pJ 4%, . rr DOCURSOT RESUME
4 BD 163 497 ,CS 204 569 (, AUTHOR Elia * Stephen O.
TITLE American Newspaper Editorials or the Vietnam War: kn . Experimental Appro'ach to Editorial Content Analysis. r PUB DATE Aug 78
NOTE , 14.; Piper presented at the Annual Meeting of the. association for Education in Journal3sm,(61st, Seattle, Washiington, August 13-i6, 1478)
BOBS' 041' PlusAPoitage. MY- $0.83, HC -$2.06 A.1 DESCEff10 Changing Attitudes: vontent knalysis Journalism: *Newspapers;. Political Attitudes;.*Press Opinion; liar IDENTIFIERS *Fatima War .1- ABSTRACT . The editorials abbut fodr Vietnam -War news events. that appeared in five newspa,pers were examined for content,, toner page placement, and length to discover what trends in editorial coverage.occurred. The 131 editorials that were examined appeared in the "New York Times(" the ',Lod Angeles Times,"'-the "Will Street': Journal," the "Chicago Tribune," and the."Washingftujost" within 21 days of the f011owing news. events: the Tonkin Gulf the 1968 Tet Offensive,' President Nixon's 1969 hVietnamization" announcement, ' and the fall of Saigon. Five major firndings resulted from,the.content analysis (1) The overall tone of the editorials was' antiwar. J2) During the ,periods studied, the "New ro'rk Times" was, consistently antiwar while the "Wall Stieet Journal" treiged from antiwar to proww and the other. three newspaperstrendedfrom prowir to antiwar. (3) .The newspapers were willing to take definite stands during the . period-s under study.(4) -The' paper that most clearly appeared 4;)" hive changed its editorial opinion was the "Los .Angeles Times. "' (5) he "New York Times" and the "Washington Post," both generally prolific in, their editorialb throUghout the periods-studied, inexplicably .presented fewer items on the Tet Offeniive than the other papers. The study ale) established the usefulness of the basic "Statistical Package for the Social Sciences" (MS) in newspaper content ' .analysis. (RL)
****************************,1***************************************** * ReprodudtIons supplied by ERRS are' the best that can be made * * from the original document` ********************************v*******************,****************** U S Oa PAITMENT OF NE ALM EDUCATION aWaLPARa NATIONAL INSTITUTE Oi. EDUCATION TH45 DOCUMENT HAS SEEN REPRO. Theory and Met hodaogy OUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED PeOm THE PERSON OR oRGANgATIoNomoiN MONO liPOINTS OF view OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE- SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION POSITION O POLICY
AMERICAN NEWSPAPER EDITORIALS ON THE VIETNAM WAR: AN EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH TO EDITOilia CONTENT ANALYSIS
.BY iL '1 Stephen N. Elias Graduate Student
S 'Ne California State'University, Northridge
'10ERM*SION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED I Stephen N. Elias.
TO THE EDUCATIONAL. RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER tem) ANO . g USERS Of THE ERIC SYSTEM '4 g. C .
I
Presented to the Theory and Methodology Division, Association for Education in Journalism Annual Convpntion, geattle, Washington, August, 1978.
: 1
4 tr.' if
\s:0 The author wishes to acknowledge the guidance of Dr. Tom Reilly, Department of Journalism, California State University, Northridge, in the research and preparation of this stpdy. . N ' -*. . .. 6 2 '.
A i : 1 Introduction
''Some of the correspondents who were there at the end wr books about
it, but I was not among theriv-The group to which I belonged-was so rsodally
traumatized that we have never written a line about Indochina since 1,1
. 1 1975." Malcolm Browne; winner o t Pulitzer Prize in 1964 for his coverage
of the Vietnam war for the Associated Press, wrote this harsh commentary. It
. is representative of the many mixed reactions to the performance of the American
''press during the Vietziam war. dust as harsh have been some of the charges
2 leveled against the American news media in connection with coverage of the war:
While such charges may, in fact, be founded on emotional or political premises,
the journalistic profession should respond to them with t. sound appraisal of A 4 actions chiring the. charged period of American military involvelent in Southeast Asia. Such an appraisal--to successfully evaluate criticism directed against
. ,
' _the media--khould be based, on an objective methodology--one which cannot be con-
,strited as merely-a self-serving ,strategy of defensiveness.
a 1. - . The present p udy was designed to test one such methodology. While
limited in scopd, it nevertheless points out a direction which others might
follow. The purposes of the study were (1) to seek trends in editorials of j,
! i#lecfed Aieiidan newspapers regarding the Vietnam war;(2) to test the applica-
. 4 :144
bility of the basic Statistical Packagefor-the Social Sciences (SPSS) to this 1 . . 4 type-of'researchl (3) to, design a modelfor similr future studies using SPSS . 9 that could be' accomplished by non-technically oriented individuaii.who, never-
.theless, aesited to use the computer asan aid. tk ,' I methodology r
, . This study isacompUter-'aZaed analysis of the editorial content of s selected American newspapers during the period of this country's most active
e e". -2 -
4 . ,illIvement in Vietnam, 1964te.' 1975. ,Using quantitative methods, it traces
..., 4 "t . 4 and examines editorial trends aq they developed from generally pro-war at the . .r time of the Vorth Vietnamese attack on.the,Idestrolor Maddox .in the. Tonkin.
Gulf (1964) to almost universally anti-war when Saigon.was'alandoned in 1975.
A The editorials hive been analyzed to determine those words and themes which went into the'4.assifyingi.of go item aa.pro or anti -war. In order to produce a manageable set o'f data, it was decided to examine the editorials of five
. , major newspaperg'regardingfbileignbficant incideOs during the period under
. . examination. . .. - t *': , _ The New York Times, WailStreet Journal', Chicago Tribune, Washington .. . I Met,lind Los Angeles Times were:selected because of their wide geographic
.. -1. 3, colerageand their positions TO,er'llaryingdegrees cifthepoliticalspectium.t 4'1 . s.
. . ',--.4(: I' . j *,
. The events examined-are the Tonki Gulfsinoident (Aug.:2,'1964), the . . -- -. ._ - . 4. 1968 Tet offensive (Jan. 31; 1968),, president Nixon's 1969 HVietnanization".
0 announcement(May'14, 1969) the,and fall of Saigon (April 30; 1975).. These, were chosen because cot:their-0vall importance to American involvement in the,. 4 Vietnamese.Pwar.
In order to establish a workable' base of data from which,to analyze .. reactions of the newspapers to the incidents, thisCpdy has examined edit-or- sw ial reaction for 21 days following each incident, While,thie time period was , arbitrarily chosen in order to accO6edate time limi ions,resparchTdemon-' strated that, except in4the case of the fall of Saigo , editorial oimment. diminished, very significantly after three weeks had elapsed.
s : In all, 131 editofials were examined'add interpreted. )1k total of 23:, . -. variables. were used toevaluate each editorial included in the ptudy. "(see,
, . APpendik.A) The first 10 variables concerned suchitems,as newtpaper name,, 111
.
- t itt A
. r 4 .. w. date of editorial, size oe editorial,.k overall tone, lacement dn. the Op-Ed page, .., , . e' . :. , , 'and number of pro-war, neutral', or Viti-war thenie contained in each editorial.
. . , The use of themes to determine coverall tone wad considered necessary in order
to more objectively determine each editorial's content.A theme could consist
of a phrase, a sentence, or one or more paragraphs. The, most significant criter-lr-
. 'ion iii the determination of the parameters of a themd was the ability to infei
a definitive tonal meaning friar it. This criterion was also used in evaluating r . « I content. h . 411114Theremaining 13 variables consisted of a 'group of words,' preselected A
before analysis of .the editorial's content and tone. No attempt was made to
count the number of times that a selected word appeared in an editorial or to
quantify grammatical modifiers used with the word. O.R. Holsti, in Content Ana-
l ysis for the Social *Sciences and Humanities,states tbiat "to detemine+ that to
editorial used the term 'freedom' X number of times is a meaningless finding by
itself, as is any other unrelated fact about communication content."5 He goes
. . on to state, however; that if one chooses certain words in advance--words thatl
contain fonee and meaning - -and then checks to iee4if they appear onot, infer-
ences may be dtawn. The selected words for this study are listed in Appendix A
and'were applied to the editorials in question in the manner suggested by:Helsti's
m odology. In choosing these words, it was anticipated that they would appear
. $ .
' .,, wth considerable frequency as they are words commoily used in connection with
a wartime set of circumstances.
After coding, the information was tabulated anecross-tabulated using
SPSS. This.was used since one of the objectives of the study was to determine. % the adaptability of this package to a newspaper editoriat content analysis. Sta-
tistical si$1.41cahbe was noted on very few of the cro s-tabulations but the -T lik
c;
I 111. 47 '
inforMation did indicate many Oscriptivevariations: ,These, variations will bet'- -. the subject oZ the following Analyses anddiscussions. N. . ,
. , I "Findings
Table below indicateshow,the editorials were spread petween th6.
6 incidents:
Table .1 ..44 4: f: BieakdOwn of Editz$Newspaper and Incident, 4
Total- Tonkin 1968 Tet Nikon's Viet- Fall-of
. %Culf Offeniive namization "'Saigon
Chicago, Trib. 25 19.1% .6 24%.0% 5''20.0% 3 12.0%' 11 '44.0% Wall St. Jour.17 13.0% '2 11.8% 1 5.9% 4 23.5% 10 58.8% L.A. Times 17 13;0% 4 23:54' 4 23.5% '2 11.8% 7 41.2% 3117% NA. Times. . 41 31.3% U.26.8% -5 . 12.2% 12,,24.3% 13: Wash. Post 31'23.7% 11.35,5% 2 6.5% 9' 9. 29.0%4 . . . -,- .-771
4/31 --34 =17 30 I
1015% = 260% 13.9%-. 22.9% le %
56dt-cc: SPSS'fraguencies run on all editorials in thestudy. 1 . ; . : 41. , 49 it .:Looking atthe five newspapers as asgrodp, 4 (8 7..00: 6fthe editor-
4 , .. . ea. ials dealt wi6,the three incidents other than the te6-offensive. Examination
. t I . ..,. , of ,theindividual: newspapers' "scores,!' And the editorials themselves was ,, _ I $ . , . . . :vecessary in order'to detereline,the reason for- an -apparently$ lesser interest
. in spelt an important happening. While not anticipated, t the commencemenfrok the
tudythe answer to thisquestionrepresented its first major find ihs. The . 4 4 .. ,.. / st... 'I cause' of the skewed number offeditbrials.,which dealt)with the Tet.. offensiveis' , . es 'found by looking at the New Yorkprs add the WashingtonPost.
, 7 . : , V t ,$ $ While these. two papers accounted for more than 55%.ofthe total cover- . .k ;-,, ., . . , . age sampled (Table 1L:the combined total,of seven editorials dealing with Tet . . e. - ...... , 1 4 .
.. a -a ., --s,. ,e.7 - t _ ..''''N . , . 1. . P. =.1 ' ." 4 ' .. . 4 . . :: i 5. 04 LA \ r , t 41'. 5 1.? thatoif the Pati:InmaitOrial474 ii3bl. /both seguedto Ekel ' 14 SA. P 4 1 that offettfm4.Vs a: last.Communist.4Pusb.,,pribr to beginning. peace negptia 4 I 4 .,.44,7 , tiOhs.pi an 4'n° to, e;44 ;the offensive as"furthe;-T. . v t .. w, ,,,.; . . x.;.4.. f t f . 9, .. : . 1 I A,' proof,..df, tho imstatxons of Ameicari.?o;tib. iii"s4."7 ,. . .. . 4,, tft 1:furger stated that e . . kt .., 1, i.' , e . . r s'4 4.4. ...". ; la % « ; 't. '. k .4.' .1: r .., the, 'of reni 'e 'cOild the worle.of ail enemy forcewhole,ncrale is- "sinking j+ . , not ...... I 4 f i .. .1,7,-:- ...;,-- . .4 ' '',", '..% % 4 ..,. .. , A : ':' : , .. * : fait.tt'phat.tifeUnited,States could fil'a 1741y Jla,e said to be "winni,ngk" 'and-,.that sub 9 . : b 6 ''Je. stantiall3P"#ore troips. thai theAdminfstration (had) yet.ladmitted" would be,ill' ' . , 4. fs, 4 :.reguired.th 1;rder'4 a "clear-cut mili:taryvictory."4 4 4 The Tost's" first editorialonsetwas definitely.More hawXisht.than 4 '9. 'the Tines'. !While warning thit talk of an invasion in?the- col t,ext of ktbOr Viet ' .4't Going atOacks was dangerous, possibly sounding like .tra.prelude propbsals --, .. - for 7.'0. ' 4 N e , 4 4'1 A 1; 1' ofretili.ation," the«Posi wept on tostatethaemerican military ,officials had,,,, . 9 ...... 7,4 :i: . . _ ...... ,,,,c . 4 t ,,, best be thinkag of a' different emphalis in their actions than simply. "attrition . . . . :1-4.. 4.'e . y a 49 .1.: ',Tr. of enemy forces in th& hinterlands,".possibly "a modilieq. more' seleatiVe search-, 4 . 1-; . 9 ..v and-destroy policy" The paper cohludied that- te suggested alternatives had .-, . "been advanced publicly...by responsiklemen" .butwere unlikely to get a full* . hearing whilewe "aredetermined to find enemy failuresirk'. yhOrethe ...4 0% 4 enemy,by itsownknowndefinitionof its objectives, finds success. . . 9. The other editorialrun the. Post dnring:the selected test p4iiod . 4 le 4 was onFeb. 3, 1968. It Wasdefi 7itely prorwar' in tone;suggesting, the . UnitedSt4es giveno oonsidefationto,a dessation of itsbombing .at.tacfcsof the\ 99 North while "the. enemyis engaged'in'a 'greatoutburst of attacks all °vet South - . 9 , , . , 1 . 441 : r .42, Zit Y.% ' ON . ,1! -6t V's , 44% a , , , . 4, , ',;, lk ,,- ,` t a , A '4- ., . ... : --... . 'T le 2 . _ . ./ yrenof cherall Tone' . , 1 - 4 0 fit wspaper by Incident .ciV a 74. . ' A. Total , Tonkin 1968 Tet Nixon's Viet- Fall- ofi *, . 1 Gulf ffensive' namization taigon -, e. --r------,-:-. - , 2,\,--. ,i . - * - Chicago n.11. e . ,.. ,,,,I. Strongil:Snti 2) ) 0)itt. 0)33%- a ,, 0) . 201 0) -4Anti-awar A $ 3) 1) . 1) 1) ./- r Neutral.. 1 .: JD r, ..,;** 8 Q 9, 'Prb-war . 8)4 3) 2) 1) 2)27% % 50: 80% Stpn4ly-"r2 ) 0) 2) 1)67% 1) Wall'Strfet Jo : Strongly anti / 4) 0) 01 3) ' 15% 501 1)106% 25% 30% id J,:::4 Anti-war 2) :0) 1) 0) ";...NeuAral 1-, , 4 la 0 1 2 . Pro-war . 01 0) 3) 5) 41% 0% 0% 2) 5m1A 50% Strongly pro 2) 0) . 0) . 0) 2) -.., ' .- ' --&08 Angeles Times ' Strongly anti,.. 3) 0) :- 0) 0) 24% 01 0% 0% 3)57% Ahti-war * 1) 0) '. 0) 0) 1) . ..,, .N4utral- 6 2. .1 ..,..,.' 0, 3 Rro-war. . 4) 1)100% 2)50% 11 41% 50% 0) 0% 3) Strongly pro . 3) 0) 0) 0) ...4....." . . . * New York Tunes. - - Strongly anti 15) 1`-,) 2)96% , 63% 27% 9)92% 362% Anti -war 11) 2) 21. 2) 5) 41 Neutral 10 .1 3 f4i Pro-war a 4) 1) '2) 12% 1'184 4)) 0% t 1$% Strongly pro 1) 1 0) 0) '8 0) ' Washington Post Strongly anti, 7) .1) 0) 6) 42% 181 0) 33% Anti-war : . 6) . 1) 0) 3) . ' 2) Neutral : 10 5' it-, .4 1 Pro-twar { 6) 2'6% 3) 2)- .1) 0) t . 0).100% 22% Stronglypro p) 2) 1) 1) 0) 4 1- Source': SPSS crosstabulation run. St ong significandi Was noted in Chi-square calculations for thevanti war and neutral editorials. No meaning%1 significance was noted in Chi- quare'calculations relating.. newspaper and incident in an of other "tone" classi- lichtiOne: . . / - ;a * 8 .1( ' - 7- . , . s ., s I . .. 4 ';:"Z ^ t 4 Vietnant.1110The Times, even though printing fiwer than its generally highnun .. ber of items idemonstrated in this study, ran, additional. editorials, Feb.C 2; 4, Im 8, and 11, 1968.All of these were anti -war; two strongly so.....so. While determin- 'e ...... in qUantitatively. whidh of ther newspapers were-responsible fob the -decrease in.. ,,, . - 7.6.. . .- .,5=, . . editorial yo lume asit 55.1ated to 'Pet, the data. c14.sclOS'ed no hard.evidence as to . Is . .. -,-,, , . ...4. thereasonsbehindthis decrease.It isbo'ssible, however, to infer that b6fhbafiT, - -: =.4ce, l 0 ..J these highllScommitted newspapers felt that the Tet,incident hadcausedclearly .. . - . . - . . .., defined political %lines to be draWn-7,linAc upon, which they had expressed heir o' . , . . -...e.,k .. 4 . ,2, !..t:' . editorial -'opinions which required rio-Tgrther clarification. . . 4. . ... ts . i Theecqndma'or finding indicatedby the data in%the_study was. that' -- ...... , . . .. . , 4 theChicago Tribune, theldosAngelesTimesTi andWashingtonPosetrendedfrom . ''. . .1 ' pro-war to anti-war during the .time frame covered' wile the. New YorkTitles .- ,40r ..-.1. ,. l ...... i. was rather Iconsis tently anti-war.The, Wall Stree(--'Journal c, , on. the" dther .hand, 1" ...) ,. ,t -, ran counter to the other papers, going front anti-war to pro:liar.Table 2 indi- : .-., .... , . . , cates that of the fiveVapers,onlythe Journalran'mordclhan 50 %. ofitsedi- ,: the ftib'ilne, storials with a pro-war-tone after fall of Saigon'.The- wfiidh.bad always run more than 50% of its editorial's-on'thejpro-war tide ofthe scoreboard, ,1.-. ran clay three (27%) pro-war item*.The-Los 490.0Timesran .pone for the. ... three-week period beginning April 30, 19.75. , . -.. . .- ' - f, - The third overall trend in the stuay is illustrated by Tab).e 3, which , . a , . , " . analyzed editorial. tone by incident.Tt' shows 71% of the editorialt to have "ro,44, ... ..II . .... been either above or below the "neutral line,('iniaiceting that thenewspapers . , . . _ , were willing -to take- a definite stand.. * : , ' SI . . 1 ' a , , . ' . .. While eliciting the /lowestoverall arr unt of 'comment, TO had.a 4light- . ,. . , k ', ly greater polarizing effect. 'Fewer than 18% of ,t 6 items on thisincidentWere * . *. ... . in the"neutral"column, closely followed, by Nixon's .Vietriamization with20%clas- . .$ 0 . do. -8- sified as "neutral." The Tonkin Gulf incident,with over 38% of its editoria 'classified as "neutral," indicated the greatest amount of indecisiveness'' . 4 -Table 3 Analysis of 01.4rell Tone by Incident' - `4,7e. or: Total Tonkin 1968 Tet Nixon's, Viet-7 Gulf Offensive namization J . ' Strongly anti 31 23.7% 4 11.8% 13 17,,6% 9 -30.01 15,30.0% Anti-war 't,..13 17.6% 4 11.8%' .3e 17.6% 7 23.3% 9 18.0%' Neutial '38 29.0% 13 38.2%IP3 17.61 64 20.0% 16 32.0% Pro -war 27(20.6%' 8 23.5% .6 3 .3% 6 20.0% . 7, 14.0% Strongly, pro 12 9.2% 5 14.4% 2 11:8% 2 6.7% . 3 6:0% . eirimb. 11.1.1, . ' 131. 34 S 17 30 50 = =_- 'sourCe: SPSS frequencies run on all editorials in the study. ik The fourth major finding,:wip tha the overall tone of editorials in the study was anti-war, with 41.3% in this cla sification and only 29.8% graded-as pro-war..Whi/e there wap a definiteupwardtrend in theAterof anti-war editorials asitthe war progressed,further anaiysjg of Tables 2 rand. 3 inAtates . -41h signkfidant variancekby incidentand Indililaual newspaper. The Tet offensive 1 , skewed the trendg in tone as wellas in number of editOrials,.as pointpd out ' above. While the overall trend line in pro-war editorialswelit !down: from 1964 to, 1975, Tet created a jog in 'the curve, with 57/-1% of `the th1144 inci- dent classified as pro-war. 4 The Chicago Tzlibune printed the.liargestoverall number of pro-war items, . with 48%. classified in this category, followed aosely.by Vle wail Street -r, Journal and the Los Ange0s Times, each having 41% of their total editorials. 1 0 I 4 -97 . , rated as "pro-war:" The Washington Post.and*New York Times .printed the lowest . number of pro-war pieces,-with,26% and 12%; respectively "graded in-this category. 111 The New YorkiTimes.was most strongly represented inithe "anti -war" column with 63% of its editorials so classified, followea,by'the PostwitA142% the Journal with 35%, the Los Angeles Times with 24% andaMe ribune with ht. w At the time of the Tet offensive the Post, Tribune andLLos Angeles Times caused askew in the upward trend of anti-war editorials between 1964 and 1975. On Tet, the Post's editorials were.100%pro-war, the Tribune's 80% pro-war, . . and the iod Angeles Times' 50% pro-war. Neither the. New York Times nor the Journal ran any prb -war items on Tet. The fifth major finding was that the`paper which most clearly appeared to.have 'changed its editorial opinion over th4 period of the study was the Los 1 Angeles Times. Ate Tines ran-100% in.theloronwax category on the Tonkin:oulf incident, dropped to 50% zAr Tet and Vietnamiz4tion, and had none so-classified at thetime of the tall of Saigon. Wh)en Saigo4 fell,the Times ran57%.of its items in the anti -war,category, At the other'en4.of the spectrum, the New, York Times showed the least . amount of change,' falling primarily in the'anti4Jar category throughout the .4. 1964 -1975, period. The Washington PoSe, with'the exception oethe skewing effect of the fi Tetffensive, steadily increased its anti-warposition. Just as steadily, it decreased its pro-war items throughout the time period studied. .while the.chicago Tribune's percentage of pro-war editorials decreased, : steadily from ,1968 to 1975, the decline was not a significant one until the , of Saig9n.' unlike the -tither newspapers examined, at no time did the perceritavek Hof anti-War editorials in the Tribune exceed those. classified as.pro-war- k Even with'the fall'of Saigon and the American withdrawal from Vietnam, tile., 1 I . .0' . . Tribune ran dnly one'.(90 editorial classified asas anti -war.. co Comprison;a the, et . 1 Wall Street Joprnal, ranked lowest of the five papers, had three (30 %) of its items classified as anti-war. . . , , . Interestingly, the Journal ran only neutraLor anti-war editorials prior to 1969, 'Alen it began printing pro-war editorials in support ofNixon's /Ionization announcement. This tr*ci was io complete opiositiOnto that of the ocher newspapers studied. In 1969, e Journal was joined by the Los Angeles Times, Chicago Tribune' le OA :Washington Post in 'fling pro-war commentaries. By 1975 the situation . , had changed'and only the Tribune and Journal leaned more toward theaks.than 4 the doves, with the Trib at least consistent with previous editorial policies. . , . The'Journal was troubled by several aspects ofthe American withdrawal . I from Vietnam. it blehed the Soviets for escalation of the war thioug h thpir 11 . sending in of weapons, "in gross isolation of theiaris accords." 'and asked what hadlhappened to detente. The Journal's greatest concern, reflected in two stron4ly pro-war edi- . borials, seemed to be that Agerican withdrawal from Vietnam would lead. the Communist powers to a belief in U.S: military weakness.The editors felt that "freedom of the,seas, and more broadly freedom ofAmericans to travel and' trade 9%4 k j 2 in the world, is one of the bedrocks of Amer ican foreign policy. ---,The Journal . . quoted, gs very encouragihg, Senator Walter Mondale's comment, that, "Itis.veky . . l 4 0., important not to signal the Russioins and others'Wat we're living up.'," and con- . cluded that "...refusal to vote sufficient funds for weapons 'procurement/and . , . . ,research and development, in the none of an eluqive'detente,(was) irresponsible 13 and dangerous." Table 4 emphasizes the newspapersi'gradual but continued trend from 4 $ I 0 AC 1 generally pro-war to genlrally.arfi-war attitudes. Dihg theearlit ;OK \ covered by tat study the number and percentage of9 itorialof a pro war\ / nature which were placed in the lead position declined significantly: inti-\ i \ , / / larly, the number of lead editorialsclassifiedas anti-war grew continuously v ' t . \ overthe periodoethe study. The same effect can'be noted, though moregFad- . . c , 'wally, ion the editorials placed in othai than the leid position._ 4., \ \ . . \ Table,4 indicates that the placement of the items 011 the editorial page . \ t followed a predictable pattern.L440Le itorisle.,and, with.the exception cf , . . the Wall'Street Journal, editorials which were alloted.an entire coluako.00n-. tained the strongest opinions. In no incident outer than the fall'of Saigon. . . did neutral editorials occupy more than i9% of the dead "' space on an editorial . '' . page. 'Saigon's: large number of lead editorials is accounted for by the sect . , . . ' .' 1 4, ,;.., . that.32% of die items On this incident were neutra0n.character. / 4, ( 0 From the data in Tables '5 and 6 it can be conlluded that placement and Itcontent were more'significant indibators of the newipaperi' opinions than iize. Analysis of the relationship between incident, general tone and editorial *size . '* aid notshowAriy meaningful trends, either of .a descriptive Or astatistical pature. This study alfo analyzed specific wd'ids used in the editorials. The ...... ,. t' individual words chosen for examination Csith the contaaagf,...t.his study are 4,.x.0( ^. 1 r . V , indicated Wvarsiables 11 through 23 in App Aix A. Anal Qf the words has . . , . ..., . f I, . be4 limited to thoseword'whichappeared mbst often or whose lact of appear- ahce:was considered noteworthy. The words mostAisOd in the editorialsIstudied *ere communist, peace, JJ "attack, aggression and ne4tiation. Wompunistm was a freely used word, appear- ing in a total of 82 eclito ials (62.6%). While not appc;ring in every, editorial, ... . i ...... . t ,1) .- I ' . . I 1 t the word "communist" was used by every newsrepgr in the context of every incl.- - . , dent. The word had been acceptedin cold wax terminology for many years/ and thus, ...... 4 ' while descriptive of toMething undesirable, was certainly not considered too. ...... e.- 4 . . "hot' to use in the case, of en4undeciared.war. In 'very few of the cases was 4 this word used to describe anything in a favorable 14ghi. . Theword "negotiation",wes used by all of the newspapers and like "com- ../ 4 . ' ) t monist" was used in the%context. oCevOryi incident, -.It was used inp( total of 4 .., ...... ' . r" 31 (3.7%) of the editoiials,end not siorisinglY,ut t of the, tota. of 311 usages, . . .--, , - . . '..---' 15 4.48.40 were by the New York:Times. .0. The word "peace"was Used with relative frequency, appearing'in. 44 (°33.6%) ". , . of the cases. 'Each newspaper'made lise.of the word mote than onceand.it was . . used in connection with:every'incident. The New Yor)C-Times was the champion of. "peace," using. the word 18 (40.8%) s the times that it appeared.The Chicago Tilbuhe was a "slow second:* with only =10 (22.7%) editorial Appearances. ....milft.1._. . . ;.; / .- -r _/ ,As anticipated, the words "aggressiOn" and "attack" were both used ffe-. quentlyeand referred to theeosactiOns takpn by the enemy against bhis nation.1. ,.#nd its allies. "Agres9ion" was used in 24 (183%) of the editorials, while . . . .) ( k "Attack" was used in-013.02.8%)of theitems. Both wolaswereusedby all of . o . , . . the newspapers ih connection-withA each of the incidents: ' The words 1east used_ in the editorials in this study were enemy, Ameri- I can power, ", lose, victory, defeat and escalation. % s"EneY" was used in only 26 (19J8%) of the cases. It is interesting to . \ a .note that while most of the newspa erkonly used this word in the Context of incidents beginn1z with the 1968 Tet offensive, the Los Angeles TiMes used it ., . ' in connection with Topkin Gulf and once aglin in connection with Tat, though not . it lnin any other editorial. 'The other newspapers, perhaps'not willing to )-'4. 14)I .1 ...... - , . # -." . t . .- --13 - . .. . 1 admit at'this juneture that an enemylxisted,4../sed such phrases as "communists" . . 1 . and "North Vietnamese" to describe the Maddox' attackers. . . . . The term ',Americall power" was used in.only 23 of the cases in the study --, . ' . . . (17.6%). When used it generally represented '19th and early 20th centuryjipgoism. , , . . Evdiynewspabdr used the.term. more than once and it appeared within the context' A . dfetchog the incidents.. The New York Times waved the term "naval and air 10-- supremacyof the United States,q,as having been fully demonstrated during.thd Tonkin Gulf Incideni.14The Tribune referred to "American military might" . . -pavingproduced whiteflagIor the first. time in connection with the fall of c - . 15 . . k Saigon, butassured its readers ,that this country had the "military strength" 16 ,to support any decision it might make. . The ,W6rdH"ally" was used with about the' same frequency as was' "enemy," . - with .exception/. that it was used by each .of the newspapers in connection with all of'the incidents. "Ally" was used in 27 (20i61) of the editorials, and based, on its catholic usage, One might deduce that this country could not °. have enemies in an undeclared war, it was permitted to have allies.The word "ally" did nort noout to be as "loaded" a war term as originally expected since . ... 2 several uses referre to the allies of Han 9k. . --. ii - I The prime definition of."win" is to "gaiwthe victorysi4 any contest; . ,17 . . to triumphprevail, succeed.' For.some inexplicable reason, this word was .0 -4. , . . ^ used in only eight (6.1%) of the surveyed editorials. The Tribune Ised.i4 twice t . . . .a.....a,.:-.: . , A ' 1 , . in connection with the Tonkin Gulf.incident, once related to Tet, and once after . e...1;/ the fall of Saigon. The 6' ? Str et Journal used "wid'only in one of its items . , . 1 . 40 . relating to "Tonkin.' Th'e New York Ames referred to the word one time'in the context of-Tet;the74aShingtonPost once each, in reference to Vietnamization. 4 i / . ., . v, , -..--, , and the fall of Saigon; the Los.Angeles Times notn at all, in 17 editorials , ,-. ..., ..., . -14- . over the entire.period. hi, "Winning" was obviously not a popular word with editorial writers, but the word "losing" was even less so. At no 'time during the study didikany of the 0 editorials'contain the word "losing." 'The possibility exists that the editprs . \ , were too literal and failed to use the word becau its first definition is "to bring to destruction; to ruin,"--it is not until the sixth usage that "to fail to gain or..win" is used. It can be supposed that the possibility of this country's A . \ "losin g"an undeclared war was pot:to be considered while the factathat it fered &defeat, a word that was used, was acceptable to thnewspapers -or _Alp:avoidable. N .- 'Victory" was 'a more acceptable word, appearing 14.i 27 (20.6%) of the i . f editor4}.s. Every paper used the.word atleast Orttand it appeared in the ton- .. . . text of,every incident. The word "viotory" was used ia,editorials of every tone . t ...from Wongly anti-war to'strongly pro-war and, was modifiedby such words as . , Communist,*cold war, great and American. It was not as strong a word'as anti- 4. cipated., ". -"--., Whill/the word ",defeat".was used, it was not,used;used with significant fre- - . , .. . . quency, appearing in only 12 (9.2%) of the-editorials. The word As used byl . ITte,,Chicago Tribune-Lin connection with Tet, Vietnamization and the fall of Sai- gr . , . gont1Dy e Journal only concerning Vietnamization. and by the New York Times in five f its items at the time of the fall of Saigon. Th Los Angeles Times and th WashingtonW Post failed to pse "dglaat" at all.The ward "defeat" was used over :almost the entire tonal spectrum, from strongly anti-war to pro-iiar. "Escalation" was another infrequently used word, appeasing in only seven (5.3%) of the editorials. It was,used by the papers as might have been expected in, the framework of thisstudy.when seeking to brand the Com- 1 (.. .1154' , . . , munists as agressors, tp be, repelled and defeated, the Tribune quite appropri- Nc ately referredto their escalation of the war. The New York Times, on the other hand, was equally correct infusing this "charged" word as part of its anti-war' warnings when it spoke of "the constant risk of further costly and dan 18 escalation." Summary_ and Conclusions ! - -The okerall tine of the editorials wasanti -war.. - The Chicago Tribune, the LoilAngiles Times and Washington fp Post trended from pro-war to anti -war during,the time . . frame covered. -.The New York Times Was consistently anti- k. C"..! war. The Wall St.praet Jo urnal trended from anti -war,to - -The newspapers Were willing to take definite stands.during the'pmribd under study.. . - The paper which most clearly appeared to have changed 'its . A ditorialopinion wash the Los Angeles Times. -The New York Times and the Washington Post, both gener- ally prolific in their editorials throughout the period of the study, inexplicably presented fewer items on the Tet offensive than the other papers. . A This study has.examined in $ome detail the editorial coverage of five . newspaper s as it concerned four 44ely'separated incidents during U.S involve- p the Vietnam war. While clearly demonstrating the editorial trends of ous_pewspapers nd the individual aspects (placement, size, tone) which -79r se,trends, he study, by necessity lacked Sufficient data to . these conclusively,. Father investigation must be made with 1ata concerning '.1,7 c Cr, A V * additional incidents occurring at dates in between those examined in this study.. With this study serving as a model, further research, with a lengthened time t . * period following each incident during which editorials could be gathered and . ° analyzed, shoUld prOveveanihgfgl.. J One more point established.by"the study was the practical application of the SPSS package, which is the easiest for a non -technicai-riliiiCherto use, to this specific rproblem of "newspaper content analysis. The 'computer can be an remely useful tool to the social scientist as long as-the machine does not . . . . .1 iidivert attention from the study of people to the study,of number. Many new hypotheses can-be created and old ones corroboratedpr.contradictedwith the , '4 only limitations being coding techniques and the degree of.inventiveness pos- sessed by the Nesearchir. P. ti , 4 $ 40/ *4. 18 V Table 4 Pla6ment.of Editorial, by Tone Tonkin Gulf 1968 Tet Nixon's Fall of Offensive W.etnamization Saigon .4 -I-I 0 . 0 0 4.) . Gt I tr k >, 1.), 4 ,...i.I >1 . >1 $4 to %4 14 ol . ' 15 e-1. $4 P.1 40 k -.4 ..-t os .-I 1). 3 Ki 41) 0. 10 Id CT X 15 M CO 01 X ,Z 40 . 1 4.4. C 1 )4 Z 1 c C 1 )4: X ..I .4.4 1 0 ..I 4-1 I 0%,4 I) .4. .1. 1 .1-$ P 0 14 .0 = 0 4.4 4.I Q m w .r.J. .0 z s, D ),-. I)/ Za m A' tn En. 0. ,-. $ I! SO 4 a 4i/4z 4 40 40 .40 411, dP OP 40 O P dP 4P 40 40 40 0 * de 0 . i c*, irI* 4Ch 01 M* 0 0 0 0 01 CO 1"-- -I VD 01 .-1 1-.. In .01 Lod Editokal -I ri .4. N N ., 44 N -1 tzt r4 01 N -1, .-1 C1 Csi N . .r. Chicago. Tribune 2 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0, .0 00 0 1. 3 2 1 Will Street Journal 0 ..1. "0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 '2 0 '1. 0 2 1 0. :.os Angeles Times 0 .0 0'1 3 0 0 1 2 0 0 0' 0 0 0 3 0 .1 0 0 New York Times.. 0 .2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 '7 2..0 0.-. 0,,,, 2 4 2 2,,, 0 Washington Post 1 :0 1 2 1 0 0 0 2 0. ..0 ',52 2 0 1 '., 5 2 1 0, 0 . 't / 0 0 0 P 0 dP dP de 0 0 0 dP 0 0 0 dP 0 , 0 dP CO CO N 1-- 0 I' V' CO CO I* 1"- 1"- U1 01'0) In tel .40 41 -I ..-4 '-4 .-4 0-4 Other Placement .% o N N .IN 01 IN.e4 .'d' Chicago Tribune 00 0: 10 0 0 .0 2 .1,1 1 0 1 1 . 0 p I 0 gf Wall Street Jour9a1 _100000 '0 0'00 '00000 2.001 2: .- 1,0s .Angeles Timee% 0 0 0 0 O. 0 0 1 0 0 0 0..1 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 Heys York Times 1 -, 1. 0 4 -6 0 l' 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 1 1 .1 p 0 Washington Post 0 1 4 1 0 0 0 O. O. 0 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 "Source:' SPSS-brosstabulation pug-olasi.ng the entire dumber of editorialcases studipd. No meaningful-significance was noted in Chi-square calculatkons. This table incladee- .only 129,of the cases. Two of the editorials'were alloted the entire editorial page. -''Both of these'were run in the Wall Street Journal. The first, ,n Tonkin Gulf, was neutral, and the second, on the Fall of Saigon, was pro -war. in 4 . A A 4' % :%4 e % Table 5 . - . 'Relationship 1'Between Incident and Editorial, Side, by Newspaper .. ', . Tonkin. 1968-Tet Nixon's Viet- Fall of Gulf Offe__-_ nsilia namizitiosL:- Saigon . . . , - . . .. Chicago Tribune t ref 2-5 to 9.0 inches . . - 1 3 A b 2, - . ' l 2 . 1 1390 to 33.5 inche'd 5 ,,,,. ., i . , . -41061" . i . , WaitStreet Journal,'; J , s 2.5 to 9.0 inches' - Ct': -: . 0 0 1 t 0 , 2 . 9.3 to 12.;.9 inches 4. ' 0 13.0 to 3,3:5 A.-hches: 2: A 7 -;°°' 1 re Los Angeles-7*es . P4' t .'2.5 to 9e00.1qche 0 2 0 # 2 9.3,ipD418 inchel 0 1 -5 13.0 t01.5.t.liches 4. 1' 0 I V fewYo0t,Timei 0 2.5%t,o, 9,0 4nches 6 1 7 . 9.1:to 12:8 inches 5 3 6 .13.0 to :33.5 inched 0 . 1 0 Washington' Post 2.S-to 9.0 inches , a a 2 2 ,k 9.3 to 12.8 inches l 0 4 7 13.0 to 3?.5 inches 2 ,2 3, , 0 N. 24C 1. Source: SPSS crosstabulation run. Some significance was noted in Chi square calcylations for the large editorials, relating newspaper and incidoAnt (13.0 to.33.5 inchesr. No meaningful significance was noted ' in Chi-square calculations in either of the other two size iclassifica- tions. 20 /$' , . q 6 ). .- Table 6 ' .! _ . Relationship Setwee4 lincide4 and Editorial 'Skze, by'Newspapar, by. Tona. -2.5'to 3. 1-Inches .,. .. . 4 , '' Tonkin ,1966114:' Nixon's Viet-. Kai!. of -Gulf .0fTensive namitation Saigon . Chicago Tribune . Strpngly Antif 0 0 , .00 ' 0':» - 4nti-war .. 0 0 0'. .. A , Neutral 0 0 . .0 ,,,, Pro -war 1 2 3. ".0 . . Strongly Pro 0 0 , .1) ffig11-Street journal Strongly Anti 0,, i `0 0 1 Anti-war 0 0 0 0 Neutral 1. 0 '0 0 0 Pro-war . 0 0 0 0 Strong* Pro .0, -1 0 0- 0 ,.s.,. . al . Los Angeles Times 111114t Strongly Anti 0 0 0 1 Anti-war 0 0 0 ,0 Neutral 0 1 )) 1 Pro --war `.. 0 1 0 0 Strongly Zro 0 0 0 0 New York Times 1 Strongly Akti . 0 0 4 1 Anti -war* - 1 0 1 3 Neutral, 3 1 0 '2 Pro-war 1 ;:, 0 1 1. Strongly Pro 1 0 0 0 . . Washingtori Post qt Strongly Anti . '1 0 0 2 Anti-war 1 0, 0 0 Neutral 4 0 2 0 Pro-war 2 0 0 0 Strongly Pro',' 0 0 r 0 Source: SrSS cross tabulation run. No meaningful signifiCance was 'noted in Chi-square calculations. 0 -.4. . a *41. At. i ' gable 6 (Coned.) . *' , Relatlohshisp Between Incident and Editori11 131c.'"..*kke ` e A Size, 'by N6wspaper, by Tone . $'.2 e . 9.3 to 12.8 Inches, 4. . . i 1 0 --) . . 'Tonkin 1968 Tet Nixon's thetL Fall of, . . s. Gulf Offensive namization Saigon . ) , . OtioagO Tribune Strongly Anti 0 0 0 Anti-war 0 0 0 Noutrai 0 0 0 0 , Pro-war -0 0 1 Strongly Pro , 0 1. 0 ;t.' .. Wall Street JoUrn ;IP Strongly Anti. d 1 o . Anti-wr 0 0 0 'Neutral 0 4 0 6 Prowar 0 . 0 0 Pro 0 4 0 0 LoslAngeles Times 4 StiOngly Anti 0' 0' Anti-war 0 0 of'. 0' Neutral' 0 0 1 Pro-war .0 0 N Strongly Pro 0 , 0 V4- co New York Times ., Strongly Anti I 2 4 2, _ Anti-war 1 1 2. Neutral O 'i .0 Pro-war O 0 Strongly Pro 0 . 0 0, Washington Post f. 0 4 Strongly Anti 0 4. Anti-war 0 1 2 Neutral o , 1 1 ..,g" Pro-war 1 0 1 0 $ Strongly Pro 0 0 1 0 t. A V 0 Sourci: SPSS cross tabulation run. No meaningful'significancWas Noted in Chi-square calculations. 22 .0 . ...MY 0V 0 . .:r"..4... t ...j ,..:.-\ Table 6 (Cont'd.) keationship Between Ingident and Editofial $ e Size; by Newspaper, by Tone' % 13.0 to 33.5 Inches 4,-. . c . ., .' _. -.. .. Tonkin 1968 Teb_ Nixon's:Viet- Gulf OffendiVe namizatio.: 4 . .,... Ch ago Tribune .. zongly Anti 2 O. .r. 0. ilti -war 0 1 4 '''', .. 0 .:. Neutral % 1 0 :. .,:. ,0!.. Piro -war 2 0 - : .0 , Strongly Pro 4 0 '1 :. ,. 0 . *0. ..: ,...' Wa41 Street Journal Strongly Anti 0 0 0 N' 9 Anti-war 1 0 .1, 1' 0 Neutral . 1 0 111 1 2 x. Pro-war 0 0 2 2 Strongly Pro 0 I 0 0 1 Los Angeles X'imes .. Strongly Anti 0' 0 0 .0 Anti-war 0 .0 0 0 Neutral 0 1 1 IIPP4 Pro-war . 1 1 0. Strongly Pro 3 0 0 o r % 4 NOW York Times .4 ,Strongly Aral 1 0 Anti-war 0 0' 0 r- Neutral 0 O 0 Pro-war 0 "cr O .0 Strongly Pro -0 0 0" 0 . ,. Washington Post Strongly Anti 0 0 Ar)ti -war 0- 2 0 . Neutral ' 1 1 - .0 Pro war : 0 '0 0 .Strongly Pro 1 0 0 o Source: SPSS crosstabvlation run.No meaningful significance WaS poted'in Chi-square/Calculations. 'FOOTNOTES.. fr 1. "Spectrum. A Reporter Looks Back: The CIA and the Fall of Saigon," Washington Journalism Review, January /February, 1978, pp. 18,19. 2 Peter,BraestrUp, Big Story, How theAmerican Press and 'Television. Reported and Interpreted the Ccisisof Tet 1998 in Vietnam and siii tom- -(1.977)-f-Tom-Wicker01-ress',"-419-78)-r--- 3. "The Teri Best Wmerican Dailies," Time, January 21, 1974, pp. 58-61. Several things were used by. Time's "editoks in selecting the "ten best," including efforts to cover national and international news in addition to a paper's own community; entertainment value accom- panying information"; willingness to.risk money and manpower on exten- ded investigations; and the offering of a wide range of divergent opinion in "Op -Ed" pages and dissenting columns. The selection was made on the basis of editorial excellence, and not commercial success, although all of the papers chosen were economically sound. 4. These events are discussed at length in .A.Poole, The United States and Indochina, From PLR to Nixon, (1973),' B.B: Pall, Last Reflections on a War, (19e7), B.B.Pall, Viet-Nam Witness 1953-k (1966) and T.' Hoopes, The Iimitt of Intervention, (1969). 5. '0.R. Holsti, Content Analysis for the So4alSciences and Humanities,' (1969), p. 28. A 6. The statistics have been slightly skewed by the facethat nine (6.9%) O of the editorials concerning the fall of Saigon also included comment on the capture of the American freighter Mayaguez. The Mayaguez inci- dent occurred in April, 1975. Some ot,the nine editorials were heavily - concerned wits the Mayaguez incident but'all of them were connected in some way to the American withdrawal from Vietnam. Editorials which con- ' cerned themse1vis only with-the Mayaguez were omitted from the study. 7.. "Bloody Path to Peace?," New York Times, 1 February ,1968, P. 36. 18. Ibid. 9. "Rationilizing the Vietnam Rampage," Washington Post,,l FebrVary 1968, p. 120. e 10. "Terms for a Bombing Halt," Waihington Post; 3 February 1968, p. Al2. 1 11. "Whatever Happened .to Detentp?,"-Wall Street Journal, 30 April 1975, p. 20. 12. "Retrg the Mayaguez," Wall Street Journal, 14 May' 1975, p.14. . , Italian-Wine. 13: "Rehifiking the litary Budget," Wall Street Journal, 13 May 1975, p. 14. 40 41 14." "Intelligence on Vietnam,'"Mew York Times, 24 August.144, p. 15.. "The Message from 'Koh Tang," Chicago Tribune, 16 May.' 1975, sec. p. 2. .4 . 16. "Defining our"Committments," Chicago Tribune, 18 May 1975, Sec.2, p. 4. -17. Webster's 611egiate Dictionary, Aifth Sdition,-(1B46). 18. "Bloody Path to Peace," New-York Times, 1 Febrtary 1968, p. 36. . . 6 . , . 4 t t 1 1 , rC) .1. 25 4 . rj 6 k AppendlyA Code Book and Variables List.' Variable- . Code I r7777 ,1 ' Case nuMbet three digits 2 Nftwsleager-4 twto '1 .or biChicago Tribune '02.Wall Street Jobrnal :403 _Lop Angelds Times 04sNew York Times so" 05 WashingtOn Post 3 Date of editorial - six digits - should have yeat,plated first. i.e. 690201. (February 2, 1969) or . 4 Indident - two digits. di _Tonkin if Incident 10 02 1968 Tet'Offensive 03 Nixon's Viatnamization Proposal. 04 pall of Saigon Number of ,column inches in Bach editorial - three digits - to be expressed 'in inches and tenths of inches. Eight and one- half inches s4ould be coded as 085; ten- and one-half inches coded as 105. \Overall tone of editorial -:two digits. . 0T 'Strongly anti -war ... 02 Anti-war . .0 Neutral 04 Pro-owar 05Strongly pro-war . Placement. of editorial on'Op -Ed. page - cr 1: two digits. 4i. 01' Entite editorial'columA 02Lead editorial 03Other placement in editorial column e .8 'NuMber of pro -uer themes or phrases .one digit. Numbelf of neutral theMes or phrases digit. 26 <401 L O 3 Variable Code 40. 'Numherof pro-war themes or phrases one digit. 11_,I qa Pre-Selected word list - one digit. 1 Word used in editorial-. 0 Word not used, in editorial . " Enemy. ; 12 Communist. I 13 ''American power (includes such other words , . .or phrases, as: U. air power, U.A. naval and air supremacy, American military, mxght, and world's greatest powerL 14 Peace orpeaciful. "'..* 15 Ally, allies, allied, alliance. L 4 16 Winning or won. 17 Losing,. 18 Victotto.r victors.- 19 Defeat or defeatism. 20 Escalation. 21. Negotiate or negotiation. .01 22 Aggression, aggressor, or aggrgaximegess. 23 Attack. ., t 41 4 , II 1 BIBLIOGRAPHY .404141 Fall, Bernard B. st Reflection8'on a War. Garden city, N.Y.: Doubleday - ' r- & Comp Inc., 1967. Fall,/ Bernard Viet-Nam Witness 2953-66. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1 Holiii4ble R. Content,Analysislor the Sootal".Satencee and Humanities. 4 _Reading, MaS#.: Addison-Weslen PUbliihag-IRla,Peny, 1969; :le . 1/Hoq1460, Townsend. The Limits of Intervention. New York: David McKay & jr \ -Company, Inc., 1964. "-/s. : Peter A. The United Srptes andWochina, From PDR to Nixon. 'Hinsdale, Theliryden'Press, 1973.1 . 2 "TheTen Best American Daiiies,"Time,' January21, 1974; pp. 58-61. ck . i - i Iker,Howard P., "An Hxstorical Note on the Use of Word-Frequency Contxgui- : ties in Content Analysis,"Computers and the Humanities, Volume 8, t ; % 4.193-98. Pergamon Press, 1974.. 7' itlald.L., °Sortie Decision ioirits in the Content Analysis Research 'PrOcess," Studies in Journalism and Communications, study Number Six, June, 1967. School of Journalism, The University of North Carolina at Chapel 'Hill. Unphy, plextelloStone, Philip J., and Smith, Marshill'S., " e General f Inqulrer: Further Developments in a, Computer'Systemkfor Content Analysis of Verbal Data in the Social Sciences," Behavioral Science, Volume 10, Number 4, October, 1965. . 1 Carlson, Arthur R-.,"COncept Frequency in Political Tekt: An Application of a Total Indexing:Method of Automated Conant Analysis," Behavio- ral Scienge, voltime 12,Nuhber 1, January, 4967. . 1 1.- 1 "Sober Response," Washington Post, 4 August 1964, p. Al2. . . -. , "Stern Crisis, ;' WashingtonPost, 6 August 1964, p. A20. z .. . . 1 "Democraby's Response...," Wadhington Post, 7 August..1964, p. A18. . . 1 .... 1 1 "...Communism's Choice," Washington Post, 7 August'191¢, p. A18. "Guns, of Augukp," Washington Posp,.9 Augugst 1964, p. 86. ., Ai _ 1r 1 + . "Viet-Nam Sequel, 1 khehingtOn Post, 12 August 1964, p.i A20. . . 4 l - ,4'4. 6 . .4.M.E. "Viet -loam and the U.N.," Washingipn Post; 4 AulAst 1964, p. E6. ft% "Nuclear Arms" Washington,Post, 18 August 1964, . Al2. f ! tt.'4.F .e.f.t", . ' -1 . 41 ` 28 I.1 ''e 0 el 1 , "South-Viet-Nam, Washington rost, 19' August 1964, p. A20. "Twists in 'Laos," Washingtoh Pose,19 August 1964, p. A20. "Pointing With pride," Washing ton Post, 23 Auguit 1964, p. E6. Zptioghlizing the 20tftam iampage," Washington Post, 1 February 1968, A20.. "Terms fora Bombing Halt," Washington Post, 3 Fe*ruary 1968, P:Pilar Ni$1404, "The President and the War," Washington Post, 16 flay 1969, p. A24. "Mr. Nixon's Interim Draft Reforms,* Washington Post,1'7 May 1969,'p. A18. "Amick Is a Malay Word," Washington Post, 21 May 1969, p. A24. "...And Bangkok," Washington Post, 22 Mayes 1969,p. A24. "Hanoi and the American Prisoners," Washington Post, 23 May 1969, p. A26. "A Coalition in'Saigdn," Washington Post, -27 May 1969, p. A22. s "Memorial Day, 1969," Washington Post,41UMay 1969, p. A30. "Disciplin ing Dissent," Washington Rost,31 May 1969, p. A14. "The President's Commencement Address," Washington. Post, 5 June 1969, p. A18( "Deliverance," Waslangar! Post, 30 April 1975, p. A18. . ,"The Newest Americans,"cans," yoshineton Post,2May 1975, p. A22. "Dear...president Thieu," Waihington:Post, 4 May 1975, p. C6. - "Cambodian Transformation," WashingtonPost, 11 May 1975, p. C6. "Caring for netnamese Refugees," Washington Post, 13 May 1975, p. A18. . b. Political Cartoon, Washington Poi* 13 May 1975, p. A18. "The Mayaguez Affair," Washington Post, 14 May 1975, p. A18. "The' Retrieval 9f the Mayaguez," Washington Post; 16 May 1975, p. A26. "The Lot* of Realitysin Laos," Washington Post, 18 May 1975, "Sonia More Managed pews," Chicago Tribune, 5 August 1964, Sec. 1., p. 8. "Mr. Stevenson Speaks for'Americi;" Chicago Tribune, 6 August 1964, Sec, 1, p. 10. "Summer Friends and Sunshine Mini,' Chicago Tribune', 7 August 1964,'Sec. 1, p. 14e' "KhrusChev Misses the Bus," Chicago Tribune, 8 August 1964, Sec.1, p. 12. 29 4 . . "Age of Nondeclared Wars," Chicago Tribune, 9 August 1964, Sec..1, p. 24. "Speaking of Guilt by Association-," Chicago Tribune, August 1964, Sec. 1, "Time for Decision in Viet Nam," Chicago Tribune,1 February 1968, Sec. 1, p. 22. "The Protesters Are Silent," Chicago Tribune, 8 February 1968, Sec. 1, p. 20. ",Necessary Force to Get it Over With," Chicago Tribune, 14 February 1968, Sec. 1, p. 22. "What Can We Expect Font Thant," ChicaioTribune,,16 February 1968, Sec., 1, 'feints in Viet-Nam," Chicago Tribune, 19 February 1968, Sec. 13 p. 20. . "The Hope of Peace," Chicago Tribune, 16 May 1969; Sec. 1, p. 16. "The Second Guesser," Chicago Tribune, 28 May 1969, Sec. 1, p. 14.- r "Mr. Nixon Rules Out An Unarmed America," Chicago Tribune, 5 June 1969, Sec. -040 1, 11.24. 4 "Dateline Hanoi," Chicago Tribune, 30 April 1975, Sec. 3, p. 2. p "Saigon's Surrender," Chicago, Tribune, 1 May 1975, Sec. 2, P. 2. - "America's First Defeat," Chicago Tribune, May 193, Sec. 2, p. 2. . 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