DOCSLIB.ORG

Plain Talk 6: Residential Schools

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Plain Talk 6: Residential Schools 6 Residential plain Schools talk it’s our time... Never again will the awesome power of government attempt to destroy us, to obliterate our cultures and our languages from this land, the land we have occupied since time immemorial. From the response of the Assembly of First Nations National Chief Phil Fontaine to the Government of Canada’s apology to the former students of the Residential Schools, made on June 11, 2008, by The Right Honourable Stephen Harper, Prime Minister of Canada. 1. What are residential schools? Residential schools were boarding schools for Indigenous (First Nations, Inuit and Métis) children and youth, financed by the federal government but staffed and run by several Christian religious institutions— the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Presbyterian, United and Methodist Churches. Children were separated from their families and communities, sometimes by force, and lived in and attended classes at the schools for most of the year. Often the residential schools were located far from the students’ home communities. Although what we now refer to as residential schools offcialll satd i 1883 smlr boardin schools had been run by French Christian missionaries in the early 1600s. Some of the early types operated with grants from the federal government. Some were called “industrial” schools because they provided training in trades as well as the basics of farming and carpentry. Some of these early versions were on-reserve while others were off-reserve. All of these schools emphasized religious instruction. 2. How long did residential schools exist? From their start in the 1800s until the last one closed in 1996, about 180 residential schools operated in every province and territory in Canada, except for the provinces of New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland. During this period, over 150,000 Indigenous youth were enrolled in residential schools. Enrollment reached a peak about 1980, with over 17,000 students in 80 schools. As of 2012, about 98,000 Indigenous adults who attended residential schools are still alive to tell their stories and describe their experiences. In 1972, Indian Control of Indian Education asserted the right of First Nations to control their own schooling. This document, updated in 2010 as First Nations Control of First Nations Education, laid out the values and principles underlying First Nations education and reinforced the importance of language and culture as the foundational elements to support student success. The implementation of these policies has proved an on-going challenge for First Nations due to outdated legal and policy frameworks, and significant funding disparities that exist to this day. 72 Residential Schools plain talk 6 3. Why were residential schools created? A number of factors laid the foundation for the creation of residential schools: a) The dominant European mentality and view of Canada’s original inhabitants was racist and backwards. The federal government considered it necessary to “assimilate” Indigenous people, to have Indigenous nations conform to the European/Canadian customs, attitudes and ways of dressing, believing, behaving and working. Some politicians (and others) of the time sought to “kill the Indian in the child” and “civilize” Indigenous youth by separating them from their heritage and customs and indoctrinating them to European and Christian ways. This false, misguided and racist perspective denied and rejected the validity of First Nations languages, customs, spirituality and traditions. The main reason for the assimilationist policies was for land and resource exploitation. Dispossession and extinguishment of rights would also help to ensure the establishment of Canada as a legitimate nation state. b) In 1876, the federal government introduced the Indian Act. Under the Act, the federal government took control of all aspects of the lives of First Nations people, including their means of governing themselves, their economies, religions, customs, traditions, land use and education. The Indian Act includes criteria and a definition of who is an “Indian.” c) First Nations leaders supported education of their young. They recognized that providing their youth with the skills and knowledge relevant to the times would be important in the adaptation of their Nations and communities to the new situations arising from the presence of European settlers. However, the idea of separating children from their communities to attend school was not supported by parents and Elders. First Nation leaders always insisted that schooling should be within, not distant from, their communities. d) Treaties with First Nations obligated governments to fund the education of First Nations youth. Residential schools were the federal government’s way of meeting their treaty commitments to education. e) Indigenous people were considered to be a “problem” because their presence was getting in the way of the continuous expansion of settlement and exploitation by the European powers. Assimilation and absorption of Indigenous people into the “mainstream” were considered to help eliminate the “problem.” f) Christian missionaries considered it their duty to convert the First Nations to what they considered to be the only true religion, Christianity. 4. How did residential schools operate? For almost their entire history, residential schools were run by religious organizations— Christianity’s Roman Catholic, Anglican, Presbyterian, United and Methodist Churches. Their missionaries, ministers, priests and nuns administered the schools, taught the classes, and looked Residential Schools 73 it’s our time... after the students all within a Christian framework. Many of these people were sincerely devoted to making a positive change in the lives of their students, although overwork, poor pay, isolation and colonial attitudes took their toll on the quality of education and on the well-being of the students. As part of the assimilation process, students were forbidden to respect or continue their First Nations customs, traditions and languages. The federal government provided most of the funding for residential schools. However, as the system grew and expanded, there were continuing reductions, leading to severe underfunding for much of the time. From the beginning of the residential school system, federal politicians were aware of the problems caused by inadequate funding and poor instruction, but such observations were suppressed and ignored. 5. What were students’ experiences at residential schools? Students typically attended these schools for 10 years or more. They were usually taken from their homes at five years of age, and generally finished school at age 15. Some students were able to go home for the summer, but it wasn’t uncommon for students to remain at residential school for the entire duration of their schooling years and not ever see or visit their parents and family members and community. When youth arrived at their residential school, they were stripped of their First Nations identity. Possessions and clothing were taken away. Youth were assigned uniforms. Their First Nations name was abandoned and replaced with a Christian name. While at the schools, students were deprived of their First Nations heritage—language, customs, and spirituality—without being provided with a sustainable and viable alternative. Some students had positive experiences and received decent educations. However, many students were subjected to or witnessed a wide range of indignities, including humiliation and nutritional, physical, psychological, and sexual abuse. In addition, because visits by family and community members were rare and often forbidden or impossible, students experienced feelings of loneliness and isolation. Not surprisingly, students were susceptible to disease and poor health. Suicide was not uncommon. To reduce costs of operation, some residential schools exploited the students by requiring that the students work for half the day, thereby limiting the time available for education. Funding limitations also affected the quality of education. Many of the teachers at residential schools were not properly trained, lacking professional certification and qualifications. Poor housing conditions caused by inadequate funding adversely affected student safety and well-being. It is estimated that up to 50% of students who attended residential schools died there! 74 Residential Schools plain talk 6 6. How did residential school students fare as adults? Residential schools were created and designed to prevent students from acquiring the skills, knowledge, attitudes and understandings of their First Nations culture. First Nations youth attending residential schools were deprived of their families, communities, and heritage. The residential school experience prevented students from learning the traditional ways and patterns of their culture—the customs, stories, ideas, language, spirituality, ethics, morality, language, etc. The Indian Act compounded these losses by declaring it illegal for First Nations to take part in sacred ceremonies like the Potlatch and Sun Dance. Added to the cultural interference was the humiliation, deprivation and abuse many First Nations youth encountered in residential schools. Many adults who had attended residential schools subsequently had profound identity problems, confused about who they were and their place in their First Nations culture and in the wider Canadian culture. The adult behaviour of many residential school students reflected these insults. Parenting
Load more

Recommended publications
  • National Aboriginal Awareness Week Booklet
    National Aboriginal Awareness Week 2016 May 19–22 Aboriginal Awareness This week of celebration is an opportunity for all Canadians, especially young people and educators, who have the opportunity to create a Shared Teachings/Learnings environment to learn more about Aboriginal cultural heritages of Canada. By sharing our knowledge and experience, there will be greater understanding and harmony among all Canadians. In recognition of the many aboriginal cultures and experiential difference that exist among the BC and Canadian aboriginals, the Shared Teachings/Learnings suggested in this booklet are intended to highlight Aboriginal peoples, events, places, issues and realities that are statement of knowledge about Aboriginal peoples’ cultures, values, beliefs, traditions, history and languages. Source(s) Shared Learning: Integrating BC Aboriginal Content K–10 Did you know? Did you know that some of BC’s towns or cities have names that come from aboriginal sources. Find out what the following names mean and from which language the words come from. Match the names with the description. Chilliwack The name comes from an Okanagan word meaning “the always place”, in the sense of a permanent dwelling place. Coquitlam Is the name of the local tribe, ch.ihl-KWAY-uhk. This word is generally interpreted to mean “going back up”. Kamloops Is likely from the Salish tribal name which is translated as “small red salmon”. The name refers to the sockeye salmon common to the area. Suggestion: Make up your own matching work list or create a word search, etc. Place names reveal Aboriginal peoples’ contributions: Place names are never just meaningless sounds.
    [Show full text]
  • Full Circle Full Circle
    FULL CIRCLE FULL CIRCLE the aboriginal healing WAYNE foundation & the K SPEAR unfinished work of hope, healing & reconciliation AHF WAYNE K SPEAR i full circle FULL CIRCLE the aboriginal healing foundation & the unfinished work of hope, healing & reconciliation WAYNE K SPEAR AHF 2014 © 2014 Aboriginal Healing Foundation Published by Aboriginal Healing Foundation Aboriginal Healing Foundation 275 Slater Street, Suite 900, Ottawa, ON, K1P 5H9 Phone: (613) 237-4441 / Fax: (613) 237-4442 Website: www.ahf.ca Art Direction and Design Alex Hass & Glen Lowry Design & Production Glen Lowry for the Aboriginal Healing Foundation Printed by Metropolitan Printing, Vancouver BC ISBN 978-1-77215-003-2 English book ISBN 978-1-77215-004-9 Electronic book Unauthorized use of the name “Aboriginal Healing Foundation” and of the Foundation’s logo is prohibited. Non-commercial reproduction of this docu- ment is, however, encouraged. This project was funded by the Aboriginal Healing Foundation but the views expressed in this report are the personal views of the author(s). contents vi acknowledgments xi a preface by Phil Fontaine 1 introduction 7 chapter one the creation of the aboriginal healing foundation 69 chapter two the healing begins 123 chapter three long-term visions & short-term politics 173 chapter four Canada closes the chapter 239 chapter five an approaching storm by Kateri Akiwenzie-Damm 281 chapter six coming full circle 287 notes 303 appendices 319 index acknowledgments “Writing a book,” said George Orwell, “is a horrible, exhausting struggle, like a long bout with some painful illness.” In the writing of this book, the usual drudgery was offset by the pleasure of interviewing a good many interesting, thoughtful and extraordinary people.
    [Show full text]
  • Indigenous Genocide and Perceptions of the Holocaust in Canada1
    Indigenous Genocide and Perceptions of the Holocaust in Canada1 David B. MacDonald This chapter explores genocide against Indigenous peoples in what is now Canada and the ways this topic has been tied to larger discussions of genocide and the Holocaust. Contemporary genocide claims in Canada revolve primarily around the Indian Residential Schools (IRS) system (1834–1996). Attempts to deal with the IRS system and its aftermath led to the establishment of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) in 1991 and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) of Canada (2009–15). While the RCAP was set up by the federal government, the TRC was an outcome of Indigenous-led litigation to compensate for the widespread and systematic abuses endured in the IRS system. Both commissions provided a forum for Indigenous and settler peoples to discuss genocide, understood according to the standard legally binding definition in the United Nations Genocide Convention of 1948. In a more derivative sense, the Americanisation of the Holocaust during the 1990s and the history wars over Holocaust uniqueness and Indigenous genocide had an influence on some scholars and activists in Canada. This marked a phase of what Michael Rothberg has called ‘competitive memory’, featuring debates over whether the Holocaust was unique and whether Indigenous history was marked by genocide or something else.2 Holocaust uniqueness theorists such as Steven Katz in 1994 asserted that the Holocaust could not be compared to other atrocities in world history. This provoked
    [Show full text]
  • Interview with Phil Fontaine *
    Interview with Phil Fontaine * BRYAN P. SCHWARTZ I. INTRODUCTION Bryan Paul Schwartz (BPS): You grew up in Sagkeeng,1 and you were one of nineteen children? Phil Fontaine (PF): No, I was one of twelve. BPS: Twelve, yeah. PF: Ten boys, two girls. I was the youngest boy, number ten, and then there were my two younger sisters. There are four of us left; an older brother, obviously, and myself, and my sisters Thelma and Audrey. BPS: We don’t need to discuss this if you don’t want to relive it, but you are a survivor of the residential school system. PF: Yes, I attended two residential schools. All of my siblings were residential school students, except for the two that died before they reached * Interview conducted by Bryan P. Schwartz. Phil Fontaine is an Indigenous leader and advocate. Throughout his life, Phil served as Chief of the Sagkeeng First Nation, as the Manitoba Regional Chief for the Assembly of First Nations and the Grand Chief of the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs. In 1997, he became the National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations. Then, Phil became Chief Commissioner of the Indian Claims Commission (ICC) in 2001. After this, Phil was re-elected as the National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations in 2003 and 2006, becoming the first person to serve as National Chief for three terms. Phil has received a multitude of awards including the National Aboriginal Achievement Award, numerous honorary doctorates, the Order of Manitoba, and the Order of Canada. After completing his terms as National Chief, Phil has continued to advocate for Indigenous peoples through initiatives such as the Recognition2Action Campaign.
    [Show full text]
  • Interview with Phil Fontaine *
    Interview with Phil Fontaine * BRYAN P. SCHWARTZ I. INTRODUCTION Bryan Paul Schwartz (BPS): You grew up in Sagkeeng,1 and you were one 2018 CanLIIDocs 10536 of nineteen children? Phil Fontaine (PF): No, I was one of twelve. BPS: Twelve, yeah. PF: Ten boys, two girls. I was the youngest boy, number ten, and then there were my two younger sisters. There are four of us left; an older brother, obviously, and myself, and my sisters Thelma and Audrey. BPS: We don’t need to discuss this if you don’t want to relive it, but you are a survivor of the residential school system. PF: Yes, I attended two residential schools. All of my siblings were residential school students, except for the two that died before they reached * Interview conducted by Bryan P. Schwartz. Phil Fontaine is an Indigenous leader and advocate. Throughout his life, Phil served as Chief of the Sagkeeng First Nation, as the Manitoba Regional Chief for the Assembly of First Nations and the Grand Chief of the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs. In 1997, he became the National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations. Then, Phil became Chief Commissioner of the Indian Claims Commission (ICC) in 2001. After this, Phil was re-elected as the National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations in 2003 and 2006, becoming the first person to serve as National Chief for three terms. Phil has received a multitude of awards including the National Aboriginal Achievement Award, numerous honorary doctorates, the Order of Manitoba, and the Order of Canada. After completing his terms as National Chief, Phil has continued to advocate for Indigenous peoples through initiatives such as the Recognition2Action Campaign.
    [Show full text]
  • Conference Report
    Conference Report Treaty No. 6 Territory Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Teachers Credit Union Place March 26-27, 2008 Introduction “As Long as the Sun Shines” was a first-of-its-kind national event consisting of a national Treaty Elders Gathering and a national Treaty Implementation Conference. The event was held in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan in the Traditional Territory of the Treaty Six First Nations in March 2008. The National Treaty Elders Gathering was held from March 24-25, 2008 at Wanuskewin Heritage Park and was hosted by the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations and the Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Center. The Treaty Implementation Conference took place from March 26-27, 2008 and was jointly organized by the Assembly of First Nations and Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. This event brought together Elders, First Nations’ Chiefs and political leaders from across the country, federal representatives and various speakers with expertise on Treaties and Treaty implementation issues. The conference delegates discussed Crown-First Nations Treaty implementation issues in all regions of Canada from pre- Confederation Treaties of peace and friendship to the diverse Treaties entered into between the Crown and First Nations from 1867 to the present day. The purpose of the conference was to provide a national forum to share perspectives on options for advancing Treaty implementation in all parts of the country. The conference objective was to start a process for developing a joint First Nations-Crown action plan to address Treaty implementation issues. This conference was borne of the work under the First Nations~Federal Crown Political Accord of May 31, 2005 and a commitment made as part of the specific claims reform process in November 2007 between the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and the National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations.
    [Show full text]
  • RBC Aboriginal Partnership Report June 2015
    RBC Aboriginal Partnership Report June 2015 RBC Aboriginal Partnership Report A CHOSEN JOURNEY RBC Aboriginal Partnership Report Table of Contents Our Chosen Journey 1 Economy: Banking, Financing and Investments 2 Community: Social Development 6 Progress Reports 10 People: Employment, Education and Training 14 Procurement: Supplier Opportunities 18 RBC Pictorial Timeline 20 This RBC Aboriginal Partnership Report provides a summary of our activities and actions as RBC continues on its journey to build relationships and pathways to prosperity for Canadian Aboriginal peoples. Data gathered in this document is for the 2014-2015 reporting period. RBC Aboriginal Partnership Report 2015 Our Chosen Journey Trust is the foundation of any long-lasting relationship, and we are honoured that, for over a century, so many Aboriginal leaders, communities, businesses and organizations have placed their trust in RBC®. Working together, we continue to create economic opportunities that benefit not only Aboriginal peoples, but also the Canadian economy as a whole. Further, we believe First Nations, Métis and Inuit have an even stronger contribution to make today — and for generations to come — to Canada’s economic development, sustainable growth and national identity. Through ongoing consultations with our Aboriginal partners, we continue to deepen our understanding of how sustainable prosperity for Aboriginal peoples relies upon a number of inter-related elements. Not only is this prosperity closely tied to economic development, access to banking services and credit; it is also strongly intertwined with community and social development, employment, training and education. Simply stated, we have learned that achievement in any one of these areas alone is not a long-term solution, nor our definition of success.
    [Show full text]
  • Indigenous Connect News November 2015
    INDIGENOUS CONNECT NEWS NOVEMBER 2015 Creating Pathways for Indigenous Success It has been busy a few months at the University of Manitoba, especially on the Indigenous Achievement front! In September, my office partnered with the Access Program and the Engineering Access Program (ENGAP) to celebrate their milestone anniversaries for Indigenous Homecoming. Dr. Lisa Monkman, a family physician and an Access alumna, and Jerry Henderson, an Engineer and ENGAP alumnus, were the invited guest speakers. Both shared their life journeys to a full house of students, faculty and community at Migizii Agamik - Bald Eagle Lodge. Celebrating the U of M’s Indigenous alumni is a great way to motivate a new generation of Indigenous students. Dr. Deborah G. Young Lisa Monkman and Jerry Henderson are exceptional role models Executive Lead, Indigenous Achievement and community leaders. From a Strategic Planning and Enrolment Management In October, the U of M announced its “Front and Centre” perspective, the University is moving forward on developing philanthropic campaign, which includes a $17.5 million implementation plans to support the various commitments Indigenous Success Fund (ISF) and $35 million to support the outlined in both Taking Our Place and the Strategic Enrolment development of the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation Management Plan (SEM). Indigenous Achievement is featured (NCTR). The ISF will provide scholarships and bursaries, establish prominently in both, and the development of a five-year connections with Indigenous youth through mentorship and Creating Pathways Implementation Plan is underway. This plan outreach programs, and facilitate the transition from early years will build upon the activities we identified at last summer’s through to post-secondary education.
    [Show full text]
  • Phil Fontaine – Keynote Address
    ABORIGINAL GOVERNANCE IN URBAN SETTINGS: WORKING TOGETHER TO BUILD STRONGER COMMUNITIES CONFERENCE REPORT A report of: The United Native Nations The Aboriginal Council of Winnipeg The Institute On Governance March 31, 2002 The views expressed in this publication are the views of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the Institute On Governance or its Board of Directors. The Institute On Governance (IOG) is a non-profit organization founded in 1990 to promote effective governance. From our perspective, governance comprises the traditions, institutions and processes that determine how power is exercised, how citizens are given a voice, and how decisions are made on issues of public concern. Our current activities fall within these broad themes: building policy capacity; Aboriginal governance; accountability and performance measurement; youth and governance; citizen participation; governance and the voluntary sector; and technology and governance. In pursuing these themes, we work in Canada and internationally. We provide advice on governance matters to organizations in the public, private and non-profit sectors. We bring people together in a variety of settings, events and professional development activities to promote learning and dialogue on governance issues. We undertake policy-relevant research, and publish results in the form of policy briefs and research papers. You will find additional information on our themes and current activities on our web site, at www.iog.ca. For further information, please contact: Institute On Governance 122 Clarence Street Ottawa, Ontario K1N 5P6 Canada tel: (613) 562-0090 fax: (613) 562-0097 [email protected] www.iog.ca TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION 1 A.
    [Show full text]
  • The Electoral Participation of Aboriginals in Canada
    Electoral Participation of Aboriginals in Canada Paul Howe and David Bedford University of New Brunswick Table of Contents Note to the Reader .......................................................................................................................... 5 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 7 Literature Review............................................................................................................................ 9 Methodology................................................................................................................................. 13 Results........................................................................................................................................... 15 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 35 Appendix A Sampling and Weighting Issues ............................................................................... 37 Appendix B Logistic Regression Results for Multivariate Analysis in Tables 5 and 6 ............... 39 Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................... 41 References..................................................................................................................................... 43 Table of Contents 3 Note to the Reader This study
    [Show full text]
  • Beyond Section 35: Beating the Constitutional Drum
    !"!"#$%&'()*"#%+,-%% .'/)*#0%)1'%2"#3)*)4)*"#/5%6748# Institute on Governance Summary Report of Ottawa Symposium, November 8 – 9 2012 Sponsored by !"#$%&'(")*+$%',-'' !"!#$%&#'() *# +,-+'.")'/)&0#.)-"+'-&) 1# .23+'.#,3).,33%-2)#()4-#"/) 1# %)/-%3"5'-6)/'-)3'7#(8)/'-5%-!) 9# #(!#8"(',.),(#&2) 9# +%&0)'/)-"$'($#:#%&#'() ;# 7#.#'() ;# +-#($#+:".)/'-)3'7#(8)/'-5%-!) <# %)+-'$"..)'/)-"$'($#:#%&#'() <# $%# &'(')*#'+#,&-#.*'/(# 0# 1%# .'(2)3,4,5'(#6#4..'77'84,5'(# 0# 9%## (-:',54,5'(2# 0# 9%$# -;"<"=>?#@A#2";A#B@C"D=<"=># $E# 9%1# ."D>FG=>H# $E# 3.3# Fiscal Arrangements# $$# I%##J)!35.#4/4*-(-22# $1# ("=&).&"+.) >?# -"$'33"(!%&#'(.)/-'3)&0")%.."34:2)'/)/#-.&)(%&#'(.) >*# "3"-8#(8)-':")/'-)&0")#'8) >*# $'($:,.#'() >1# %++"(!#=)%@)+%-&#$#+%(&.):#.&) >A# 2 !"#$%&'$()* In the month preceding the Beyond Section 35 Symposium I had the privilege of speaking at length with eminent Métis leader Jim Sinclair, who played a fundamental role in the acknowledgement of Aboriginal rights both leading up to the 1982 Constitutional repatriation and moving forward. Although his health was rapidly deteriorating at the time Jim was insistent that the dialogue to be had was a necessary one, and was excited at the possibility of addressing some of the fundamental issues leading to and stemming from Section 35. Originally we made arrangements for Jim to travel with a health aide but the week of the symposium it became clear that he was bed-ridden. Determined to participate, we arranged for Jim to be present via Skype. Tragically, on the first day of the Symposium Jim was unable to communicate and died at home the next day, November 19th 2012, surrounded by loved ones. Jim died without his opportunity to speak on issues that he considered vital to Indigenous people in this country.
    [Show full text]
  • Assembly of First Nations – Our Story
    Assembly of First Nations – Our Story The story of the Assembly of First Nations (AFN) is one that remains unknown to most Canadians. It is the story that is lived each day by the First Nations peoples of Canada. It is the story of a struggle for self-determination and human dignity. It is a story that must be told. Many Canadians are unaware of the enormous problems that the First Nations peoples have faced on the road to political recognition in this country. Few Canadians realize that the First Nations peoples are identified in the Constitution as one of the founding nations of Canada, along with the English and French. Few Canadians are aware that up until the 1983-87 First Ministers Conference on Aboriginal Rights, the First Nations People were excluded from taking part in the Constitutional developments of Canada. First Nations peoples have had to deal with conditions of extreme poverty and isolation, and vast geographical dispersion, within the tremendous diversity of aboriginal cultures, languages, and political ideologies. Improved communications and transportation have allowed First Nations Peoples to begin to talk to each other, to the rest of Canada, and to the rest of the world. These relatively recent developments have meant that the First Nations Peoples have had to work harder and faster in order to catch up with the federal and provincial governments in the fields of political knowledge, political reality, and especially in political expertise. The years of being excluded from Canada's formal political process has left First Nations Peoples with an incredible void to fill just in order to attain a level of political, social, and legal knowledge that is on par with other groups in Canadian society.
    [Show full text]