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DISCLAIMER: the Enclosed Document Is DISCLAIMER: The enclosed document is the outcome of a student project, and does not necessarily represent the views of Sea Education Association or any other individuals referenced or acknowledged within the document. DISCLAIMER: This document is the result of a student project and does not necessarily represent the views of Sea Education Association. A MARINE PROPOSAL FOR THE SARGASSO SEA DISCLAIMER: This document is the result of a student project and does not necessarily represent the views of Sea Education Association. A Marine Management Proposal for the Sargasso Sea Sea Education Association, 2015. Image: © Solvin Zankl. DISCLAIMER: This document is the result of a student project and does not necessarily represent the views of Sea Education Association. Acknowledgements The 2015 SEA Semester: Marine Biodiversity and Conservation class (C-259) would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Tiffany Smythe for her mentorship, dedication, and encouragement throughout the entire process of researching and writing the Marine Management Proposal. We would like to extend a special thanks to Dr. Amy Siuda for contributing feedback on our Management Proposal from a scientist’s perspective. Additionally, we would like to thank Dr. S. Robbie Smith, Dr. Tundi Agardy, Dr. Kristina Gjerde, Dr. Craig McDonald, Christopher Flook, Dr. Tammy Trot, Dr. Kevin Mayall, Noah Chesnin, Dr. Merry Camhi, and Dr. Erik Olsen for sharing their knowledge about marine policy, governance, and stakeholder involvement with us. To Capt. Jason Quilter and the crew of the SSV Corwith Cramer, thank you for giving us the chance to see policy in action in the Sargasso Sea. Finally, we thank Sea Education Association for the incredible opportunity to conduct marine policy research and to apply this research to conservation of the Sargasso Sea, a practical and timely issue. Cover images: © Solvin Zankl. DISCLAIMER: This document is the result of a student project and does not necessarily represent the views of Sea Education Association. Table of Contents 1. Table of Contents………………………………………………………………….………………..i 2. List of Figures and Tables…………………………………………………………………..….iv 3. Executive Summary………………………………………………………….……..……………..1 4. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………....5 5. Scientific Background……………………………………….........………….……………..…..8 I. Physical Geography II. Bathymetry and Geology III. Primary Production IV. Ecology 6. Governance and Stakeholder Context………………………..………………………...…13 I. Introduction to the Legal Framework for the Sargasso Sea II. Conservation and Management of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: International Treaties III. Voluntary International Cooperation: The Hamilton Declaration IV. Governance of the Bermudian Exclusive Economic Zone V. Who Cares about the Sargasso Sea?: A Stakeholder Context VI. Methods of Marine Management: Marine Spatial Planning and Marine Protected Areas VII. Challenges Associated with the Implementation of MSP and MPAs in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction VIII.Conclusion 7. Biodiversity and Conservation Targets and Priorities……………….……………...24 I. Introduction II. Identifying Conservation Targets III. Area Assessed for Identification of Conservation Targets IV. Habitat Conservation Targets V. Sargassum: the Golden Floating Rainforest VI. Seamounts: Deep Sea Islands of Biodiversity VII. Other Ecosystem Services Provided by Sargassum and Seamount Habitats i DISCLAIMER: This document is the result of a student project and does not necessarily represent the views of Sea Education Association. VIII.Species Conservation Targets in the Pelagic Region IX. Stakeholders and Relevant Management Bodies X. Conclusion 8. Stressors on Biodiversity and Natural Resources……..………………………..…….38 I. Defining and identifying stressors II. Established and emerging approaches to identifying stressors III. Major Stressors of the Sargasso Sea IV. Climate Change V. Plastic Pollution in the Sargasso Sea VI. Invasive Species VII. Conclusion 9. Fisheries of the Sargasso Sea………...……………………………………………………….53 I. Introduction II. Fishing in the Sargasso Sea III. Fishing in Bermuda IV. Fishing Equipment Used in the Sargasso Sea V. Current State of Fish Stocks VI. High Seas Fisheries Management VII. Bermuda Fisheries Management VIII.Conclusion 10. Maritime Traffic of the Sargasso Sea.………………………………..……………………63 I. Types of Maritime Traffic I. Technology to Track Ships II. Governance Related to Maritime Traffic III. Additional Mechanisms Under the IMO IV. Shipping Stressors and Relating Governance V. Governance Gaps: Implementation and Enforcement of the IMO’s Regulations by Member States VI. Conclusion 11. Recommendations………………………………………………………………………………76. A. Background B. Recommendations I. Management Areas ii DISCLAIMER: This document is the result of a student project and does not necessarily represent the views of Sea Education Association. II. Management Tools and Actions for Designated Management Areas III. Recommendations by Focus 12. Works Cited………………………………………………………………………………………..87 iii DISCLAIMER: This document is the result of a student project and does not necessarily represent the views of Sea Education Association. List of Figures Figure 1. Borders of the Sargasso Sea Alliance Study Area are shown in red (Laffoley et al., 2011). Figure 2. Bathymetry of the Western North Atlantic Ocean, within which lies the Sargasso Sea. The abbreviation “FZ” stands for fault zone (Parson and Edwards, 2011). Figure 3. An idealized depiction of a Taylor column above the top of a seamount. The down-welling of water from the surface towards the seamount, and then the return of these waters to the surface, serves as a trap for plankton and larvae of fishes and invertebrates. This results in their relatively high populations found around seamounts (White and Mohn, 2004). Figure 4. Representation of the maritime boundaries set up by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This includes what part of the ocean each boundary consists of and the different jurisdictional rights a territory has (Arctic Council, 2009). Figure 5. A mat of free-floating Sargassum, afer which the Sargasso Sea was named (Source: University of Southern Mississippi Gulf Coast Research Laboratory). Figure 6. Distribution of seamounts in or near the Sargasso Sea (top) and a computer-generated image of a seamount (botom) (Source: top: WHOI; botom: NOAA). Figure 7. Lef: Sargassum swimming crab atached to Sargassum. Right: Sargassum pipefish hiding amongst the blades of Sargassum (Source: Solvin Zankl/ National Geographic). Figure 8. Map of Sargassum distribution in the fall and spring (Source: SEA). Figure 9. Bathymetry map of the Sargasso Sea, showing seamounts that reach within 2000m of the surface in green (Source: SEA). Figure 10. Atmospheric CO2 since 1960, measured in Mauna Loa, Hawaii. The curve shows a steady increase in atmospheric CO2 coupled with an increase in dissolved CO2 and subsequent decline in ocean pH (Source: NOAA PMEL Carbon Program). iv DISCLAIMER: This document is the result of a student project and does not necessarily represent the views of Sea Education Association. Figure 11. Plastic concentration in the Sargasso Sea. This figure depicts the average concentration of plastics within the Sargasso Sea. Data was obtained using data from satellite imagery, drifers, reanalysis winds, and hydrographic profiles. The black line indicates the contour of the 10-year mean surface circulation. Graphic reprinted with the permission of AAAS (Law et al. 2010). Figure 12. Discharge provisions of MARPOL Annex V. This chart depicts a simplified version of the discharge provisions of the revised MARPOL Annex V. This figure was taken from MARPOL and is only to be used as a reference, not a substitute for the comprehensive provisions in the revised MARPOL Annex V or the guidelines for implementation. The MARPOL Annex V revisions outlined in this table entered into force on 1 January 2013 (Source: IMO 2013). Figure 13. Invasion curve depicting costs associated with managing invasive species based on time (Source: North American Invasive Species Network). Figure 14. Ships take on ballast water to make up for lost weight while not carrying cargo. This results in the intake of organisms from one area (1) when cargo is loaded ships then discharge ballast water, this results in the output of organisms into new environment (3). This exchange of water is the main vector of introduction of non-native and invasive species (Source: NOAA). Figure 15. Sightings of lionfish from 1985-2014 (Source: Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission). Figure 16. Map showing spatial distribution of catches in the Sargasso Sea during the year 2006. The red areas indicate landings of greater than 100 tons, while dark blue indicates a value of zero. Note that Bermuda’s EEZ is almost entirely dark blue. This figure was provided by the Sargasso Sea Alliance (Sumaila et al., 2013). Figure 17. Map showing the Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs) in the Sargasso Sea. (Source: SEA). Figure 18. Map constructed with data from the Automatic Identification System (AIS), showing traffic volume along established shipping routes (Kaluza et al., 2010). Figure 19. Map constructed with data from the World Meteorological Voluntary Observing Ships’ Scheme (VOS), showing traffic volume along established routes (NCEAS, n.d.; Halpern et al., 2008). Figure 20. Map showing shipping routes and volume of traffic (Source: SEA). v DISCLAIMER: This document is the result of a student project and does not necessarily represent the views of Sea
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