A THEOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF INWARDNESS IN THE FAITH AND PRACTICE OF BRITISH QUAKERS By CAROLE ANNE HAMBY A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology and Religion College of Arts and Law The University of Birmingham October, 2015 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract This thesis examines Inwardness in the faith and practice of British Quakers. Inwardness is identified within the spiritual and mystical component of individual Friends’ experiences and discussed in terms of personal experiential knowing. Both academic and devotional discourses are used to clarify what is meant by ‘spiritual consciousness’, framed both within corporate, albeit mainly tacit, formulations of Inwardness, and expressed by leading exponents of Quakerism, at two different stages of the history of the Religious Society of Friends. The thesis makes an original contribution to scholarship in three ways: it identifies a distinct view of Quaker Inwardness in terms of process and state; it provides a new model of spiritual development through the Quaker worship practice; and it offers an explanation of spiritual maturity. The latter is identified with reference to an understanding of Interiority, which has consequences. Two Conditions and seven Elements of the process of gaining the state of Inwardness are identified and are found to be consistent between seventeenth and twenty-first century Quakers. Throughout the thesis analysis, reference to expansion of consciousness is interpreted in relation to mysticism, and proposes finally a new perspective on Quaker theology. ii Dedication For my sister, who introduced me to my spiritual path, For my partner, who enabled me to live the path fully, And For His Holiness Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, my spiritual guide; He made everything possible. iii Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to two mentors in particular: One for theoretical and academic guidance, the other for influence both practical and spiritual. In the course of working for this doctorate, Ben Pink Dandelion, has been a constant ‘by my side’. He has questioned and challenged me, and offered constructive comment and criticism, without Ben this thesis would not have been brought to a conclusion. Thank you so much Ben. Just as the thesis would not have been finished without Ben, it would not have been started without Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. The many years during which I studied, worked and travelled with Maharishi were formative. It would be difficult to put into words my reverent gratitude and continuing devotion … suffice to say Jai Guru Dev. En route to completion, many people, Quakers and others, have stimulated my thinking, confirmed or challenged my understanding and helped me on my way: these people include some of those whom I have quoted, and especially, Rex Ambler and Melvin Keiser. Additionally, I acknowledge, with gratitude, those who have commented on sections of the thesis in progress as readers: Beth Allen, Betty Hagglund, Peter Leeming, Hugh McLeod, Rosemary Moore, and Chris Partridge; and I also thank my Local Quaker Meeting (in Kendal) for financial and other support, in particular Jane Chattell for early proofing guidance. I thank Maria Kennedy for later proofing, and Steve Timpson, Sonia Lee Cooke and the Birmingham University IT service department for computer-aid; the fellowship of the Woodbrooke Quaker Study Centre (in Birmingham); Woodbrooke Librarian, Ian Jackson, and, in particular, Assistant Librarian, Bettina Gray, for her endless patience and practical help; the Quaker Adult Grants Group for financial support and, finally, many who serve differing communities, on the level of silent spiritual practice, as part of their devotion to a spiritual path. Thank you all so very much. iv Contents Chapter 1: Introduction to and academic significance of the thesis 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Context within which main issues to be discussed arose 5 1.2.1 Summary of 1.2 14 1.3 Quaker Inwardness: Relevant previous scholarship (Academic) 15 1.3.1 The focus of knowledge gained in and through Inwardness 16 1.3.2 The nature of knowledge gained in and through Inwardness 22 1.3.3 The purpose of knowledge gained in and through Inwardness 28 1.3.4 Conclusion to 1.3 34 1.4 Quaker Inwardness: Relevant previous scholarship (Devotional) 35 1.4.1 Pathways to spiritual growth 35 1.4.2 Purification as a means to spiritual growth 39 1.4.3 Growth of ‘measure’ as spiritual development 41 1.5.1 Methodological influences 45 1.5.2 Methodological approach 50 1.6 Thesis outline 58 1.7 Chapter Summary 59 Chapter 2: George Fox on Inwardness 2.1 Introduction 60 2.2 The importance of Inwardness for George Fox 61 v 2.3 Inwardness and Stillness 64 2.3.1 ‘Turning within’ 66 2.3.2 ‘Standing still’ 71 2.4 Consequences of Inwardness 73 2.4.1 Personal transformation and individual concern 75 2.4.2 Social concern and corporate discernment 80 2.5 Unity 83 2.5.1 Unity as ‘togetherness’ or fellowship in community 85 2.5.2 Unity as the Oneness of Eternal Being 87 2.6 Fox’s Quakerism in the context of mysticism 90 2.7 Conclusion 97 2.8 Chapter Summary 104 Chapter 3: Isaac Penington on Inwardness: Life, Light and Love 3.1 Introduction 105 3.2 Penington’s ministry: 105 3.2.1 On ‘the Life’ 106 3.2.2 On ‘the Light within’ 110 3.2.3 On Love 112 3.2.4 On Quaker worship 115 3.3 Penington and Unity 118 3.4 Conclusion 119 vi 3.5 Chapter Summary 123 Chapter 4: Robert Barclay on Inwardness 4.1 Introduction 124 4.2 Inwardness and Dualism with specific reference to Robert Barclay’s Apology 125 4.2.1 Melvin Keiser’s relational interpretation of Barclay’s work 125 4.2.2 Rex Ambler’s supportive view of Barclay’s use of dualistic language 128 4.3 Barclay on Inwardness 129 4.3.1 Proposition 2: Concerning immediate revelation 132 4.3.1i ‘[T]he most refined and famous of all sorts of professors of Christianity of all ages’ 133 4.3.1ii ‘Scripture’ 136 4.3.1iii The New Covenant: Gospel supersedes the Law 140 4.3.2 Proposition 11: Concerning worship 143 4.4 Conclusion 147 4.5 Chapter Summary 151 Chapter 5: Quaker Inwardness at the turn of the Twenty-first Century 5.1 Introduction 152 5.2 Change at the turn of the Century 152 5.3 Inwardness in the Modern Era 159 vii 5.4 Discursive accounts of academic work as compared with devotional descriptions of mystical experience/Inwardness 161 5.4.1 Discursively expressed academic considerations of Quaker faith and practice 162 5.4.2 Devotional descriptions of spiritual experience 170 5.4.2i ‘Approaches to God’, QFP chapter 2 174 5.4.2ii ‘Openings’, QFP chapter 19 176 5.4.2iii ‘Reflections’, QFP chapter 26 177 5.4.2iv ‘Leadings’, QFP chapter 29 180 5.5 ‘That of God within’ in terms of the ‘Inward’ versus the ‘Inner’ Light 182 5.6 Growth of non-theism 186 5.7 Conclusion 191 5.8 Chapter Summary 197 Chapter 6: Towards a new perspective on Quaker theology 6.1 Introduction 198 6.2 Overview of chapters 198 6.3 Original contribution 200 6.3.1 Inwardness as process 200 6.3.2 Inwardness as developmental 207 6.3.3 Inwardness as having consequences 226 6.3.4 Inwardness as having an ultimate stage, or state of maturity 228 6.3.4i Level of consciousness and personal experience 228 viii 6.3.4ii Level of consciousness, behaviour and the Importance of Testimony 231 6.4 Implications 232 6.4.1 Reassessment of previous scholarship: (Academic) 232 6.4.1i Christian Explanations of Quaker Faith and Practice 233 6.4.1ii Issues of purification and purgation 234 6.4.1iii Psychological and mystical explanations of spiritual experience and development 236 6.4.2 Conclusion to 6.4.1 236 6.4.3 Reassessment of previous scholarship (Devotional) 237 6.4.3i Issues relating to inward experience as potentially pre-conditioned 237 6.4.3ii Descriptions of states of Inwardness 238 6.4.3iii Growth of ‘measure’ and the process of expansion of consciousness 240 6.5 Summary and Conclusion 244 ix List of Tables Table 1 - Quaker Spiritual Practice in Meeting for Worship 13 Table 2 - Conditions and Elements of Inwardness: George Fox 102 Table 3 - Conditions and Elements of Inwardness: Isaac Penington 121 Table 4 - Conditions and Elements of Inwardness: Robert Barclay 149 Table 5a and b - Conditions, Elements and other concerns of Inwardness: Liberal Quakerism 194 Table 6 a, b and c – Expansion of Consciousness in ‘growth of measure’ 208 List of Summary Charts Summary Chart 1(Stillness) 215 Summary Chart 2 (Silence) 216 Summary Chart 3 (Attentive Presence) 217 Summary Chart 4 (Heart Awareness) 218 Summary Chart 5 (God Focus) 219 Summary Chart 6 (Purity) 220 Summary Chart 7 (Discernment) 221 Summary Chart 8 (Growth) 221 Summary Chart 9 (Unity) 222 x List of Figures Figure 1– Outwardness 68 Figure 2– Inwardness 70 Figure 3 Inwardness and outwardness in alternating relation 78 Figure 4 Growth of Interiority as process 80 Figure 5 Infusion of Inwardness into outwardness 83 Figure 6 Expansion of Inwardness/Intimations of Eternal Being and the promise of ‘the more’ to come (John 16: 12-13) 213 Bibliography 245 Glossary 261 Appendix 1 The teaching of Thomas Kelly 265 Note on Terms 1) The terms ‘Friend(s)’ and ‘Quaker(s)’ are used interchangeably throughout the thesis as they have come to be used synonymously through the 360 year history of the Religious Society of Friends.