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Ecological Modernization of Marine Conservation

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Ecological Modernization of Marine Conservation Ecological modernization of marine conservation A case study of two entrepreneurial marine protected areas in Indonesia Mariska Bottema MSc Thesis July 2010 Wageningen University, Wageningen The photograph on the front cover shows a Gili Trawangan dive boat taking tourists out to dive ‘Meno Wall’, a popular dive site at the neighboring island (source: author). 2 Wageningen University – Department of Environmental Sciences Environmental Policy Group Ecological modernization of marine conservation A case study of two entrepreneurial marine protected areas in Indonesia Mariska Bottema MSc thesis Master Environmental Sciences Supervisor: Dr. Simon Bush Environmental Policy (ENP) 3 4 Abstract The study of Entrepreneurial Marine Protected Areas (EMPAs) as a tool in marine conservation is still relatively underdeveloped: little is known about the challenges and the opportunities which lie in this novel form of marine protected areas where the private sector takes primary stewardship over marine resources. This thesis analyzes the potential role of the private sector in creating durable conservation and restoration agreements to protect coral reefs. It aims to determine how the private sector is able to steer marine conservation through the development of EMPAs; what the functions and characteristics of these entrepreneurs are, how they gain legitimacy for themselves, and in how far they are able to create durable institutions to steer marine conservation. This study applies the theory of ecological modernization to marine conservation; to determine the potential for the wider horizontal shift we are observing in marine governance, presenting the emerging presence of the private sector, to add value to marine conservation and present itself as a durable approach to marine conservation. Two EMPAs in Indonesia were researched using a case study approach; an EMPA in Pemuteran, North Bali and an EMPA on the island of Gili Trawangan Lombok. The empirical data collected during the field work, consisting primarily of unstructured interviews with important stakeholders at the two case study sites, presented two different EMPAs. The EMPA in Gili Trawangan is much more institutionalized than the EMPA in Pemuteran. Fishing rules have been formalized in a legalized contract supported by the government, and the private sector has organized itself and the coordination of its members by forming an association with a price agreement between the dive operators and an agreement to charge an eco-tax to fund marine conservation in Gili Trawangan. In Pemuteran, a number of individual entrepreneurs carry out marine conservation separately and have gained legitimacy from the local community and fishermen. This EMPA is far from institutionalized, and the support and consequentially the legitimacy which individual members of the private sector have gained is what appears to drive compliance in Pemuteran. Despite these significant differences, a comparison of the cases illuminates several patterns regarding the role of the private sector in EMPAs. The potential for the private sector to create durable conservation and restoration agreements to protect coral reefs appears to have an inherent dependency on state support. With state support, the private sector has much more room to exploit entrepreneurial opportunities and to use the advantages that they bring to marine conservation, because state support provides them with the capacity to institutionalize their ecological or environmental rationalities. Without this, the private sector still holds the ability to induce some level of social and institutional change and increase awareness, but will face more challenges of in terms of the institutionalization of their goals, and consequentially the durability of the arrangements they are able to create. This thesis shows that the ecological modernization of marine conservation through EMPAs can be characterized as hybrid governance arrangements in which the private sector carries a central role for funding and management. The state remains to be an important actor in these arrangements holding an integral function for supporting the private sector in the institutionalization of their ecological aims, and coral restoration technology such as Biorock can also contribute to building legitimacy for the private sector and aid the private sector in embedding themselves and their goals in marine conservation. 5 6 Acknowledgements There are quite a few people I need to thank for their contribution and help throughout the process of writing this thesis. I want to begin with mentioning a few people that were invaluable to me before and during my field work in Indonesia. First of all a big thank you goes to Tom Goreau for his instant enthusiasm and for the initial introduction to the projects in Bali and Lombok. I want to thank Nara for welcoming me to Pemuteran, helping me find a place to stay and making me feel right at home. A special thank you goes out to Komang who was kind and patient enough to drive me around on his scooter, introduce me to interviewees from the village, and even offer his interpretation skills! Komang, Made and Putu gave me a sense of family in Pemuteran; they let me bother them every day at the Biorock Centre with questions and were happy to lend me snorkeling equipment for me to enjoy Pemuteran‟s reefs in my free time. I would like to thank Delphine in Gili Trawangan for being so open to a student like me, taking the time to speak to me and leading me to the countless people in Trawangan who were kind enough to share their thoughts with me. Also, a thank you goes out to fellow researcher Ed for keeping me company between all the holiday-goers! Of course, I cannot forget to thank my sister Tamar for patiently listening to my daily telephone reports on my adventures in the field. Naturally I wish to thank Simon Bush, my supervisor at Wageningen University for his valuable advice and support throughout the entire research process. His lasting enthusiasm about the topic was a prime motivator for me, especially during the last lap to shore. A final thank you goes to those people close to me, who have put up with me during this entire process. I want to thank my parents who have been supportive and enthusiastic about my thesis and Tamar for helping me out whenever I needed it. Lastly, a thank you goes out to my friends in Wageningen and Den Haag, who have reminded me throughout the entire process how lucky I am for being able to go to some of the most beautiful places in the world for my master thesis! 7 8 Table of Contents 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 13 1.1 Problem Statement........................................................................................................ 13 1.2 Objective ....................................................................................................................... 15 1.3 Marine conservation policy in Indonesia: the role of the state ...................................... 16 1.4 Private sector involvement in marine conservation: what is known? ............................ 19 1.5 Research methods and techniques............................................................................... 23 1.5.1 Case study ............................................................................................................. 23 1.5.2 Case selection: research sites ............................................................................... 24 1.5.3 Data collection: sources and methods ................................................................... 25 1.5.4 Limitations .............................................................................................................. 26 1.6 Outline of thesis............................................................................................................. 27 2 Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................... 28 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 28 2.2 Ecological modernization .............................................................................................. 28 2.3 Shifts in ocean and coastal governance: increasing role of the private sector ............. 30 2.4 Entrepreneurship as a field of research ........................................................................ 33 2.5 Novel forms of entrepreneurship ................................................................................... 35 2.6 Social capital in entrepreneurship ................................................................................. 36 2.7 Institutionalization of entrepreneurship ......................................................................... 39 2.9 Framework for analysis ................................................................................................. 42 3 Pemuteran ............................................................................................................................ 43 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 43 3.2 History of fishing, tourism and marine conservation in Pemuteran ............................... 43 3.3 The „E‟ in the EMPA in Pemuteran................................................................................ 45
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