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Kurds Between Sovereign Violence and Bio-Political Care: Healthcare Provision in Hakkâriduring the AK Party

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Kurds Between Sovereign Violence and Bio-Political Care: Healthcare Provision in Hakkâriduring the AK Party Kurds between Sovereign Violence and Bio-Political Care: Healthcare Provision in Hakkâri during the AK Party Era By İlker Cörüt Submitted to Central European University Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Supervisors: Professor Ayşe Çağlar Professor Prem Kumar Rajaram CEU eTD Collection Budapest, Hungary 2015 CEU eTD Collection i Statement I hereby state that this dissertation contains no materials accepted for any other degrees in any other institutions. The thesis contains no material previously written and/or published by another person, except where appropriate acknowledgement is made in the form of bibliographical reference Budapest, January 31, 2015 CEU eTD Collection ii ABSTRACT This thesis aims to contribute to the discussions around the complicated role and value of social policy in nation-building processes in multi-ethnic contexts. The particular issue explored to achieve this goal is the striking improvement in healthcare provision in Hakkâri, a small Kurdish province in the southeastern corner of Turkey, between 2002 and 2013 and the unforeseen effects of this improvement. This thesis reveals that the on-going improvement in healthcare provision in Hakkâri is part of a nationalist strategy implemented in the whole of the Kurdish region by the conservative AK Party. This is a strategy committed to defending the unity of the nation against the ethno-political claims of the Kurdish movement. This strategy diverged from the usual Turkish stance towards Kurds even if it still maintained the usual ―one nation‖ narrative. Compared to the violent policies and inadequacy of social services in the pre-AK Party period, the general Kurdish policy of the Turkish state between 2002 and 2013 was less violent, more inclined to recognize some Kurdish claims, and, most importantly, relied on the effective use of social policy instruments, as can be followed in the statistics concerning public investment and social assistance. This thesis asks why this strategy, the ―politics of service‖, evidently failed to liquidate the Kurdish movement. How is it possible that the Kurdish movement has reached the peak of its power in a period characterized by less violent and more benevolent policies? The answer is given through a detailed analysis of an everyday form of ethno-political resistance in Hakkâri. Even though Hakkârians have been able to access a more or less adequate health service in Hakkâri thanks to the policies and investment introduced after 2002, patient dissatisfaction in Hakkâri still persists as a mass phenomenon as if nothing has substantially changed in this area. This seemingly irrational situation, this thesis argues, is a daily symptom of an ethno- political resistance to being interpellated by the AK Party as citizens-in-the-making expected to compare past and present, realize the progress and thus appreciate the current quality of healthcare provision by tolerating some persisting shortcomings. This thesis reveals that the history of state-citizen relations in Hakkâri, that is, the firmly established conviction on the part of Hakkârians that their lives count for little in the eyes of the Turkish state, and the strong egalitarian insistence on ―here‖ and ―now‖, which is not tolerant of any ―in the making‖ talk, are two factors that prevent the majority of Hakkârians from subscribing to any transition narrative. This thesis makes three main contributions to scholarly research. First of all, it is an ethnographic contribution to studies on the nationalism-social policy nexus through fieldwork consisting of semi-structured interviews with medical specialists and GPs, unstructured interviews with members and administrators of NGOs, illness and treatment narratives of patients, questionnaire research implemented in family health centers, and field notes and participatory observations. Combining its findings with insights provided by anthropology of policy, post-colonial theory, nationalism studies, and critical social policy analysis, this thesis confirms that the use of social policy for the containment of ethno-political challenges is not a CEU eTD Collection straightforward issue. Secondly, underlining the central role of social policy in contemporary Turkish state-nationalism and diagnosing patient dissatisfaction in Hakkâri as a symptom of an ethno-political resistance, this thesis reveals the necessity to revise the tendency in Turkish-Kurdish studies to identify Turkish nationalism with sovereign violence and Kurdish resistance with political unrest. Finally, this thesis does not content itself with matching evidence to available concepts and puts forward some new concepts, like ―being of nation,‖ ―becoming of nation,‖ ―indirect state racism,‖ ―production of space as endurance‖, in the hope of enriching the toolbox of scholars of nationalism studies. iii Table of Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Research Objective.............................................................................................................. 5 1.2 Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................................... 7 1.2.1 Suggestions and Limits of the Literature on Everyday Nationalism ....................................... 8 1.2.2 The Analytic of Nation of State-Nationalism: Being and Becoming of Nation ..................... 11 1.2.2.1 Being of Nation or Nation in Homogenous and Empty Time ....................................................... 11 1.2.2.2 Becoming of Nation or “Nation in Heterogeneous Times” .......................................................... 13 1.2.2.3 Further Deductions on “Becoming of Nation”: Resistance .......................................................... 15 1.2.2.4 Further Deductions on “Becoming of Nation”: Assimilation/Nation-Building ............................. 16 1.3 Field ................................................................................................................................. 21 1.3.1 Hakkâri: Basic Characteristics ............................................................................................... 21 1.3.1.1 Physical Geography and Location of Hakkâri: Province of Mountains ........................................ 21 1.3.1.2 Political Geography and Location of Hakkâri: A History of Displacement .................................. 22 1.3.1.3 Village Evacuations, Urbanization and Infrastructural Problems ................................................. 24 1.3.1.4 Economy....................................................................................................................................... 26 1.3.2 Fieldwork and Methodology ................................................................................................ 27 1.3.2.1 Methodological Limits of the Research: Not-So-Militant Anthropology ..................................... 33 1.3.2.2 Methodological Limits of the Research: Abstractions and Stigmatizations ................................. 36 1.4 Chapters Overview ............................................................................................................ 39 CHAPTER 2: The Kurdish Question, Sovereign Violence and Hakkâri ................................ 43 2.1 Historical Background of the Kurdish Question .................................................................. 43 2.2 Sovereign Violence and Incapacity of the State .................................................................. 46 2.3 Sovereign Violence and Official Discourse on Kurds: Dehumanization of Kurds ................... 57 2.4 Sovereign Violence in Hakkâri ............................................................................................ 61 2.4.1 Collective Punishment in Hakkâri or Rendering All Citizens into Suspects .......................... 61 2.4.1.1 Illegal Border Trade and Collective Punishment of Border People .............................................. 63 2.4.1.2 Collective Punishment as Emergency Rule .................................................................................. 69 2.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 76 CHAPTER 3: Indirect State Racism, Healthcare Provision and Hakkâri .............................. 78 3.1 The Concept “Indirect State Racism” .................................................................................. 80 3.2 Indirect State Racism towards Hakkâri: Not an Ethnic Policy ............................................... 83 3.3 Poverty of Healthcare Provision as Indirect State Racism towards Hakkâri .......................... 89 3.3.1 Health Workforce in Hakkâri ................................................................................................ 89 3.3.1.1 From the Foundation to the Early 1960s: The Era of Absolute Deprivation ................................ 91 3.3.1.2 From the mid-1960s to 1981: The Era of Socialization and Rotations of Specialists ................... 92 3.3.1.3 Compulsory Service of Doctors and the “Golden Age” of Health Workforce in Hakkâri: 1981- CEU eTD Collection 1995 ......................................................................................................................................................... 97 3.3.1.4 Back to Rotation System: 1995-2001 ........................................................................................
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