MLSSA JOURNAL

2006

“understanding, enjoying & caring for our oceans”

NUMBER 16 ISSN 0813 - 7404 DECEMBER 2006 NON MEMBERS $5.00 (plus postage and packing)

1 MLSSA JOURNAL THE MARINE LIFE SOCIETY OF SOUTH our website at:- http://www.mlssa.asn.au AUSTRALIA Inc. Or you may wish to write to the Society for a form, or to complete the one inside the rear Are you interested in any aspect of marine life? cover of this Journal (or a photocopy) and send Do you want to learn more about the underwater it with your payment to MLSSA. world? Are you concerned about pollution of our oceans and destruction of reefs and seagrass The postal address of the Society is:- beds? If so MLSSA is for you. MLSSA Inc.

Our motto is “--- understanding, enjoying and 120 Wakefield Street, caring for our oceans ---”. These few words ADELAIDE 5000. summarise our aims. Members seek to understand our ocean, derive enjoyment from OUR LOGO observations of marine life and are committed to The MLSSA logo on the front page features a protection of the marine environment. Leafy Seadragon which is unique to southern Australian waters. The Leafy is South Australia’s Become a Society member and enjoy contact first totally protected fish and is the State marine with others with similar interests. Our members emblem. Its beauty surpasses that of any include divers, marine aquarists and naturalists. creature found in tropical waters and, once seen by divers, is amongst the most remembered of Our activities include:- their diving experiences. -Studying our local marine environment -Community Education -Underwater photography

Established in 1976, MLSSA holds monthly meetings and occasional field trips. We produce various informative and educational publications including a monthly Newsletter, an Annual Journal and a beautifully illustrated Calendar showing only South Australian marine life. Our library is a source of helpful information for marine enthusiasts.

Through our affiliation with other organisations (eg Conservation Council of SA and the Scuba Divers Federation of SA) we are kept up to date with relevant issues of interest. MLSSA also has close ties with appropriate Government organisations, e.g. various museums, universities and libraries.

Everyone is welcome to attend our General Meetings which are held on the third Wednesday of every month (except December) at the Conservation Centre, 120 Wakefield Street, Adelaide. We begin with a guest speaker. After a short break there is the general business meeting and this may be followed by a slide show if time permits. The atmosphere is friendly and informal.

We welcome new members. We have subscription levels for students, individuals, Male Leafy Seadragon carrying eggs families and organisations. We invite you to complete the membership subscription form on Photograph courtesy of MLSSA member David Muirhead. 2 MLSSA JOURNAL CONTENTS Three fouling bryozoans species in Adelaide Waters Page 4 The Marine Life at Port Noarlunga Reef Page 9 Sepia apama, the giant Australian cuttlefish, in Whyalla, S.A. Page 19 Fossil Cave/Green Waterhole Cave (5l81) Bone Retrieval Dives Page 23 What You Should Know About Great White Sharks Page 28 The Western Blue Groper Page 41 The Flora and Fauna of Piccaninnie Ponds and Ewens Ponds Page 43 Save Ewens Ponds! Page 55 Patagonian Tooth-fish – why all the fuss? Page 66 EDITORIAL

Welcome to the 2006 edition of the MLSSA connected with MLSSA have made this edition Journal. As usual, this replaces the December possible. monthly Newsletter. A wide variety of topics are covered and you This edition of the Journal is the largest we have should find something here to interest and produced and my thanks go the authors who so intrigue you. willingly gave of their time to create such a wide Good reading and a safe and happy Christmas diversity of interesting and informative articles. and New Year to you all. Members, ex-members and people only remotely

DISCLAIMER

The opinions expressed by authors of material published in this Journal are not necessarily those of the Society.

EDITING: Philip Hall PRINTING: Phill McPeake CONTRIBUTORS: Brian Brock Steve Reynolds Evan John Peter Horne/Dave Albano Phil Kemp Scoresby Shepherd Gerard Carmody PHOTOGRAPHY: Philip Hall Ron Hardman David Muirhead Neville Skinner Peter Horne Mike Hammer Paul Macdonald Gerard Carmody Kath Moores Rudie Kuiter

3 MLSSA JOURNAL Evidence for the occurrence of the three fouling bryozoan species Tricellaria porteri (MacGillivray, 1889), Tricellaria occidentalis (Trask, 1857) and Scruparia ambigua (d’Orbigny, 1841), in Adelaide Waters

by Brian J Brock

Bryozoans are colonial marine or freshwater around our coasts and in Mount Gambier organisms. The colony is made up of a few or limestone. many thousands of individuals, each in a little If living colonies are put in fresh seawater (for box, cup-like, or tube-like chamber, which may marine species) the feeding currents and tentacle be more or less calcified. When feeding, a ring of bells might be seen. A hand lens will help. tentacles is protruded from the protective Following a sea snake to see living bryozoans on chamber. Cilia along the tentacles beat in such a its tail is not recommended. way that food organisms or particles are swept From mid 1975 until February 1977, I carried towards the base of the tentacle bell. When the out settlement experiments at Outer Harbour mouth opens and the pharynx dilates, the food is and Angas Inlet. The latter site is warmed by forced into the top end of the U-shaped gut by effluent from the Torrens Island Power Station. water pressure. Some colonies look like plants, My settlement tiles for the longest term others are heavily calcified and might be experiment, were dark grey cement aggregate mistaken for coral. Others form delicate window-sill tiles suspended horizontally, 50cms incrustations or branching sculptures on brown below water, beneath pontoon platforms. Pairs of or red algae or marine flowering plants. Living tiles were immersed for a month at each site, bryozoans are common on most submerged new tiles being put in every fortnight, Tiles were surfaces; look for them on boat bottoms, raised after a month, preserved in 10% formalin pontoons, buoys, jetty piles, rocks, mangrove seawater, and ancestrulae or young colonies of pneumatophores and waterlogged branches, each fouling bryozoan were counted under a hulks, etc. Fossil species are common in microscope. limestone cliffs along the Murray River or

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Tricellaria only occurred at Outer Harbour, the colder water site. Its seasonal abundance is shown in the histogram (fig. 1). Figure 2, shows a 6-spined ancestrula of the Tricellaria species and some other details of the young colony. Old colonies were not found despite regular sampling of pontoon foulers. My settlement tiles could have been seeded by propagule from some of the fouled yachts or other harbour installations or mooring facilities. Vessels moored for a long time became heavily fouled with bryozoans and other benthic invertebrates and algae etc. On June 7th 1889, a paper by P. H. MacGillivray titled “On some South Australian Polyzoa”, was read to the Royal Society of South Australia. Menifera Porteri, was one of four new species described and illustrated (Plate11, figs. 1-1b). This is the species later known as Tricellaria porteri (MacGillivray). MacGillivray described and illustrated the ooecia as “large, rounded, with a row of foraminera along the upper edge”. The ancestrula is not described, but I believe this is the species that settled on my Outer Harbour tiles in 1976. Specimens MacGillivray saw, grew on algae. I have not seen ovicellate specimens. 5 MLSSA JOURNAL

Contrast the 6-spine count for the ancestrula of Ancestrulae & ovicellate colonies would be T. porteri (MacGillivray), with the 10-spine helpful. A settlement tile I fastened to a pile on count for an ancestrula collected from a 27/2/06 disappeared. It was KESAB week. Tricellaria band just above Low Water Spring Fig 9.15(c) of Bock (1982) shows ovicells of Tide level on a Glenelg jetty pile on 27/3/06. Tricellaria porteri with several scattered This appears to be an ancestrula of Tricellaria foramina. Such an arrangement is more occidentalis. See my Fig. 3. It accords with characteristic of occidentalis as shown in Mawatari (1951, figs 1A & fig. 7 for T. Mawatari (1951) figs 1E & 1H, Nielsen (1985) occidentalis & Anna Occhipinti Ambrogi & J.L. fig 3, & Gordon & Mawatari 1992 plate 6F. See d’Hondt’s (1994) fig. 2 p141 for Tricellaria also my fig 4b. Flexible joints at the base of the inopinata. The 1994 paper deals with the branches are shown in my fig 5. Brock (1985) invasion of Venice Lagoon by a Tricellaria has illustrated several South Australian fouling species. Gordon & Mawatari (1992) considered bryozoans, including T. porteri (MacGillivray, T. inopinata and Menipea Porteri MacGillivray, 1889) but ovicells & ancestrulae of Tricellaria 1889, to fall within the range of variations for T. were not shown. occidentalis. The third fouling bryozoan found recently, was Anna Occhipinti Ambrogi (1991) says of her T. Scruparia ambigua (d’Orbigny). The specimens inopinata in Venice Lagoon, Tricellaria “was were growing on drift red alga (Ceramium) from never found deeper than the Low Water Spring Osborne Beach south of North Haven marina on Tide”. This applies for my T. occidentalis on 6/8/06. A single line of adherent zooids buds Glenelg jetty piles. If I could find colonies of off erect monoserial branches of zooids some of Tricellaria conforming to MacGillivray’s which might terminate in brood chambers. See description, below Low Water Spring Tide level my figs. 6 & 7, Ryland (1965) pp22 & 23, & on Glenelg jetty piles, it would be fairly Ryland & Hayward (1977) pp 50 & 51. The convincing proof that we do have two different brood chambers have two valves and look a bit species of Tricellaria in Adelaide waters. like a Moroccan gate archway, or bishop’s mitre.

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The line where the valves join each other can be seen in the frontal view of the supporting zooid (my fig. 6). Scruparia ambigua and Scruparia chelata (Linnaeus) used to be confused, but in the latter species, the erect branches bud from swollen parts of an adherent stolon (Ryland & Hayward, 1977 pp 52 & 53). Scruparia species are common enough as foulers of ships and on settlement plates, but because of their weak habit, are not particularly troublesome. They are often found on other more robust foulers (Gordon & Mawatari, 1992, p17).

REFERENCES Bock P.E. (1982) Bryozoans. Chapter 9 of S.A. Shepherd & I.M. Thomas (Eds.) Marine Invertebrates of Southern Australia Part I (S.A. Govt. Printer). Brock B.J. (1985) South Australian fouling Bryozoans. In: C. Nielsen & G.P. Larwood (Eds.) Bryozoa: Ordovician to Recent pp 45-49. (Olsen & Olsen). Gordon D.P. & Mawatari S.F. (1992) Atlas of Marine Fouling Bryozoa of New Zealand Ports &

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Harbours. (Miscellaneous Publications of the larva & ancestrula. In P.J. Hayward, J.S. Ryland & New Zealand Oceanographic Institute No. 107.) P.D. Taylor (Eds.) Biology & Palaeobiology of MacGillivray P.H. (1889) On some South Bryozoans (Olsen & Olsen) pp139-144. Australian Polyzoa. Transactions & Proceeding & Ryland J.S. (1965) Catalogue of Main Marine Report of the Royal Society of South Australia Fouling Organisms vol. 2 Polyzoa. (O.E.C.D. vol.12 for 1888-89 pp 24-30 & Plate II. Paris). Mawatari S. (1951) On Tricellaria occidentalis Ryland J.S. & Hayward P.J. (1977) British (Trask), one of the fouling Bryozoans of Japan. Anascan Bryozoans (Academic Press). (Miscellaneous Reports of the Research Institute for Natural Resources Tokyo No. 22 pp 9-16). Nielsen C. (1985) Ovicell formation in Tegella & four cellularioids (Bryozoa, Cheilostomata). In: C. Nielsen & G.P. Larwood (Eds.) Bryozoa: Ordovician to Recent (Olsen & Olsen) pp 213- 220. Occhipinti Ambrogi (1991) The spread of Tricellaria inopinata into the Lagoon of Venice: an ecological hypothesis. In: Bigey F.P. (Ed.) Bryozaires Actuels et Fossiles: Bryozoa Living & Fossil (Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Ouest Fr., Mem. H.S.1) pp. 299-308. Occhipinti Ambrogi & J-L d’Hondt (1994) The invasion ecology of Tricellaria inopinata into the Lagoon of Venice: morphological notes on the

8 MLSSA JOURNAL The Marine Life at Port Noarlunga Reef by Steve Reynolds

The History of the Port Noarlunga Reef Aquatic I don’t have any recollection of the dive at all. Reserve I continued to do most of my diving with fellow The Port Noarlunga reef (and Onkaparinga MARIA members at sites where we could collect estuary) was named as one of six Aquatic aquarium specimens. We did manage to dive at Reserves established in South Australia on 30th the Aldinga dropoff, however, in 1981. It was November 1971. The six reserves were declared almost three years before I returned to the reef under the SA Fisheries Act 1971. The Barker for another dive. Inlet was declared as SA’s seventh Aquatic In October 1981 nine MARIA members Reserve in 1973. The seven aquatic reserves conducted a survey dive at the Port Noarlunga were created in order to retain the natural reef. Phill McPeake, as our Diving Officer at the animal and plant communities on some reefs, time, wrote a brief report about the dive in our and in some estuarine mangroves and seagrass November 1981 Newsletter (No.54). Our two areas. More Aquatic Reserves were declared in Research Officers at the time were the organizers December 1980 and others followed later on. of the survey. They issued each of the nine divers The reasons given for establishing marine with an underwater slate, split them into four aquatic reserves were to: - teams and gave each team a designated area for 1. Have sanctuaries where aquatic fauna and them to record all of their marine life sightings. flora may flourish with minimal human According to my dive logbook, we enjoyed interference and predation. excellent conditions for the day. The weather was 2. Provide recreational areas where natural sunny, the tide was low and the sea was calm. I marine communities can be readily examined, estimated the visibility to be about 20’ (6m). appreciated and photographed. I was teamed up with the DO for the dive. We 3. Maintain marine communities in an were instructed to swim north along the inside untouched state so that they can be scientifically of the reef and then to return to the jetty on the examined and studied over extended periods. outside of the reef. I enjoyed our dive which was 4. Establish breeding reservoirs for certain only marred by the loss of the DO’s underwater species of reef fish for repopulating areas slate. We could only jog his memory about some outside the reserves where spearfishing takes of the creatures that he had seen. place. Back at the jetty we rejoined the rest of the divers who had returned from their designated areas. The Port Noarlunga reef had been protected All of the slates were handed over to the against spearfishing since 1965. Research Officers. They later transferred the details into our club dive logbook. To the best of My Own Diving Experience at The Reef my knowledge, the details have not been I did my very first scuba dive at Port Noarlunga published in any form to date. th reef to complete my basic scuba certificate on 4 I did a night dive with several MARIA members February 1978. It was more a dive under the at Port Noarlunga early in 1982. As our jetty. My instructor and I merely swam to the Publications Officer at the time, I wrote a report reef and back along the jetty once or twice. After about this dive for our March 1982 Newsletter that, most of my dives were made with fellow (No.58). members of the Marine Aquarium Research I didn’t return to Port Noarlunga until early Institute of Australia (SA Branch), or MARIA SA. 1985 when I did another night dive with fellow Since the main purpose of our diving back then (now MLSSA) members. This dive was reported was to collect specimens for our temperate in our February 1985 Newsletter (No.92). Our marine aquariums, I wasn’t very interested in dive started after 10.30pm and lasted until well diving at Port Noarlunga reef because it was an after midnight. It was almost two years before I Aquatic Reserve. I did, however, manage to do a returned to Port Noarlunga reef again. I had dive there at the end of that same year. I dived done some 79 other dives during those two years. with fellow MARIA member, Gavin Roberts. My Clearly, Port Noarlunga reef was not high on my dive logbook does not show any other details and list of preferred dive sites at this time. I had 9 MLSSA JOURNAL managed only six dives there in nine years. And and two large Ceratosoma brevicaudatum that’s the way that my diving continued, just an nudibranchs. I also managed to swim through occasional dive at Port Noarlunga reef. I can’t two swim-throughs. All very exciting! take all of the responsibility for that, however, But the most exhilarating moment for me was since most dives were with a buddy. when I first jumped off of the reef to dive the In the 1990s I managed to go almost six years outside. A ‘shadow’ rushed towards me and my without a dive at Port Noarlunga. Then heart skipped a beat but I soon realized that a everything changed all of a sudden. At the end of large seal was swimming all around me. We are 1997 I gained a new dive buddy and since then often surrounded by schools of fish under the we have often dived together at Port Noarlunga. jetty close to the reef. Despite not diving regularly, I have managed to In an article titled “Fish Recorded at Port do some 30 dives there since then (not all with Noarlunga Reef” which was published in our the same buddy). I now realize that I would have December 1987 Newsletter (No.125) I suggested missed out on a lot by not diving there much in that “The biggest danger from fish may be whilst the earlier years. ‘handfeeding’ large Leatherjackets”. My dive And what are my best memories of dives at Port buddy on 4th December 1999 had obviously not Noarlunga? I love seeing Rainbow Fish, Blue read my article because he proceeded to feed Devils, large stony corals (Plesiastrea versipora) cockles to the fish under the jetty and was bitten and Black Cowry (Cypraea friendii thersites) on the forehead by leatherjackets. The 21°C there. I have seen several species of nudibranchs water numbed the bites a little at the time but and the opisthobranch Bat-wing Sea Slug, when he exited from the water his family Sagaminopteron ornatum. I have seen Western wondered why he was bleeding from the Cleaner Clingfish, fish cleaning stations, a sea forehead. mouse, Port Jackson sharks and stingrays. Society members did transect dives, led by Kevin Smith, at the reef in October 2004. During a The most memorable dive at present is the most reconnaissance dive before the transect dives, recent one. In November 2005 we saw a Kevin found a Sawtooth Pipefish, Maroubra congregation of about 20 large Port Jackson perserrata. I have only ever seen two before. sharks out from the outer-side of the reef. We dived on the outside first, then we swam through Reports About Port Noarlunga’s Marine Life the gap to the inside. We saw some of my Whilst working for the SA Department of favourite creatures including Castlenau’s Wrasse, Agriculture and Fisheries in 1975, Dr Hank large Senator Fish, a large spider crab, sea pen Duyverman wrote a paper titled “Ecological

Flabellina species of nudibranch sighted at Port Noarlunga reef in 2006 (taken by Paul Macdonald)

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Surveys of the South Australian Aquatic Both included fish and plant and invertebrate Reserves”. One small part of this report was lists. We can now add both Western Cleaner titled “A Brief Ecological Survey of the Port Clingfish and Sawtooth Pipefish to the list of fish Noarlunga Reef”. (Much of Duyverman’s work species recorded there. at Port Noarlunga was done at the southern end The plants and invertebrates list from of the reef.) Duyverman’s report was reproduced in In 1987 I wrote the article titled “Fish Recorded Warren’s article, although it was said to be “a at Port Noarlunga Reef” which was published in more extensive list of plants and creatures”. The our December 1987 Newsletter (No.125). In that only obvious additions to the list were the murex article I wrote that “More than 60 species of fish shell Pterynotus triformis, the helmet shell Cassis have been sighted around Port Noarlunga reef fimbriata and “numerous scallops and and most of these are fairly common. The brachiopods”. commonest species seen here are sweep, Both lists had some errors and some errors bullseyes, coralfish, leatherjackets, drummer, occurred during the re-writing for Warren’s Dusky Morwong, Magpie Perch, Red Mullet, article. Many of the details in the lists are now Sand Mullet, Scaly Fin, trachinops, cardinalfish, out of date due to scientific changes. and weedfish. Most of these fish are resident Our second Journal, MARIA Journal Vol.1, No.2, reef dwellers and they make excellent November 1979 included some comments on the photographic subjects for divers and snorkellers list by one of our Research Officers, Evan John. with underwater cameras. Many species of He felt that common names should be listed first invertebrates such as sponges, anemones, shells, if they are to be of “value to the average person crustaceans and starfish are also common interested in marine biology”. He also discussed around the reef which is one of the natural several other points. Some errors occurred in the wonders of our coastline”. publication of these comments. Some errors have The article included a list of 64 species of fish also occurred in reference books that I have that have been recorded at the reef by our used. members. Much of these details came both from In this article I have attempted to update both Hank Duyverman’s report “A Brief Ecological lists (now three lists), without making any Survey of the Port Noarlunga Reef” and Denise errors, taking Evan John’s comments into Warren’s article “The Fish of Noarlunga Reef” in account. our MARIA Journal (No.1), October 1979. Both of these are included in our library. “A Many thanks go to Hank Duyverman, Bob Brief Ecological Survey of the Port Noarlunga Baldock, Kevin Smith and Paul Macdonald for Reef” is item mlssa 2002. MARIA Journal No.1, their assistance with this article. which includes the article “The Fish of Noarlunga Reef”, is in our Journal folder. Here then are my lists: - LIST OF FISH SIGHTINGS AT PORT NOARLUNGA REEF Family Genus Species Common Name Antennariidae Rhycherus filamentosus Tasselled Anglerfish Aploactinidae Aploactisoma milesii Velvetfish Apogonidae Vincentia conspersa Southern Cardinal Fish Arripididae Arripis trutta Eastern Australian Salmon Blenniidae Parablennius tasmanianus Tasmanian Blenny Bovichtidae Bovichtus angustifrons Thornfish Callionymidae Foetorepus calauropomus Common Stinkfish Carangidae Trevally Sp. Chaetodontidae Chelmonops curiosus Western Talma Cheilodactylidae Cheilodactylus nigripes Magpie Perch Cheilodactylidae Dactylophora nigricans Dusky Morwong Clinidae Weedfish Spp. (4 ) Congridae Conger wilsoni Eastern Conger Eel Dasyatididae Dasyatis brevicaudata Smooth Stingray Dinolestidae Dinolestes lewini Longfin Pike Diodontidae Diodon nichthemerus Globe Fish 11 MLSSA JOURNAL

LIST OF FISH SIGHTINGS AT PORT NOARLUNGA REEF Family Genus Species Common Name Enoplosidae Enoplosus armatus Old Wife Girellidae Girella tricuspidata Blackfish/Luderick Girellidae Girella zebra Zebra Fish Gobiesocidae Aspasmogaster tasmaniensis Tasmanian Clingfish Gobiesocidae Cochleoceps bicolor Western Cleaner Clingfish Gobiidae Goby Spp. Hemiramphidae Hyporhamphus melanochir Garfish Heterodontidae Heterodontus portusjacksoni Port Jackson Shark Kyphosidae Kyphosus sydneyanus Silver Drummer Western Blue Groper Labridae Achoerodus gouldii Wrasse Labridae Austrolabrus maculatus Black-spotted Wrasse Labridae Eupetrichthys gloveri Slender Wrasse Labridae Pictilabrus laticlavius Senator Wrasse Labridae Pseudolabrus parilus Brown-spotted Wrasse Microcanthidae Tilodon sexfasciatum Moonlighter Monacanthidae Acanthaluteres brownii Spiny-tailed Leatherjacket Monacanthidae Acanthaluteres vittiger Toothbrush Leatherjacket Monacanthidae Brachaluteres jacksonianus Pygmy Leatherjacket Monacanthidae Eubalichthys mosaicus Mosaic Leatherjacket Monacanthidae Meuschenia hippocrepis Horseshoe Leatherjacket Monacanthidae Parika scaber Velvet Leatherjacket Mugilidae Myxus elongatus Sand Mullet Mullidae Upeneichthys vlamingii Southern Goatfish Odacidae Odax acroptilus Rainbow Cale Odacidae Odax cyanomelas Herring Cale Odacidae Weed-Whiting Spp. Orectolobidae Orectolobus Sp. Wobbegong Shark Sp. Ostraciidae Aracana ornata Ornate Cowfish Pegasidae Pegasus lancifer Sculptured Seamoth Pempheridae Pempheris klunzingeri Rough Bullseye Pempheridae Pempheris multiradiata Common Bullseye Pentacerotidae Pentaceropsis recurvirostris Long-snouted Boarfish Platycephalidae Flathead Spp. Plesiopidae Paraplesiops meleagris Western Blue Devil Plesiopidae Trachinops noarlungae Trachinops Plotosidae Cnidoglanis macrocephalus Estuary Catfish Pomacentridae Parma victoriae Scaly Fin Scorpaenidae Glyptauchen panduratus Goblinfish Scorpidae Scorpis aequipinnis Sea Sweep Scorpidae Scorpis georgianus Banded Sweep Serranidae Othos dentex Harlequin Fish Sillaginidae Sillaginodes punctatus King George Whiting Sparidae Chrysophrys auratus Snapper Syngnathidae Solegnathus spinosissimus Spiny Pipehorse Syngnathidae Stigmatopora argus Spotted Pipefish Syngnathidae Seahorse Sp. Syngnathidae Maroubra perserrata Sawtooth Pipefish Tetraodontidae Tectractenos glaber Smooth Toadfish Tetraodontidae Torquigener pleurogramma Banded Toadfish Trachichthyidae Trachichthys australis Roughy ? Flounder Sp. 12 MLSSA JOURNAL

LIST OF INVERTEBRATE SIGHTINGS AT PORT NOARLUNGA REEF Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Description Cnidaria Hydrozoa Hydroida Pennaria wilsoni Hydroids Cnidaria Hydrozoa Hydroida Silicularia campanularia Cnidaria Hydrozoa Hydroida Sertulariidae Sertularia Spp. Cnidaria Hydrozoa Hydroida Plumulariidae ?Aglaophenia Sp. Cnidaria Hydrozoa Hydroida ?Aequorea Sp.

Cnidaria Hydrozoa Hydroida 3 other unidentified species Semaeo- Cnidaria Scyphozoa stomeae Aurelia aurita Cnidaria Scyphozoa ?Siphonophora 1 variety of blue bottle

Speckled or Shellgrit Cnidaria Anthozoa Actiniaria Oulactis muscosa Anemone

Cnidaria Anthozoa Actiniaria Actinia tenebrosa Waratah anemone

Cnidaria Anthozoa Actiniaria Aulactinia veratra Green Anemone Cnidaria Anthozoa Actiniaria Anthothoe albocincta Anemone Cnidaria Anthozoa Zoanthidea Zoanthus robustus Zoanthid membrana- Cnidaria Anthozoa Alcyoniidae Parerythropodium ceum Cnidaria Anthozoa Alcyoniidae Soft Coral Cnidaria Anthozoa Scleractinia Plesiastrea versipora Stony coral Cnidaria Anthozoa Pennatulacea ?Sarcoptilus Sp. Sea Pen Porifera ?Sycon Sp. Sponge Porifera Carteriospongia caliciformis? Sponge Porifera Tethya Spp. Golfball sponge & many other uni- Porifera dentified species of Sponge - all colours Bryozoa Cheilostomata Triphyllozoon monilferum Bryozoan Bryozoa Cheilostomata Membranipora membranacea Bryozoan

Chordata Ascidiidae Ascidia sydniensis Solitary ascidian

Chordata Ascidiidae Herdmania momus Solitary ascidian depressius- Chordata Ascidiidae Phallusia cula Ascidian

Chordata Clavelinidae Clavelina cylindrica Colonial ascidian

Chordata Clavelinidae Clavelina moluccensis Colonial ascidian Pseudodis- Chordata tomidae Pseudodistoma gracile Ascidian Chordata Styelidae Cnemidocarpa etheridgii Ascidian Chordata Styelidae Polycarpa pedunculata Ascidian Chordata Polycitoridae Polycitor giganteus Ascidian Chordata Pyuridae Pyura australis Ascidian Chordata Pyuridae Pyura irregularis Ascidian Chordata Pyuridae Pyura pachydermata Ascidian Chordata Ritterellidae Ritterella pedunculata Ascidian Chordata Holozoidae Sycozoa cerebriformis Ascidian Chordata Holozoidae Distaplia viridis Ascidian Chordata Didemnidae Leptoclinides imperfectus Ascidian 13 MLSSA JOURNAL

LIST OF INVERTEBRATE SIGHTINGS AT PORT NOARLUNGA REEF Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Description Chordata Didemnidae Leptoclinides maculatus Ascidian several uncon- Chordata firmed or unidentified species, incl. Compound As- Chordata Styelidae Botrylloides leachi cidian Chordata Polycitoridae Eudistoma aureum Ascidian Chordata Didemnidae Leptoclinides rufus Ascidian Chordata Pyuridae Microcosmus stoloniferus Ascidian Chordata Didemnidae Polysyncraton orbiculum Ascidian Chordata Agnesiidae Rhodosoma turcicum Ascidian Chordata Styelidae Stolonica australis Ascidian Chordata Polyclinidae Synoicum sacculum Ascidian Ischnochitoni- Mollusca Polyplacophora Amphineura dae? Ischnochiton? australis Chiton Mollusca Polyplacophora Amphineura Plaxiphoridae Poneroplax Sp. Chiton 8 other uniden- Mollusca Polyplacophora Amphineura tified species Chiton Mollusca Gastropoda Haliotidae Haliotis rubra Black-lip abalone Mollusca Gastropoda Haliotidae Haliotis roei Abalone Mollusca Gastropoda Patellidae Cellana Spp. Limpets Mollusca Gastropoda Montfortula Sp. Mollusca Gastropoda Trochidae ?Bankivia Sp. Kelp shell Mollusca Gastropoda Mitridae ?Mitra Sp. Mitre shell Mollusca Gastropoda Muricidae Pterynotus triformis Murex Mollusca Gastropoda Muricidae Dicathais orbita Cartrut shell Mollusca Gastropoda Cassidae Cassis fimbriata Helmet shell Common War- Mollusca Gastropoda Turbinidae Turbo undulatus rener Mollusca Gastropoda Turbinidae Phasianella australis Pheasant shell Mollusca Gastropoda Fasciolaridae Pleuroploca australasia Tulip shell Mesogastro- friendii Mollusca Gastropoda poda Cypraeidae Cypraea (thersites) Black Cowry & many other Mollusca Gastropoda unidentified species Gastropod shells Sagaminop- Mollusca Gastropoda Cephalaspidea Gastropteridae teron ornatum Bat-wing Slug Chromodoridi- Short-tailed Cera- Mollusca Gastropoda Nudibranchia dae Ceratosoma brevicaudatum tosoma Flabellina nudi- Mollusca Gastropoda Nudibranchia Flabellinidae Flabellina Sp. branch Mollusca Pelecypoda Mytilidae Brachiodontes rostratus Mussel Mollusca Pelecypoda Mytilidae Modiolus Sp. Mussel Mollusca Pelecypoda Mytilidae Xenostrobus pulex Mussel Southern Hammer Mollusca Pelecypoda Pteriidae Malleus meridianus Mussel Numerous scal- Mollusca Pelecypoda Pectinidae lop species Mollusca Cephalopoda Loliginidae Sepioteuthis australis Squid Mollusca Cephalopoda Sepiidae Sepia apama Giant cuttle

Brachiopoda Lamp shells Platyhelmin- Pseudoceroti- thes Polycladida dae ?Pseudocerus lividus Flatworm 14 MLSSA JOURNAL

Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Description Segmented Annelida Polychaeta worms Annelida Polychaeta Eurythoe complanata Worm Annelida Polychaeta Nereidae ?Perinereis amblyodonta Ragworm Annelida Polychaeta ?Australonereis ehlersi Worm Annelida Polychaeta Serpulidae Galeolaria caespitosa Encrusting worm Tangled tube- Annelida Polychaeta Serpulidae Filograna implexa worm Annelida Polychaeta Aphroditidae Aphrodite australis Sea Mouse Annelida Polychaeta Arabellidae Arabella Sp. Worm Annelida Polychaeta Capitellidae Dasybranchus Sp. Worm Annelida Polychaeta Eunicidae Eunice antennata Worm Annelida Polychaeta Eunicidae Eunice aphriditois Worm Annelida Polychaeta Eunicidae Eunice australis Worm Annelida Polychaeta Eunicidae Lysidice Sp. Worm Annelida Polychaeta Eunicidae Palola Sp. Worm Annelida Polychaeta Lumbrineridae Lumbrineris Sp. Worm Annelida Polychaeta Polynoidae Lepidonotus Sp. Worm Annelida Polychaeta Sabellidae Branchiomma nigromaculata Worm Featherduster Annelida Polychaeta Sabellidae Sabellastarte indica Worm Annelida Polychaeta Syllidae Syllis Sp. Worm Annelida Polychaeta Syllidae Trypanosyllis Sp. Worm Annelida Polychaeta Terebellidae Longicarpus modestus Worm Annelida Polychaeta Terebellidae Thelepus australiensis Worm Annelida Polychaeta Terebellidae Terebella Sp. Worm Nemertea 2 unidentified species Ribbon worm Southern Biscuit Echinodermata Asteroidea Valvatida Goniasteridae Tosia australis Star Echinodermata Asteroidea Spinulosida Asteropidae Petricia vernicina Velvet Sea Star Forcipu- 11-armed Sea Echinodermata Asteroidea latida Asteriidae Coscinasterias muricata Star Forcipu- Many-armed Sea Echinodermata Asteroidea latida Asteriidae Allostichaster polyplax Star Echinodermata Asteroidea Asterinidae Patiriella brevispina Echinodermata Asteroidea Asteriidae Uniophora granifera Echinodermata Asteroidea Valvatida Goniasteridae Pentagonaster duebeni Vermillion Star erythro- Echinodermata Echinoidea Echinoida Echinometridae Heliocidaris gramma Spiny Urchin Spiny Pencil Sea Echinodermata Echinoidea Echinoida Cidaridae Goniocidaris tubaria Urchin Slate Pencil Ur- Echinodermata Echinoidea Echinoida Cidaridae Phyllacanthus irregularis chin Echinodermata Holothuroidea Stichopodidae ?Stichopus Sp. Sea Cucumber Echinodermata Ophiuroidea Ophiomyxidae Ophiomyxa australis Brittlestar Echinodermata Ophiuroidea Ophiotrichidae Ophiothrix spongicola Brittlestar Echinodermata Ophiuroidea Ophicomidae Clarkcoma pulchra Brittlestar Echinodermata Crinoidea Aporometridae Aporometra wilsoni Crinoid Echinodermata Crinoidea Comasteridae Cenolia trichoptera Crinoid Southern Rock Arthropoda Malacostraca Decapoda Palinuridae Jasus edwardsii Lobster Blue Swimmer Arthropoda Malacostraca Decapoda Portunidae Portunus pelagicus Crab Arthropoda Malacostraca Decapoda Dromiidae Dromidia Sp. Sponge Crab 15 MLSSA JOURNAL

Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Description Arthropoda Malacostraca Decapoda Palaemonidae ?Palaemon litoreus Palaemonid shrimp Arthropoda Malacostraca Decapoda ?Leptomithrax gaimardii Spider Crab Arthropoda Malacostraca Decapoda Goneplacidae Plagusia chabrus Red bait crab Arthropoda Malacostraca Decapoda Hermit crab Arthropoda Malacostraca Decapoda Eriphiidae Ozius truncatus Reef or Rock crab Arthropoda Malacostraca Amphipoda Caprella Spp. Amphipod Arthropoda Maxillopoda Thoracica Catophragmus Sp. Surf Barnacle Arthropoda Maxillopoda Thoracica Balanus Sp. Barnacle Arthropoda Maxillopoda Thoracica ?Chthamalus Sp. Barnacle Arthropoda Maxillopoda Thoracica ?Tetraclitella Sp. Barnacle & many other uni- Arthropoda dentified species

LIST OF MARINE PLANT SIGHTINGS AT PORT NOARLUNGA REEF

Division Class Order Family Genus Species Description Florideophy- Encrusting red Rhodophyta ceae Cheilosporum elegans alga Florideophy- Encrusting red Rhodophyta ceae Sporolithon durum alga Florideophy- Rhodome- Rhodophyta ceae Ceramiales laceae Laurencia Sp. Florideophy- Rhodome- Rhodophyta ceae Ceramiales laceae Osmundaria prolifera Robust red alga Florideophy- Rhodophyta ceae Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Wrangelia plumosa Florideophy- Rhodophyta ceae Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Ceramium Sp. Turf alga Florideophy- Rhodophyta ceae Gelidiales Gelidiaceae Pterocladia capillacea Florideophy- Rhodophyta ceae Gelidiales Gelidiaceae Gelidium Sp. Turf alga Florideophy- Rhodyme- Rhodophyta ceae Rhodymeniales niaceae Rhodymenia australis Red alga Florideophy- Coralline red Rhodophyta ceae Corallinales Corallinaceae Metagoniolithon stelliferum alga Florideophy- Rhodophyta ceae Corallinales Corallinaceae Corallina Sp. Turf alga Florideophy- Foliaceous red Rhodophyta ceae Plocamiales Plocamiaceae Plocamium angustum? alga Heterokonto- Branched phyta Phaeophyceae Fucales Cystoseiraceae Cystophora expansa brown alga Heterokonto- Branched phyta Phaeophyceae Fucales Cystoseiraceae Cystophora intermedia brown alga Heterokonto- Branched phyta Phaeophyceae Fucales Cystoseiraceae Cystophora monilifera brown alga Heterokonto- Branched phyta Phaeophyceae Fucales Cystoseiraceae Cystophora moniliformis brown alga Heterokonto- Branched phyta Phaeophyceae Fucales Cystoseiraceae Cystophora subfarcinata brown alga 16 MLSSA JOURNAL

LIST OF MARINE PLANT SIGHTINGS AT PORT NOARLUNGA REEF

Division Class Order Family Genus Species Description Heterokonto- Leathery brown phyta Phaeophyceae Laminariales Alariaceae Ecklonia radiata alga Heterokonto- Foliaceous phyta Phaeophyceae Stypocaulaceae Halopteris funicularis brown alga Heterokonto- phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Lobophora variegata Heterokonto- Foliaceous phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Zonaria crenata brown alga Heterokonto- Foliaceous phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Zonaria spiralis brown alga Heterokonto- phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Zonaria turneriana Heterokonto- phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Dilophus fastigiatus? Heterokonto- phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Dilophus gunnianus? Heterokonto- phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Dilophus marginatus Heterokonto- phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Distromium flabellatum Heterokonto- phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Dictyota alternifida? Heterokonto- Membranous phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Dictyota dichotoma brown alga Heterokonto- phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Dictyota diemensis Heterokonto- phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Dictyota naevosa? Heterokonto- Foliaceous phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Lobospira bicuspidata brown alga Heterokonto- phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Dictyopteris australis Heterokonto- phyta Phaeophyceae Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Dictyopteris muelleri Heterokonto- Branched phyta Phaeophyceae Fucales Sargassaceae Sargassum decipens brown alga Heterokonto- Branched phyta Phaeophyceae Fucales Sargassaceae Sargassum spinuligerum brown alga Heterokonto- Branched phyta Phaeophyceae Fucales Sargassaceae Sargassum fallax brown alga Heterokonto- Cladostepha- Foliaceous phyta Phaeophyceae Sphacelariales ceae Cladostephus Sp. brown alga Bryopsidophy- Chlorophyta ceae Bryopsidales Bryopsis plumosa? Bryopsidophy- Foliaceous Chlorophyta ceae Bryopsidales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa annulata green alga Bryopsidophy- Foliaceous Chlorophyta ceae Bryopsidales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa brownii green alga Bryopsidophy- Chlorophyta ceae Bryopsidales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa cactoides Bryopsidophy- flexilis, var. Foliaceous Chlorophyta ceae Bryopsidales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa muelleri green alga Bryopsidophy- Chlorophyta ceae Bryopsidales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa simpliciuscula 17 MLSSA JOURNAL

LIST OF MARINE PLANT SIGHTINGS AT PORT NOARLUNGA REEF Division Class Order Family Genus Species Description Bryopsidophy- Foliaceous Chlorophyta ceae Bryopsidales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa trifaria green alga Bryopsidophy- Lumpy green Chlorophyta ceae Bryopsidales Codiaceae Codium pomoides alga Bryopsidophy- Chlorophyta ceae Bryopsidales Codiaceae Codium duthieae Bryopsidophy- Chlorophyta ceae Bryopsidales Codiaceae Codium perriniae Bryopsidophy- Chlorophyta ceae Bryopsidales Codiaceae Codium capitulatum Turf alga Membranous Chlorophyta Ulvophyceae Ulvales Ulvaceae Ulva lactuca green alga Anadyomena- Chlorophyta ceae Struvea plumosa Cladophoro- Siphonoclada- Lobed green Chlorophyta phyceae Cladophorales ceae Dictyosphaeria sericea algae Cladophoro- Chlorophyta phyceae Cladophorales Valoniaceae Valonia Sp. Cladophoro- Clado- Chlorophyta phyceae phoraceae Chaetomorpha aerea Green alga Cladophoro- Clado- Chlorophyta phyceae phoraceae Cladophora bainesii Cladophoro- Clado- Chlorophyta phyceae phoraceae Cladophora coelothrix

The 2007 MLSSA calendar is available. Phone Philip on Adelaide (08) 82704463 to 18 arrange delivery. AUD$10 to non members, AUD$6 to members. MLSSA JOURNAL Sepia apama, the giant Australian cuttlefish, in Whyalla, S.A. by Evan John

One of the most spectacular events of the (the cuttlebone or gladius), and a circle of four natural marine world takes place annually pairs of fleshy arms and two elongated tentacles between May and August in the reef areas of that surround the mouth, which contains a pair upper Spencer Gulf, around Black Point, Point of mandibles or “beaks” somewhat similar to Lowly and Fitzgerald Bay, north of the town of parrots. They also have a relatively well- Whyalla, on Eyre Peninsula, South Australia. developed nervous system, and their eyes are quite specialized, in that they have a lens, cornea, retina, and distinctive “W-shaped” pupils. This suggests that the eyes are used for observation as well as just transmitting light sensations to the nervous system like snails. Vision is believed to be highly developed, rivalling that of humans, and divers have described meeting the gaze of a cuttlefish as one which is that of a highly intelligent creature “in there looking back”. Cuttlefish and octopus are used in medical eye research because of the similarity to the human eye.

The word Cephalopod is constructed from the Greek words kephale (head) and podos (foot). This conveys the notion that the limbs emerge Fig. 1 Sepia Apama from the face, which, in effect, is what happens. Cuttlefish have a body shape something like a It is here that the giant Australian cuttlefish, flattened football, with eyes and arms and Sepia apama, migrate in the thousands to mate tentacles at one end, and a “fin” which runs and spawn. The low rocky reef areas provide a along each side. This lateral “fin” undulates, and hard rocky surface on to which the cuttlefish can propels the animal through the water. In attach their eggs, for much of the rest of upper addition, the cuttlefish “bone”, (often washed up Spencer Gulf is sand, sea grass flats and mud on the beach and used as a source of beak banks. It is an amazing spectacle, as these unique strengthening and diet calcium for caged birds,) marine animals can be observed changing is honeycombed with gas-filled cells, producing colour, shape and texture, and performing neutral buoyancy, thus allowing precision and mating rituals. It is believed that this kind of delicacy of movement when desired. When rapid aggregation occurs nowhere else in the world in propulsion is necessary, the animal is able to such numbers. draw water into the mantle cavity, and force it out through a “nozzle” or siphon in the side of Sepia apama is the largest species of marine the body underneath the eye. This siphon can be animals commonly called cuttlefish; it is believed swivelled to change direction, and relaxed or that specimens as large as 1.5 metres have been constricted when control of speed is desired. recorded. S. apama is a mollusc – and is, therefore, a closer relative to the common Probably the cuttlefish’s most fascinating garden snail, rather than to its marine behaviour is its ability to change colour. There compatriots, the fish. It belongs to the Class seems to be a variety of stimuli which start this Cephalopoda, a group which presents a amazing display, ranging from movement complete contrast to the majority of the molluscs between light and dark areas, an apparent in habits, and in many respects, points of attempt to hide and camouflage, and probable organization. Cephalopods have the power of mating activity. On some occasions, waves of rapid movement, no external shell, (although coloration changes pass over the length of the they do have an internal supportive structure, body, in less than a second, moving from head to 19 MLSSA JOURNAL rear, probably associated with a warning display. female. She then lays between 100 and 300 eggs, Colour variation is due to a system of attaching them under a rock or to the roof of a chromatophores, minute multi-nucleate cave in the shallow reefs or some other such pigmented cells, red, brown, yellow or blue, sheltered location. It is believed that the species embedded throughout the animal’s skin. These takes about four years to reach sexual maturity. are surrounded by small radial muscles, connected to the central nervous system. When the muscles contract, the cell expands, and the pigment it contains becomes more apparent. Chromatophores are organized into three layers, each containing a different pigment colour. The ability to manipulate each layer independently means that quite a large range of colours are possible as a result of the blending effect of the different pigments. This colour composition is enhanced by the presence of small cells called iridocytes, that lie above and below the chromatophores, creating a mirror-like effect. It is incredible to watch a cuttlefish rest in a shaft of light – the part of its body in the light changes Fig. 3 Cuttlefish eggs quite quickly to a distinct, patterned colouration, whilst that in the dark stays a continuous duller After mating, both male and female animals colour. become lethargic, their appearance takes on a greyish, worn and tattered look, and they then die.

Cuttlefish are an important link in the food chain. From stomach analyses, it seems that they are a prime food source for snapper, yellow-tail, dolphins and sea birds. Research also shows that cuttlefish make up a significant proportion of the diets of Australian fur seals and sea lions. There is little doubt that their biomass component is critical to maintaining viable breeding populations of animals at the upper end of the marine food chain, in marine ecosystems of which they are a part. Fig 2 Male cuttlefish displaying Fortunately, up until about 1996, cuttlefish In addition, these remarkable creatures can fishing was pretty much restricted to bait fishing change the texture of their skin. Small wart-like by local fishermen, with some recreational protuberances called tubercles on the skin can be catching and a very limited commercial catch. made to expand and contract, resulting in the However, in 1997, commercial markets were skin of the body becoming more “bumpy” when established in S.E. Asia, and the recorded catch against a background of marine plants like was 255 tonnes, or over 250,000 cuttlefish, by Caulerpa or Ecklonia or Hormosira. relatively few boats. Commercial exploitation of this resource was at the time unrestricted and As previously mentioned, the area around unmanaged. Whyalla is quite unique because it is one of the relatively few areas in southern Australia where In 1998, there was a doubling of the fishing S. apama congregate to mate and to spawn. effort, with many more boats and fishermen per During mating, males and females lock tentacles, boat! At the beginning of the season in early and the male uses one of its longer tentacles to May, fishermen were ready for the cuttlefish to transfer a packet of sperm into the body of the arrive, and within four weeks had so reduced the

20 MLSSA JOURNAL stock that they voluntarily stopped fishing for 10 commercial fishing during the 1999 and 2000 days to allow stocks to recover. By early June the seasons, so further research on Sepia apama catch was so low that the fishermen had stopped could be undertaken by the South Australian fishing in any significant numbers. Despite this Research and Development Institute (SARDI). self-imposed moratorium the fishing did not Anecdotal weekly observations by the divers improve to any noticeable degree, and it was at during the 2000 season indicated that the this point, with ongoing lobbying by a number of biomass had not recovered at all in the two and a organizations, that the then South Australian half years that the spawning grounds have been Government announced the closure of the closured. fishery until September 1998, whilst at the same time initiating a three year study of the cuttlefish That this unique congregation of Sepia apama population, to determine the effects of must be protected from commercial exploitation commercial fishing and the possibility of appears obvious for at least two sound biological sustainable exploitation in the long-term. reasons: Researchers at Melbourne University, who had studied Whyalla’s cuttlefish aggregation over two 1. Taking the animals as they arrive at the seasons, had written to the Premier of South breeding site gives them no time to mate Australia in 1998 pointing out that “the rapid and spawn, hence limiting future recent rise in exploitation of this spawning population numbers. aggregation is likely to destroy this unique 2. Given the short life-span and low natural event before the impacts of this harvest reproductive rate, (they lay relatively few are fully understood. Cuttlefish catches from this eggs), and the disproportionately high small area of rocky reef have risen unchecked predation rate of young cuttlefish, current from negligible levels to more than 200 tonnes stocks may well be unsustainable. per year in less than three years. More than a quarter of a million cuttlefish were pulled from There are other valid reasons why the nurturing this small, region last year (1997). Signs of of current stocks of S. apama at Whyalla is collapse are already evident this year …". essential. As a consequence, responding to many expressions of community concern, a Sanctuary 1. There is significant scientific and education near Point Lowly was set aside to protect some interest. cuttlefish stocks. SARDI research to date, the lack of other data and research material on the animal, and the acknowledged limitations of the scope of the current research work, make it clear that there will be insufficient information to make informed and safe management decisions on this resource from the point of view of allowing any form of commercial exploitation. In addition, there has been, and continues to be, unprecedented interest from the scientific and documentary film - making communities, research groups and Fig. 4 Cuttlefish mating media from around the world.

Unfortunately the area of the Sanctuary 2. The animal’s behaviour is unique, contained large areas of sandy beach, quite recognized by marine scientists both unsuitable for cuttlefish to breed. nationally and internationally. The site In February 1999, the South Australian also has substantial existing value for Government made the decision to close the local research and monitoring, and is unique cuttlefish spawning grounds and stop for its accessibility and scale.

21 MLSSA JOURNAL 3. S. apama is ecologically significant – in the Author’s note marine food chain of S.A. waters 4. There is substantial potential for I must acknowledge the assistance of two sustainable eco-tourism extremely dedicated people, for their comments, thoughts and material in my Divers from across Australia, North preparation of this article: America, Chile and Europe have travelled to Whyalla for no other reason than to dive Tony Bramley, of the Whyalla Dive Shop, with the cuttlefish – regarded as the “chameleons” of the sea. Feedback from who, with his diving colleagues, has these visitors suggest that they are the worked tirelessly with local and overseas forerunners of thousands of diving scientists and the S.A. Government, to enthusiasts who will travel around world ensure the protection of the cuttlefish to experience this unique marine event. breeding grounds, and Ron Hardman, who has recorded cuttlefish and their 5. The animals are vulnerable to fishing activities in a series of brilliant 6. Permanent protection is essential for the copyrighted photographs and videos. He animal’s survival. has very kindly allowed me the use of some of his photos in this article. It is well worth taking the effort to visit Whyalla during the breeding season of the giant Australian cuttlefish, Sepia apama. Local diving and boating organizations run charters to the area, enabling divers and snorkellers to witness this unique phenomenon.

Giant Cuttles - Photographer: Paul Macdonald, October main from the MLSSA 2007 calendar. 22 MLSSA JOURNAL Fossil Cave / Green Waterhole Cave (5l81) Bone Retrieval Dives for Dr Trevor Worthy (University Of Adelaide), 27th/28th May 2006.

by Dave Albano/Peter Horne supplied by Neville Skinner

PARTY OBJECTIVES

Peter Horne (Team Coordinator), Neville Skinner To attempt to relocate the 1979 Flinders (underwater photographer/ support & safety University survey star-dropper posts along the Diver), David Albano (support/safety diver) and “N” line, especially N3 dropper, and an adjacent Mark Nielsen (safety diver); Ian Lewis (surface labelled tag known as “Aslin Site 12” (“Site 07” support). during the 1979 project); to attempt to photograph the area before, during and after any bone-digging work; and to collect samples of bones and sediment around Tag 12.

Carrying gear down to the cave’s lake which is situated in the dark alcove behind the two scuba cylinders at the far end of the collapse (Peter Horne).

The research party: Neville Skinner (left rear), Ian Lewis (centre front), Mark Nielson (right rear).

And the authors, Dave Albano/Peter Horne (left to right).

23 MLSSA JOURNAL

OUTCOMES Peter tied the white line to N3 and proceeded to assess the area while Neville took photos, and Dive One: Saturday 27th May 2006 (duration because he only had some small helmet-lights for approx. 45 minutes). illuminating the scene, David and Mark supplied additional side-lighting for this task. A fallen Peter and Neville descended first through the dropper (believed to have been N1 or N2) was “Letterbox” with a large open reel of thick white found rusted through at the base and leaning synthetic rope with the intention of locating and against the back wall, just over a small deeper securing the old N3 star-dropper. The water was hole, and Peter collected some of the more noticeably dark and murky, suggesting that obvious (and smaller) bones and carefully crushed grass observed around the carpark area scraped samples of the sediment into a 2-litre was most likely caused by a group of other divers plastic ice-cream container using its flat lid, earlier that morning, which was unfortunate minimizing hand contact as much as possible. from the point of view of photography. The water level was also lower that Peter had ever seen, and there was a substantial air section extending into the normally-flooded ceiling area of the cave.

Their first observation during the descent into the gloom was that none of the marker tags remained on the star-droppers which were located, and many of the droppers had either disappeared or fallen over (some were later found to have corroded right through at their bases, leaving just a rust-filled hole in the rock). The lines which had previously linked the main droppers together were also missing and it took Tying off the white reference/safety rope around 5 minutes before the correct line of to (presumed) star-dropper N3, about droppers was relocated. As Peter approached 1.5m beyond which Tag 12 can be seen what he believed was the N3 dropper he was floating in a small area of flatter calcite- pleased to see the yellow Site 12 marker floating off the bottom exactly where it was expected to covered silt (Neville Skinner). be, despite the 18 years which had passed since The first container (#1, blue) was used to hold the last mapping project he had coordinated material which was collected from within about there back in 1988. 2-3 metres of Tag 12 (around 9 metres depth), with some slightly shallower samples included. No obvious bone material was seen below Tag 12 and the floor in this area basically comprised a 2-3m wide flatter section of boulder, with a fairly thick deposit of calcite rafts.

Running the thick white safety/reference line down into the main chamber along the original “N” line (Neville Skinner). Collecting sediment and bones 24 (Neville Skinner). MLSSA JOURNAL

Container No. 2 (gold) was used for material which was collected considerably shallower than the Tag 12 location, virtually directly above and over the boulders at a depth of about 6 metres close to the N4/N5 pegs (visible in the photo below), after Neville had located a partial skull in the silt there.

Container No. 3 (blue again) was used to store more bones which were also within a 3-4m radius of N3/Tag 12, and bones found included many thin, long bones and a few larger ones including two which are obviously from large mammals such as kangaroos.

Sample 3 (blue container) to the right of Tag 12, and placing the samples into the wire bone basket for transporting back to the surface. Note the reduced visibility (Neville Skinner).

This first dive was disappointing to some extent with regards to the poor visibility and the scarcity of good bone-fields near Tag 12, but it was a safely-executed and interesting dive Sample 2, using a yellow container, near nonetheless and provided important preliminary N4/N5 (pegs visible near boulder in top information for possible future work, which photo – Neville Skinner). should ideally include more photography and silt/bone-collecting around N3/Tag 12 as well as sediment sampling directly below Tag 12 (at the wall/floor interface) and a closer exploration of the deeper small holes in that area which escaped earlier mapping documentation.

25 MLSSA JOURNAL

Dive Two: Sunday 28th May 2006 (duration approx. 45 minutes).

The dive party comprised the same divers as the previous day, but Ian was not in attendance this time. The weather was atrocious but the water was spectacularly clear, and it was a very easy task to relocate Tag 12 (a standard cave diving line/reel was used this time instead of the thick white rope). Peter descended first with David and both divers collected more material/samples around Tag 12, storing their samples in three white ice-cream containers which like the Collecting bones and sediment from along smaller ones of the previous day, were carried down to the site in a bone-collecting basket (wire the edge of the boulder near N4/N5; the cage with split-pin lid, used during the original unlabelled standing dropper is N5, and research project by SAUSS Inc). Container No. 4 N4 can be seen lying to its right (Neville (marked “Pumpkin Soup” – hopefully nobody Skinner). will believe the label!) was taken down to about 11 metres where a small area of wall/floor interface had collected some sediment, which was carefully scooped into the container. This was below and slightly to one side of the Tag 12 area of interest – any material which had fallen straight down from Tag 12 would likely have fallen down through some small deeper holes which require further investigation with single or side/mount scuba cylinders or the like. Container No. 5 (unmarked) was basically another general sample close to the previous day’s #3 container collection on the flat calcite area to the right of Tag 12, and Container No. 6 (marked “Soup 5/7/00”, see above warning!) was at a depth of 6m where David had spotted some interesting skeletal bits and pieces under them cool and protected for the journey back to the edge of a slab. During this collection Peter Adelaide University, where they were delivered realised that a fallen, nearly-buried dropper by Peter to Dr Worthy on Monday 29th May there still had the original tag N4 loosely 2006. attached; this was removed and placed in the container to assist later labelling. Preliminary assessment indicated that some bones could be of considerable interest and At various times during this dive Neville took hopefully further more detailed research may more photos, and after the samples had been come from these efforts in the not-too-distant taken to the surface Neville took Peter and Mark future. back down to the deep floor-hole area to show them additional cavities and bones which await collecting and recording in the future. At the Peter Horne, Team Leader (former Projects conclusion of the diving and collecting activities Coordinator, South Australian Underwater the larger bones were wrapped in wet Speleological Society Inc; Project Leader of SAUSS newspaper (in hindsight, not a good idea for Project No. 1, Fossil Cave, 1988 and former possible DNA studies, in view of the paper and Manager of Mapping & Research, Cave Divers ink base, but that’s how the earlier Flinders Association of Australia Inc.) teams did it) and the other containers were padded and stacked in a plastic Esky to keep

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PELICAN FEEDING - 5.00pm daily at the Kingscote Wharf Popular entertainment for all ages, John “the Pelican Man” gives an informative talk while feeding the birds. Follow the signage or enquire at KI Marine Centre. Adults/Children $2.00 ea. 27 MLSSA JOURNAL

What You Should Know About Great White Sharks (DRAFT) by Phil Kemp

INTRODUCTION statistics and behavioural information about the In 2005, one fatal shark attack and two non- Great White Shark. You will also learn that Great fatal attacks once again shocked the South White Sharks are intelligent and complex Australian community. The information I have animals, supremely adapted to their prepared here will give you an insight into the environment. Each individual appears to behaviour and habits of the Great White Shark demonstrate distinctive behavioural and our need as a community to embrace its characteristics and appears to have some survival, rather than call for culling of the learning capacity. 2 and 6 Despite its position as an species after each attack, which could very well apex predator (top of the food chain), the Great lead to its extinction. White Shark faces numerous threats in its There have been many headline-grabbing environment, just like every other high order descriptions in recent years that portray the carnivore and just about any other large wild Great White Shark as a “killer”, a stereotype that animal in the world. To ecologists, this is not many researchers will argue against and suggest surprising at all. There’s also a section included that this title is quite undeserving. As most of us in this article on methods that may assist in have experienced throughout our lives, we are reducing the risk of being attacked. often fearful of things we do not understand and Even though the Great White Shark is the things we don’t know. To gain an endangered and needs our help to survive in to understanding of the Great White Shark can the future, so do many other living creatures in assist us in respecting these creatures rather than the marine eco-system. These other creatures fearing them. depend on the Great White Shark’s continued They are in danger of becoming extinct and, as I survival and predominance. will explain further throughout this article, to So what possibly could be threatening them? The gain a deeper understanding we need to view the answer is not that surprising, we are! You can Great White Shark differently. help save the Great White Shark, however, and, It may be surprising, considering the fearsome by doing so, aid in preserving the balance of our reputation of a Great White Shark, that they are local marine eco-system. listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened So please read on and let us open the window Species.1, 2, 6 and 7 This fact may seem into their world and learn how you can play an incomprehensible to some people as the Great important part in its survival and everything that White Shark is commonly portrayed as a fearless lives in its liquid universe and, at the same time, mindless killing machine. and most of all, be safer. Also included in this article are some facts,

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FAST FACTS ABOUT THE GREAT WHITE SHARK world’s temperate oceans, preferring cool The Great White Shark is scientifically known as temperate waters generally ranging from 12oC to Carcharodon carcharias. It is, however, most 22oC, and between 60o latitude North and 60o commonly known around the world as the latitude South (Feurguson, 1998). 2, 6 and 9 Their ‘Great White’. Here in Australia it is also known few remaining population strongholds seem to as the ‘White Pointer’. be in Southern Australia, South Africa and Shape & Colour Western North American waters. The Great White has a torpedo shaped body and Current satellite tagging information shows that conical snout. Its colouration is a bronzy and many of the Great White Sharks spend a greyish brown on top (dorsal surface) and white proportion of the year in the pelagic zone, away underneath (ventral surface). from the continental shelf. Currently, knowledge of what sharks do out there is limited. It is The number, position and shape of fins is important, however, for us to find out why they distinguishing and aids in shark identifications. do this, to understand their lifestyle, and to help Great White Sharks have a large first dorsal fin save the Great White from extinction. The and very small second dorsal fin, a pair of large relatively small knowledge of Great Whites pectoral fins and a vertical crescent shaped tail means that continued scientific research is fin (with the dorsal lobe being only slightly imperative to help preserve the Great White and larger than the ventral lobe). It also has five assist in recovery from the threatened status that large gill slits extending along each side of the this species holds. 1, 2, 6, 9 and 10 throat, and large dark eyes. Abundance The Great White Shark has large triangular There is no accurate estimation on the numbers serrated teeth. They have 50 individual teeth of Great White Sharks both in Australian waters positions in their jaws, with 26 in the upper jaw and around the world but real evidence and and 24 slightly pointier teeth in the lower jaw. reports show that their numbers have declined Each of these positions may have 1-3 row(s) since mid last century.1, 2, 6, 9 and 10 exposed with several other rows being developed There is no evidence that numbers have from within the gum and awaiting to move significantly increased in recent years as is forward as the teeth need replacing (like a reported widely by the media seemingly any time conveyer belt). that a shark attack occurs. Reports have shown Size that fewer Great Whites are being captured each Nobody knows for sure exactly how big the Great year in recent times than a couple of decades White grows. There has been a lot of debate and ago, which may suggest a decrease in numbers. a lot of unconfirmed wild claims of Great Plain logic, however, also suggests that such a Whites measuring up to 7m in length and up to slow breeding animal cannot possibly rebound 3,000kg in weight being captured. It is generally significantly in the amount of time that the Great accepted, however, that the maximum length of White has been protected here. Statistics also this species is between 5.5m to 6m, with the indicate that we are not seeing a trend of female being larger than the male when fully increasing shark attacks against a trend of an matured. There have been dependable reports of increase in the human population. 3 captured Great Whites weighing in above Predators 2,000kg, but generally not much more than Great White Sharks have few natural predators. 2,500kg. 1, 2, 6, 9 and 10 It has, however, been documented that they have Diet been attacked by Killer Whales. 1, 2, 5 and 8 It is Great White Sharks feed on a diversity of prey humans though who pose the greatest threat to items ranging from snapper, tuna and squid to the Great Whites. This is a result through a larger mammals like seals and sea lions, number of activities, which will be discussed dolphins, whales, stingrays and other sharks. further in more detail later on. Hence, our presence in the sea means an attack is a possible consequence, albeit an unlikely one BIOLOGY OF THE GREAT WHITE SHARK in most circumstances. Here are just a few unique and interesting facts Habitat about the Great White Shark: - Great White Sharks are uncommonly (It is important, however, to note that there are encountered, yet widespread throughout the over 450 recognised shark species that all share

29 MLSSA JOURNAL some common characteristics. receptors called ‘Ampullae of Lorenzini’ which For example: give them the ability to detect electrical fields. • Their senses, i.e. sight, smell and the ability The Hammerhead Shark is believed to have the to detect low frequency vibrations and most heightened of this sense, but the Great electro-magnetic fields. White Shark still can detect down to 125 millionths of a volt.1, 2 and 6 All sharks have • A skeleton made out of cartilage rather another method of detecting prey - the ‘Lateral than bone. Line,’ which extends down each flank of the • Their skin, covered with tiny tooth-like shark, detects vibrations in the water. 1, 2 and 6 scales that help protect their skin and help to reduce drag. • Large livers that are rich in low-density oil, which helps to prevent them from sinking, in the absence of a swim bladder that’s present in bony or scale fish.)

The Great White has evolved an ability that very few species of sharks are able to do and that is to increase their body temperature up to 14oC greater than the surrounding water through the process of heat exchanging. This gives a predatory advantage in colder water compared to other sharks, which require warmer or tropical waters to maintain physiological function. Great White Sharks are closely related Ampullae of Lorenzini to two mako species of sharks. Other shark With the complex sensing organs the Great species including the Salmon Shark, Porbeagle White possesses, it takes a relatively large well- and at least several species of Thresher Sharks developed brain to coordinate these effectively. can do this as well. Combine this with its complex social structure, (which has just recently been observed by researchers in the wild), the ability to adapt new strategies for catching food and the ability to learn from past experiences, would indicate relatively higher intelligence than we have previously given them credit for.

GREAT WHITE SHARK BEHAVIOUR It has long been thought that the Great White Shark has been a solitary hunter. Extensive studies in recent years have discovered a complex social behaviour and dominance hierarchy status in the Great White when they gather around food sources. Researchers have so far managed to distinguish Great White Sharks can hold their heads above ten different rituals and displays that the shark water and have the ability to focus their eyes uses to settle differences in most cases, with special muscles for above water focus. demonstrating dominance through posture and Great White Sharks have the biggest olfactory body language to challenge each other, rather lobes of all sharks, providing the greatest than using violent force.2 and 6 sensitivity to smell. This is possibly also for social Scientists have also witnessed behaviour in the reasons rather than just detecting a dead whale, Great White Shark, which leads some of them to a seal or sea lion at vast distances. Great White think that they are curious creatures as well. Sharks have a highly developed visual sense with They have displayed an inventive way of great colour vision. Sharks have electro- manipulating objects such as biting, balancing, 30 MLSSA JOURNAL chasing, and hitting objects like five-gallon (See the section further in this information for drums, etc.. The Great White tends to have a more helpful hints). sense of play with living and non-living things, giving the impression that they are not always SHARK ATTACKS interested in them as a food source.2 and 6 Psychologists have found out through research Great White Sharks tend to use a range of and extensive testing that no other word in the investigative skills using their snouts and highly English language strikes more fear in us than the sensitive sharp teeth to test an object, as opposed word ‘shark’. This may be because when we to a creature that can touch or examine an object enter their liquid environment, which is so alien with its hands (like us humans), paws or feelers. to our terrestrial senses, we are rendered Researchers have witnessed this type of test virtually helpless.2 and 6 To be safer, we have to biting, along with bumping objects, and it is learn and understand how they behave and what believed to be assisted by special types of touch measures we have to take to remain safer so that receptors on their ‘face’. we still can enjoy ourselves and share their It is also known that in some of the attacks on world. humans where the victims have not sustained Following recent events, it is easy to draw the serious injury, the shark has had just one bite conclusion that shark attacks are on the rise. and then released the victim, supporting the Statistics, however, do not support this view. As knowledge that sharks will test or examine a the worldwide human population continues to subject and release, rather than attempt what rise year after year, so does our interest in most people would believe to be a feeding frenzy. aquatic recreation. The number of shark attacks It could then be said, when it comes to items on in any given year or region is highly influenced their menu – we are not on it! The question that by the number of people entering the water. still remains is “why are we being targeted for Note the nearly identical increase in beach occasional attacks?” attendance, drowning rescues, and shark attacks. A simple explanation could be put down to test In comparison, you are still far more likely to be biting for palatability (to see if we have enough killed in a car accident than attacked by a shark. fat/energy content) and to give an indication of Statistics from the ASAF show that there has been whether or not the object can be consumed only an average of 1.3 fatal shark attacks per easily. The next step is to test to see if the shark is year in Australia over the last 20 years. prepared or motivated to go to a higher level of Significantly more people are attacked each year energy expenditure to consume the target. So the by other animals. There has been for example: - good news is that we do not normally have • 2-3 fatalities per year due to bee stings. enough fat/energy content for them to want to consume us. At the same time, however, it could • Over 300 people a year in Australia are be a territorial attack to keep other large bitten by snakes, with an average of 3 competitors out of its immediate area by fatalities as a consequence. claiming the victim. Whether or not we can • Four crocodile attacks in the top end of prove that Great White Sharks mistake us for Australia last year (as of September 2005) seals (while we float on the surface) from visual and there were at least three in 2004.1, 3 and 4 cues has led to debates amongst scientists and When we discuss why a shark attacks humans, researchers. The fact that we are rarely attacked we must think of the motives of the shark. Our when sharks have the ability to see us, however, ability to think clearly and rationally when we gives credence to the fact that they have face the terrifying thought of being eaten alive excellent vision.1, 2 and 6 will likely overwhelm any thought of clear The knowledge and background we have on thinking. Being educated and having a clearer shark attacks suggests they are not the malicious understanding of the motives of the shark killers that have been portrayed in movies. attacking us may assist that thought process Knowing this, however, does not reduce the when we discuss the issue of being attacked. concern of the community and those who have The majority of attacks on humans are had the misfortune of being attacked. Everyone unprovoked and may be more exploratory in should be aware of safety in the water and being nature, motivated by the Great White Shark aware of hazards in relation to shark attacks. being inquisitive rather than being motivated by hunger.

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Australian Bureau of Statistics ASAF Recorded Fatal Accidental Drowning & Submersion from 1994 & 1995 in the following categories Year Surfboard Rock Skin Drowned while swimming at Fatal attacks by Great Riding Fishing Diving an ocean beach, a river, lake, & White Sharks SCUBA harbour, estuary, bay, or lagoon. 1994 3 14 27 79 Total 123 1995 2 13 14 68 Total 97 1876- Total 2005 39

The Australian Bureau of Statistics provides evidence of more humans losing their lives in other water activities than due to Great White Shark attacks.

The majority of unprovoked attacks are historical evidence suggests that in an relatively gentle compared with the outrageous unprovoked attack the shark will remain in the damage these huge and powerful predators are area and attempt to inflict further bites if the clearly capable of inflicting. In attacks off the person fights back in the initial attack.” 2 With South African coast, of 63 cases, 29 (or 46%) of this in mind, the Australian Shark Attack File the victims were bitten but sustained no tissue suggests that some methods of repelling sharks loss whatsoever.2 may have different outcomes every time. It all The remaining minority of unprovoked attacks depends on each individual situation and with are generally more aggressive and may be a case the conditions and the size of the shark.3 of mistaken identity, especially if the water’s In conclusion, humans kill far more sharks each visibility is reduced significantly due to poor year than sharks kill humans. Statistically, you conditions. are even more likely to be hit by lightning than A 1981 paper written by Ralph Collier and attacked by a shark. Daniel Miller says “numerous accounts and

Total Shark Attacks in Australia by ASAF (Not every shark attack was by a Great White Shark) State Total Attacks Fatal Attacks Last Fatal Attack (up to 2005) NSW 243 72 1993 Byron Bay

QLD 223 71 2004 Opal Reef

VIC 34 7 1977 Mornington Peninsula SA 49 21 2005 Glenelg Beach

WA 71 13 2005 Houtman Abrolhos Is. NT 12 3 1938 Bathurst Island

TAS 21 5 1993 Tenth Island, Georgetown. Total (As of Sept 2005 653 192 for all Australian States Combined) 32 MLSSA JOURNAL

1876-2005 ASAF Recorded Attacks by Great White Sharks in Australia (N=76) State Total Attacks Fatal Attacks Last Fatality SA 27 15 2005 NSW 23 11 1993 VIC 10 3 1956 WA 14 5 2005 TAS 10 4 1993 QLD 2 1 1992 Australia in Total 86 39 2005

• For more detailed information on shark of Great White Sharks, keeping the numbers attacks and statistics please visit down like it does with every other living www.sharkfoundation.com or creature. Great Whites have very little to fear www.zoo.nsw.gov.au from other marine life, with the rare exception of the Killer Whale. Attacks by Killer Whales for WHY THE GREAT WHITE SHARK IS AN example, although rare, are possibly to protect ENDANGERED SPECIES younger members of the pod from any potential The Great White Shark is endangered because threats and to remove competition. There could they grow and mature slowly and because they possibly be a few reasons why the Killer Whale are believed to reproduce once every 2-3 years, would attack a Great White. One reason could be producing only a small litter each time. These for the shark’s large liver, which is rich in oils characteristics make the Great White Shark and would possibly make a tasty snack for the highly vulnerable to even moderate rates of Killer Whale. A second reason would be for the removal from the breeding stock. Natural Killer Whales to protect their young from the mortality plays its part in the population stability possible threat by a Great White Shark in the area.

Notice the damage to the gills caused by another Great White, which nearly proved fatal 33 MLSSA JOURNAL

Even though Great Whites settle most of their generally, for a first offence, this may involve a differences through posture display and rituals, $4000 fine and/or one year’s gaol. For a second as mentioned before, not all conflicts, however, offence, this may involve a fine up to $8,000 are resolved peacefully. The biggest threat to and/or 2 year’s gaol. 1, 7, 9, 10, 12 and 13 Great White Shark numbers, however, is humans. Every mature Great White Shark WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF THE GREAT WHITE removed from its environment represents a SHARK BECAME EXTINCT? significant loss to the marine ecosystem. So how is this possible? There are numerous No one knows for sure exactly what would ways for the cause of their depletion. happen if they did become extinct. What is known from many scientific studies and models, Commercial Fishing however, is that the removal of the top-level Fishing is currently the largest cause of Great predator wreaks havoc on their entire ecosystem. White Shark fatality, predominantly resulting How is this possible? Well, because Great White from by-catch. ‘By-catch’ means that even Sharks are top order carnivores, they directly though they are not targeted, they still have a influence the abundance and diversity of all tendency to get caught up in fishermen’s nets other populations in their environment. and hooked on long-lines when trying to catch For example, when lower middle-level predators, the same school of tuna that the fishermen like seals, dolphins and large fish species, are not acquire. They also try to scavenge from checked and balanced in our local environment, fishermen’s nets once the fishermen have made this would result in population collapses down their catch and get entangled in the nets during the line, leading to some populations replacing the process. In South Australia, estimations of others and a less rich and diverse environment around 10 to 100 are killed due to this ensuing. If this happened, this would have a according to designating reports. As Great White certain impact on our local commercial fisheries Sharks are inquisitive and approach boats and as well. objects, this increases the likelihood of an As you can see, Great White Sharks are far more incidental entanglement in fishing equipment. valuable alive than dead. So it’s up to us to do Through recent studies conducted by the CSIRO something, as we are the ones with the power to Marine Research team tagging and satellite stop this, just as we are the ones who are tracking Great White Sharks, the scientists have contributing to the increasing odds of their discovered that Great White Sharks may follow extinction. 1, 2, 6, 7, 9 and 10 similar paths when in travelling mode from one destination to another. If the scientist can WHAT IS BEING DONE & HOW CAN YOU identify clear highways that the Great White HELP? travels, then maybe commercial fishing The first step was, of course, to protect the Great companies could possibly avoid fishing in these White in their remaining ‘hotspots’ around the areas. world by placing it on the threatened species list. South Africa was the first country in the world to Illegal Trading & Sports Fishing do this, back in 1991. Other countries, including Great White Sharks have been protected in Australia, the state of California and the eastern Australia since 1998 and are now CITES coast of the USA, the Maldives and the countries (Convention on International Trade of surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, soon Endangered Species) Appendix II listed. There followed. The Great White Shark travels huge has been no illegal trade, or very little, for shark distances across open oceans to other countries. fins on the black market since. Sports Purposes for them doing this are currently (recreational) fishing for trophy purposes (for unknown. One theory is for reproductive Great White jaws and teeth) has been very reasons. To ensure the survival of this species, a popular, especially after the movie ‘Jaws’. Now plan needs to be distributed and enforced that they are protected, however, it’s illegal to globally. hunt Great Whites and there are heavy penalties With more profound monitoring from the that apply for anyone found guilty of taking a Fisheries, trading of body parts of the Great Great White. Penalties include a maximum White Shark on the black market has decreased. $100,000 fine under fisheries regulations but Closer monitoring of the commercial fishing

34 MLSSA JOURNAL industry needs to be implemented to reduce the Despite these facts, the Great White Shark is amount of by-catch each year and needs to be relentlessly persecuted and their declining accurately recorded. Research programs need to numbers are fast becoming of great concern. be further developed to find out more about the There is an urgent need for researchers to find sharks’ migration patterns, reproduction cycles, out more about this species so they can survive when and where they breed and where their into the future. potential nursing grounds are. The FSRF needs your help so researchers can More funding is required to continue and continue their important work studying the further develop this vital research, and this is sharks that live in the Southern Ocean. Learning where you can play a very important part! more about these animals and threats they face will increase their chances of survival. ADOPT A GREAT WHITE SHARK Over the past few years, FSRF have clearly Without your help, extinction is looming for the identified 200 individual sharks from their tags Great White Shark… and the photographic identification of their distinctive markings. Some of these sharks, are Sponsor a Great White Shark and join the Fox never seen again, whilst others revisit the islands Shark Research Foundation (FSRF) in learning year after year. 1 about and protecting the sharks that live in our waters. Through the adoption package and the ABOUT THE SHARKS research you will be supporting, you will be The sharks offered for adoption are those who provided with a window into their world show distinctive marks, or have been star through which you will discover that each shark performers on several previous expeditions has a name, personality and a history. dates, preferably spanning more than one year Perhaps the most important thing you will and whom they expect to identify more reliably receive from your sponsorship is the peace of again in the future so that FSRF can keep you mind that comes from knowing that you are updated on their movements. making a real contribution to the protection of By taking detailed photos of the first dorsal fin our Great White Sharks. and the caudal fin, researchers can closely A shark adoption will mean that you are examine indentations to identify individual supporting vital research. By becoming an sharks. adoptive parent, you are making a huge Another means of identifying sharks is by difference to the future of these sharks and the studying pigmentation patterns on the skin in marine life as a whole. areas between the dark upper part of the body Adopt a shark and gain an appreciation of the and the pale lower part of the body, especially beauty of these magnificent predators, together around the gill slits, pelvic fins and the lower with awareness of the importance of their role in caudal fin lobe. a fragile marine environment. Sponsors receive an attractive adoption pack as a symbol of thanks ADOPTION PACKAGES to you for supporting their (FSRF) critical work For more information on the adoption packages to conserve this extraordinary animal. There are please visit the FSRF website. An adoption different levels of sponsorship which, depending pamphlet is also available at their shark on which level you choose, will determine what museum. you receive in your package. Sponsoring a shark for yourself, or as a unique and thoughtful gift If you are unable to adopt a Great White and for someone special, is easy. Simply select a would still like to help and contribute to their shark and preferred level of sponsorship and research, please visit the Shark museum and you complete the on line sponsorship form. can personally make any size donation.

WHY SPONSOR A GREAT WHITE SHARK? SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS Man has long feared sharks as the man-eater of Because Great White Sharks are very inquisitive, the sea, a reputation that is highly undeserved. big and powerful, and have very sharp serrated The number of people killed by sharks is very teeth, we still need to be cautious when we play small. In fact, for every human killed by a shark, in their world. What may seem gentle and humans kill 100 million sharks worldwide. inquisitive to them can be fatal to us. So that is

35 MLSSA JOURNAL why I have included this section on safety for • Leave the water as quickly and quietly as divers, surfers and every other beach goer. Some possible (making the movement with your safety tips are for people doing specific activities, feet and arms as smooth as possible). however, the majority is for everyone in general. Tips For Surfers SHARKS THAT ARE KNOWN TO BE DANGEROUS: • Never surf alone. The following animals have been identified in • Do not surf those locations known to be fatal unprovoked shark attacks on humans in frequented by Great White Sharks. Australia: - • Avoid surfing in areas that are inhabited Great White Shark (Carcharodon carcharias) year-round by a population of seals and Tiger Shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) sea lions. Bull Shark (Carcharhinus leucas) • Avoid lengthy periods in water with a SHARKS THAT HAVE BEEN CONSIDERED drop-off adjacent to the surf zone. POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS: • Avoid surfing at sunrise and sunset. Great Hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran) Blue Shark (Prionace glauca) Tips For All Beach Goers Mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) • Don’t swim near people fishing in boats, or Bronze Whaler Shark (Carcharhinus spear fishing. brachyurus) a.k.a. Copper shark Grey Nurse Shark (Carcharias taurus) • Do not swim in dirty or turbid water. • Avoid swimming well offshore, or along Tips For Divers drop-offs to deeper water. • Never Dive alone. • If schooling fish start to behave erratically • Never attach any marine organisms or congregate in large numbers, leave the directly to yourself. water. • Avoid diving in the vicinity of seal and sea • Do not swim with pets and domestic lion rookeries or haul out sites. animals. • Avoid diving at times of fish spawning • Look carefully before jumping into the (especially snapper). water from a boat or wharf.

• Be aware of changes in your surroundings What to do if a Shark is sighted in your area for example: marine life acting erratic or spooked all of a sudden. • Leave the water as quickly and quietly as possible (making the movement with your • When returning to the surface, constantly feet and arms as smooth as possible. The rotate and look in all directions. The splashing could attract the shark by majority of attacks on SCUBA divers took increasing its curiosity). place at depths of 3-6m below the surface in water over depths of about 30-45m.4 • Report shark sightings to Fishwatch (Ph: 1800 065 522) or Police (Ph: 131 444). If You See a Shark What to do if you or a friend is attacked • Never provoke any shark, no matter how small or harmless it may appear. • If attacked by a shark, try to remain calm. • Never corner a shark or cut off its path to • Remove yourself or the victim from the open water. water as mentioned above, as quickly and quietly as possible. • If air supply permitting, remain as close to or at the bottom as long as possible and • Once out of the water, avoid moving the wait until the shark loses interest and leaves victim. the area. • Make every effort to control the bleeding by applying pressure on the wound or just above. A tourniquet may be used if the 36 MLSSA JOURNAL

bleeding can’t be controlled by a pressure Seychelles, South Africa and the United Kingdom. bandage. The cord or strap from surf and/ Its Mission is to promote public awareness of or body boards are useful if there’s nothing sharks and their vital role in the marine else at your disposal. ecosystem. • Do not remove the victim’s wetsuit. By visiting their web site you can adopt a shark, learn more about their history, whale sharks and • Make the victim as comfortable as possible shark attacks. by laying them down and keep them warm by covering them up. CSIRO • Call 000 for emergency service and tell Scientists at CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric them your exact location and nature of the Research (CMAR) track Great White Shark injury. movement in Australian waters, using a range of • While waiting for the ambulance keep the tag types to learn more about these movement victim hydrated by giving them water. patterns. To learn more about Great White shark • Keep reassuring them and remain calm.1, 2, movement patterns visit the following web 3, 4 and 6 address: - http://www.cmar.csiro.au/research/sharks/ whitesharks/ozmovements.html

South African White Shark Research Institute The White Shark Conservation, Education and Exploration Society is an organisation that is dedicated to the exploration and conservation of the Great White Shark and the preservation of its environment. Visit their web site at http:// www.whiteshark.co.za/ to learn more about conservation on Great White Sharks, membership and adoption packages.

The Conservation Council’s White Sharks Count project Additional Great White Shark Research Chris Ball, Marine Programs Manager, CCSA Organisations 0408 089491 Andrew and Rodney Fox’s Fox Shark Research This is a program where the public can be Foundation is just one of many organisations that actively involved in reporting shark sightings. are devoted to researching Great White Sharks Commercial and recreational fishers, charter and the survival of the species. I have listed a few boat operators and other users of Eyre organisations and their web sites here, so you Peninsula’s marine environment are asked to can check them out and see what is being done report any sighting while out on the water. Chris around the world and what is involved in Ball, the Marine Programs Manager for the protecting this great, poorly misunderstood Conservation Council, believes White Sharks creature. Count will significantly increase the knowledge of White Shark movements across the Eyre Shark Research Institute (SRI) http:// Peninsula region. Sightings can be reported a www.sharks.org/ number of ways. Go to the following web site to The Shark Research Institute is a multi- learn more: - disciplinary non-profit 501(c)(3) scientific http://www.ccsa.asn.au/index.php? research organization. It was created to sponsor option=com_content&task=view&id=5542&Ite and conduct research on sharks and promote mid=351 their conservation. Founded in 1991 at Princeton, New Jersey, USA, REFERENCES & More Information SRI has field offices in Florida, Pennsylvania and 1 Andrew Fox/Fox Shark Research Foundation: Texas, as well as Australia, Canada, Ecuador, www.sharkfoundation.com Honduras, India, Mexico, Mozambique, 37 MLSSA JOURNAL

Rodney Fox Shark Museum, Moseley – 453, Predation by White Sharks Carcharodon Square, Glenelg, South Australia 5045 carcharias (Chondrichthyes: Lamnidae) Upon Chelonians, with New Records from the 2 R. Aidan Martin/ReefQuest Centre for Shark Mediterranean Sea and a First Record of the Research: Ocean Sunfish Mola mola (Osteichthyes: www.elasmo-research.org/education/ Molidae) as Stomach Contents) by Ian K. white_shark/overview.htm Fergusson, Leonard J.V. Compagno and Mark A. Marks. 3 John West/ASAF Taronga Zoo New South Wales: 10 CSIRO Marine Research/Tagging Great White www.zoo.nsw.gov.au/content/view.asp? Sharks: id=126 www.marine.csiro.au/research/whitesharks/ index.html Florida Museum of Natural History: 4 International Shark Attack File (ISAF) – 11 Article on the Great White Shark being on the www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/sharks/ISAF/ WWF Top Ten Extinction List: ISAF.htm www.sharkfoundation.com/news_archive.htm

5 “First person account on Killer Whale Vs. Great 12 www.ministers.sa.gov.au/minister.asp? White – Predation on a white shark mId=2&pId=6&sId=3889 (Carcharodon carcharias) by a killer whale (Orcinus orca) and a possible case of competitive 13 www.themercury.news.com.au/common/ displacement” by Pyle, P; Schramm, MJ; Keiper, story_page/0,5936,12796171% C; Anderson, SD, Marine Mammal Science [Mar. 255E3462,00.html Mamm. Sci.]. Vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 563-568. Apr 1999. Additional References

6 Field Guide to the Great White Shark •Marine Biology by R. Aidan Martin, ReefQuest Centre for Shark Publisher: Springer Berlin / Heidelberg. ISSN: Research, Special Publication No. 1, 2003 (with 0025-3162 (Paper) 1432-1793 (Online) special contributions by Jeremy Stafford-Deitsch, DOI: 10.1007/s002270000489, Issue: Volume Jeff Kurr, Caterina Gennaro and Ralph S. 138, Number 3, March 2001, Pages: 617 – 636 Collier). - The hunting strategy of white sharks ISBN: 0-9732395-0-6 (Carcharodon carcharias) near a seal colony.

7 White Shark (Carcharodon carcharias) Recovery Plan •Environmental Biology of Fishes July 2002, Commonwealth of Australia, 2002. Publisher: Springer Netherlands. ISSN: 0378- ISBN 0642548218 1909 (Paper) 1573-5133 (Online) Marine Conservation Branch, Environment DOI: 10.1023/A:1007520931105, Issue: Australia, GPO Box 787, Canberra, ACT 2601 Volume 56, Number 4, December 1999, www.deh.gov.au/coasts/species/sharks/ Pages: 351 – 364. greatwhite/index.html •Space Utilization and Swimming Depth of 8 2 minutes of rare footage of a Killer Whale White Sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, at the attacking a Great White Shark: South Farallon Islands, Central California www.cnn.com/EARTH/9710/08/ Kenneth J. Goldman and Scot D. Anderson. whale.vs.shark/

9 Environmental Biology of Fishes •A review of the biology and status of white Publisher: Springer Netherlands, ISSN: 0378- sharks in Australian waters 1909 (Paper) 1573-5133 (Online) by Malcolm, H; Bruce, BD; Stevens, JD, CSIRO, DOI: 10.1023/A:1007639324360, Issue: Hobart, Tas. (Australia), September 2001. Volume 58, Number 4, August 2000 (Pages: 447 • Journal of Comparative Physiology B:

38 MLSSA JOURNAL

Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Shark visit www.apexpredators.com) Physiology Publisher: Springer Berlin / Heidelberg. ISSN: John West, Australian Shark Attack File (ASAF), 0174-1578 (Paper) 1432-136X (Online) for the statistics and tables on shark attacks DOI: 10.1007/s003600050092, Issue: Volume within Australia. 167, Number 6, August 1997, Pages: 423 – 429 - Regulation of body temperature in the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, Kenneth J. Goldman

• Environmental Biology of Fishes Publisher: Springer Netherlands. ISSN: 0378- 1909 (Paper) 1573-5133 (Online) DOI: 10.1023/A:1007308406137, Issue: Volume 50, Number 1, March 1997, Pages: 61 – 62 - Threatened fishes of the world: Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lamnidae), Leonard J.V. Compagno, Mark A. Marks and Ian K. Fergusson.

• Conservation Genetics Publisher: Springer Netherlands, ISSN: 1566- 0621 (Paper) 1572-9737 (Online) DOI: 10.1023/A:1024771215616, Issue: Volume 4, Number 4, July 2003, Pages: 415 – 425 - A streamlined, bi-organelle, multiplex PCR approach to species identification: Application to global conservation and trade monitoring of the great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, by Demian D. Chapman, Debra L. Abercrombie, Christophe J. Douady, Ellen K. Pikitch, Michael J. Stanhopen and Mahmood S. Shivji1

• Predatory behaviour of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) at Seal Island, South Africa by R. Aidan Martin, Neil Hammerschlag, Ralph S. Collier and Chris Fallows.

• J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. (2005), 85, 1121 1135 Printed in the United Kingdom

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special thanks to: Andrew Fox, Fox Shark Research Foundation (FSRF), for his support, feedback, information, advice and valuable time

Chris Fallows, apexpredators.com, for his contribution and use of photos. (To see more of Chris’s magnificent photos of the Great White 39 MLSSA JOURNAL

“The Fox Shark Research Foundation encourages understanding and research we can better learn and supports the initiative of Phil Kemp in to live with, change the image and reduce the raising positive public awareness of the Great level of conflicts this species has unfortunately White Shark in the local South Australian long attracted from a largely irresponsible and community. This follows our mission and sensationalist media and a largely misinformed philosophy that education will always overcome and terrified public.” fears, and aid in the protection and conservation Andrew and Rodney Fox of this much-misunderstood animal. With more Fox Shark Research Foundation

40 MLSSA JOURNAL The Western Blue Groper by Scoresby A. Shepherd

The western blue groper is unique on South they can dislocate their jaw and open it widely to Australia’s reefs. It is both the largest reef- bite large chunks of the algal mat, suck them dwelling fish, and also one of the slowest into the gaping mouth cavity, and then filter out growing species, reaching sexual maturity at 55- the tiny crustaceans living in the mat. This 60 cm at 15 years of age, and a maximum length manner of feeding is hard work, and it is not of 1.7 m at about 70 years. For divers, it is a surprising that the groper takes greedily a piece special treat to see a groper swimming slowly of abalone or other shellfish offered by a passing and majestically in the water, approaching one diver. fearlessly, and then following with disarming curiosity. My interest in the groper started in the 1960s when I saw their numbers dwindle along South The groper lives in small ‘family’ groups of one Australia’s coast under the onslaught of spear male and female, together with a few sub-adults, fishing. These majestic fish were easily speared and occupies a home range often extending over and so doomed by their disarming curiosity. In 500 m of coastline. During territorial disputes 1971 when preparing fishing controls I was able over boundaries, males may be seen with jaws to fully protect them in the Gulfs, and provide interlocked in a fierce combat as each struggles partial protection outside the gulfs. Protection for supremacy. However such events are rare, was timely, and seemed to arrest their decline, so and mostly the groper swims placidly over its that groper began to increase in numbers. territory, occasionally diving to the bottom to roll However, recent studies with James Brook and over boulders in search of small crabs, sea- colleagues from Reef Watch show that small urchins or molluscs. The adults also have a groper are still captured by recreational fishers, remarkable bite-and-suck behaviour, by which even though protected, and that its numbers are

Western Blue Groper - Photo David Muirhead 41 MLSSA JOURNAL still almost certainly less than they once were. further offshore to deeper reefs of 30-50 m, This may well be because many fishers do not where they feed on crabs, molluscs, sea-urchins, recognize that the small greenish “rock cod” that and worms. they have caught is in fact a young groper. And certainly on southern Yorke Peninsula, where Is the blue groper worth protecting? Quite apart adults were once common, they are still quite from its majestic dignity, and friendly disposition rare. But what do we know of the fish’s life to divers, scientists believe that the groper plays history? an important key role in reef ecosystems. It is a major prey of the spiny sea-urchin, which in After a spring-to-autumn reproductive season, large numbers can form feeding fronts, and groper larvae are believed to drift in the sea for devastate natural reefs, leaving what are known 3-4 weeks and perhaps up to 40 km before as sea-urchin barrens devoid of algae. Such settling among shallow inshore reefs of about 1 barrens are already increasing along the east m deep, where they feed on tiny mussels and Tasmanian coasts, likely through global crustaceans. As they grow they move into slightly warming, reducing the productivity of the reefs deeper water of 2-3 m when they are 15-20 cm by 80-90%. By ensuring that natural populations long and have a dull grey-green colour matching of urchin predators, such as the groper, are the seaweed in which they hide. During the next present, the naturalness and productivity of sub-adult stage lasting 10 years or more when coastal reefs can be assured. they are 20-60 cm long they remain in sheltered waters and become a uniform pale green in As the major threat to groper is their continuing colour. Surveys along the South Australian open capture, it is surely time for us to press for their coasts show that they are in densities of 1-8 per complete protection, a matter which has been 100 m of coastline, showing that they are by no agreed to by the Fishery Management means an abundant species. Committee, but is still pending. In addition we must continue to educate the public about them, Sexual maturity is at about 60 cm and occurs at as they are truly an iconic species. As such they about 15 years of age. They then change colour must have high economic value for dive tourism, to the more familiar blue, the females being and this is yet another argument that can be used somewhat greenish blue compared with the to press for their protection and for public deeper hue of the male. By this size they have education. moved to deeper water and some migrate even

Juvenile Western Blue Groper - Photo David Muirhead 42 MLSSA JOURNAL The Flora and Fauna of Piccaninnie Ponds and Ewens Ponds (Including Eight Mile Creek) by Steve Reynolds

After diving and snorkelling in both Piccaninnie Australia who are rated at sinkhole category. Ponds and Ewens Ponds (including Eight Mile The Ewens Ponds are within the Ewens Ponds Creek) during the Marine Life Society’s trip to Conservation Park, which is also under the Port MacDonnell in February 2006, I wanted to control of the Department for Environment and list the many freshwater species of fish, plants Heritage, National Parks and Wildlife (Mount and invertebrates that we saw there. Since I am Gambier). Permits are not required to dive or not an expert on the identification of freshwater snorkel in the ponds unless a group is larger species, I enlisted the help of Mike Hammer, the than six divers or snorkellers. Groups of more Scientific Officer for the Native Fish Australia than six divers/snorkellers must book with the (SA) group. DEH office at Mount Gambier. Mike got me started by sending me an electronic Fishing is not allowed in either of the two copy of his report “The South East Fish conservation parks. Removal or damage to any Inventory: Distribution and Conservation of plants or animals, including fish, freshwater Freshwater Fishes of South East South Australia”. crayfish and yabbies, is prohibited. Thanks to Mike’s help, I am able to list the many species known to occur in both ponds and Eight

Mile Creek. It seems to me that I possibly saw most of these species there. Other members of our group may possibly have sighted those This first part of my list (Top Page 44) consists of species that I didn’t see myself. just native species of fish known to occur in the The Piccaninnie Ponds are within the ponds and creek: - Piccaninnie Ponds Conservation Park, which is under the control of the Department for Environment and Heritage, National Parks and Wildlife (Mount Gambier). Permits to either dive or snorkel in the ponds must be purchased from the DEH office at 11 Helen St, Mount Gambier (PO Box 1046, Mt Gambier SA 5290). Contact numbers are: - telephone 8735 1171 & 8735 1177, fax 8735 1110 & 8735 1135. Diving permits are only issued to current financial members of the Cave Divers Association of

Common Galaxias (Courtesy of Mike Hammer) 43 MLSSA JOURNAL Common Name Scientific Name Family Conservation Status Common Galaxias Galaxias maculatus Galaxiidae - Spotted Galaxias Galaxias truttaceus Galaxiiidae Endangered Southern Shortfinned Anguilla australis Anguillidae Rare in SA Eel River Blackfish Gadopsis marmoratus Gadopsidae Protected, Endangered Variegated (Ewens) Nannoperca variegata Nannopercidae Vulnerable Protected, Pygmy Perch Endangered Southern Pygmy Perch Nannoperca australis Nannopercidae Protected, Endangered Congolli Pseudophritis urvilli Bovichthidae -

Total: 7

Variegated Pygmy Perch (Courtesy of Mike Hammer)

As I said in my article “Ewens Ponds” (MLSSA 1. Living in only a handful of small waters Newsletter, January1998, No.240), the Ewens 2. By introduced predators having been (or Variegated) Pygmy Perch occurs “only in liberated into most of these clear-water systems Ewens Ponds and a few minor wetlands in the 3. Its preference for what is a quite rare and lower Glenelg River system in Victoria. It is a vulnerable habitat small species which reaches only 62mm in “Conservation of the Variegated Pygmy Perch – length”. As I said in my article “Endangered Freshwater Fish Survey of Lower South Eastern Freshwater Species Protected in S.A.” (MLSSA South Australia” by Hammer, Doube and Newsletter, July 1998, No.246), “The IUCN rated Roberts, as the title suggests, describes the the species as “vulnerable”. It chooses to live in conservation of the species and its potential very dense aquatic vegetation growing in flowing threats. The report also describes Ewens Ponds water. It is threatened by: - and Piccaninnie Ponds in detail and features 44 MLSSA JOURNAL some great maps and diagrams. Congolli, which are rare in SA, are also known as The Ewens (or Variegated) Pygmy Perch was tupong or freshwater flathead. Hillary Hauser* listed in the IUCN Red List of threatened animals said in “Exploring a Sunken Realm in in 1997. The 1998 SA Recreational Fishing Australia” (National Geographic, Vol.165, No.1, Guide listed the fish as a protected species, along January 1984) that they occurred in Piccaninnie with the Southern Pygmy Perch, River Blackfish Ponds where they feed on the Galaxiids. Mike and five other freshwater species. Hammer has confirmed the occurrence of Congolli in Ewens Ponds, Eight Mile Creek and Piccaninnie Ponds.

Blackfish (Courtesy of Mike Hammer)

I believe that I saw lots of River Blackfish deep within the overhang in the third pond at Ewens Ponds. I wedged myself as far into the overhang as I could and remained there for quite a while, observing them in the beam of my torchlight. I was quite entranced by them and my dive buddy, Neville Skinner began to think that I was stuck Congolli there until I backed out of the overhang. River (Courtesy of Mike Hammer) Blackfish are endangered and protected in SA. We saw several eels feeding out in the open at *Hillary Hauser is the (US) author of several the bottom of the main pond at Piccaninnie books about ‘skindiving’. She also wrote “Book of Ponds. It was a slightly overcast morning and the Fishes”, a comprehensive collection of the most eels possibly considered it to still be dawn. It common fish seen by divers. The 200-page book seems that they generally disappear once the sun has over 100 colour photos. comes up. Southern Shortfinned Eels are rare in SA.

This next part of my list (On Page 46) covers ‘marine vagrants’ known to occur in the ponds and creek:-

Southern Shortfinned Eel (Courtesy of Mike Hammer)

45 MLSSA JOURNAL Common Name Scientific Name Family SA Fishing restrictions*

Bream Acanthopagrus australis Sparidae Min. legal length & bag limit applies Yellow-eye Aldrichetta forsteri Mugilidae Min. legal length & bag limit Mullet applies Marine Goby** Tasmanogobius gloveri Gobiidae Smallmouthed Atherinosoma microstoma Atherinidae Hardyhead

Total: 4

* Fishing is not allowed in either Ewens Ponds or common but has declined in numbers to only a Piccaninnie Ponds conservation parks. few stable adult populations, so the species is ** Mike Hammer says that he caught a Marine considered threatened”. I said in my article Goby, Tasmanogobius gloveri, at the lower end of “Ewens Ponds” (MLSSA Newsletter, Eight Mile Creek. January1998, No.240), that the summer 1996 edition of “Southern Fisheries” magazine (Vol.4, This next part of my list covers fish species No.4) said that Australian Grayling, Prototroctes which may possibly occur in the ponds and creek maraena, “has only been recorded from Ewens but this has not been confirmed: - Ponds. It has been listed as being close to Common Scientific Name Family Conservation Status & Name SA Fishing restrictions* Australian Grayling Prototroctes maraena Prototroctidae Vulnerable Short-headed Mordacia mordax Petromyzontidae? Endangered Lamprey Pouched Lamprey Geotria australis Petromyzontidae Endangered Brown Trout Salmo trutta Salmonidae Min. legal length applies Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss Salmonidae Min. legal length applies Total: 5 * Fishing is not allowed in either Ewens Ponds or extinction” (p.43). Piccaninnie Ponds conservation parks. The “Freshwater Fishes of South Eastern SA data sheet” says that “Australian Grayling have been According to the “Native Fish in South Australia” previously recorded from the lower south east; it pamphlet (mlssa 2228), which Mike Hammer is either an irregular visitor or is now locally sent to me, “Lampreys have amazing body extinct”. features that help them migrate”. I didn’t see any Mike Hammer referred to Australian Grayling in lampreys in Eight Mile Creek myself. I did, “The South East Fish Inventory”, saying that they however, see a school of large fish which I are an additional native species which have been assumed at the time to be Australian Grayling. I documented in the past, but were not captured don’t believe that they could have been Yellow- during the inventory. Under 5.4 in his report eye Mullet. According to “Australian Marine (Mobile species), Mike said that Grayling “does Life” by Graham Edgar, “Australian Grayling not appear to occur in SA at the current time. remain in freshwater as adults but have a marine Their presence in SA may be governed by a juvenile stage which lasts until they reach about population sink from another source such as the 50mm in length. This species was once very nearby Glenelg River subject to migration and

46 MLSSA JOURNAL the health of the source population (via marine The Spiny Crayfish (lobster), Euastacus larval stage). Alternatively a small, localized sub- bispinosus (bispinosa/bispinosis/bispinosus) and population may have easily become extinct due the Burrowing Crayfish, Engaeus strictifrons, are to chance or anthropogenic disturbance”. considered to have a high conservation Mike also said in his report that Shortheaded significance due to their limited distributions in Lampreys and Pouched Lampreys have been south-eastern Australia. recorded in small patches such as Ewens Ponds and Piccaninnie Ponds, but they too were not Freshwater Crayfish, Geocharax species, are said captured during the inventory. Lampreys are to only have a comparatively small home range. endangered in SA. All freshwater crayfish are often referred to as yabbies. Marron, Cherax tenuimanus, have been This next part of my list covers invertebrate reported as occurring in Ewens Ponds even species known to occur in the ponds and creek: - though they are an introduced species (native to Common Scientific Name Family Conservation Status & Name SA Fishing restrictions* Spiny Crayfish Euastacus bispinosus Parastacidae Potentially threatened (bispinosa/bispinosis/ Bag limit applies bispinosus?) Burrowing Crayfish Engaeus strictifrons Parastacidae Potentially threatened Freshwater crayfish Geocharax species Parastacidae Potentially threatened

Marron Cherax tenuimanus Parastacidae

Yabby Cherax destructor Bag limit applies Freshwater Mussel Hyridella narracanensis Mytilidae Potentially threatened (Ridged) Freshwater Mussel Velesunio ambiguous? Potentially threatened Total: 7 * Fishing is not allowed in either Ewens Ponds or Piccaninnie Ponds conservation parks.

The Spiny Crayfish, Euastacus bispinosus (bispinosa/bispinosis/bispinosus), is also known as the South East Freshwater Crayfish and the Glenelg River Crayfish. It is said to be a relative of the River Murray Crayfish, Euastacus armatus. I saw a couple of crays in Ewens Ponds, one large specimen and one small one. The report titled “Observations on the ‘Mechanical Dragging’ of Eight Mile Creek, South-east South Australia” by Mike Hammer, our own Neville Skinner and Tim Playford (Adel. Uni.), says that “The spiny crayfish Euastacus bispinosis has a limited distribution . . . Habitat in Eight Mile Creek represents a significant A Spiny Crayfish in Eight Mile Creek portion of the species range in South Australia” (Photo by Neville Skinner) and “The spiny crayfish is a slow growing species unlikely to adapt well to alterations in its habitat”. 47 MLSSA JOURNAL

WA). They are one of the largest freshwater Chelodina longicollis is known as both the crayfish in the world. Longneck Turtle and the Snake-necked tortoise. “Observations on the ‘Mechanical Dragging’ of Freshwater turtles are called tortoises (or Eight Mile Creek, South-east South Australia” terrapins), so it seems that Snake-necked tortoise says that the Eight Mile Creek is the only area in would be the correct name for them. (This the state where the Freshwater Mussel, Hyridella matter was discussed in my article “Turtles, narracanensis, is known to occur. Tortoises & Terrapins” in our July 1999 Newsletter (No.257).) This next part of my list covers more I saw a couple of tortoises in Ewens Ponds/Eight invertebrate species thought to occur in the Mile Creek. Like the crays that I had seen, one ponds and creek: - was large and the other one was small.

Common Name Phylum Class Order Other molluscs? Mollusca Leeches Annelida Hirudinea Hydroids Cnidaria Hydrozoa Hydroida Sponges Porifera Shrimps Arthropoda Malacostraca Decapoda Crabs Arthropoda Malacostraca Decapoda Total: 6

My article titled “Ewens Ponds” in our January (I was pleased to recently read in The Advertiser 1998 Newsletter reported that I had seen crabs (11/4/06) that the Environment Protection at Ewens Ponds (in July 1997). “Discover Authority reports that the water quality of Lake Underwater Australia” by Neville Coleman Bonney in the south-east of SA is the best that it’s reports that both Ewens Ponds and Piccaninnie been in 30 years and that Longneck (Snake- Ponds have crabs plus freshwater sponges, necked) tortoises had returned to the lake and hydroids, shrimps, terrapins and frogs. threatened fish species were now multiplying (It is interesting to note that the “Ewens Ponds there.) Conservation Park Management Plan: Amendment to Plan of Management, South East, The book “Biological Science – the web of life” South Australia” by the Department of discusses the Long-necked tortoise and its Environment and Natural Resources does not community interrelationships. indicate the occurrence of most of these One or two members of our four-person team creatures.) which snorkelled the length of Eight Mile Creek discovered small leeches on themselves. Mike With terrapins and frogs in mind, this next part Hammer confirmed that there are plenty of of my list covers reptile and amphibian species leeches – “small black ones that get on your lips known to occur in the ponds and creek: - and in between your teeth after snorkelling

Common Name Scientific Name Family Snake-necked tortoise or Longneck Turtle Chelodina longicollis Chelidae Common eastern froglet Crinia signifera Myobatrachidae Ground frog Geocrinia laevis Myobatrachidae Eastern banjoy frog Limnodynastes dumerillii Myobatrachidae Spotted grass frog Limnodynastes tasmaniensis Myobatrachidae Southern toadlet Pseudophryne semimarmorata Myobatrachidae Brown tree frog Litoria ewingii Litoridae Bell frog Litoria raniformis Litoridae Total: 8 48 MLSSA JOURNAL

blue-green bacteria form dense mats. * Blue-green bacteria present below 5m in Ewens Ponds.

The freshwater red alga, Batrachospermum species is “locally abundant” but it is often classified as rare. It is said to be present within the small cave (overhang) at the bottom of the third pond and also beneath the landing of the first pond at Ewens Ponds. The channels between the ponds at Ewens Ponds are said to be dominated by the watercress Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (also called Rorippa officinalis or Nasturtium officinale or Longneck Turtle, Chelodina longicollis, Radicula nasturtium-aquaticum), the Lesser found in the River Murray (Courtesy of Water parsnip, Berula erecta (or Sium latifolium) Mike Hammer) and the common spike-rush (Eleocharis acuta). around at night through swampy bits!”. Bob Baldock from the State Herbarium says that Mike says that leeches belong to the Phylum the lesser water parsnip Berula erecta, is an Annelida (segmented worms) and Class introduced plant from western Europe, central Hirudinea. “The Web of Life” book confirms this Asia and North America. It belongs to the family and gives other details. When discussing the Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae). Bob explained Long-necked tortoise and its community to me that the Adelaide Herbarium still uses the interrelationships, the book says that “Leeches old Family name of Umbelliferae. Sium feed on tortoises without killing them; they latifolium may be present in SA, but there are no attach themselves to the tortoises and suck their reliable records. blood”. Many of the plants which are submerged in the This next part of my list covers the common ponds at Ewens Ponds occur elsewhere but are reeds and bulrush that dominate the area only partly submerged in marshes. These plants surrounding Ewens Ponds: - that are submerged at Ewens Ponds survive fully

Common Name Scientific Name Family Common reed, bamboo reed Phragmites australis Poaceae (Gramineae) Bulrush Typha angustifolia Typhaceae Total: 2 Tea-tree thickets consisting of Leptospermum submerged due to water clarity. The plants are pubescens and Scented paperbark, Melaleuca able to obtain carbon dioxide for photosynthesis squarrosa are scattered amongst the reeds and from the water and essential nutrients are bulrush. These vegetation associations (in the obtained by the roots from the soil. upper reaches of the ponds) have root systems The Shield Pennywort, Hydrocotyle verticillata, which stabilize the banks and prevent for example, is usually recorded as a bog species contamination by surface runoff. which is never submerged, but in Ewens Ponds it is only found beneath the water surface. The This next part of my list (page 50) covers some moss, Fissidens rigidulus, is usually found within of the vegetation (plant and algae species) the spray zone of waterfalls but it too is known to occur in Ewens Ponds: - completely submerged at Ewens Ponds. According to Hillary Hauser in her National # Dominant species found in Ewens Ponds. These Geographic article “Exploring a Sunken Realm in species range in depth from the surface to Australia” (Vol.165, No.1, January 1984), approximately 5m. Below that level they are Australian Lilaeopsis is a relative of celery and unable to consolidate the fine organic matter Water ribbon (Triglochin) is found in fresh which overlies the sands. As a consequence, waters across Australia. It produces an edible, 49 MLSSA JOURNAL

Common Name Scientific Name Family #Australian lilaeopsis Lilaeopsis polyantha Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae) River buttercup Ranunculus amphitrichus Ranunculaceae #Water ribbons Triglochin procerum Juncaginaceae #Streaked arrowgrass Triglochin striata (striatum?) Juncaginaceae #Shield pennywort Hydrocotyle verticillata Apiaceae (formerly Um- belliferae) Fennel Pondweed, sago pond- Potamogeton pectinatus Potamagetonaceae weed Watercress Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) (also called Rorippa officinalis or Nasturtium officinale or Radicula nasturtium-aquaticum) Lesser Water parsnip Berula erecta (or Sium lati- Apiaceae (formerly Um- folium) belliferae) Spike-rush Eleocharis acuta Cyperaceae Freshwater red alga Batrachospermum species Division: Rhodophyta *Blue-green bacteria/alga Anabaena species Division: Cyanobateria *Blue-green bacteria/alga Oscillatoria species Division: Cyanobateria *Blue-green bacteria/alga Lyngbya species Division: Cyanobateria Moss Fissidens rigidulus Total: 14 potato-like tuber which northern Aboriginals predators, as well as surfaces for invertebrates to harvest. Bouquets of the River Buttercup, colonise (e.g. potential food source for fishes). Ranunculus amphitrichus, climb stalks of the Riparian vegetation is today of limited extent Water ribbon, Triglochin procerum. The red along the creek, with some overhanging cover leaves of Ranunculus amphitrichus along the such as grasses, emergent plants e.g. Phragmites shoreline of Piccaninnie Ponds are frosted with (P.australis) and Typha species (bulrushes), and wisps of algae. The slightly saline aquifer that a general mix of species that help stabilize soft feeds Piccaninnie Ponds seems to inhabit the creek edges (at least in the upper reaches)”. spread of Ranunculus amphitrichus, which Hauser’s article “Exploring a Sunken Realm in adjusts its red pigment as needed to protect Australia” said that “The Eight Mile Creek against the sunlight drenching these crystalline Swamp that once surrounded Ewens Ponds has waters. been drained for farmland since before the “Observations on the ‘Mechanical Dragging’ of Second World War. The pond water levels, now Eight Mile Creek, South-east South Australia” apparently stabilized, lie one and a half meters says that Eight Mile Creek has a profusion of (five feet) below their original marks, and many submerged aquatic plants (such as the pondweed of the plant species still found at Piccaninnie Potamogeton pectinatus), many of which are Ponds have vanished from Ewens”. normally only found growing emerged (e.g. the Hauser’s article also said that Galaxiids in Australian lilaeopsis, Lilaeopsis polyantha, Shield Piccaninnie Ponds feed on algae and mosses that pennywort, Hydrocotyle verticillata and build into green underwater castles. Congolli Watercress, Rorripa nasturtiumaquaticum). The hide in the tangled cloud of algae and lie in wait report also says that the Water ribbon, Triglochin for feeding Galaxiids, which are one of their procerum reaches an unusually large size in favourite foods. Eight Mile Creek. It also says that “this form of Bob Baldock from the State Herbarium helped habitat and mixture of species is quite rare at the me out with some details about these plant regional and state level” Aquatic plants also species, including comments that the Aboriginal provide faunal refuge (shelter) from flow and names for Triglochin procerum are “Narelli” and

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“Pol-an-go”. Bob suggested that I visit Family name of Umbelliferae for Hydocotyle and www.flora.saugov.sa.gov.au for more details. Lilaeopsis species. He also helped me out with (The State Herbarium maintains records of local details about some of the other plants listed plants, including marine species. The herbarium above. He was able to tell me, for example, the probably has the largest algal collection in common names, the complete (& correct) Australia but the bulk of it has not been data scientific names and the Family names for them based. This is a great pity because many marine all. He also explained that there are five other projects are hampered by the difficulties in species of Potamogeton, distinguished by the accessing data on the distribution of species shape of their leaves. He told me that the from the 90,000 individual specimen sheets. A Watercress, Rorripa nasturtiumaquaticum is an complete database would circumvent this introduced water plant and that there are four problem. The herbarium had sufficient funding native terrestrial species as well. to data base all of the terrestrial collections but Many pest plants, mammals and one fish species there was nothing left to database the bulk of the are known to occur in the ponds at Ewens Ponds. algal collections. About $400,000 is needed to be The mammals include rats, mice, rabbits and able to database the complete algal collection. foxes. The one pest fish that is known to occur Our politicians need to inject some cash into the there is the Rainbow Trout, Salmo gairdneri, herbarium’s work so that our plant records may which is an introduced species. The rabbits and finally be completed.) foxes are also introduced species. These WA has an Internet-based record of its marine introduced species have the ability to impact on plants, the FloraBase information system -http:// the threatened fauna found in Ewens Ponds, www.naturebase.net/florabase. The database including native fish and crustaceans. provides on-line access to about 1,000 species of A fish (trout) farm adjoins the Ewens Ponds WA's marine macro algae and access details of Conservation Park to the east. It extracts water some 20,000 specimens. All of WA's marine via a channel from Pond 2 and discharges macro algae specimens are now housed in the effluent via an outlet channel into Pond 3. The Department of Conservation and Land discharges from the trout farm and the water Management (CALM) Herbarium's algal quality in the ponds is said to be monitored herbarium, and about 14,000 have now been regularly. entered on the database and added to the According “Exploring a Sunken Realm in original 6,000 sheets at the herbarium. Australia” by to Hillary Hauser (National According to the FloraBase web site: - Lilaeopsis Geographic, Vol.165, No.1, January 1984), polyantha, Ranunculus amphitrichus and botanist Dr Neil Hallam, a professor at Monash Triglochin species are all herbs. Both Lilaeopsis University spent many years studying both Ewens polyantha and Ranunculus amphitrichus are Ponds and Piccaninnie Ponds. In the early 1980s perennials. The Australian Lilaeopsis, Lilaeopsis Dr Hallam and graduate students from Monash polyantha is said to grow in sandy mud at lake University released rhodamine, a water-tracing margins. It has purple, red or brown flowers. The dye, into Pond 1, the largest of the ponds, at River Buttercup, Ranunculus amphitrichus has Ewens Ponds to clock the rate of water exchange. yellow flowers and is said to grow in swamps It is interesting to note that “Dyes and other and shallow water. Water Ribbons, Triglochin substances are not allowed to be released in the species, are “annual or perennial”. ponds whether for photography or any other I couldn’t find Hydrocotyle verticillata on the purpose. They are illegal under the Fisheries Act, FloraBase web site, so I took Bob Baldock’s advice 1982”. and visited the www.flora.saugov.sa.gov.au site Whilst snorkelling down Eight Mile Creek, where I found some details at http:// Neville Skinner and I sighted a ‘bluish’ fish www.flora.sa.gov.au/cgi-bin/texhtml.cgi? seemingly hiding beneath some alga at a corner form=speciesfacts&family=Umbelliferae&genus of the creek. We both commented that we didn’t =Hydrocotyle . It seems that pennyworts recognize the species. It seemed to be bream-like (Hydrocotyle species) are also perennial herbs but didn’t seem to be a bream. Other possible (with prostrate or ascending stems), or small species that come to mind are Estuary Perch, annuals with erect or ascending branched stems. Macquaria colonorum and Macquarie Perch, As mentioned earlier, Bob Baldock explained to Macquaria australisca. This latter species is said me that the Adelaide Herbarium still uses the old to be coloured dark bluish-grey on its dorsal

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(upper) surface at times. Mike Hammer says, however, that the occurrence of Macquarie Perch in the creek is not likely. Estuary Perch, however, are usually coloured olive-green on their dorsal surface.

Southern Pygmy Perch (Courtesy of Mike Hammer)

The CD also includes lots of fish photos, some of which feature in this article. The CD has been placed into our library (mlssa 8024). Mike also sent me a data sheet on freshwater fishes of South Eastern SA (“Freshwater Fishes of South Eastern SA data sheet”. This has been placed in a file along with other information used for this article. This file has also been placed into our library (mlssa 2228). The “Freshwater Fishes of South Eastern SA data sheet” gives details about lampreys, Congolli, River Blackfish, Shortfinned Eel, pygmy perch, galaxias and other freshwater fish species. It also features many (most) of Mike Hammer’s fish photos featured in this article. Trevor Watts from SARFAC also sent me a CD of Mike Hammer’s report titled “The Eastern Estuary Perch, Macquaria colonorum Mount Lofty Ranges Fish Inventory – (Courtesy of Mike Hammer) Distribution and conservation of freshwater fishes of tributaries to the Lower River Murray, About the time that I was completing this article, South Australia”. This CD has also been placed Mike Hammer sent me lots more reference into our library (mlssa 8025). details, including several reports on a CD. “The South East Fish Inventory: Distribution and Conservation of Freshwater Fishes of South East South Australia” is on the CD along with “Conservation of the Variegated Pygmy Perch – Freshwater Fish Survey of Lower South Eastern South Australia” by Hammer, Doube and Roberts (2000), “A Catalogue of South Australian Freshwater Fishes, including new records, range extensions and translocations” by Hammer and Walker, Transactions of the Royal Society of SA (2004), 128(2), 85-97 and “Observations on the Spotted Galaxias ‘Mechanical Dragging’ of Eight Mile Creek, (Courtesy of Mike Hammer) South-east South Australia” by Mike Hammer, Neville Skinner and T. Playford. This next part of my list on Page 53 covers some of the bird species known to occur in the ponds and creek: - 52 MLSSA JOURNAL Common Name Scientific Name Pacific Black duck Anas superciliosa Swamp Harrier Circus approximans Straw-necked Ibis Threskiomis spinicollis Total: 3 Many aquatic birds, however, are said to be Australia” by TD Scott, CJM Glover and RV frequent visitors to the Ewens Ponds Southcott, Government Printer, 1980. Conservation Park. “Biological Science – the web of life” by the Australian Academy of Science, 1981. Many thanks go to Mike Hammer for both his “The South East Fish Inventory: Distribution and many photographs and considerable assistance Conservation of Freshwater Fishes of South East with the above details. My thanks also to Trevor South Australia” by Michael Hammer, 2002. A Watts from SARFAC, Bob Baldock from the State CD copy of this report has also been placed into Herbarium, Christopher Deane and Neville our library (mlssa 8024). The CD also includes Skinner. lots of fish photos, some of which feature in this article. REFERENCES: “Conservation of the Variegated Pygmy Perch – “Ewens Ponds” by Steve Reynolds, MLSSA Freshwater Fish Survey of Lower South Eastern Newsletter, January 1998 (No.240). South Australia” by Hammer, Doube and Roberts “More About Ewens Ponds” by Steve Reynolds, (2000). A CD copy of this report has also been MLSSA Newsletter, March 1998 (No.242) placed into our library (mlssa 8024). “Endangered Freshwater Species Protected in “A Catalogue of South Australian Freshwater S.A.” by Steve Reynolds, MLSSA Newsletter, July Fishes, including new records, range extensions 1998 (No.246). and translocations” by Hammer and Walker, “The Freshwater Ponds At Port MacDonnell” by Transactions of the Royal Society of SA (2004), Steve Reynolds, MLSSA Newsletter, June 1999 128(2), 85-97. A CD copy of this report has also (No.256). been placed into our library (mlssa 8024). “The Flora & Fauna of Ewens Ponds” by Steve “Observations on the ‘Mechanical Dragging’ of Reynolds, MLSSA Newsletter, September 1999, Eight Mile Creek, South-east South Australia” by No.259. M.Hammer, N.Skinner and T.Playford, report to “MLSSA’s 2006 Trip To Piccaninnie Ponds, the South Eastern Water Conservation and Ewens Ponds And Eight Mile Creek - The Drainage Board. A CD copy of this report has Unofficial Report” by Steve Reynolds, MLSSA also been placed into our library (mlssa 8024). Newsletter (2006?) “Native Fish in South Australia” pamphlet (mlssa “Dredging of Eight Mile Creek” Parts 1 & 2, by 2228). Neville Skinner, MLSSA Newsletters, January & “Freshwater Fishes of South Eastern SA data February 2005 (Nos.317-8). sheet” (mlssa 2228). “Eight Mile Creek Report” by Neville Skinner, “The Eastern Mount Lofty Ranges Fish Inventory MLSSA Newsletter, January 2006 (No.328). – Distribution and conservation of freshwater “Fair go for endangered eight” by Bryan Pierce fishes of tributaries to the Lower River Murray, (SARDI Aquatic Sciences), Southern Fisheries South Australia” by Mike Hammer, September magazine, Vol.5, No.1, Autumn 1997. 2004. A CD copy of this report has also been “South Australian Recreational Fishing Guide” placed into our library (mlssa 8025). 1998 – Freshwater, Endangered Species. “Australian Marine Life – The Plants and “South Australian Recreational Fishing Guide” Animals of Temperate Waters” by Graham 2003 – The River Murray, Protected Species. Edgar, published by Reed New Holland, Sydney, “Exploring a Sunken Realm in Australia” by 2000, ISBN 1 876334 38 X, (mlssa 1053). Hillary Hauser, National Geographic, Vol.165, “The Marine and Freshwater Fishes of South No.1, January 1984. Australia” by Scott, Glover and Southcott, “Coastal Fishes of South-eastern Australia” by Government Printer, 1980 (mlssa 1009). Rudie H Kuiter, Gary Allen P/L, 2000. “Turtles, Tortoises & Terrapins” by Steve “The Marine and Freshwater Fishes of South Reynolds, MLSSA Newsletter, July 1999 (No.257). 53 MLSSA JOURNAL

“Marine Turtles in SA” by Steve Reynolds, MLSSA (Geocharax species) Newsletter, June 1992 (No.179). http://www.crayfishworld.com/spinya2.htm “More About Turtles” by Steve Reynolds, MLSSA (for more details about the Spiny Crayfish, Newsletter, July 1993 (No.191). Euastacus bispinosus (bispinosa/bispinosis/ “Turtle Article” by Steve Reynolds, MLSSA bispinosus) ) Newsletter, August 1995 (No.214). “1995 Year of the Turtle”, Editor Steve Reynolds, MLSSA Newsletter, August 1995 (No.214). “Ewen (sic) Ponds Conservation Park Management Plan: Amendment to Plan of Management, South East, South Australia” by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources. South-East Region, Natural Resources Group, ISBN or ISSN: 0730858219. ‘The Biology of Ewens Ponds and Piccaninnie Ponds, South Australia’ by Dr. Neill Hallam Senior Lecturer in Botany Monash Uni. February 1985 in Habitat Vol.13 No 1. The web site for Native Fish Australia (SA) – www.nativefishsa.asn.au . For more details about freshwater turtles visit http://www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/WfHC/ Chelidae/index.html . For more details about crayfish visit the following crayfish web sites (& web pages): - http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/docs/pub/ IdCrayfish/IdCrayfishPage01.php?0304 http://www.crayfishworld.com/ pictureindex.htm (Crayfish Photo Index) http://www.crayfishworld.com/geocharax.htm

We thank DUCKPOND for their assistance with the duplication of slides for the MLSSA Photo Index.

The Professional’s E6 Laboratory 89 Fullarton Road, Norwood, SA Phone (08) 8363 2566 Fax (08) 8362 6113

54 MLSSA JOURNAL Save Ewens Ponds! by Gerard Carmody

On the weekend of 1-2 April 2006, members from the Australian New Guinea Fishes Association (ANGFA) travelled to Port MacDonnell to visit the magnificent wetlands of the south-eastern corner of South Australia. We came specifically to dive the uniquely spectacular and complex groundwater dependent ecosystem of Ewens Ponds Conservation Park (EPCP). Like the many thousands of visitors before us, the plan was to take in the experience of the crystal clear water and abundant aquatic fauna and flora. Unfortunately this trip was very different to past experience and expectations as we saw the alarming deterioration of the Ewens Ponds wetland and out-flowing Eight Mile Creek. The most noticeable change was the widespread infestation and impact of an aggressive new form of blue-green algae throughout the ponds and creek. Of major concern is the degradation of critical habitat for the vulnerable Ewens Pygmy Perch (Nannoperca variegata). On our return from Ewens Ponds I was motivated to raise awareness of its rapid decline, including the impact on aquatic fauna and flora. As a part of this, I undertook research to become better informed about the issue and to alert and encourage all responsible authorities and Above: “Welcome to Ewens Ponds” – interested parties to take immediate action. Department of Environment and Is History Repeating Itself? Heritage signage – In the late 1970s to early 1980s a dieback Photograph: Kath Moores

Above: The Ewens Ponds Creek channel linking Pond 2 to Pond 3 – Left: October 2002 – Right January 2006 – Photographs: Neville Skinner 55 MLSSA JOURNAL phenomenon was reported in Ewens Ponds. This eventually lead to its closure to divers (Lewis, Stace 1980). By the late 1980s, however Ewens had mostly recovered (although some dieback continued for a number of years in the area of the fall-out zone from the water flowing from the cave in pond 3, Lipson 1989). The cause of this dieback remained a puzzle then as it does now. Are we seeing the return of this problem in 2006 or something different? The first indication of the recent blue-green algae infestation in Ewens Ponds was reported by a local Dive shop in the summer of 2004/05. Perhaps not surprisingly, the mass outbreak of blue-algae occurred in the following summer of 2005/06 after another year of drought. Above: Southern Pygmy Perch (Nannoperca australis) schooling at the The Change bottom of Ewens Ponds prior to the blue- In previous regular visits to Ewens Ponds, aquatic green algae bloom. vegetation such as water ribbon (Triglochin Photograph: Rudie Kuiter procerum) was commonly present at depths ranging from 1 to 6 metres (Hallam 1985). Beyond this depth, filamentous green algae and other benign blue-green algae species were present. This new infestation of blue-green algae is out-competing the most vigorous of these aquatic plants at depth as shallow as two metres leading to extensive die-back of aquatic plants throughout the system. Only in sections of the Eight Mile Creek, where water flow is significant does aquatic plant growth of species such as watercress (Rorippa nasturtium aquaticum), shield pennywort (Hydrocotyle verticillata) and river buttercup (Ranunculus amphitrichus) appear normal. Eight Mile Creek, however is far Above: The vulnerable Ewens Pygmy from free of this new infestation. Perch (Nannoperca variegata). The luxuriant thick mats of filamentous green Photograph: Rudie Kuiter algae that covered the sloping banks of the three

Above: Ewens Ponds – Left: Pond 2 October 2002 – Right: Pond 2 January 2006 – Photographs: Neville Skinner

56 MLSSA JOURNAL ponds from 5M depth have entirely disappeared platform to pond 1 with rafts of blue-green and replaced with the ubiquitous blue-green algae floating on the surface. It is clearly plain to algae. The visual “sand boils” feeding water into the observer that major changes have occurred the bottom of the ponds 1 and 2 from the which are having a very significant impact on shallow-water aquifers have also significantly both animal and aquatic plant life. It is essential declined. These changes coincide with a drastic that the impact be quantified in terms of reduction in the previously plentiful populations important measures such as species richness, of Southern Pygmy Perch (Nannoperca australis) evenness and individual species number by a which would normally be seen congregating in follow-up survey of similar detail to the research large numbers near these “sand boils”. Common by Hammer, Doube and Roberts (2000). Jollytail (Galaxias maculatus), Congolli (Pseudaphritis urvilli), freshwater crayfish Water: Precious Resource or Free Gift? (Euastacus bispinosus), shrimp (Paratya) and What makes Ewens Ponds such a wonderfully numerous other species have also declined. The rich and unique aquatic ecosystem are the same exceptions are River Blackfish (Gadopsis things that result in the adjacent farmland being marmoratus) and Black Bream (Acanthopagrus extremely attractive for intensive agricultural use butcheri). and ultimately compete with the ecosystem for Of most concern is the degradation of critical habitat for Ewens Pygmy Perch (Nannoperca variegata), of which only a few were observed in the creek sections and a small population congregating under the platform in pond 3. Ewens or Variegated Pygmy Perch are listed as vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Ewens Ponds, Eight Mile Creek, connecting Spencer’s Pond and adjacent Stratman’s Pond are critical habitats for this species (Hammer, Doube and Roberts 2000). The loss of Ewens Pygmy Perch from these locations would surely place them on the endangered red list. In July 2006 a further visit was made with Neville Skinner from the Marine Life Society of South Australia (MLSSA) and our observations are that the blue-green algae have spread further Above: Centre Pivot Irrigators at work – within the three major ponds. The extent of the Port MacDonnell problem is clearly evident from the entry Photograph: Gerard Carmody

Above: The Ewens Ponds Creek channel linking Pond 2 to Pond 3 Left: October 2002 – Right: January 2006 – Photographs: Neville Skinner

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Above: Ewens Ponds, Pond 1 pre blue-green algae bloom Photograph: Rudie Kuiter these resources (Hallam 1985, Skewes 2006). Below: Matts of blue-green algae near The plentiful clear and constant water flow from jetty of Pond 1 July 2006. the unconfined Mount Gambier aquifer and rich seam of peat soils provide an excellent nutrient Photograph: Gerard Carmody source for aquatic plants, allowing for exceptional plant growth in the ponds and creek. So productive is this aquatic ecosystem that certain species of plants are able to flower underwater and oxygen is regularly observed fizzing from the tips of submerged photosynthesising plants. The long history of flooding and interconnection with other wetlands in the area, and Eight Mile Creek linkage with the ocean has resulted in a diverse and rich aquatic fauna and flora (Hammer 2002). Yet despite the very special significance of this spring fed ecosystem, very little is known about the dominant hydrogeology, whether it is fed from a deep or shallow aquifer or the direction from which the water is flowing. Mostly, the makes these groundwater dependent ecosystems current information is anecdotal and from extremely vulnerable to pollution from recreational SCUBA divers. Being part of the agricultural run-off and waste disposal in greater Mt Gambier unconfined aquifer also sinkholes (Hammer et al 2000). The threat posed 58 MLSSA JOURNAL by agricultural run-off is very real as the soil depth is relatively shallow near EPCP. The majority of the farmland surrounding EPCP is utilised for intensive dairy production which relies on an extensive artificial drainage network (post WW2 soldier settlement) to reduce water logging. In the past decade, the intensive use of Centre Pivot Irrigation to exploit the shallow groundwater aquifer resources and heavy fertilisation have made this area the most modern and productive dairy country in Australia. The groundwater resources have been utilised to maximise farm production all year round, effectively drought-proofing them. Coinciding with this increase in shallow aquifer extraction, the South East has experienced Above: “The dredge” chained to tractors successive years of drought and the rate of water either side of Eight Mile Creek and recharge back into the aquifer has fallen far below the amount extracted for agriculture (ref dragged along, taking flora and fauna SENRM). The greater Mt Gambier unconfined with it. aquifer has significantly fallen in level and as a Below: Permanently damaged creek bed. result the hydraulic pressure pushing water Photographs: Gerard Carmody through the aquifer is also believed to have declined. Only since June 2006 has it become mandatory for all farm bores to be metered. Up until then, the volume of water extraction was effectively uncapped. Recent measurements of water flow at the mouth of Eight Mile Creek are 30% below levels found in the 1970s (ref DEH), however it is unknown whether flow has reduced from the three ponds or from Eight Mile Creek. In addition to groundwater extraction, water is now drawn directly from the Ewens Ponds system (Eight Mile Creek) for irrigation and partly returned via a complex network of drains from the adjacent farmland. Since 1978, a trout farm has been given license to draw water from pond 2 and discharge below pond 3 into Eight Mile Creek. As a first and welcome (Stevens 2006). Blue-green algae are able to fix step, an investigation will be carried out in late their own nitrogen in freshwater, therefore 2006 by a joint working group, lead by the nitrogen is not considered a limiting nutrient in Department of Environment and Heritage to Ewens Ponds. Small increases in nutrients such measure water flow from pond 3 and determine as phosphorus are known to trigger outbreaks in the origin of the change. The outcome of this freshwater (Stevens 2006). In times of normally study will help shape the future direction of high water flow and limited nutrient input, further investigations into this problem. Ewens Ponds effectively behaves as an oligotrophic (nutrient poor) system. The present The Algal Bloom blue-green algae outbreak points toward a Although the aquatic chemical processes significant change in water flow or nutrient involved in blue-green algae blooms are input (via farm fertilisation and run-off) and a complex, they are known to be caused by thorough investigation of water flow and reduced water flow and water stratification in program of water analysis against a similar eutrophic (nutrient rich) systems, such as the control system is urgently needed. Murray River and Gippsland Lakes experience Potential sources of nutrient input into Ewens

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Ponds can be found in the adjacent farmland. increase in nutrient load to Ewens Ponds via High strength liquid NPK and trace nutrient run-off through the shallow soil into aquifers or fertilisers are pumped through giant centre overground. If this were to occur, it may also pivot irrigation systems by a process of lead to a cycle of increased aquatic plant growth “fertigation” (see appendix for chemical in Eight Mile Creek and in turn greater call for breakdown). Optimum pasture growth is dredging. achieved with highly targeted fertiliser The SEWCDB’s continued desire to dredge application, intensive irrigation and well drained aquatic plants from Eight Mile Creek and claims soils (Skewes 2006). that Ewens Ponds would benefit, need to be seriously questioned. It is difficult to see how Soil Drainage and Dredging of Eight Mile dredging and dropping the water level further Creek would improve water flow through Ewens Ponds Responsibility for the management of Eight Mile given the hydraulic pressure of the aquifers Creek is with the South East Water Conservation feeding the ponds has probably declined. When and Drainage Board (SEWCDB). The SEWCDB is snorkelling Eight Mile Creek to the mouth during comprised of the landholders adjacent to EPCP our recent visits, at no stage did we observe any and a few government representatives. As creek blockages caused by aquatic plant build irrigation has increased close to EPCP, drainage up. The creek was free flowing with at least a of water logged soils has become more critical to metre of clear water depth on average. Past optimise pasture growth. This is a challenging dredging practices have caused great destruction task as it was once part of a major wetland to habitat and loss of aquatic life (Skinner, system. Dredging Eight Mile Creek is viewed by Hammer and Playford, 2004). Eight Mile Creek SEWCDB as a viable way to enhance soil is especially important for recruitment of fish drainage of the adjacent farmland. Dredging in back into the ponds if and when they recover. theory supposedly reduces the resistance to Any further request for dredging should be water flow in the creek which then lowers the scientifically evaluated before going ahead as it is water levels in the three ponds and surrounding clearly opposite to the interests of the water table. Increasing irrigation and fertigation sustainability of EPCP. adjacent to EPCP, however, may lead to an

Above: Ewens Ponds March 2006 (Pond 3) – Common Jollytail (Galaxias maculatus) swimming amongst the blue-green algae afflicted ribbongrass (Vallisneria americana). By July 2006 the same aquatic vegetation had been killed off. Photograph: Gerard Carmody 60 MLSSA JOURNAL Recommendations unacceptable. Steps need to be taken in bringing Urgent and well coordinated intervention is Eight Mile Creek back into the Ewens Pond needed to save Ewens Ponds. Specifically, the Conservation Park and move to National Park Federal Department of Environment and status. Heritage (DEH) and South Australian The creation of greater buffer or riparian zones Department of Environment and Heritage adjacent to EPCP is needed. The current (DEAH) must carry out their responsibilities as boundaries allow cattle to walk within meters of custodians, according to the EPCP Management the ponds, increasing the likelihood of Plan (1999) and ensure that all actions are taken agricultural run-off. The DEAH must also give to determine and implement remedial solutions. consideration to acquisition of available land for This needs to be an absolute priority for DEH and buffer zone and inclusion of Eight Mile Creek as DEAH. The South East Natural Resource part of the Ewens Ponds Conservation Park as Management Board (SENRMB) must take into outlined in the 1999 Ewens Ponds Conservation consideration when developing the Natural Management Plan. Resources Management Plan, the requirements of groundwater dependent ecosystems such as A Call to Action EPCP in groundwater allocation. I urge everyone who is interested in the Despite some very basic and non-specific preservation of Ewens Ponds to write, phone or chemical and water flow monitoring at the e-mail the following government representatives mouth of eight Mile Creek, the breadth and to express your concern. Ewens Ponds will not extent of this analysis and knowledge of the survive if we remain indifferent. Immediate aquifers feeding the Ewens Ponds system remains action is needed and the highest priority given to inadequate (see appendix for representative this groundwater dependent ecosystem, analysis). This must be rectified. The South especially in the allocation of groundwater (i.e. Australian Environment Protection Agency and the SENRMB Water Allocation Plan). other relevant working groups must be given a key project management role to comprehensively analyse and understand this ecosystem, including Hugo Hopton the key hydrological and chemical processes. General Manager There must also be specific and ongoing funding South East NRM Board and political will to do this. Current resources PO Box 30, Mt GAMBIER, SA 5290 allocated to this problem are grossly insufficient. Ph: (08) 8724 6000 These agencies of talented scientists and Email: [email protected] professionals are capable if given the commitment of time and resources, to develop Ross Anderson, and implement an appropriate plan. District Ranger – Lower South East The water resources of south eastern Australia National Parks and Wildlife are a finite and precious resource. More precise Department of Environment and Heritage and selective irrigation practices need to be 11 Helen Street, PO Box 1046, implemented and farms operated within a water Mt Gambier SA 5290, budget. If agrochemical run-off is also found to Ph: (08) 8735 1174 be a key contributor to Ewens Ponds decline, Email: [email protected] then a cap on fertiliser usage, similar to current European farm legislation, must be adopted. Hon. Gail Gago Farms need to work within tighter water and Minister for Environment and Conservation fertiliser budgets. Parliament House Unfortunately, the Ewens Ponds Conservation Adelaide, SA 5000 Park excludes the important downstream section Ph: (08) 8237 9100 of Eight Mile Creek, which has long been under Email: [email protected] the control and management of the SEWCDB. The Ewens Ponds ecosystem and connecting Senator Ian Campbell Eight Mile Creek are of exceptional ecological Minister for the Environment and Heritage significance. Continued reference of Eight Mile Parliament House, Canberra, ACT 2600 Creek as a “drain” is archaic and completely Tel: (02) 6277 7640

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Fax: (02) 6273 6101 Skewes, M., Treloar, N, Bailey, G. 2006. Email: [email protected] “Irrigation Innovations in the South East of South Australia”. References: Ewens Ponds Conservation Park Management Appendix: Plan, Feb 1999, DEHAA

Hallam, N. Feb 1985, Habitat Vol 13, #1, “The Chemical Analysis Biology of Ewens and Piccaninnie Ponds, South Australia”. The following chemical analysis is courtesy of DEH, Hammer, Doube and Roberts (2000) and Hammer, M., Skinner, N. and Playford, T. 2004 Monash University Water Studies Centre. “Observation on the Mechanical Dragging of Eight Mile Creek, South-East South Australia”. Along Eight Mile Creek one can find empty and full one-tonne boxes of “fertigation” fertiliser by Hammer, M. Sept 2002, “The South East Fish the side of the road. These are stored in the open Inventory”. paddock and used in the Centre Pivot Irrigation process. The particular product used by one Hammer, M., Doube, J. and Roberts, M. Nov farm is manufactured by the South Australian 2000, “Conservation of the Variegated Pygmy company Spraygro Liquid Fertilisers. The Perch”, Freshwater Fish Survey of Lower South product used is called BASE™ 15 - 18 - 20 +, a Eastern South Australia. Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium and trace metal, high strength fertiliser (information freely Lewis, I. and Stace, P. 1980. “Cave Diving in available from the product data sheet and msds Australia”. Pg 60-61 listed on the Spraygro Website). This product is a typical fertigation product and contains very Lipson, R. Dec 1989. Sports Diver, “Mount high concentration of algal growth limiting Gambier – Part 2” nutrients, in particular phosphorus in the readily accessible polyphosphate form. Kuiter, R. H. Sept 2003,”Fishes of Sahul”, Journal of the Australian New Guinea Fishes Association, Based on Eight Mile Creek flow rate of 2300 L/ Vol 17, No. 3 pg 953-959 “Discovering Ewens second (Lewis 1980), a measurement of Pygmy Perch” 0.01mg/L Total phosphorus (analysis by Monash University Water Studies Centre - April 2006) Personal Communications: EPA VIC – A Stevens, correlates to 2Kg per day of total phosphorus MLSSA – N Skinner, NFA – M Hammer, R Kuiter. reaching the mouth of eight Mile Creek. This is K Smales (layout and typesetting). an approximate calculation and does not take into account 2006 reduced flow rate or

62 MLSSA JOURNAL phosphorus uptake by aquatic plants along the Changing Rainfall: journey. Therefore a one tonne box of BASE™ 15 - 18 - 20 + fertiliser (15%w/v Nitrogen, 18% The ten year history of rainfall in South Phosphorus, 20% Potassium, 0.4% S, 0.02% Mg, Australia. The Mount Gambier region 0.1% Fe, 0.08% Mn, 0.1% Zn, 0.03% B, 0.04% (encompassing Ewens Ponds) has received below Cu, 0.0017% Mo) is equivalent to 90 days average rainfall. The rainfall of the catchment phosphorus loading to Ewens Ponds. Therefore if just to the north is very much below average even a small fraction of the fertiliser applied in during this past decade. See chart below. the Ewens Ponds catchment made its way into Courtesy of Australian Bureau of Meteorology. the shallow aquifer or drainage channels feeding Ewens Ponds, then it is plausible that this may be contributing significantly to the blue-green algae problem.

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65 MLSSA JOURNAL Patagonian Tooth-fish – why all the fuss? by Evan John

Much has been made of the poaching of the There are two species of tooth-fish: Dissostichus Patagonian tooth-fish in Australian southern mawsoni, and D. eleginoides. Both species belong oceans, and on several recent occasions, to the family Nototheniidae, (southern cod), newspapers have highlighted chases by which are endemic to the southern hemisphere, Australian naval vessels in the pursuit and and are the dominant Antarctic fish groups. apprehension of rogue fishermen from other countries who illegally take these fish from The two species overlap in their distribution, Australian waters. although the former, commonly called the Antarctic tooth-fish, is found at higher latitudes Martin Collins, Mark Belchier and Inigo Everson around Antarctica, whereas the latter, the of the British Antarctic Survey in Cambridge, Patagonian tooth-fish, normally occurs further UK, in the June edition of Biologist, pose the north. Both species can reach sizes of over 2 question – why all the fuss? metres, and can weigh more than 100 kilograms. (Biologist, Vol 50 No 3. June 2003) Patagonian tooth-fish are found within a broad depth range. Although little is known of the Tooth-fish, so named because of the sharp teeth larval and juvenile phases of their life cycles, on their upper jaw, are quite large, predatory data from the South Georgia region suggests that and scavenging fish with tasty flesh, found in juveniles generally occur in shallower water and deep water in the Southern Ocean, and sold mean size increases with depth to a maximum of commercially as Chilean seabass. about 2,500 m. It is believed they spawn in deep water between 500-1000m in the austral winter. Females produce between 50,000 and 500,000 pelagic eggs about 4 - 5mm in diameter, that hatch into small pelagic larvae. How long they remain as such is unknown, but by the time they reach 30cm in length, they have reverted to a demersal or bottom-associated habit. Growth rings from scales and otoliths have been used to suggest that tooth-fish grow reasonably quickly in the first ten years compared to other deep-sea fish, and may reach up to one metre in length, as they gradually migrate to depths of 750-1500m where they are most abundant. They seem to mature after this initial rapid growth, with a subsequent slowing down of the growth rate in latter years. This may be associated with a reduced food supply in the deeper sea, or with an annual energy investment in reproduction. Scale and otolith analysis also suggests that females grow faster and reach greater sizes than males, and that both sexes may reach 50 years of age.

This growth rate-depth differential also suggests variations in the nature of the food supply. Juvenile tooth-fish are visual predators, using their sharp teeth to catch fish, crustaceans and cephalopods, with an occasional supplement of Fig 1 Patagonian tooth-fish krill. As they get older and move deeper, they (Dissostichus eleginoides) most likely depend more on olfactory senses and 66 MLSSA JOURNAL

Fig 2. Distribution of Dissostichus eleginoides. The heavy line indicates the area under the jurisdiction of CCALMR 67 MLSSA JOURNAL mechanoreceptors, found in their pronounced D. eleginoides, the Patagonian tooth-fish, is the lateral line. At maximum depths the larger target of a major and valuable long-line fishing animals probably also feed on carrion, dead fish industry, and this leads to questions associated and squid that fall to the ocean floor, in addition with sustainability and the impact on the to benthic fish and decapod crustaceans Southern Ocean’s ecology. With the Patagonian normally found there. These latter animals tooth-fish fetching in excess of US$10 a kilogram seemingly have few predators at that depth, at first point of sale, doubling before it reaches although juvenile tooth-fish have been found in the customer in Japan and America where it is the stomach contents of penguins, sea lions, extremely popular, it is essential to monitor the sperm whales and elephant seals. effects of the rapid expansion, and hence potential for over-exploitation of these Antarctic Data from tagging suggests that there is little stocks since the early 1990’s. lateral geographical migration of larger tooth- fish between different locations within the ocean In the late 1970’s Russian trawlers caught basins, which seemingly present a physical mainly smaller tooth-fish as a by-catch in waters barrier to gene flow between different less than 200 m deep around the South Georgia populations. Studies have also shown that there Islands. It was not until long-line fishing began is a genetic break between Southern Ocean in Chilean waters in the late 1980’s, targeting populations of Patagonian tooth-fish and those larger tooth-fish, that the industry spread to the of the South American plateau. Furthermore, Patagonian shelf and then to the sub-Antarctic there are genetic differences between the isolated Islands, South Georgia, Kerguelen, Heard and populations around the sub-Antarctic islands. Macquarie.

Fig 3 The “Spanish” long-line system used to catch tooth-fish. 68 MLSSA JOURNAL

In the 1990’s with market values becoming fishing of tuna, and studies showed that some increasingly higher, long-line fishing operations albatross populations were in decline. When began in deeper waters (700-1500m). FAO baited hooks pass out from the stern of long- reportings (legal) of tooth-fish landings lining ships, albatrosses and petrels are caught increased from less than 5,000 tonnes in 1984 to and drowned whilst trying to take the bait from 40,000 tonnes in 1994. In long-line fishing, the hooks. vessels deploy lines with up to 10,000 barbed baited hooks over the stern. The weighted lines CCAMLR introduced measures to reduce this sink to the sea floor, each end of the line being incidence; restriction of the setting of long-lines marked with a surface buoy, where they are left to the hours of darkness, and closing the for 24-48 hours before being hauled in, with the fisheries during migratory seasons when the catch being removed from the hooks as the lines birds are most vulnerable. These procedures are recovered. The hooks are baited with squid seem to have been effective, for data collected or fish that attract the larger tooth-fish, more around South Georgia indicates that sea bird abundant at these depths. mortality fell from an estimated 3,000 during the 1992-93 season, to just 30 in the 2000- Concern at the increase in illegal catches, which 2001 season. undoubtedly had an effect on tooth-fish stocks as well as sea birds (see later), the Commission for Unfortunately, implementation of these measures the Conservation of Antarctic Living Marine is difficult to enforce outside the Economic Resources (CCAMLR) set total allowable catches Exclusion Zones and CCAMLR’s jurisdiction. It is (TAC’s), (admittedly conservative, because of the the so-called “pirates” that we read about in the uncertainty in available data about the tooth- newspapers, operating without any controlling fish) in the mid 1990’s. In addition, genuine measures and selling their catch illegally that management (eg chasing poachers!) within 200 cause problems. Preventing these activities may mile zones around Antarctic islands by the UK, well be absolutely necessary if the future of the Australia, France, and South Africa, in support of Patagonian tooth-fish industry is to become a CCAMLR, producing high profile arrests and sustainable venture. large fines, have contributed to substantial reduction in the levels of illegal, unregulated and In summary, then, Patagonian tooth-fish are unreported catches. (IUU’s). CCAMLR in 2001 long-lived fish that develop very rapidly in their also introduced a catch documentation scheme first ten years of life, and hence may be less (CDS) in which legally taken tooth-fish susceptible to overfishing than other deep sea command a considerably higher price than fish, provided that a sufficient juvenile uncertified catches. IUU will always remain a population is maintained in order to reach problem, but data from South Georgia indicating maturity and spawn. The Catch Documentation that TAC’s are remaining broadly the same over Scheme initiated by CCAMLR has provided a the history of the fishery there, gives early framework whereby fish can be traced from indications that there may be sustainability if their point of capture to the shelves of the current procedures are adhered to. The supermarket. Patagonian tooth-fish industry has contributed much to an understanding of D. eleginoides With the by-catch problem of sea birds having biology. been addressed, resolute management of illegal fishing by countries involved in the sub- What ecological impacts are being made by the Antarctic islands, and consumers being careful tooth-fish industry? about buying fish from a certified source, there Long-line fishing is far more selective than seems to be a future for both the Patagonian trawling, for it normally catches only scavenging tooth-fish and the fishery! fish, and does little damage to the sea bed in comparison. There is a small associated catch of grenadiers, skates and deepwater hake, but of more concern was the coinciding mortality of sea birds, particularly albatrosses. In the 1970’s and 1980’s this was attributed to the long-line

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