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MANNING the FRASER CANYON GOLD RUSH by AVERILL GROENEVELD-MEIJER B.A., the University of British Columbia, 1991 a THESIS SUBMITT

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MANNING the FRASER CANYON GOLD RUSH by AVERILL GROENEVELD-MEIJER B.A., the University of British Columbia, 1991 a THESIS SUBMITT MANNING THE FRASER CANYON GOLD RUSH by AVERILL GROENEVELD-MEIJER B.A., The University of British Columbia, 1991 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department of Geography) We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA August 1994 © Averill Groeneveld-Meijer ___________ In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without written permission. my Department of The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada Date Q9y U Abstract In the canyon where the Fraser River flows through the Cascade mountains, migrating salmon supported a large, dense native population. By 1850 the Hudson’s Bay Company had several forts on other parts of the Fraser River and its tributaries but found the canyon itself inaccessible. Prior to the gold rush, whites rarely ventured there. Discoveries of gold in Fraser River in 1856 drew the attention of outsiders and a rush of miners, and led eventually to permanent white settlement on mainland British Columbia. Contrary to much historiography, these were not foregone results. Instead, the gold rush was a complex process of negotiation and conflict among competing groups as they sought to profit from gold discoveries. The Hudson’s Bay Company sought to gain and retain control of the resource by incorporating it into its trade and by excluding outsiders. But miners arrived by the thousands, and the Company was forced to try to regulate miners’ access to the resource. However, as a group, miners were cohesive and self-reliant; they had little need for outside intervention. The Hudson’s Bay Company was unable to regulate them while pursuing its own ideas of profit. The British government subsequently revoked the Hudson Bay Company’s trade license, and proclaimed British Columbia a colony. In efforts to impose its own ideals of order on the gold fields, the government introduced a new colonial administration which, following a chain of command extending from London through Victoria to the Fraser, sought to organize the population in the spaces of the Fraser Canyon. Government authority was reinforced by the legal system’s flexible responses to the diverse population’s activities it deemed illegal. By studying the interactions of natives, miners, traders, administrators, and the legal system, I have attempted to untangle the ways in which white men negotiated their particular racist and masculinist ideals and sought to impose them in the spaces of the Fraser Canyon. 111 Table of Contents Abstract ii List of Figures v List of Tables vi Acknowledgements vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2: THE HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY AND THE GOLD TRADE 10 Precedents 11 Roots of the Fraser River Rush 16 From Managing Resources to Managing Miners 24 The Hudson’s Bay Company and the Colonial Office 26 CHAPTER 3: MINING MEN IN THE FRASER CANYON 33 To the Fraser River Mines 35 The Mining Life 44 Mining Men 49 Miners and Women 52 Pardners’ 58 Miners’ Rules 63 Racism 67 Miners and “Indians” 72 Economy and Trade 72 Annoyances and Belligerance 73 Indian Wars 76 Conclusion 80 iv CHAPTER 4: GOVERNMENTS’ DESIGNS FROM LONDON TO LYTTON 82 London’s Colony 83 A Governor’s Colony 89 A Gold Commissioner’s Beat: H.M.Ball at Lytton 92 Management of People: the institutionalization of race 95 Managing Land: the creation of town and country 110 Transportation: connecting the dots 115 From E.B. Lytton to Lytton B.C. 120 CHAPTER 5: THE LAW AND “THE STATE OF THE COUNTRY” 128 Justice or Peace? 131 The Law’s Diplomat 138 Case Studies 142 Conclusion 153 POSTSCRIPT 155 BIBLIOGRAPHY 159 V List of Figures Figure 1. British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest, 1858. 2 Figure 2. Winter Villages in the Fraser Canyon, ca 1850. 5 Figure 3: Hudson’s Bay Company Mainland Forts and Trails. 12 Figure 4. J.D. Pemberton’s Map of Cross-Continental Routes to the Fraser. 37 Figures. Miner’s Map to the Fraser River. 38 Figure 6: Mining Bars in the Fraser Canyon. 42 Figure 7: Mountain Roads. 43 Figure 8: To the Diggings and from the Diggings. 64 Figure 9: C.O. Phillips’s Impressions of the Fraser Canyon. 69 Figure 10: Reconnaissance of Fraser’s River (for Parliament’s use). 84 FIgure 11: Leverett Estabrooks and Company’s Claim. 100 Figure 12: Cameron’s Flat. 102 Figure 13: Town plan of Lytton, 1860. 112 Figure 14: Lytton, ca. 1868. 113 Figure 15: Detail of the Waggon Road Survey, 1861. 118 Figure 16: Thompson River Survey. 119 Figure 17: A Section of the Waggon Road. 120 Figure 18: Judge Begbie’s Travels. 141 Figure 19: Topographic maps of the Fraser Canyon, 1990. 158 vi List of Tables Table 1: Gold Commissioner Ball’s Quarterly Reports for the Lytton Disctrict, October 1858 to June 1860. 94 Table 2: Travaillot’s “List of the different places where water’s priviledges have been recorded, and the number of of mining licenses to be collected therein,” April, 1859. 96 Table 3: H.M. Ball’s List of Mining Bars, Lytton District, May 1860. 97 vii Acknowledgements A lot of people helped me to write this thesis. I thank the following in particular. Cole Harris put a lot of effort into reading my work, but always made me feel it was my own. I am grateful for his patience and criticism. Geny Pratt helped me rethink some early thoughts on this project and offered useful comments on the final draft. Dan Clayton and David Demerritt were helpful and interested from the moment I started my research. They listened to, and argued with, many versions of my ideas. Brett Christophers read endless drafts and was supportive through the worst of it. Kate Boyer, Michael Brown, Natalie Jamieson, and Lynn Stewart commented on particular chapters and were friends throughout. Heather Jenkins and Leanne Martinson provided different perspectives, and, along with the above friends, always knew when it was time for dinner or a beer. I would not have started this project without the encouragement of (all!) my parents, and I could not have completed it without their emotional and financial support. 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The foundations of the Fraser Canyon gold rush were laid in 1856 when gold was found in the territory of the Ntlakapamux and within the jurisidiction of the Hudson’s Bay Company monopoly for trade with natives in what is now mainland British Columbia (Figure 1). The Hudson’s Bay Company pursued a gold trade with natives and tried to limit miners’ interference, but in the spring of 1858 thousands of men travelled from California to the lower Fraser to mine gold. Their searches drew them northward into the Fraser Canyon, the densly populated territory of the Stolo and Ntlakapamux. Later that summer the British Colonial Office revoked the Hudson’s Bay Company’s license, proclaimed the colony British Columbia, and began to install institutions for the management of the region. I first became interested in the Fraser Canyon when, like many other travellers, I was stunned by its magnificent scenery. While I remain impressed by the turbulent river, the steep canyon walls, and the high, isolated benches, I was fortunate to have been shown remnants of native villages and other traces of a pre-colonial native world which surround the current highway. More fortunately, I have been surrounded by people who would not let me ignore the indicators of the colonial past and present, in Indian Reserves and road side monuments, along with my own implication as an individual and as a geographer. This thesis, then, is about natives, the gold discoveries, the Hudson’s Bay Company’s gold trade, the arrival of miners, and the colonial administration put in place to (re)create “British Columbia.” It is, in other words, about gold rushes, colonialism, and white men within the Fraser Canyon during the late 1850s and 1860s. From the first guides to the gold fields published in 1858 through to recent histories, the Fraser Canyon gold rush has been considered one of the starting points of British Columbian history. As British Columbia’s favourite foundation myth it has received much superficial attention, which has served to render static centuries long _______ ff.3 4 r -j HRç - ,f :; : QE \}/////J;f / 2 “ ‘ i, I [J J51 —f r: 14——— ---_-_ — _: - S 1,\’’ J-’ : i_F S i zE I )1I ‘ \1%l —I--- ‘ I 1II# j ‘ ‘- ;•_ . i ‘\l/ &/‘ ZW’m i _ ‘W4 ‘ atwe UWUS % - jnFy& Iif - ‘7 . Q”’ ) ! ‘ :: - • — c booêS4o: I Dog ;4,liI:s\\\\ , (\ o \ -1 1, - - ‘- L ç oi ft % 4 t b-w- ] n :: , i _(. F 1 E :;: . 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