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Controls on Rhyolite Lava Dome Eruptions in the Taupo Volcanic Zone

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Controls on Rhyolite Lava Dome Eruptions in the Taupo Volcanic Zone Controls on rhyolite lava dome eruptions in the Taupo Volcanic Zone Paul Allan Ashwell A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geological Sciences at the University of Canterbury October 2013 P a g e | II Dedicated to Eva Ashwell P a g e | III View from Ruawahia, across the 1886AD fissure and Wahanga dome towards the Bay of Plenty and White Island (extreme distance, centre left) P a g e | IV Abstract he evolution of rhyolitic lava from effusion to cessation of activity is poorly understood. T Recent lava dome eruptions at Unzen, Colima, Chaiten and Soufrière Hills have vastly increased our knowledge on the changes in behaviour of active domes. However, in ancient domes, little knowledge of the evolution of individual extrusion events exists. Instead, internal structures and facies variations can be used to assess the mechanisms of eruption. Rhyolitic magma rising in a conduit vesiculates and undergoes shear, such that lava erupting at the surface will be a mix of glass and sheared vesicles that form a permeable network, and with or without phenocryst or microlites. This foam will undergo compression from overburden in the shallow conduit and lava dome, forcing the vesicles to close and affecting the permeable network. High temperature, uniaxial compression experiments on crystal-rich and crystal-poor lavas have quantified the evolution of porosity and permeability in such environments. The deformation mechanisms involved in uniaxial deformation are viscous deformation and cracking. Crack production is controlled by strain rate and crystallinity, as strain is localised in crystals in crystal rich lavas. In crystal poor lavas, high strain rates result in long cracks that drastically increase permeability at low strain. Numerous and small cracks in crystal rich lavas allow the permeable network to remain open (although at a lower permeability than undeformed samples) while the porosity decreases. Flow bands result from shear movement within the conduit. Upon extrusion, these bands will become modified from movement of lava, and can therefore be used to reconstruct styles of eruption. Both Ngongotaha and Ruawahia domes, from Rotorua caldera and Okataina caldera complex (OCC) respectively, show complex flow banding that can be traced to elongated or aligned vents. The northernmost lobe at Ngongotaha exhibits a fan-like distribution of flow P a g e | V bands that are interpreted as resulting from an initial lava flow from a N – S trending fissure. This flow then transitioned into intrusion of obsidian sheets directly above the conduit, bound by wide breccia zones which show vertical movement of the sheets. Progressive intrusions then forced the sheets laterally, forming a sequence of sheets and breccia zones. At Ruawahia, the flow bands show two types of eruption; long flow lobes with ramp structures, and smaller spiny lobes which show vertical movement and possible spine extrusion. The difference is likely due to palaeotopography, as a large pyroclastic cone would have confined the small domes, while the flow lobes were unconfined and able to flow down slope. The vents at Ruawahia are aligned in a NE – SW orientation. Both domes are suggested to have formed from the intrusion of a dyke. The orientations of the alignment or elongation of vents at Ngongotaha and Ruawahia can be attributed to the overall regional structure of the Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ). At Ngongotaha, the N – S trending elongated vent is suggested to be controlled by a N – S trending caldera collapse structure at Rotorua caldera. The rest of the lobes at Ngongotaha, as well as other domes at Rotorua caldera, are controlled by the NE – SW trending extensional regional structure or a NW – SE trending basement structure. The collapse of Rotorua caldera, and geometry of the deformation margin, are related to the interplay of these structures. At Ruawahia, the NE – SW trending vent zone is parallel to the regional extension across the OCC, as shown by the orientation of intrusion of the 1886AD dyke through the Tarawera dome complex. The NE – SW trending regional structures observed at both Rotorua caldera and Okataina caldera complex are very similar to each other, but differ from extension within the Taupo rift to the south. Lava domes, such as Ngongotaha, that are controlled by this structure show that the ‘kink’ in the extension across Okataina caldera complex was active across Rotorua caldera during the collapse at 240 ka, and possibly earlier. This study shows the evolution of dyke-fed lava domes during eruption, and the control of regional structures in the location and timing of eruption. These findings improve our knowledge P a g e | VI of the evolution of porosity and permeability in a compacting lava dome, as well as of the structures of Rotorua caldera, the longevity of volcanic activity at dormant calderas and the hazard potential of dyke-fed lava domes. P a g e | VII Acknowledgements This thesis is the culmination of over 4 years of research, funded by EQC, GNS Science, Mighty River Power, the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of Canterbury, the Mason Trust Fund and the Marsden Fund, all of whom are gratefully thanked for their funding. The greatest support I received during this time was from my supervisors, Dr. Ben Kennedy and Prof. Jim Cole. The guidance and feedback I received when honing my skills and ideas were crucial in producing this thesis. I am truly grateful that they trusted a fresh-faced, unknown Honours student from the UK with formulating his ideas and theories into this PhD thesis. Both were also central in gaining funding for the majority of the project, without which I would not have been able to continue my studies. I would like to thank Ken Raureti and the Ruawahia 2B Trust for allowing access to Tarawera, and especially to Ken for his interest and passion for the mountain. The staff of the Department of Geological Sciences are also thanked, in particular Dr. Travis Horton, Prof. Jarg Pettinga, Dr. Catherine Read, Dr. Darren Gravely, Dave Bell and Dr, Chris Oze for their interest in my project, and for passing on vital research and teaching skills. Thanks also to; Rob Spiers, Sacha Baldwin-Cunningham (thanks for the ‘temporary’ rock storage!), Cathy Higgins, John Southward, Kerry Swanson, Janet Brehaut, Janet Warburton and Chris Grimshaw. Extra special thanks go to Pat Roberts for solving any and all administrative and financial problems that arose during my research here. Thanks also to the ‘Munich Crew’ of Prof. Yan Lavallee, Jackie Kendrick and Fabian Wadsworth for their (ongoing) patience and support with the extremely tricky subject of viscosity and rheology. P a g e | VIII My fellow students here at UC made every difficult stage bearable, and I would thank them all. The ‘Old Guard’ of (now Dr.’s) Rose Turnbull, Tom Wilson, Sam Hampton, Kate Pedley and Chad Deering took me under their collective wing and showed me the ropes, whilst simultaneously terrifying me with their knowledge. My thesis Brothers and Sisters in arms; Sam McColl and Nick Thompson (both office mates), Greg de Pascale (newer office mate), Johnny Wardman and Carolyn Boulton (party fiends), Josh Blackstock (music maestro), Tom Brookman (outdoor enthusiast), James Cowlyn (trusted manservant Bigglesworth) and especially Felix von Aulock and Jackie Dohaney (fellow volcano lovers) made my time here glorious. I am extra thankful for the support from J.D. in these last few weeks. The ‘New Kids’; Paul Siratovitch, Johnathon Davidson, Florence Begue, Tim Stahl, Sharon Hornblow, Nick Riordan, Tim Stahl, Hamish Cattel, Sarah Bastin, Louise Vick, Emma Rhodes, and Heather Bickerton – thanks for all the beers. Also, special mentions to Dave and Caitlin Manthei, Goetz and Ike von Aulock, Abby Young, Naomi Thompson, Tamsin Laird, Gregor Lucic, Narges Khajavi, Janelle Irvine, Melissa Rotella and Simon Barker, Eva Hartung, Signe Wiingaard and ‘M.C.’ Hebert. I would also like to thank my far off family – my Mum and Dad, Helen and James, Papa and all the rest, for their constant and genuine support and encouragement, and for allowing me to leave them for years at a time to chase volcanoes around the world. Sorry for making you worry, Mum! Also, thanks to my ‘adopted’ family of Dave, Wendy, George, Kelly and Mac. And finally, without whom I would have given up years ago, I would like to extend my deepest thanks to my wonderful girlfriend Laura, for compassion and understanding, proof reading and generally keeping me sane and happy. P a g e | IX Contents Abstract IV Acknowledgements VII List of figures XIII List of tables XV List of publications XVI 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Geological setting .......................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 History of lava dome eruptions in the TVZ ...................................................... 7 1.2.2 Lava domes and eruptive history at Rotorua caldera ...................................... 9 1.2.3 Lava domes and eruptive history at Okataina caldera complex .................... 11 1.4 Growth, coalescence and shrinkage of bubbles in conduits and lava domes............. 15 1.5 Lava dome eruption styles .......................................................................................... 21 1.5.1 Morphology and types of lava domes and flows ..........................................
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