has a good chance at suc- emphasizes goals, and cess. Targeting strategies for particular groups can recenters the policy produce measurable gains, as the GI Bill demon- strates. Consider, as another example, the Earned debate toward a focus on Income Tax Credit (EITC). The tax credit exclusively outcomes. targets working families under a particular income level. Those families, representing nearly one out of Many policy efforts are designed to be either a every five tax filers in the US, received a tax credit targeted or universal strategy, but the goal is not 34 averaging $2,194 in 2010. This policy singles out an explicit part of the public debate or the way it a particular group and provides financial advantage is discussed in the public sphere—there is not an to the group. The EITC has lifted approximately 4.7 effort to consistently and coherently articulate what million children above the poverty line. the strategy intends to accomplish. For example, Now that we have described and contrasted uni- in the context of health care, the Obama adminis- versal and targeted policies, we will turn to tar- tration’s overwhelming emphasis in promoting the geted universal approaches. Affordable Care Act (ACA) was the lack of insur- ance coverage for tens of millions of Americans. But, as the more recent debates over Medicare for CONCEPT 3 all or single-payer as well as the experience of the Targeted Universal Massachusetts health care law illustrate, health insurance is only one facet of the problem. Extend- Strategies ing health insurance to millions of additional Ameri- While they each have their advantages, univer- cans has not come close to accomplishing the goal sal and targeted policies are not only politically of universalizing access to health care. Extending fraught, but have proved incapable of addressing, insurance is an important but incomplete strategy let alone solving, many of our most enduring social, to achieve the goal. From public debate around the economic, and environmental problems.35 Having ACA, it seems that policymakers either conflated acknowledged this fact, many legal and political health insurance with wellness and quality health scholars have lamented the limits of prevailing policy care or were simply narrowly focused on a compet- design and policy imagination.36 There is another itive market-based arrangement to provide health way: targeted universalism. Targeted universalism insurance to a larger number of people who were is an alternative policy framework to design and locked out of the market. In targeted universalism, implement policies that can achieve critical policy a great deal of attention should be granted toward goals and bring us closer to our collective aspira- the identification of the universal goal. tions. Targeted universalism platforms are designed Second, targeted universalism rejects a single or to enable everyone to enjoy the realization of a policy even a limited number of targeted implementa- goal. The implementation strategies derived from this tion strategies toward a universal goal. Too often, platform are designed to advance everyone to the policymakers develop a one-size-fits-all remedy to universal goal. achieve policy goals, failing to understand that dif- Targeted universalism is sometimes incompletely ferent communities and populations have different understood as a platform that takes the best parts needs. Targeted universalism seeks the develop- of targeted strategies and universal strategies— ment of a range of implementation strategies. The avoiding the problems and maintaining the advan- implementation strategies are tailored to address tages of each.37 In that respect, targeted universal- both the structures that impede different groups ism might seem exactly like Theda Skocpol’s call and populations and to affirmatively develop struc- for “targeting within universalism.” Indeed, it is very tures that promote the desired outcome for differ- similar—the differences lie in very close inspection ent populations. The strategies are targeted, but of targeted universalism—the insight we hope to the goal is always universal. provide here. Targeted universalism is categorically If the goal was trying to make health insurance different, in both concept and execution. available to all, then one could say that the Mas- First, targeted universalism is outcome-oriented, and sachusetts experiment was successful. If the goal the processes are directed in service of the explicit, was to make sure everyone had access to a health universal goal. care worker, it was not. Of course, the goal might

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 15 have been to provide health care to all communi- mound, one in a hole, and the other on flat land. ties and all people. Even then, providing access In this depiction, it becomes clear that difference would not necessarily be adequate. This example in outcomes is baked into the structure and is not illustrates two critical aspects of targeted univer- due to particular characteristics of individuals. salism: First, it is important to be clear on what the One could continue to play with this example, and universal goal is, and distinguish it from subsidiary several organizations have. The limitation with the or intermediate goals. Second, the “universal” in approach of simply removing the barrier is that it targeted universalism is not the implementation suggests we can function without structures. Indi- strategy or application. Targeted universalism does viduals are necessarily situated within structures not aim to reach all people in the same way. and systems—malleable as those may be. Further- Targeted universalism rejects a blanket universal more, structures are not neutral. In addition, the strategy, which is likely to be indifferent to the reality spectators should have a role in not just seeing the iii that different groups are situated differently relative game but in constructing it. to the institutions and resources of society. It also We might achieve the goal of permitting everyone rejects the claim of formal equality that would treat to view it by installing a stool or a bench at an ap- all people the same as a way of ignoring difference— propriate distance, or provide viewer holes through recall that universal strategies may not achieve uni- the fence. Even then, however, some people, such versal goals. For this reason, targeted universalism as those with vision impairments, may not be able is sometimes referred to as “Equity 2.0”—a frame- to see the view. In India, a group of blind students work to realize the full potential of pursuing equity. campaigned for a small model of the Taj Mahal so It embraces difference and disables any attempt to that they could apprehend the structure.38 legitimize an inequitable status quo through treating Targeted universalism can address such barriers by everyone the same, with the same solutions, and the making a structural change that removes a barrier same attention. With an unwavering commitment to and by providing shorter-term fixes and structural the universal goal, targeted universalism platforms supports for people suffering under the barrier. require a diversity of strategies to advance all people Targeted universalism as Equity 2.0 moves beyond toward it. It is not narrowly concerned with the dis- debates over equal treatment with a recognition of parities between groups. a shared goal or universal aspiration. Consider, for example, the series of popular imag- A shared goal instills a sense of shared aspiration es used to depict differences between equity and and reinforces collective obligations. It counters equality. In this primer we present various versions forces that divide in- and out-groups. This is crit- of these graphics accompanied by commentaries ical both at a strategic and conceptual level. It of the different visual metaphors. For example, a is strategic in that a shared goal of interest to all popular image and metaphor is a fence that ob- groups can diffuse potential discursive attacks, scures a ball game or natural sight that everyone singling out particular groups and weakening the might like to see (see p. 12). Taller individuals may broader policy. It is also conceptually necessary be able to see over the fence, but shorter people given the flaws in both targeted and universalistic or children may lack such a view. The fence takes approaches. everyone as they are and treats everyone equally, yet it has an unequal impact. The emphasis on a shared aspiration raises the expectations of all groups and does not set the The general analysis suggested by this familiar goal based upon what more privileged groups equity imagery attempts to move us beyond a nar- already have. For example, many interventions in ed- row conception of equality, but it is problematic ucation focus on the performance gap—a disparity— in several respects. As our analysis reflects, such between white students and their Latinx and Black imagery suggests that the problem lies with the counterparts. However, a shared goal would exceed difference in height and not the structure in which the current performance of white students as well height becomes a barrier. Further imagery has been developed to address this deficiency in part by, for example, removing the barrier instead of boosting iii This is one of the important distinctions between inclusion an individual’s height or replacing the barrier with a and belonging. Targeted universalism is an opportunity to put transparent barrier. belonging “on the ground” in practice. In inclusion, the struc- ture that similarly situates people is critical. In belonging, the A different representation might illustrate three structure is cocreated by the participants. This is one of the people of the same height, but one standing on a reasons the process for defining the universal goal must be taken seriously, rather than assumed.

16 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute Equity Imagery in the Context of Targeted Universalism

Sources: Elmina B. Sewall Foundation and Saskatoon Health Region Advancing Health Equity

In addition to the image of fences and baseball games, another image of people of different heights picking apples is used as a visual metaphor of the difference between equity and equality. In this image, people of various heights reach up to get an apple hanging from tree branches. These images imply that the everyone is trying to reach an apple. The ability to reach the shared goal—getting to an apple—depends on the height and reach of the individuals. Thus, supports can be provided to help different individuals reach the universal goal. The image suggests that the goal is to reach an apple—to pick it. However, the universal shared goal may actually be to provide food for people in the community in which the apple pickers live. In this case, the goal is not to reach the apple—but to harvest apples to share with others. It’s important to those picking the apples that everyone eats. For everyone to eat, people in the image need to reach the branches, and other people—who are not in the image—just need all the apples harvested. Concerning the shared goal here to feed people, it is meaningful to consider the “invisible” role of institutions, structures, and systems that may be at play in this image. Institutions guide the relationships between farmworkers and the people who control the land and create the structures that reify the terms of those relationships. If the apple pickers are working on a massive commercial farm and lack basic worker protections there are unique dynamics to harvesting apples, and the desire to feed their families may only make them focus on earning enough wages to purchase food. If the people picking apples are on a weekend leisure trip to a fruit farm then they may only gather enough for cider and baked apples for a treat at the week’s family meals. All of the details in this image are relevant and reflect the kinds of fine-grained analysis and detail that would create the basis for designing targeted universal strategies on the ground.

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 17 rather than use white performance as a baseline. This goal may set a new standard of performance TARGETED UNIVERSALISM IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT that all students have yet to benefit from. In fact, this is one of targeted universalism’s most Targeted universalism in practice: important features. While the gap between groups Seattle’s pedestrian master plan is important, it is of limited insight or value. Rela- tive equality between groups matters but is incom- The Seattle Department of Transportation’s mission plete. One could close the gap between groups is to “deliver a first-rate transportation system” and with none of them getting close toward the univer- is underpinned by core principles including provid- sal goal. Indeed, instead of achieving the universal ing public safety, building healthy communities, and goal, one could perversely reduce all groups to fostering a thriving economy. The city has an active the lowest common condition of the most margin- Race and Social Justice Initiative that insists each alized group, and the disparity between groups city department consider racial equity impacts of de- would vanish. Within targeted universalism, inter- group disparities should be used only as a diag- partmental planning. The city-wide racial equity ini- nostic tool to assess relative performance, and tiative has shaped the way the department designed not as a policy focus. and implemented “outreach and engagement” work, “project prioritization,” and “performance measures.” In the context of a shared aspiration and universal These are deeply connected to engagement and goal, we can investigate the ways different stu- dents are situated within the intersections of vari- participation with community members that have ous systems that shape educational performance, been traditionally left out of decision-making and including housing stability, food security, and trans- influence in city planning. portation. In so doing, we might find that poor Af- The planning for the pedestrian plan focused on rican American and white students, homeless stu- walkable communities with accessible sidewalks. dents, and newly arrived immigrant students need There was an understanding that there would not affordable housing near the school and changes be an even—or equal—investment across the city. in enrollment criteria so they may be able to stay Rather, since some neighborhoods had sidewalks in the same school all year long. This will go a long way to helping their achievement of performance in greater disrepair, those areas of the city would be outcomes. a higher priority and also the recipient of a greater share of funds. We might find that poor white students and poor Asian students need better transportation to get To discover these priority places and communities of safely from their communities to the school. In this people, the city conducted city-wide mapping. Even way, when we look for implementation strategies, though the priority for areas in greater disrepair we are not taking for granted groups of people were identified, this was still not enough to narrow identified in disparities data and groups on either down to outcomes that would be feasible within the side of “gaps” in disparities data. Rather, we see strategic plan. To further narrow and set priorities the disparities as a signal of a structural problem the mapping analysis created a weighted index that and move straight away to examining all the differ- measured the demand, the equity and health effects, ent structures that shape student outcomes. and the transit function. Equity criteria included data Consider the brilliant work being done to disrupt on income, auto ownership, disability, and disease. the school-to-prison pipeline. These efforts re- It was also important to update the plan again on organize the systems and change the structures perpetuating the problem of youth of color being an annual basis, update the prioritization criteria as swept up into the criminal justice system. This work necessary, establish further metrics for “targeted pol- is characterized by a set of powerful, targeted inter- icy,” and identify “sustainable sources of funding.” ventions, many of which have realized meaningful gains. Some interventions have centered on bring- ing practices of restorative justice into schools as Source: Based on the presentation “Making Health Equity Work: How a way to resolve what may otherwise be conflicts to implement targeted universalism policies” hosted by Robert Wood referred to police. Johnson Foundation’s Leadership for Healthy Communities (dated Dec 2, 2014). For example, see the “Restorative Practices” report detailing the implementation of restorative justice

18 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute in Alexandria City Public Schools.39 There are many that nurture intellectual and emotional intelligence. organizations advancing this strategy as a strate- Targeted strategies for youth of color to attain this gic intervention that interrupts what has come to goal include interventions to eradicate the school- be known as the “school-to-prison pipeline.” The to-prison pipeline, among many other strategies. Advancement Project is one organization that has For other groups of students, such as students lifted up the potential power of restorative justice in affluent suburbs with high-performing schools, as a racial justice strategy—an intervention strategy there may need to be an infusion of mentoring or that is a systemic approach to changing the crimi- counseling programs, additional expertise and 40 nal justice system. training for teachers and principals to integrate While students of color are the primary students empathy into their educational environments, and facing the violence of the criminal justice system additional adult support for the learning environ- and its role in schools, there are other groups simi- ment. All groups can benefit and be supported by larly situated with respect to the presence of police interventions to meet this universal goal. and the criminal justice system being combined While targeted universalism acknowledges different with the education system: namely students with strategies needed for everyone to be able to benefit mental disabilities and abused/traumatized stu- from reaching the goal, the platform also acknowl- dents. In this way, the strategy of restorative justice, edges and directs the prioritizing of different needs, teacher training, and changes in state and local different strategies, and a fair—rather than even—dis- policy disadvantage those students, and those tribution of resources. Often these are the very real students are the target of these interventions. constraints that emerge on the ground as targeted These targeted strategies serve a universal goal: all universal strategies are designed and implemented.. students should be educated in safe environments

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 19 Five Steps for Targeted Universalism 1. Establish a universal goal based upon a broadly shared recognition of a societal problem and collective aspirations. 2. Assess general population performance relative to the universal goal. 3. Identify groups and places that are performing differently with respect to the goal. Groups should be disaggregated. 4. Assess and understand the structures that support or impede each group or community from achieving the universal goal. 5. Develop and implement targeted strategies for each group to reach the universal goal.

20 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute Creating a Targeted Universalism Framework

CONCEPTUALLY INTUITIVE and appealing, target- forward where there is broad agreement that a ed universalism is much more difficult to develop problem exists and, furthermore, that the problem and implement. This section of the primer sets out warrants a policy response, but there is disagree- a straightforward five-step process for developing ment or uncertainty about what to do. targeted universalism policies. Subsequent sec- Where there is broad consensus that a problem tions of the primer will address more challenging el- or need exists, and that a policy response is ap- ements set out within this framework in more detail, propriate, a targeted universalism platform is the serving as a sort of troubleshooting guide. approach that has the best chance for creating a sustainable policy intervention to actually solve the problem or address the need. To do so, the first STEP 1 step is to clearly articulate the universal goal re- Establish a universal goal based flected by the collective aspiration or broad need. upon a broadly shared recognition As noted in the discussion on the various forms of of a societal problem and “universal” policies above, there are varying forms collective aspirations of universalism. Some “universal” policies touch Like all policy solutions, targeted universalism everyone within a jurisdiction, as with some forms begins with recognition of a societal problem or of UBI. Others, however, might only apply to people a collective aspiration. The problem is sufficiently of working age, as is the case with other forms of persistent and intransigent that it calls for a policy UBI or universal suffrage, which exclude minors or response and cannot be addressed alone by mar- the very young. Similarly, universal basic education kets or private actors. The heart of this step is to is aimed at the young, while universal old age insur- establish a universal goal in relation to the societal ance is aimed at the old. problem. This may be a source of confusion, so let What is meant by “universal” must be worked out us be especially clear on this point. in relation to the problem or need. If the problem As noted in the footnote in the Introduction to this is hunger, then the universal goal might be that report, in some cases there is a lack of political everyone is fed and has adequate nutrition. If the consensus that a social, economic, or environ- problem is homelessness, then the universal goal mental problem or need exists. Even where such might be that everyone has shelter. If the problem is consensus exists, however, there is sometimes a unsafe working conditions, then the universal goal lack of consensus or disagreement that the prob- might be that everyone has the benefit of minimum lem or need warrants or merits a policy response.41 safety standards at work. For practical or ideological reasons, policymakers Recall that the FMLA developed a universal policy disagree that the government can help alleviate or response to the problem of work instability for new address the problem. A targeted universalism plat- parents, by extending protections for families with- form cannot resolve policy disagreements in these out children who need time off to take care of family iv respects. It can, however, forge a policy pathway members, such as parents. The societal problem need not be universal or even broadly experienced to warrant the articulation of a universal goal that iv There need not be complete consensus that a problem exists reflects a collective aspiration. For example, a poli- for a targeted universalism platform to proceed, but there does cymaker might begin with the recognition of dispro- need to be a broadly shared recognition.

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 21 portionate levels of hunger in rural communities. If and malnutrition. decision-makers and advocates join forces to create The articulation of the universal goal is the first step a targeted universal framework and craft a universal in a targeted universalism platform because it then goal that would serve this population, the universal serves as the basis for subsequent policy devel- goal might be that “everyone has adequate nutri- opment. Without reference to the universal goal, it tion.” This is a universal goal in that it reflects collec- becomes difficult, if not impossible, to assess prog- tive aspirations and it is one that nearly all groups ress and evaluate success. would accept, even urban populations that might not be suffering from hunger to the same degree—while Given that policymakers represent constituents serving those who might be—including the groups and not others outside of their jurisdiction, it is not that were initially the focus of the policy. a defect of universal goal setting that the universal goal may have geographic or jurisdictional limits. Most legislation contains a statement of purpose, We would not expect a municipal government to a section that describes the main purpose or a set legislate on behalf of another government, just as a of purposes, usually near the beginning of a bill. central government would not legislate on behalf of Less often, however, such statements articulate a another nation’s central government with respect to collective aspiration in the form of a universal goal. the problem of school funding or health care provi- For example, the first two purposes provided in the sion. By “universal,” we mean universal insofar as it American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) applies to a policymaker’s jurisdiction. were “[t]o preserve and create jobs and promote economic recovery” and “to assist those most Within a jurisdiction, the objective is then to get impacted by the recession.”42 The nation’s primary all groups to the goal, not just the most politically legislative response to the Great Recession, ARRA powerful or most marginalized within a society. In was focused on pulling the economy out of the re- establishing the universal goal, no group is favored cession, but also explicitly attempted to help those except insofar as the problem has landed on the v most immediately impacted by the recession. policy agenda. Ultimately, the goal—whether reflec- tive a collective aspiration or a response to a socie- Some policy goals can be viewed as strategies to tal problem—is one that requires broad consensus. achieve other deeper and sometimes tacit goals. For example, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, aka “Obamacare,” had as a statement STEP 2 of purpose “to improve access to and the delivery of health care services for all individuals, particu- Assess general population larly low income, underserved, uninsured, minority, performance relative to the health disparity, and rural.”43 Providing health care universal goal services is a strategy to help people live a healthy With a universal goal in place, the next step in op- life, rather than an end in and of itself. Refer back erationalizing a targeted universalism framework to our example of whether or not a policy of uni- is a general performance measure for the overall versalizing health insurance accomplishes the goal population within the policymaker’s jurisdiction. of providing access to health care, let alone this Consistent with universalism, we must begin by deeper goal. Had policymakers more carefully inves- understanding how well the overall population fares tigated the problem, they might have considered the relative to the universal goal. full suite of strategies that could improve well-being and identify what health problems mean to people For example, we might assess the percentage of with day-to-day challenges. And, as we described, the population that fails proficiency on performance it would be clear that much more than health insur- exams, lacks health insurance, or is inadequately ance is needed. nourished. If we take exam performance, health in- surance, or hunger as a serious matter, then measur- In general, however, the goal is either explicitly ing the general population relative to this standard stated as part of the policy or implicit in the pro- reveals the extent and scope of any social problem. gram. It is important to contextualize any strategy or policy as an effort to reach a particular goal. Universal health care works to realize the goal of v As political scientists observe, politically powerful interest accessing quality health care or living a healthy life. groups may be more successful than others in shaping the The SNAP program, a means-tested benefit, is an legislative agenda. A targeted universalism framework cannot effort to realize the goal of obtaining food required solve this problem, either. However, once a universal policy goal has been established, then the targeted universalism platform for good health for all families, and avoiding hunger will help ensure that no group is favored.

22 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute This baseline is necessary both to understand the assessing the nature of the problem and develop- nature of the problem as well as to provide a perfor- ing strategies to move rural men, in this example, mance measure from which to evaluate and under- toward the universal goal. stand subgroup performance. Defining constituent groups within the general It is important to note, however, that the general population should be fact driven rather than based performance measure does not become the base- upon preconceived notions of group identity. When line for a targeted universalism framework—we examining student performance, for example, we should never aspire to merely close gaps to move might need to examine different possible groupings everyone toward the universal goal. Rather, the of students or combinations of traits or charac- general performance measure provides a context teristics to identify performance gaps that require for understanding the extent of the problem. The further investigation. general performance measure simply allows us to Just as the universal goal must always be framed understand the depth of scope of the problem to in terms of everyone, with no group favored, so too be addressed, and forms the foundation for the must the disparity data focus on the relationship to development of targeted strategies. the goal or overall population, and not in relation to a dominant group. The purpose of this step is not to examine or identify disparities between one STEP 3 subgroup and another. Rather, the purpose is to Identify groups and places that are identify distance from the universal goal. performing differently with respect Evaluating subgroup performance relative to the to the goal and disaggregate them overall population might seem like a focus on With the universal goal in mind, and the general disparities from a marginalized group relative to performance measure relative to the universal goal the dominant group, but it is not the same thing. available, the next step in a targeted universalism An example can illustrate this subtle distinction. platform is to conduct a more granular assessment Suppose that a general performance evaluation of how various subgroups perform relative to goal. conducted under Step 2 reveals that 73 percent of A more detailed demographic and geographic anal- the overall population achieves the universal goal, ysis is necessary because the general population whatever that might be. But suppose that the dom- measure masks differential experiences of the prob- inant group (however you might define that) within lem relative to the universal goal. that population achieves the universal goal at a rate of 81 percent, and that a particularly marginalized Any social or economic problem is likely to have un- group achieves the universal goal at a rate of 67 even effects across any general population. Some percent. problems are experienced more intensely by rural or urban populations; racial, ethnic and religious mi- A disparity focus would emphasize the difference norities; women; LGBTQ persons; or, people with between the performance of the dominant group disabilities. For example, the opioid crisis has been and the performance of the marginalized group, or most acute in rural communities.44 Understanding the difference between 67 percent and 81 percent. how those effects are distributed is a prerequisite However, the difference between the marginalized to crafting implementation strategies within tar- group and the general population performance geted universalism platform. Without appreciating was 67 percent to 73 percent. While a targeted or fully recognizing that different groups perform universalism platform is concerned primarily with differently with respect to the universal goal, we moving all groups to the universal goal, and there- cannot understand why, let alone investigate, the fore achieving a 100 percent achievement rate, it is causes of these outcomes. It is important when secondarily focused on the general population and looking at this difference to understand this may subgroups, not between the performance of mar- say more about the structure and how opportunity ginalized group and dominant groups. is distributed than the nature of the group itself. In fact, a targeted universalism framework delib- For example, if we find that 85 percent of the erately shifts focus away from the performance of general population achieves the universal goal in dominant groups. By focusing on how well domi- relation to some problem, we might find that only nant groups perform in relation to universal goals, 75 percent of men, or just 70 percent of rural men, we set the bar too low and slip back into targeted or even just 65 percent of rural, white men achieve strategies. Only by focusing on the universal goal the universal goal. Such information is important to can we overcome this problem and the attendant

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 23 deficiencies of targeted strategies. also be used to supplement qualitative feedback Why, then, conduct a general performance mea- and aggregate quantitative data. This knowledge sure at all? The distance of subgroups from the can also inform an assessment of the distance general population measure serves as a diagnostic between a group and the goal. These may not be indicator and baseline measure that direct attention exact quantitative measures but may suggest fur- to conditions and structures that will be assessed ther areas for inquiry or may constitute an assess- in the next step. Many disparities are an effect of ment themselves. interlocking institutions, systems, markets, geog- raphies, and structures. Performance disparities STEP 4 between groups relative to the universal goal are not always results of barriers to the universal Assess and understand the goal. Often, the disparity in performance is not the structures that support or impede result of an affirmative barrier so much as it is a dysfunction in the system. Only by understanding each group or community from the general performance measure can we begin to achieving the universal goal understand the extent to which systems and struc- This step is perhaps the most critical step within a tures are impeding or failing to serve subgroup targeted universal framework. populations. It is not sufficient to recognize varying performance In addition to different groups of people who expe- outcomes among groups with respect to the uni- rience different barriers to reaching the goal, many versal goal. We must understand the structures places or geographic locations must be assessed. that shape these outcomes for each group. This in- Thus, in addition to examining the performance of volves a deep investigation of the problem and the various groups, we must also look at how certain circumstances that confront each group or impede places or communities fare relative to the universal achievement of the universal goal. This step exam- goal. Residents from certain neighborhoods may ines the systems and structures to see how they be visibly disadvantaged in terms of employment, are performing in relationship to each group. health outcomes, educational performance, or skills The analysis of the problem conducted at this step development. As noted above, the opioid crisis has directly shapes and informs the strategies that will particularly devastated rural communities. Without emerge in the final step. The previous two steps assessing performance or incidence of a problem are primarily, but not exclusively, measurements. geographically, it may be more difficult to identify or This step is more analytical and seeks to under- pinpoint underlying causes. stand the nature of the problem at root. Furthermore, population subgroups may be spatial- To illustrate this step, however, consider the problem ly sorted. Thus, we need to assess how subgroups of accessing health care services. For many people, perform, not just as a block, but based upon their the cost of health care may be the main impediment differential geographies. For example, Black chil- to accessing health care services. But for people dren growing up in an affluent suburb may have with disabilities, the hours, location, and easements different needs or confront different challenges may be additional barriers. For refugees or immi- than Black children growing up in a low-income grants, there may also be a language barrier. urban neighborhood or inner-ring suburb that has While the search for impediments is a critical part suffered decades of disinvestment and poverty. To of this examination of structures, it should not be over generalize, children in the former may be more restricted to the identification of barriers. In some likely to suffer from microaggressions, exposure to cases, it is a lack of supports, and not simply bar- racial epithets, or doubts of self-confidence, while riers, that forms the impediment. For example, lack children in the latter may simply lack resources, of car ownership may impede progress toward the high-quality educational services, and have greater goal as much as a road block. Our assessment risk of physical violence. Particular places may also must extend beyond the search for barriers, and be identified as a constituent group by themselves. examine how structures are performing in relation- Geography matters. ship to how groups are situated within them. Our Diverse forms of data should inform this assess- assessment must be driven by a proactive inter- ment—for example, qualitative data that could est in monitoring and evaluating performance to include data from focus groups, surveys, and previ- achieve the universal goal, not simply trying to re- ous planning documents. Likert scale surveys could move barriers or make a universal policy or system

24 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute Applying Targeted Universalism

Consider this example as a process for targeted universalism. First, set a universal goal—for example 100 percent proficiency in eighth grade math. Second, measure how the overall popula- tion fares relative to the universal goal. In this example we might discover that only 80 percent of eighth graders are proficient in eighth grade math. Third, measure the performance of population segments relative to the uni- versal goal. So although 80 percent of all eighth graders are proficient, we might find that only 70 percent of Latinos are proficient. Fourth, understand how structures and other factors support or impede group progress toward the universal goal. For our Latino stu- dents, classroom instruction materials and lessons designed for English speakers may impede learning including math proficiency. Finally, implement targeted strategies so that each group can achieve the universal goal based upon their needs and circumstances. This may take the form of ESL-specific math tutoring for our Latino students while another group may require a completely different strategy to achieve the same universal goal. Targeted universalism rejects a blanket universal, which may be indifferent to the reality that different groups are situated differently relative to the institution and resources.

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 25 titative data measurements. However, patterns Targeted universalism in those measurements are often what inspire us offers to organize these to address a particular unfair disadvantage or an “smaller” and more unfair gap. Targeted universalism asks that we not assume that the problem to address—the problem practicable changes around that a strategy will address—is a gap between long-term ambitious groups. Rather, it asks that we think about prob- lems as the gap between groups and the univer- changes. sal goal. more neutral. The assessment process must entail a STEP 5 mixed-methods analysis. It must encompass quan- titative demographic analysis as well as qualitative Develop and implement targeted sources. Drawing knowledge from a number of strategies for each group to reach different sources and people is critical to this the universal goal step. In that regard, it is essential that there is Throughout this report, we have been using the diverse representation throughout this process— terms “general population,” “subgroups,” “targeted affected groups, community organizing experts, groups,” and “universal goals” to draw crucial dis- policy groups, and decisionmakers—to make sure tinctions. Targeted strategies are associated with a that the assessment is deeply informed by a broad particular group in mind, and they are generally de- base of knowledge. signed to target that group or groups. The targeted In this phase of the process there is the opportunity universalism agenda is the ensemble of targeted that should not be missed—the opportunity to be strategies across all groups. Therefore, this step influenced by a diverse set of experience, expertise, calls for the development and implementation of and knowledge. This requires that information gen- a range or set of strategies to advance all groups erated during one phase of the process may inform toward the universal goal. or change the outcomes from another. These in- To move all groups toward the universal goal, the sights are important, and the process should be cliché “one size fits all” does not apply, and, in fact, structured so that insights from one phase of the is the chief impediment. While a strategy may be process can inform another. The process will be frequently raised in association with a problem, a nonlinear, and insights will be gathered sporadical- targeted universalism platform resists the reduction ly, so it is important to make sure this information is of implementation strategies to a single approach. structured in a way that it is all gathered thoughtful- A targeted universalism policy requires a multi- ly and systematically. plicity of implementation strategies to advance Drawing upon the insights of people themselves all groups to the universal goal. Implementation can be revealing. For example, if the goal is for strategies will vary in form and content, as well as residents of a jurisdiction to live in safe neighbor- the kinds of resources that are required, as will be hoods, for some groups a barrier may be the fear described in greater detail in the next parts. of police violence or lack of trust in police officers While the universal goal may be one to which rather than just fear of criminal violence or property most or all groups aspire, some groups have more crimes, as might be the case for other groups. In acute needs and more extreme circumstances. In our experience residents who do not feel safe in cases where their resources are limited to fund their neighborhoods conceptualize safety in the or otherwise support particular interventions, it capacity for them to feel they belong in the local may not make sense to evenly distribute those public park. In one community, when residents of resources simply because the universal goal has color gathered in a park, white residents in or near not been reached by every group. Groups further the park expressed discomfort and police frequent- off from obtaining stable housing—and groups ly appeared. This was described as a clear commu- in extreme distress—should be the recipients of nication that residents of color did not “belong” in greater support. Clarifying that the goal is universal the park, that public space was not safe for them. in aspiration does not require artificially restrictive The analysis of the problem at this stage should supports by way of maintaining a formally equal shape and inform the strategies that are designed resource distribution. in the final phase. The first two steps involve quan- Recall the assessment of barriers and supports

26 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute conducted for the problem of health care services what the universal goal is and for prioritizing the described in the previous section. This analysis can targeted strategies that may be derived. This produce quite a number of targeted strategies— is not to say that people who are traditionally changing the location and hours of service delivery, represented in positions of authority and those providing public finance to finance health care vested with decision-making power should be services, and/or providing translators and system excluded—it is to say that particular groups are navigators. We may think or even discuss these already well represented in those positions. ideas before we know to “look” for the measure of In order to benefit from the knowledge of people distance. The collective experience and knowledge traditionally excluded we have to make a great at the table may point to these issues. After this, we and intentional effort to involve people from those may need to turn to look for data that could confirm groups. This may mean that decision makers will or modify these issues. have to fundamentally change their deliberative It is in this phase of the targeted universalism plat- process. This is also to say that this participation form that the importance of local knowledge and must exceed the traditional notions of “community qualitative insights becomes fully manifest. Identify- participation” or “engagement.” People need ing how different groups are situated or performing to be included need to share power and exert relative to the goal can be and is usually assessed influence by their participation. Their insights and by data. However, it’s important for the process knowledge should meaningfully shift the course of to also be influenced by the experiences and tacit action and conversation. knowledge of people who are at a distance from Implementation strategies derived in this step of the the goal. While the “distance” step may seem more targeted universalism framework are not only out- analytical, the importance of having broad partic- come oriented, but they must be evaluated for suc- ipation in earlier phases will ensure the targeted cess. A single dose intervention—even administered strategies are able to provide immediate and long- through a panoply of implementation strategies—is term relief. unlikely to advance all groups toward the universal Because so many people and groups of people are goal. Rather, what is needed is a sustainable pro- often left out of spheres of authority and decision cess that evaluates progress toward the universal making where policy is created, there must be a goal, and recalibrates or recommends amendments deliberate and institutional process to articulate to the implementation strategies over time.

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 27 Equity Imagery in the Context of Targeted Universalism This series of images serves as a third visual metaphor of targeted universalism. In the images we see similar themes: a fence obscuring the view of two people trying to see the Taj Mahal, then they get a bench to stand on to see over the fence. The same principle for the fence and tree —removing the fence is a more durable fix. However, this image reflects another dimension of consideration. Making one structural change to remove the fence can be more durable than installing a bench to stand on. However, there are multiple ways to “see” the Taj Mahal. This example draws from a story of a young blind man who was given a model of the Taj Mahal so it may enable him to apprehend the structure. This makes the articulation of the universal goal even more thoughtful and rigorous. The goal isn’t to see the Taj Mahal—if by seeing we mean the way a majority of people’s visual system is integrated with their central nervous system. Instead the goal could be described as making sure everyone can appreciate and appraise the structure. This example highlights the importance of making sure there is a diverse audience that participates in deciding what the universal goal is and making sure that the audience shares decision-making power. In the bottom image, a young boy holds a physical model of the Taj Mahal, surrounded by young men with posters urging people to “Vote for the Taj” as part of an election process in 2000 to select the “world’s seven wonders.” A song written for the occasion of the voting process was released in six of the many different languages spoken in India and came to be known as the Taj Anthem. These events were public demonstrations that encouraged voting for the Taj, as is the example of the young man holding the model. The model does not only allow him an avenue to “see” the Taj Mahal—it may afford him additional information that could shape his decision Source: Haas Institute to share or dissent from holding national pride in the Taj or “voting for it.” This image and example illustrates how including many people in the process of defining a universal goal is important, with a deliberate, intentional effort to involve people who are ordinarily left out of decision-making. This participation is not simply an advisory role where these groups or individuals provide insight—rather the participants must be granted authority and influence.

28 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute Targeting within a Targeted Universalism Framework

THE PREVIOUS SECTION of this primer outlined others, may make the targeted groups slightly or and described the steps by which a targeted uni- even significantly better off, but may be less politi- versalism policy or program might be designed. cally sustainable. Going through the work and moving all groups to Moreover, a targeted universalism process does the universal goal, will likely require a multiplicity not presuppose how groups are defined either in and range of implementation strategies. Moreover, terms of the assessment process or in developing the universal goal reflects a collective aspiration, implementation strategies. To underscore this, it not simply the needs or demands of marginalized rejects an essentialism that fixes a group in terms of groups or those further off from the goal. situatedness, stratification and marginality, but also The different needs, situatedness, and circum- in terms of identity, which we regard as dynamic stances particular people confront does not re- rather than static.45 In one context, a particular iden- solve the question of how targeting occurs within tity, such as a racial or ethnic identity, may be most a targeted universalism framework. This section is salient both to the groups involved but also to ex- meant to clarify this crucial ambiguity. The targeted plaining or understanding inter-group inequality. In universalism framework seeks to support all people another context, a religious or cultural identity may while also being sensitive and responsive to the be more salient. extreme suffering some people experience. When groups are targeted through the targeted To begin, a targeted universalism process does universalism framework, however, the group tar- not assume which groups are most marginalized geted isn’t a group with a single group identity, or or further off from the universal goal, but conducts even people who can be described with a number an assessment in each case to determine this. In of different identities. In fact, the group of people one situation or policy context, group A may be the who are benefited by a particular targeted strategy most marginal. In another situation, it may be group is more diverse than a single group. This is espe- B. The implementation strategies derived through cially the case when a targeted strategy makes the targeted universalism framework is inherently significant durable structural change. The targeted sensitive to these differences, without assuming group can include people who have very different who is most marginalized in any context or what identities—either racial, religious, sexuality, gender, they require to achieve the universal goal. national origin, and other markers that can describe Relatedly, while groups A and B may change plac- group identity. In this way targeted universalism es in terms of the most marginal depending on moves beyond the identification of groups of peo- the situation or policy context, they may both be ple as categorically different—for example, Hispanic significantly marginalized relative to a more favored or Latino people, African American, and non-white group, group C, or much better off than another Hispanic groups. These distinctions are inherited marginalized group, group D, in a different context. from a long history of racial formation in the United Universalistic policies that are insensitive to group States and is a structural formation that solutions positionality within deep social and economic to belonging should exceed. Much of what we think structures have a tendency to benefit dominant of as a difference between groups and identity is a 46 groups, exacerbating intergroup inequalities. In difference between situatedness in structures. contrast, targeted efforts that focus on the most In the end, a targeted universalism platform differs marginalized, without accounting for the needs of from a targeted policy approach in that no group is

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 29 ignored. The goal is to get all groups to the explic- dynamics, let alone additional dimensions of differ- itly articulated universal goal. So while there may ence such as learning disabilities or special needs. be different implementation strategies developed Additional strategies are needed, as well as greater for different groups, the framework supports the attention to the systems and structures themselves. belonging of all groups, from the most dominant to We acknowledge that the driving force behind sup- the most marginalized. port for targeted universalism approaches may be This sensitivity, however, does not mean that tar- to address incredibly unjust gaps in identity group geted universalism implementation strategies must outcomes—for example, college graduation rates by or even have a tendency to target groups. In fact, race or wealth inequalities by race and/or gender. this is one of the most persistently misunderstood But further in the process, when analyzing struc- areas of targeted universalism. In general, targeted tural problems and barriers, strategic interventions implementation strategies derived from a target- that redesign institutional arrangements will affect ed universalism framework focus on structural many groups simultaneously. Although the primary change—in systems, structures, and institutions target is the institutional arrangement or structures, rather than people or groups as such.47 In this in another sense, “targeted” groups are composed regard, targeted universalism is sensitive to all of individuals who are facing the same barriers and groups rather than targeting everyone. who are similarly situated relative to systems, struc- For example, instead of a targeted strategy that tures, and culture. seeks to increase the enrollment of Black students This is where coalition building can form. Other into a university’s undergraduate student body, targeted strategies may benefit and serve a less a targeted universalism strategy might seek to diverse group of individuals—perhaps students who change the admissions criteria that disadvantage are almost entirely students of color. The idea is Black students in the admissions process. It could that targeted universalism allows for greater poten- do this by de-emphasizing one criterion in favor tial for building political and community power. It of another, or reforming the committees that set also enables a practicable movement that exceeds or review applications. The Texas Ten Percent the erasure of difference through an appeal to Plan is a good example of a statewide policy that “shared interests” in making all students safer and promotes undergraduate student body diversity in the way this can neglect the need for deliberate spite of underlying patterns of interdistrict racial leadership and participation on creating, designing segregation.48 This policy automatically guarantees and implementing targeted strategies. admissions to the University of Texas (UT) to every People on the policy side of targeted universalism high school senior in the state graduating in the top correctly say that targeted universalism reflects that 49 10 percent of their high school class. In so doing, “we are all connected.” And advocates and grass- it changed the admissions criteria that UT con- roots activists often focus on the ways different sidered. Even better, one implementation strategy groups have radically different day-to-day experienc- derived from a targeted universalism framework es. Both of these are true, and targeted universal- might seek to reform primary and secondary educa- ism bridges these two realities in a meaningful way tion policies that disadvantage students of color in that has the potential to build grounded applications the university admissions process. of the very unique experiences of people who exist This is not a trivial point. The goal is to have struc- in a mixed state of multiple identities which makes tures and systems that advance all the groups to their experiences quite exceptional relative to other the universal goal. If an implementation strategy people who face different relationships to similar gets Black men to the goal but not Black women, systems, structures, and institutions. it suggests that the strategy is not adequately serv- This is an important part of targeted universalism. ing Black women. For example, African American By going through the full process of articulating a students represent 31 percent of school-related universal goal and designing targeted universal- arrests. Black girls are 15 percent of the enrolled ism implementation strategies—not a single, one- student population—37 percent of arrested students size-fits-all implementation strategy—it becomes and 28 percent of girls who are referred to law en- clear that many more people have a stake in these forcement. While Black girls and boys may share changes than the least well-off. In this way, broad- many of the same structural disadvantages, there er coalition building can be realized and greater are also gender differences that they do not share. political will created. Ultimately, the practice and Thus, a blanket strategy targeted to Black children habit of thinking in broader coalitions can foment may be inadequate to address the disparate gender

30 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute Differences in Targeted, Universal & Targeted Universalism Approaches

Targeted policies Universal policies Targeted universal Single out a specific group. Aspire to serve everyone. policies They do not set a universal They set a goal for the gen- Aspire to serve everyone goal, their goal is set for par- eral population. Universal by enabling different strat- ticular groups. For example: policies intend to apply to egies based on the needs of the Supplemental Nutrition everyone, to all groups. For different groups. Targeted Assistance Program (SNAP) example, universal health universal policies appeal to has resource and income care policies are intended to everyone and set a goal for parameters that qualify one apply to all groups; there are the general population: ev- for program participation. no qualifying standards that eryone stands to benefit by SNAP is a program target- must be met. reaching the universal goal. ed toward households that At the same time everyone meet specific income and benefits from reaching the resource conditions. Many goal, different groups need means-tested programs fall different supports. Some into the category of targeted groups also need more help programs. The entire wel- because groups are situated fare system is a package of differently with respect to programs targeted to those the goal. Some are closer, meeting specific conditions. some are further, and differ- One may or may not qualify ent groups must take differ- for targeted programs. ent paths to get there.

greater common concern for groups that are tradi- coalition. It may be necessary and appropriate for tionally othered. some coalition groups to take a greater lead than We must again emphasize that setting a universal others—providing a directive and more vocal role in goal is a process that must be thoughtful and in- implementing and organizing changes. The coalition tentionally involve people who are traditionally ex- may exist simply out of intergroup concerns. How- cluded in decision-making and their “participation” ever, the long-term goal of sustaining the coalition should be accompanied by sharing decision-mak- over time, of working together for immediate and ing power and acknowledgement of their expert longer-term changes that are included in the target- knowledge. It’s different than what participation ed universalism platform, can lead to greater affinity usually looks like where information is usually ex- and concern across groups. Ultimately, building tracted from impacted groups without vesting any common concern is a long-term project and the authority or meaningful influence in a process. The necessary condition for transformative changes. universal goal setting is such a process, one that And as transformative changes continue to pile up, has to be designed carefully and very differently greater conditions for this shared concern for dif- than existing policy or decision-making processes. ferent groups of people can build. For example, we The universal goal may seem ambitious—more ambi- must also consider what groups need to effectively tious than one group or one policy can work toward participate to both articulate their aspirations and realizing. However, articulating that ambitious goal help identify dysfunctions within systems or struc- and designing a specific implementation strategy to tures that impeded progress toward the universal achieve that goal should be explicit. goal. How we take cognizance of group needs and There may not be immediate expressions of com- aspirations is a critical part of establishing the uni- mon concern and empathy between groups in this versal goal. Working in the vein of targeted univer- salism promises to operationalize what is often an

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 31 abstract goal to create alignment and coherence. Targeting Structures Investing in the long-term goal of creating a world in which everyone belongs cannot be approached Now, what systems, structures, and insti- with individual fragmented efforts. tutions are involved in employment and Step 4 in implementation of a targeted universal access to employment? We know that the framework requires an assessment and under- cost of public transportation is high and standing of structural barriers or system relation- the costs go up with the distance trav- ships that explain outcomes for different people eled. We also realize that people working facing different barriers. Step 5 requires the devel- in lower paying jobs have to live in segre- opment of strategies that can help all groups real- gated communities farther from the job ize the universal goal as one of affirmative inclusion. However, the targeting mechanism should focus centers. This means that the very idea of on those structures that are inflicting great harm getting to a job every day eats away at or failing to sustain groups in their pursuit of the income. universal goal. In fact, the targeted universal frame- If a person working in a low paying in- work suggests that there are profound differences dustry wants to get job training for high- in the way people are treated, the advantages or er paid employment opportunities, local disadvantages they face, and even the physical community colleges can be hard to get health and life span influenced by these circum- to, especially if you’re attending those stances—targeted universalism is not color-blind; it classes after work hours. Applications is not blind to these vast differences. policies can signal markers of difference Attending to group outcomes rather than groups that decrease the likelihood that you will may seem to be a semantic detail; however, it is receive a callback or a job interview. Dif- essential to understanding why the goal is de- ferent people with different markers of scribed as universal—a term that is frequently used difference face these barriers. And solu- to describe color-blind approaches or policies that do not respond to the unique ways people are tions, like affordable housing in higher situated. Focusing on group outcomes and struc- job growth centers of the region, ban the tures—rather than groups themselves—also enables box strategies, low-cost or free job train- a flexible and comprehensive analysis that serves ing, and more, can require structural and to improve outcomes for groups who suffer in dif- institutional change, and each strategy ferent ways and experience different harms. will serve a greater and greater number Those individuals belonging to groups outside of of people. the targeted group within any strategy devised The structure that is producing higher through the targeted universalism process are levels of unemployment is a spatial mis- not neglected. If a change strategy for a particular match between residence and job growth group, a targeted strategy, is advanced with- or availability. Targeting the group to in the aspiration to reach a goal with universal solve this problem, such as by providing appeal, those groups who do not necessarily transportation for that group, is a trans- benefit are not left out. The universal goal will be understood to apply to the targeted group while actional change that creates a pathway to also being held out as a goal for other groups. In the universal goal for the targeted group. this way, while other groups may not be explicitly It has limited impact as the structure that mentioned as a targeted strategy is advocated, generates the problem is left unaltered. universally appealing language will signal the out- Although we might first turn our atten- standing work that remains to be done. It might be tion to the harms a particular group of more accurate to say that all groups are targeted people experiences, we risk minimizing within targeted universalism, except that they are the efficacy and duration of a change if targeted differently. we target the “group of people” rather Dedication to advancing targeted strategies in a than the “group of structures” that creat- language that holds promise for all groups can in- ed the problem they experience. vite other groups to complement the change agen- da, or highlight targeted strategies that other re-

32 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute sources could “pick up” in the cause of all groups Although targeted policies may sometimes con- reaching the goal. Targeted universalism can build tain structural or prophylactic measures, such as coherence and alignment within long-term systemic the ADA, a myopic focus on groups or members change agendas to create belonging. of those groups will inevitably elide the deeper When targeting a structure rather than merely fo- forces that shape group outcomes in some re- cusing on a group or members of a group, targeted spect. Targeted universalism does not suffer this universal policies unlock transformative change deficiency. potential that is often masked by either universal or targeted policies, even if well-intended or designed.

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 33 Targeted universalism policy can create transactional or transformative change. Transactional changes reform or eliminate a single barrier within a structure to enable more people to achieve the universal goal. Many transactional changes address effects of oppressive structures. These are necessary changes. Transformative changes are changes in the structures and systems that shape group outcomes. These are more durable and may be sufficient changes.

34 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute Transactional versus Transformative Change

TARGETED UNIVERSALISM policies encompass transactional changes should be aligned within the both transactional policy changes and transforma- larger ambitions of transformative changes and the tive policy changes. Transactional changes reform universal goals they aspire to realize. or eliminate a single barrier within a structure to In some circumstances, policies and strategies free groups to achieve the universal goal. Transac- developed through a targeted universalism frame- tional change largely works within an existing set of work may be simple, transactional interventions that institutional and structural arrangements. Transfor- move groups to the universal goal. For example, the mative changes restructure the system itself rather Baltimore City Health Department helped launch a than reform some relationship within the existing special program to provide eyeglasses to primary structure. To differentiate these types of change is and secondary schoolchildren after a screening not to diminish the value and urgency of either. program discovered that as many as 15,000 stu- Transactional changes, for example, have provided dents in their school system needed glasses.50 This vast improvements in the material living conditions program institutionalized a screening service and for people who struggle the most—in particular peo- provided eyeglasses at no cost, providing 1,000 ple of color and the extremely poor. For example, free eyeglasses in the first 10 months. The service removing unnecessary licensure requirements or targeted individuals through a screening process criminal background checks that have a disparate based upon a recognition that some students were impact can help people move toward the univer- unable to reach the universal goal of receiving an sal goal of securing income, food, or shelter. To adequate education without them, but it is an exam- achieve the full potential of targeted universalism, ple of a targeted universalism strategy. however, we have to understand the way urgent This intervention responded to individuals that were needs and aspirations may not be adequately lacking a more basic capacity needed to partici- served by the existing system. pate in traditional classroom learning, but did not At the extreme, the system itself may function to fundamentally change classroom structure, curric- help some and deny others a more fulsome range ular or resources. The move was “smaller scale” of life opportunities. Moreover, a system can mu- in that it was not necessarily leading to radical tate and evolve over time, either as a result of transformation of structures that shape learning policy interventions or as a result of decentralized outcomes. However, the intervention resulted in decision-making. Either way, there may be a need regular practice of eye screening, which changed for transformative change. We note that there is institutional practice. However, if the universal goal not an inherent tension between transactional and is to obtain adequate education, then we know that transformational interventions. But when possible, after eye care needs are met, there are a host of these efforts should be aligned. other barriers that need to be addressed. Targeted Transformative changes are more fundamental universalism provides direction for taking care of changes in the structures and systems that shape urgent needs that are obvious but not recognized. group outcomes. Transformative changes can be And it provides for a long-term agenda for a series more durable over time and have greater effects of needs that change over time. as the causes of problems are alleviated—not just Consider the problem that exists in some schools— their effects. This is the logic behind targeted that of creating proficiency in mathematics as one universalism’s focus on structures. Most critically, feature of a broader problem with many students

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 35 obtaining quality education. If one problem for non-native English speakers is English language TARGETED UNIVERSALISM IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT learning, then the transactional fix is to either provide supplemental English instruction or lan- Austin Parks and Recreation guage-appropriate supports. Transactional inter- Department Urban Infill Park Initiative ventions that achieve universal goals should be pursued where appropriate. But one should not Implementation Plan overfocus on transactional change when the need In 2019, the Austin City Council passed a resolution is for transformational. The transactional is often that set a goal for all residents to live within half to a more immediate and easier but may not deliver quarter mile of a park. The city wanted to “become the the desired outcome. But when done right, many most family friendly city in the country” and this aspi- transactional changes can support transformation- al change. But there are times that transactional ration was integrated into the city’s four citywide stra- changes undermine needed transformational tegic priorities. Prior to this resolution the Parks and change. Targeted universalism encodes and derives Recreation Department had already done work that immediate changes and their placement within created the basis for the department to do its part to longer-term efforts for durable change. implement one of the city’s overall strategic priorities In the case above, it’s very possible that prob- and the longer-term metagoal for the city to become lems associated with that particular group of stu- family friendly. The department was also the primary dents—that of less comprehension of the language force to implement the resolution for all residents—a of instruction—would be evident without going finer scale universal goal. through the process of creating a targeted univer- In 2003, the department had already created a gap salism platform. So what is the value of the effort analysis map that measured the services the depart- if it’s largely understood? One possible answer is ment provided within a half to one mile of residences. that a targeted universalism platform would seek The city had already done a key part of the analysis solutions that impact entire systems rather than of different needs across the city. The department had address symptoms. To bypass the longer and more arduous process set out limits the longer-term also secured funding—a portion of which could be benefits of targeted universalism. It may be that a used to implement targeted strategies of the resolu- problem finds a short-term solution through explor- tion. A $20 million infill and acquisition bond package ing other types of strategies or policy. However, the was approved by voters in 2006. This is a key step in longer-term and complementary set of strategies is preparing for the creation of parks because acquiring left unexplored, the opportunity for maintaining and land, a structural barrier that may be necessary, could creating broad coalitions is missed, and identifying constitute a large portion of the costs for implement- a prioritized set of changes beyond that of the most ing targeted strategies. immediate change is neglected. And, importantly, as the targeted universal analysis is quite deep, it The department created maps of undeveloped park- may be that the strategy to address urgent effects land, school parks, city-owned land that may be is not going to be up to the task of countering used for the creation of parks, and then identified structural effects—even in the short term. acquisition areas based upon the half to one-quarter mile goal. Between 2010 and 2014 the department Both transformative and transactional changes are necessary. Coordinating the timeline and pre- acquired over 800 acres of parkland and developed liminary work to implement a set of strategies is 20 new parks on undeveloped parkland, newly ac- necessary and helps to realize what is immediately quired parkland, existing city-owned land, schools, possible in a larger vision of great change. This and school parks. coordination helps to not feel overwhelmed with Source: Based on the presentation “Making Health Equity Work: How the profound changes we need. We may hold great to implement targeted universalism policies” hosted by Robert Wood vision for the world, and it can seem overwhelming Johnson Foundation’s Leadership for Healthy Communities (dated Dec 2, 2014). to have that vision and work toward it. Seeing the changes over which we may have control can seem to fall short of the large changes we seek. However, looking at how we can coordinate this work is encouraging and can shed light on the utility and necessity of what may seem like small

36 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute changes. For example, creating women-only swim These three metagoals can orient and align an in- sessions at the public pool may be a small reorga- finite array of targeted universal agendas. They can nization of public resources. However, this creates be thought of as framing or providing the landscape opportunities for women of various faiths who pre- on which we look for systemic and transformational fer these conditions on religious grounds, and for change through targeted universalism. others, to practice a skill that can save their lives There is one final caveat. Recognizing that there and the lives of others. Ultimately, changing the in- are many factors that contribute to a problem, stitutional practice of giving unique access to spe- one might suppose that all the factors must be cific people otherwise deprived of resources can addressed at once. This is often referred to as a be an instructive example for community members comprehensive approach. But this assumption who are not aware of this access problem. It is also is mistaken. Instead, it is often possible to iden- instructive for those who feel that those groups of tify strategic leverage points that will reverberate people are undeserving of resources—it is a clear through the system without reconstructing the en- demonstration that official public institutions recog- tire system. While this may be possible, it is import- nize the legitimacy of fairer access. ant to understand that components of the system Targeted universalism offers to organize these may be interrelated in a nonlinear way.51 “smaller” and more practicable changes around long-term ambitious changes. The universal goal a particular coalition is working on may be very narrow, very specific. But the goal of universal goals—the goal of goals—can be organized around the following goals: • Reclaim government so it serves the people. • Build places for public debate, influence, and service—building the capacity for people to exer- cise collective agency. • Change the economy so it serves people, not corporations or only the elite.

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 37 Universal Goals and Limited Resources

A TARGETED UNIVERSAL agenda will generate The superior tailoring means that resources direct- multiple strategies and policies. As discussed ed into targeted universal programs have a better earlier, some of these strategies may serve many chance at producing tangible gains than those that people, including those experiencing greater suffer- are delimited only to group membership, without ing. Indeed, while the focus should be on the most respect to need or situation. In addition, by re- marginal groups, strategies can address the condi- dounding to the benefit of all people impeded by tion of that group, but move even larger and more the structural barrier or lack of resources, targeted diverse groups toward the universal goal. Often the universalism policies are infused with positive exter- reason we turn to policy for changes is care, con- nalities that redound to the broader public. cern, or outrage for suffering and injustice. Some There are times when the analysis of identifying strategies may promise benefits to people who are strategies will reveal surprising unexpected out- disadvantaged by systems and structures, but who comes. In a notable example we have worked on, a are not facing existential threats. With a long list of room full of education experts were joined together strategies and policies generated within the target- to address high student turnover in a local elementa- ed universalism approach, it is likely that decisions ry school. The analysis was not limited to the class- will have to be made about how to allocate re- room or school and included sources of information sources, what to prioritize, or what to pursue. De- from the impacted communities. Because of this, it spite the likelihood of generating more strategies was clear that the problem was a lack of affordable than a single group or agency could implement, housing throughout the city. The problem laid out- generating the full set is a necessary and critical side of the local school and even outside of its local part of targeted universalism. Urgency and relief of geographic area. While the strategy pointed to hous- suffering often promote the selection of a limited ing solutions, there wasn’t a member of the group array of strategies to implement. who had any control or networks in the local housing This too is a reason to pursue structural reforms system. Though incredibly productive, this analysis which are more durable and can be a more efficient did not lead to immediately moving on to implement- use of limited resources. Often structural changes ing a strategy. In fact, they had to back up, establish that can serve a wide array of people are better a plan to create strategic networks, and learn more insulated from the political backlash and resent- about the housing system from an expanded team. ment that feeds group-targeting. Transformative The question of resources and capacity is not only changes are more likely to redound to the benefit limited to financial resources or to the staff capacity of all groups compared to transactional reforms at any particular group. that remove barriers for a single or few groups. It’s The practical limits of “on the ground” action can often the case that successful implementation of make the process of transactional and transfor- “smaller scale” transactional changes or smaller mation change complex and impossible to prede- scale demonstrations of big change strategies can termine. While there are real limits, there is also a generate greater financial and political support need to question a premature focus on limits to ad- down the line. dress a problem. Often the resources available are Prioritizing structural change—transformational greater or more flexible than imagined—or expand- change—can be a more efficient use of limited ing resources may become part of “next steps” for resources. It can also direct attention, and limited a change effort. Rethinking and working outside of financial resources, to strategies that address the a scarcity of resources frame is an important as- greater and more urgent needs, as well as to those pect of targeted universalism—despite the fact that strategies that promote more durable changes or it can be a very real factor at the initial stages. provide greater relief.

38 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute Building the Table for a Targeted Universal Framework

THE QUESTION OF targeted universalism ac- the policy should also be integrated early on. It is counts for the way particular groups and people not necessary, however, to build a complete table traditionally excluded from decision-making must be before developing a targeted universalism agenda. included in the process of designing, implementing, If a group—for example, a philanthropic organiza- and leading targeted universalism. Participation tion, a school, or local government department— should look different than focus groups and coffee- wants to design its internal practices to execute a table conversations with “the most impacted com- targeted universal agenda, it will require dedicated munities.” If limited to this, “participation” can turn attention to this end. The analysis may be shorter into an extractive relationship in which information or longer depending on the scope and scale of the is gathered and then used by the decision-making problem at hand—and implementing the strategies group. Meaningful and influential structural ele- may be easier or harder depending on existing re- ments for meaningful and influential participation lationships and the power of groups involved. But, of directly impacted people should be instrumental in any case, dedicated time and attention needs in developing, implementing, and documenting the to be set aside for this purpose. Creating a com- function of targeted universalism. This participation prehensive targeted universal agenda can involve should hold great power and decision-making ca- a great investment of time and financial resources. pacity. The structural changes that would enable It is a critical process to create transformational meaningful community participation may be provid- change, transactional change that furthers trans- ing for local groups better resources for their par- formation, and valuable coalition building work that ticipation and opportunities to identify the goal and can sustain change and additional complementary determine the prioritization of strategies. changes that can unfold after the implementation The process should integrate full participation, from of a priority effort. the beginning, of the following: Planning for this type of emergent understanding • Those most affected by the problem, with a depends upon who is at the table during the pro- deliberate and coordinated attempt to include cess. The process must have respect for different people traditionally excluded in such a way types of knowledge and understand that these dif- to respect those individuals’ decision-making ferent types of knowledge are critical for a change power and agency. agenda to be sustainable and useful. Consider a problem in the arena of public health—for example, • Those benefiting from change strategies. high rates of asthma. Health practitioners, public • Those implementing the intervention/project. health academics, and physicians have knowledge • Those documenting the implementation process. critical to understanding a problem in public health. • Those with a strong or expert understanding of Additionally, other groups have knowledge that is the problem or issue. critical to bring to the table—for example, those with asthma-related emergency room visits. This may These individuals and institutions should be present include the elderly, youth, Black communities, and for all steps of the process: the poor. These individuals, their advocate groups, • Design and local organizers bring valuable information, • Implementation knowledge, and analysis to the table. If only the • Assessment former groups are included in the process to create a targeted universal agenda, the challenges and in- An evaluation component that measures impact of

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 39 Power Sharing and Building among Groups Using a Targeted Universalism Approach

Sometimes groups rightfully critique the practices of local ing disparities between different groups in the region, government, quasi public private/planning agencies, or groups of people and clusters of cities and neighbor- other local institutions. The city may be making “another hoods. They produced analyses of why these policies agreement with a developer” that too closely resembles a were unfair and packed public hearings expressing ob- previous agreement that gave tax breaks to the developer jection to the regional plan that was produced. of a new sports stadium with the promise of new jobs. After thinking of their work through the lens of targeted Very little of the promised jobs and other promised eco- universalism, their language of making change shifted nomic benefits came about. “And now, here we go again.” away from disparities. They expressed their aspirations A community group may spend resources and energy to as a vision that would benefit all groups and would ben- “organize against” the project. This is sometimes the con- efit currently marginalized groups as well. Their vision tours of local activist or community organizations. expressed goals that the region’s 40-year plan should Targeted universalism can help groups get more serious include: about taking power, not just making “wins” that repre- • Vibrant Communities. People live and work in sent concessions from the powerful decisionmakers. vibrant communities where they can choose to walk Power can be diffused and shared. Targeted universalism for pleasure and meet their everyday needs. can provide the means to accomplish this power sharing and power building among community groups. • Economic Prosperity. Current and future residents benefit from the region’s sustained economic com- Many social justice advocates target attention on par- petitiveness and prosperity. ticular groups. In some respects this makes sense. Many groups are marginalized and barred from accessing • Safe and Reliable Transportation. People have safe the benefits of experiencing societal belonging and the and reliable transportation choices that enhance benefits that entails. As we discuss in this document, their quality of life. prioritizing resources and strategies is permitted and • Environmental Leadership. The region is a leader logical within the targeted universal framework. Groups in minimizing contributions to global warming. targeted by social justice advocates do receive resources, • Clean Air and Water. Current and future genera- more resources, to reach a goal, and usually need more tions enjoy clean air, clean water, and healthy eco- strategies to reach the goal. systems. It may not be obvious why setting a goal that will benefit • Equity. The benefits and burdens of growth and all groups is useful when it is obvious that some groups change are distributed equitably. are in greater need, suffering, and deserve urgent atten- tion. However, as we suggest in the Targeted Strategies These goals establish a vision for the 40-year plan and section of this primer, there are many benefits to com- shift away from the usually formulaic data analysis and pleting the targeted universal process to more effective- route treatment of regional development. These goals ly advocate for marginalized groups. These strategies place priority on considering different groups of region- promise more sustainable solutions, new alliances, and al residents and locations so that all residents and places effective and meaningful communication strategy, and in the region realize the goal over the course of a 40-year can reveal new areas for change. Of incredible impor- plan. tance is the framework’s potential to build power for Because of this pivot from disparities focus to one of change rather than limiting practices to resisting de- shared vision and shared distance from a goal, social jus- cisions and analyzing the problems of our profoundly tice advocates were brought into the planning process unfair world. and able to shift the 40-year planning document and Social justice and advocacy organizations’ reorgani- continue to make changes to shorter term development zation has taken place in a Pacific Northwest city and plans and development practices. These relationships is a good example in this respect. There was a chasm promise to let social justice advocates make decisions between social justice groups and the regional planning regarding ensuring real community benefit through community that was making poor decisions that would development and influencing or dictating the future dis- further marginalize or maintain current structures that pensation of public dollars and municipal revenue. This did the same. Their work had been focused on highlight- is a powerful position groups can leverage along with

40 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute terventions may be limited to biomedical solutions. This planning may evolve and change as the tar- These strategies may include greater access and geted universal design is underway, but it should abundance for inhalers and other medically neces- be designed prior to beginning. This important sary equipment and greater access to health clinics preparation may delay the start of the process. It and primary care and health insurance. It is obvious may require developing more trust with strategic that these are valuable strategies. The other groups partners or deepening relationships with the served will supplement that knowledge with complemen- communities and groups. However, it is critical to tary insights. Perhaps knowledge and information creating a robust and sustainable platform. from other people will ensure considerations of fac- When we talk here about the value of maximizing tors that influence asthma outside of the clinic—for the inclusion of many types of information, knowl- example, community organizing efforts to influence edge, and perspectives, we mean to suggest corporate environmental impacts or the location of something deeper than many community participa- residential housing, affordable housing, and trans- tion strategies entail. There are many types of com- portation. Knowledge from across a diverse array munity participation and many strategies to make of parties holds the greatest potential for thorough sure it is meaningful and influential. analysis and meaningful development of the change we urgently need. These insights can focus the long-term agendas and sustain coalitions beyond the timeline of The process of generating a targeted universal transactional changes. It can shape the future and agenda depends upon thoughtful attention to how ambition of long-term relationships and the forma- and in what atmosphere a targeted universal agen- tion of networks necessary for long-term structural da will be derived. This means that a great deal of change. Even if there is a “win” for a selected priori- preparatory attention must be given to planning for ty area or strategy there can be a long-view agenda the process itself. Key actors, specific individuals, for change, and this long view can expand and shift thoughtful timing, and more must be charted from power dynamics within those networks. the inception of the effort.

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 41 Conclusion: Equity 2.0

Targeted universalism is not only a policy strategy to get beyond the fight over universal versus targeted policy approaches, but it also serves as a way to overcome a narrow focus on equal treatment. With an unrelenting focus on outcomes-as-effect that trace back to structures-as-cause, targeted universalism radically reconceives the debates over equity and the narrow fights over equalizing expenditures.

JUMPING INTO CREATING change strategies well-off” in society, targeted universalism ensures based exclusively upon the presence of a disparity that all groups—and people—achieve the universal is inadequate and is a disservice to the people one goal. But it permits a variety and diversity of imple- intends to benefit. In different ways, universal and mentation strategies to accomplish that end, rather targeted strategies may promote and create a false than a one-size-fits-all approach. understanding of equity. The false interpretation We do suggest that targeted universalism rejects of equity in the universal approach assumes that the notion that identity groups are intrinsically dif- different groups, different people, are situated in ferent. We do suggest that targeted universalism the same or in equivalent ways. In the targeted responds to and attends to the empirical fact that approach, there is an implicit assumption that only there are persistent patterns of identities that ex- the targeted group needs support. Both of these perience similar disadvantage. These different pat- assumptions are false. terns can involve different dimensions of othering Our focus and analysis is drawn to structures that and marginality—for example disparities data shows enforce the marginality of different people. In the clear differences in the value of housing between course of working with targeted universalism there predominantly white and Black neighborhoods, and is often discussion of “targeted groups.” This lan- differences between referrals to the police between guage is not technically correct—the structures are white and Black students and between Black fe- targeted, not people. If we are going to use the lan- male and Black male students. guage of “targeted groups,” we should understand We see a concerted effort to shift the goal from those groups to be people who are disadvantaged equality to equity. This language represents an im- by particular structures—although disadvantaged portant insight. However, the importance of using in different ways, some people who are disadvan- this different language is muted if our practices and taged experience extreme harm and suffering and strategies pursue a hollowed understanding of eq- others are disadvantaged in less severe ways. This uity. To this end, it is helpful to think of equity along does not mean to suggest that “targeted groups” with belonging. When a hollow version of equity are similarly situated. In his classic book, A Theory leads to equal treatment, we must challenge this of Justice, John Rawls concluded that policymakers with the question of belonging. Equity must also be must take account of the most marginalized, a no- approached with an expectation that the condition tion encoded in his “difference principal.” Coming of the favored group is not the goal. To be sure, from a different direction, targeted universalism ac- outcomes for a group that experiences less struc- complishes the same end. Whereas the difference tural oppression are more favorable. However, it is principle requires that policies “benefit the least often the case that everyone can aspire to better

42 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute outcomes—and if groups that are further off can Creating a targeted universal framework demands benefit from structural changes, then often groups an investment in human and financial resources. facing lesser harms will also benefit from those We acknowledge and promote the understanding changes. Closing a disparity between different that some groups need more help, and strategies groups of people is not necessarily the goal. Out- tailored for that group. Furthermore, we know that comes, not treatment, is the touchstone. In many after creating a targeted universal framework, it cases, we strive for something higher for everyone. is likely that only some targeted strategies will be Educational equity battles provide a helpful analo- selected for implementation. gy. In the 1970s, the US Supreme Court held that Most meaningfully, targeted universalism is both a unequal per-pupil funding formulas across school way to operationalize belonging and create agen- districts did not violate the equal protection clause das for aligned transactional and transformative of the Fourteenth Amendment. Part of the basis for changes. Targeted universalism acknowledges that this ruling was that educational provision, under the structural changes that benefit those experiencing US Constitution, was not a fundamental right. greater harms likely hold benefits for many more Advocates protesting unequal funding formulas people. In this way, promoting the implementation targeted their efforts at state constitutions, many of a targeted strategy in the context and language of which required that states provide a minimum of shared concerns resonates with a broad base level of educational provision. These efforts are of support. Popular support is lined up when an collectively referred to as “equity” litigation, as appeal is made to fulfill a goal to which all groups they moved beyond a focus on whether school aspire. These universal goals also resonate with funding was equal or should be equalized toward collectively shared values and beliefs. A particular achieving a minimum level of educational service strategy that will help one group meet the goal will as required by state constitutions. Thus, the focus garner greater popular support within the meaning- was not on whether districts, under those states, ful frame of collective aspirations and beliefs. provide equal funding, but whether the state was Relatedly, wrapping a targeted strategy with the providing enough resources to offer an “adequate” language of shared aspirations and values opera- education, for example. Providing an adequate ed- tionalizes the fact that the challenges faced by the ucation cannot be measured in terms of per-pupil most marginalized among us can impede progress expenditure, and the amount of spending required for everyone. This recognition is a powerful force to provide that education might vary from district to that can dissolve barriers between in- and out- district. groups. One group’s interest is entangled with the Targeted universalism provides an analogous condition and interests of another group. Through approach. The goal is not, and should never be, the practice of targeted universalism, the sentiment equalization of resources, but achieving the univer- that “we should all belong” is built. sal goal. In some cases, this will require unequal Targeted universal frameworks manifest the un- resource expenditures. This might happen, for derstanding that we are collectively better off example, because of a greater proportion of disad- when all groups advance towards a shared goal. vantaged students or English language learners. We can only advance there together if we accom- Providing equal—or even greater—provision to stu- modate each other’s difference. In this way, we dents who have additional needs is insufficient to create belonging in thoughtful reflections of group help them achieve the universal goal. differences in the spirit of care and mutual con- In the framework of targeted universalism, targeted cern. Difference is not the root of othering. Rather, strategies support a goal that is appealing to every- othering results from the consideration of differ- one: it is a universal goal. We recognize that there ence in the spirit of concentrating privilege and/ are strategic and ethical arguments that may place or power. Targeted universalism’s transformative an urgent priority to implement targeted strategies change agenda embraces and values difference: that benefit groups “further off” from the goal-- it is a productive use of difference toward a more n those groups facing greater harm and suffering. fair and inclusive society.

@haasinstitute Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice 43 Endnotes

1 Noam Scheiber, “2016 Hopefuls and 10 Theda Skocpol, “Targeting Within Univer- no. 9 (May 6, 2014), 585. doi:10.7326/ Wealthy Are Aligned on Inequality,” The New salism: Politically Viable Policies to Combat M13-2275. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ York Times, March 29, 2015, https://goo.gl/ Poverty in the United States,” in The Urban pubmed/24798521; Massachusetts Health uwUdem. Underclass, by Christopher Jencks and Paul Care Reform: Six Years Later (Menlo Park: E. Peterson (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Kaiser Family Foundation, 2012). 2 Although some minimum wage statutes do Institution Press, 2001), 411-436. provide occupational and age-based exemp- 17 Bobby Milstein, Jack Homer, and Gary tions, among others. 11 John O’Farrell, “A no-strings basic income? Hirsch, “Are Coverage and Quality Enough? If it works for the royal family, it can work A Dynamic Systems Approach to Health 3 Samuel R. Bagenstos, “Universalism and for us all,” The Guardian, January 7, 2016, Policy,” American Journal of Public Health, Civil Rights (with Notes on Voting Rights Af- accessed December 11, 2017, https://goo. October 27, 2009. ter Shelby),” Yale Law Journal 123, no. 8 (Jun gl/yFfMVy. 1, 2014), 2842. https://www.yalelawjournal. 18 Maxwell et al., “Massachusetts’ Health org/essay/universalism-and-civil-rights-with- 12 Sarah Trumble and Lanae Erickson, “Mak- Care Reform Increased,” 1451. notes-on-voting-rights-after-shelby. ing Pre-K Matter: Instilling a Mobility Mental- 19 See Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Ac- ity” (Washington, D.C.: Third Way, October 4 Zachary Quintero. “An Overview of Universal tion Was White: An Untold History of Racial 1, 2014); For another critique, including on Basic Income: Discussion on the Benefits of Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New cost, see: David J. Armor and Sonia Sousa, a Single System Welfare Standard.” (2014). York: W.W. Norton, 2006). “The Dubious Promise of Universal Pre- https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/cgi/view- school,” National Affairs 38, no. Winter 2019, 20 But, as earlier noted, the Social Secu- content.cgi?article=1114&context=urc. accessed February 28, 2019, https://www. rity program was not truly universal in the 5 Bagenstos, “Universalism and Civil Rights,” nationalaffairs.com/publications/detail/the-du- first place (See Table 1). But even where 2848. bious-promise-of-universal-preschool. programs are ostensibly designed to be universal, they are based upon inaccurate 6 Bagenstos, “Universalism and Civil Rights,” 13 Trumble and Erickson, “Making Pre-K Mat- assumptions. In complex systems, where 2849-51. Approaches that rely on anti-dis- ter: Instilling a Mobility Mentality”; Armor and there are multiple reinforcing constraints and crimination norms are also more difficult to Sousa, “The Dubious Promise of Universal dynamic relationships, policy interventions enforce because they generally are predicat- Preschool.” may produce inequitable outcomes. ed on fault-based paradigms in the United 14 Christina Veiga, “New York City Gets a States. These paradigms require that a 21 Although, there may be an implicit recog- Gold Medal for Pre-K Quality and Access, plaintiff establish a discriminatory motive. In nition of extreme need or historical disadvan- New Report Finds,” Chalkbeat, January 23, contrast, universal approaches rely less on tage. 2019, https://www.chalkbeat.org/posts/ discerning the intent of the defendant and ny/2019/01/23/new-york-city-gets-a-gold- 22 Suzanne Mettler, “How the G.I. Bill Built more on establishing a set of objectively medal-for-pre-k-quality-and-access-new-re- the Middle Class and Enhanced Democracy” provable facts. port-finds/. (Cambridge, MA: Scholars Strategy Network, 7 “Family and Medical Leave Act,” Wage and January 2012). 15 So-called “Romneycare.” The Affordable Hour Division (WHD), U.S. Department of Care Act was, in part, modeled on the Mas- 23 Such an approach could also be the prod- Labor, accessed December 11, 2017, https:// sachusetts program. See Michael Costa and uct of a targeted universalism analysis, since www.dol.gov/whd/fmla. David Spackman, “An Act Providing Access it seeks to get everyone to the universal goal 8 Bagenstos, “Universalism and Civil Rights,” to Affordable, Quality, Accountable Health of access. 2843-4. Care” (Boston: Greenberg Traurig, LLP, 24 “The Age Discrimination in Employment Act 9 Ibid. According to most scholars, anti-dis- 2006). of 1967,” U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity crimination approaches, while universalist to 16 Sharon Long, “What is the Evidence on Commission, 1967, accessed December 11, the extent that they often treat members of Health Reform in Massachusetts and how 2017, https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/ all groups equally, are not generally under- might the Lessons from Massachusetts adea.cfm. stood as universalist. By “calling attention to Apply to National Health Reform?” Robert 25 Ibid. the identity status,” anti-discrimination laws Wood Johnson Foundation, 2010). https:// 26 have a different dynamic, perception, and goo.gl/8d2ijZ; James Maxwell et al., “Mas- “Affirmative Action,” United States De- understanding than approaches that do not sachusetts’ Health Care Reform Increased partment of Labor, accessed December 11, require any reference to an identity group. An- Access to Care for Hispanics, but Dis- 2017, https://www.dol.gov/general/topic/hir- ti-discrimination provisions, while universalist parities Remain,” Health Affairs 30, no. 8 ing/affirmativeact. The challenge to UC Davis’ in scope, are generally regarded as targeted (Aug 1, 2011), 1451-1460. doi:10.1377/ enrollment quota resulted in the Bakke case sets of protections, as the debate over the hlthaff.2011.0347. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. brought to the Supreme Court in 1978 where poll tax illustrates. In this regard, distinguish- gov/pubmed/21821562; Benjamin D. Som- the court ruled 5-4 that UC Davis had set up ing universal approaches from non-universal mers, Sharon K. Long and Katherine Baicker, an unconstitutional quota system. In what he approaches can be difficult, and there is no “Changes in Mortality After Massachusetts called a “grand compromise,” Justice Lewis broad consensus on this point. Health Care Reform: A Quasi-Experimental Powell ruled that while the program was un- Study,” Annals of Internal Medicine 160, constitutional that a “diversity rationale” could

44 Targeted Universalism @haasinstitute be used, in 2which race could be one of other have described targeted universalism as a Public Health 104, no. 2 (December 12, factors to achieve diverse student bodies. combination of the strengths of targeted and 2013): e52–59, https://doi.org/10.2105/ universal policies—while avoiding the weak- AJPH.2013.301709. 27 Goodwin Liu, “How the Federal Gov- nesses of each approach. However, as the ernment Makes Rich States Richer,” 45 There are studies to suggest that our framework has evolved alongside the effort Funding Gaps 2006 (Jan 8, 2013), 1-16. identities are largely a result of our circum- to create structural belonging, it has become doi:10.1503/cmaj.109-4372. stance and not essential or independent. clear that the potential of targeted universal- See: Anthony W. Marx, Making Race and 28 The Truly Disadvantaged was a book ism exceeds either of those traditional policy Nation: A Comparison of South Africa, the authored by William Julius Wilson in 1987. It approaches. Targeted universalism is a means United States, and Brazil (Cambridge, U.K.: was influential in changing the debate about to operationalize belonging. Cambridge University Press, 1998). the causes of concentrated poverty in cities 38 Mihika Basu, “IIT-Bombay Tech Will Help and provided new insights for public policy 46 See: Iris Marion Young and Danielle S. Blind See Taj Mahal,” DNA India, July 25, solutions. Although published almost 30 years Allen, Justice and the Politics of Difference, 2010, https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/ ago, its arguments are held up by thinkers as Paperback Reissue (Princeton, N.J: Princeton report-iit-bombay-tech-will-help-blind-see-taj- relevant to current policy debate. For an inter- University Press, 2011). mahal-1414189. view with William Julius Wilson, see Wilmot 47 There is, however, a complex relationship Allen, “Urban Poverty in America: The Truly 39 “Restorative Practices,” Alexandria City between structures and identity that is be- Disadvantaged Revisited,” The Huffington Public Schools, 2019, http://www.acps.k12. yond the scope of this primer. Suffice to say, Post, August 25, 2014, accessed December va.us/site/default.aspx?PageID=2140. what is perceived as identity is often the re- 11, 2017, https://goo.gl/FaaX8w. 40 “Restorative Justice Now: A Community sult of different positionality within structures. 29 Skocpol, “Targeting Within Universalism.” Review of Alexandria City Public Schools’ That means that the distinction between Implementation of Restorative Justice” (Wash- targeted structures and targeting people may 30 Mike P. Sinn, “Government Spends More ington, D.C.: Tenants and Workers United; be, in some larger sense, a false dichotomy. on Corporate Welfare Subsidies than Social Alexandria United Teens; The Alexandria Welfare Programs,” Think by Numbers, ac- 48http://haasinstitute.berkeley.edu/sites/ Branch of the National Association for the Ad- cessed December 11, 2017, https://goo.gl/ default/files/amicus_brief_fisher_v_texas_so- vancement of Colored People; Advancement E9xeTE. A study of similar patterns in 2002; cial_and_organizational_psychologists_0.pdf Project, June 2016), https://advancementproj- see Chris Edwards and Tad DeHaven, Corpo- ect.org/resources/restorative-justice-now/. 49 Not technically a 10% plan, since the plan rate Welfare Update (Washington, D.C.: Cato was subsequently capped at 75% of UT’s Institute, 2002). https://object.cato.org/sites/ 41 For a useful example, consider conserva- undergraduate body. In practice, it functions cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/tbb-0205-7.pdf. tive columnist David French’s rejoinder to a as a top 8 or 8.5% plan. monologue from Tucker Carlson, in which 31 Robert Collinson, Ingrid Gould Ellen, Jens French expressed skepticism about the role 50 Students who had difficulty reading were Ludwig, “Low-Income Housing Policy,” Na- of government in solving a cluster of social more likely to be identified as having a learn- tional Bureau of Economic Research Working problems: “It is a simple fact, that when peo- ing disability or behavior problem. “Vision for Paper no. 21071 (Apr 2015). https://www. ple make bad choices, there are a cascade Baltimore,” Baltimore City Health Department, nber.org/papers/w21071 of negative effects that follow. The extraor- August 17, 2016, https://health.baltimorecity. 32 Matthew Desmond, “How Homeownership dinarily difficult challenge of public policy is gov/VisionForBaltimore; Katie Pearce, “Vision Became the Engine of American Inequality,” considering how to mitigate the effects of for Baltimore Celebrates 1,000 Free Pairs of The New York Times, May 9, 2017, https:// those mistakes and providing pathways to Glasses for City Students,” The Hub, Johns www.nytimes.com/2017/05/09/magazine/ overcoming bad decisions. And nothing about Hopkins University, March 8, 2017, https:// how-homeownership-became-the-en- that is easy.” https://www.nationalreview. hub.jhu.edu/2017/03/08/vision-for-balti- gine-of-american-inequality.html. com/2019/01/the-right-should-reject-tuck- more-1000-glasses/. 33 Note that under the Carter administration er-carlsons-victimhood-populism/ 51 This insight is derived from a complex sys- new technology enabled data to be gathered 42 “American Recovery and Reinvestment Act tems theory. Stephen Menendian and Caitlin on “welfare fraud.” This technology and data of 2009,” 123 Stat. 115 § 3 (2009), https:// Watt, “Systems Thinking and Race” (Colum- changed administrative practices and created www.ntia.doc.gov/page/2011/american-re- bus, OH: Kirwan Institute for the Study of a disciplinary regime associating criminality covery-and-reinvestment-act-2009. Race and Ethnicity, The Ohio State University, and fraud with welfare and its recipients. December 2008). 43 “American Recovery and Reinvestment 33 2010 Earned Income Credit (EIC) Table, Act of 2009,” 123 Stat. 115 § 5001 (2009), 52 San Antonio Independent School District V. 2010. https://www.ntia.doc.gov/page/2011/ameri- Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 959 (1973). 35 Bagenstos, “Universalism and Civil Rights,” can-recovery-and-reinvestment-act-2009. 2841. 44 Katherine M. Keyes et al., “Understanding 36 Skocpol, “Targeting Within Universalism.” the Rural–Urban Differences in Nonmed- ical Prescription Opioid Use and Abuse 37 It’s useful to note that in previous work we in the United States,” American Journal of

45 Targeted Universalism @haasinstitute Further Reading and Resources

• Allen, Willmont. “Urban Poverty in America: The Truly Disadvan- • powell,john a., “Deepening our understanding of structural mar- taged Revisited.” The Huffington Post, August 25, 2014, https:// ginalization, ”Poverty and Race 22, no. 5 (September/October goo.gl/FaaX8w. 2013):3-13. • Bagenstos, Samuel R. “Universalism and Civil Rights (with • powell, john a. and Wendy Ake “Creating Structural Changes: Notes on Voting Rights After Shelby).” Yale Law Journal 123 (8): The role of targeted universalism.” In The Hidden Rules of Race: 2838-2876. https://goo.gl/5tYL48. Barriers to an inclusive economy, by Andrea Flynn, Dorian T. • Better, Even, Halley Potter, “Lessons from New York City’s Uni- Warren, Felicia J. Wong, Susan R. Holmberg. In Cambridge versal Pre-K Expansion: How a focus on diversity could make it,” Studies in Stratification Economics: Economies and Social Iden- The Century Foundation, Issue Brief (May 13, 2015): https://tcf. tity, 166-95. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. org/content/report/lessons-from-new-york-citys-universal-prek- • powell, john a., Stephen Menendian, Jason Reece, “The Impor- expansion/ tance of Targeted Universalism” Poverty Race and Research • City of Austin Urban Parks Workgroup. 2011 Urban Parks Action Council, (March/April 2009). Workgroup Report Recommendations. Austin: Central Austin • powell, john a., “Post-racialism or targeted universalism?” CDC. Denver University Law Review 86, 785-806. https://www.law. • Costa, Michael and David Spackman. 2006. “An Act Providing du.edu/documents/denver-university-law-review/powell.pdf Access to Affordable, Quality, Accountable Health Care.” Bos- • powell, john a., “Poverty and Race Through a Belonging- ton: Greenberg Traurig, LLP. ness Lens,” Policy Matters and Northwest Area Foundation, • Edwards, Chris and Tad DeHaven. 2002. Corporate Welfare 1:5(March 2012) https://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/PolicyMat- Update. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute. https://object.cato. ters_powell_V4.pdf org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/tbb-0205-7.pdf. • Reece, Jason, Christ Rogers, Matthew Martin, Stephen Me- • Kaiser Family Foundation, “Massachusetts Health Care Reform: nendian, Caitlin Watt, “Targeted universalism and the jobs bill: Six Years Later.” (2012) helping communities in crisis through targeted investments,” Prepared for the Congressional Black Caucasus (March 2010): • Katznelson, Ira. “When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold http://www.kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/reports/2010/03_2010_Tar- History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America.” New getedUniversalismJobsBill.pdf York: W.W. Norton, 2006. • Scheiber, Noam. “2016 Hopefuls and Wealthy Are Aligned on • Liu, Goodwin. “How the Federal Government Makes Rich Inequality.” The New York Times, (March 29, 2015): https://goo. States Richer.” Funding Gaps 2006: 1-16, 109-4372 (2013): gl/uwUdem. doi:10.1503/cmaj. • Sinn, Mike P. “Government Spends More on Corporate Welfare • Long, Sharon. “What is the Evidence on Health Reform in Mas- Subsidies than Social Welfare Programs.” Think by Numbers, sachusetts and how might the Lessons from Massachusetts (December 11, 2017): https://goo.gl/E9xeTE. Apply to National Health Reform?” Robert Wood Johnson Foun- dation, (2010): https://goo.gl/8d2ijZ. • Skocpol, Theda. “Targeting Within Universalism: Politically Vi- able Policies to Combat Poverty in the United States.” In The • Manship, Karen, Linda Jacobson, and Bruce Fuller, “Achieving Urban Underclass, by Christopher Jencks and Paul E. Peterson. Fair Access to Early Education: Fewer children, regional gaps Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2001. across California,” Berkeley Early Childhood Think Tank & Amer- ican Institutes for Research and Designing options for Califor- • Sommers, Benjamin D., Sharon K. Long, and Katherine Baicker. nia’s Young Children (July 2018): https://news.berkeley.edu/ 2014. “Changes in Mortality After Massachusetts Health Care wp-content/uploads/2018/07/UC-AIR-Pre-K-Scarcity-Report. Reform: A Quasi-Experimental Study.” Annals of Internal Med- pdf icine (160:9, 585): doi:10.7326/M13-2275. http://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24798521. • Maxwell, James, Dharma E. Cortes, Karen L. Schneider, Anna Graves, and Brian Rosman. “Massachusetts’ Health Care • United States Department of Labor, “Family and Medical Leave Reform Increased Access to Care for Hispanics, but Dis- Act.” Wage and Hour Division (WHD).: https://www.dol.gov/ parities Remain.” Health Affairs 30 (8): 1451-1460 (2011): whd/fmla. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0347.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ • United States Department of Labor, “Earned Income Credit pubmed/21821562. (EIC) Table, 2010,” Affirmative Action (2010): https://www.dol. • Milstein, Bobby, Jack Homer, and Gary Hirsch. “Are Coverage gov/general/topic/hiring/affirmativeact and Quality Enough? A Dynamic Systems Approach to Health • U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity, “The Age Discrimination in Policy.” American Journal of Public Health, 1-21, (October 27, Employment Act of 1967,” (1967): https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/ 2009) statutes/adea.cfm. • O’Farrell, John. “A no-strings basic income? If it works for the royal family, it can work for us all.” The Guardian, (January 7, 2016): https://goo.gl/yFfMVy. • powell, john a., Connie Cagampang Heller, Fayza Bundalli, “Systems Thinking and Race: Workshop Summary,” The Califor- nia Endowment (June 2011): http://www.racialequitytools.org/ resourcefiles/Powell_Systems_Thinking_Structural_Race_Over- view.pdf

46 Targeted Universalism @haasinstitute

For more materials on targeted universalism, including an animated video, a set of curricula for teaching, and a podcast episode with john a. powell, please visit haasinstitute.berkeley.edu/targeteduniversalism.

This primer on targeted universalism is offered to contribute to a large body of models of strategy and policy. Targeted universalism is an approach that supports the needs of the particular while reminding us that we are all part of the same social fabric.

Targeted universalism rejects a blanket universal, which is likely to be indifferent to the reality that different groups are situated differently relative to the institutions and resources of society, and rejects the claim of formal equality that would treat all people the same as a way of denying difference.

48 Targeted Universalism: Policy & Practice @haasinstitute