MEDICINAL Medicinal Plant PLANT SPECIALIST Conservation GROUP

Volume 15

Newsletter of the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission Chaired by Danna J. Leaman

Chair’s note...... 2 Taxon file Conservation of the Palo Santo tree, Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb, in the South America Chaco Region - Tomás Waller, Mariano Barros, Juan Draque & Patricio Micucci...... 4 Manejo Integral de poblaciones silvestres y cultivo agroecológico de Hombre grande (Quassia amara) en el Caribe de Costa Rica, América Central - Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez...... 9 Regional file Chilean medicinal plants - Gloria Montenegro & Sharon Rodríguez...... 15 Focus on Medicinal Plants in Madagascar - Julie Le Bigot...... 25 Medicinal Plants utilisation and conservation in the Small Island States of the SW Indian Ocean with particular emphasis on Mauritius - Ameenah Gurib-Fakim...... 29 Conservation assessment and management planning of medicinal plants in Tanzania - R.L. Mahunnah, S. Augustino, J.N. Otieno & J. Elia...... 35 Community based conservation of ethno-medicinal plants by tribal people of Orissa state, India - Saujanendra Swain & Nihar Parida...... 41 Estado de la conservación de las plantas TRAMIL incluidas en la Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña - Sonia Lagos, Xinia Robles & Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez...... 46 FairWild in the South Caucasus - Heiko Schindler & Bryony Morgan...... 52 Notices World Health Organization Consultation on Conservation Guidelines for Medicinal Plants - Danna J.. Leaman...... 57 Notices of publication - Helle O. Larsen...... 59 May 2012 ber 2011, approximately 30 species of terrestrial plants were being wild-harvested under FairWild certification, involving 7 companies, and resulting Chair’s Note in 10 finished products on the market containing FairWild-certified ingredients. MPSG retains a strong interest, on behalf of IUCN, Danna J. Leamann in supporting the FairWild Standard, and indeed many members of MPSG continue to be involved In late March of this year I participated in the 2nd in its management and implementation: for exam- meeting of all the chairs of IUCN Species Survival ple, five members of MPSG are currently FairWild Commission (SSC) specialist groups, held in Abu Foundation trustees. However, our formal role has Dhabi with support of the Abu Dhabi Environment become more closely focused on providing advice Agency and the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Con- and solutions for key technical challenges. These servation Fund. Like the 1st Chair’s Meeting (Al include: Ain, 2008), this gathering brought together special- • elaboration of a risk/resilience analysis tool ist group chairs and Red List Authorities with SSC applied as a first step in the FairWild certifica- staff, SSC focal-points within the IUCN secretariat tion process, enabling the requirements of the programmes, and representatives of other IUCN standard to be applied more or less rigorously commissions. The meeting provided opportuni- to species at higher or lower risk of unsustain- ties to report on MPSG’s activities and successes, able wild harvest; learn from experiences of other specialist groups, explore ideas for collaboration with the IUCN pro- • adaptation of FairWild Standard and imple- grammes and other commissions, and to articulate mentation tools, particularly risk/resilience some future goals that will contribute to the IUCN analysis and resource assessment guidance, as Species Strategic Plan for the next quadrennium guidance for undertaking non-detriment find- (2013-2016). The meeting was timed to promote ings required by the Convention on Internation- preparation for and participation of SSC members al Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and in the upcoming 5th IUCN World Conservation Flora (CITES) for perennial plant species listed Congress, 6-15 September, Jeju, Republic of South on CITES appendices I and II; Korea. A summary of useful information presented • refinements of resource assessment guidance at the meeting a publication containing all of the to address the different needs of low risk/high SSC specialist group summary reports is avail- resilience species compared with high risk/low able in the new “members area” of the recently re- resilience species; and structured and more accessible SSC pages on the IUCN website: http://www.iucn.org/about/work/ • initial steps to expand the risk/resilience anal- programmes/species/who_we_are/about_the_spe- ysis tool and resource assessment methodology cies_survival_commission_/ssc_members__area_/ to address sustainable wild collection of fungi and lichens in collaboration with the SSC lichen Achievements and ongoing activities and fungi specialist groups and the Sustainable Implementation of the FairWild Standard Use Specialist Group. In the previous volume of Medicinal Plant Con- Revised global “Guidelines on the Conservation servation, Wolfgang Kathe described the process of Medicinal Plants” through which the International Standard for Sus- Many MPSG members have been involved either in tainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromat- developing the initial 1993 “Guidelines” or in the ic Plants (ISSC-MAP) became a part of the com- revision process ongoing since 2003, or both. Re- prehensive FairWild Standard and the formation cent progress towards a final text agreed amongst of the FairWild Foundation to oversee its further the four author organizations (WHO, IUCN, WWF, development and implementation [MPC Volume and TRAFFIC) is reported in this volume of MPC 14, pp 14-17; www.FairWild.org]. As of Decem- [pp. 57-58]. Page 2 May 2012 Red List Assessments • identifying conservation gaps, focusing par- Last summer the European Commission published ticularly on existing protected areas and iden- tifying important areas for medicinal plant con- the European Red List of Vascular Plants (BILZ ET servation; AL. 2011) which includes approximately 100 spe- cies of medicinal plants, primarily species listed in • assessing the vulnerability of medicinal plants the EU Habitats Directive and / or the Bern Con- to climate change, and contributing to the devel- vention. During that assessment, coordinated by opment of climate change vulnerability indica- Melanie Bilz, a member of the IUCN Red List unit tors for plants; staff based in Cambridge, UK, a large number of • developing an integrated (in situ and ex situ) individuals with expert knowledge of the spatial conservation strategy for medicinal plants, with distribution, population sizes, and likely conser- a focus on sustainable use; and vation threats affecting plant species in Europe participated in preparing and reviewing the Red • increasing the profile of medicinal plant con- List assessments. A new project began in Decem- servation needs and actions. ber 2011 – also with EC funding – to assess the Promoting involvement of MPSG members in the Red List status of 300 additional medicinal plant development and implementation of this project species native to Europe. This assessment, to be will be a priority for MPSG in the coming IUCN completed in 2014, will result in the first compre- quandrennium. Results of this project will support hensive assessment of a regional medicinal flora, and improve our continuing contributions to broad and provides an opportunity for MPSG members global initiatives and policies, including: with knowledge of the European medicinal flora to contribute to and review Red List assessments. • supporting progress on conservation and sus- The geographic range of this assessment extends tainable use targets under the UN Convention from Iceland in the west to the Urals in the east, on Biological Diversity (CBD), particularly the and from Franz Josef Land in the north to the Ca- Global Strategy for Plant Conservation; nary Islands in the south. • reporting on a global indicator of biodiversity Future goals used for food and medicine [see MPC Volume 14, pp. 24-29]; and Securing Useful Wild Plants • supporting sustainable wild collection of me- Understanding the current status and trends in con- dicinal plants through the FairWild Standard. servation status of medicinal plants, both globally and regionally, is an information gap that limits Many thanks to Helle Overgaard Larsen for her our ability to facilitate and undertake conservation dedicated efforts as editor of this newsletter, and action for these species. Useful plants (including to all of the authors for their contributions to this crop wild relatives, medicinal plants, and trees) are volume. identified as a priority for Red List assessments in References the upcoming IUCN quadrennium (2013-2016). MPSG is working with the Crop Wild Relatives BILZ, M., KELL, S.P., MAXTED, N. & LANSDOWN, R.V. Specialist Group and the Global Tree Specialist (2011): European Red List of Vascular Plants. – Pub- lications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. Group to develop and find funding for a global Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/ project focusing on these species important to hu- conservation/species/redlist and http://www.iucn- man survival. The project as currently proposed redlist.org/europe has the following main components: • assessing the conservation status of at least 1,500 medicinal plant species drawn from glo- bal, regional, and national priorities, and build- ing capacity throughout the MPSG membership for Red List assessment; Page 3 May 2012 Norman R. Farnsworth died in 2011 The renowned pharmacognosist and medicinal plant researcher died at 81 on Sep- tember 10, 2011. The MPSG owes a particular debt of gratitude to Professor Farnsworth for his con- tribution to our Global Checklist of Medicinal Plants. In 2008, during a meeting of the Canadian Natural Health Products Research Society in Toronto, I described to Professor Farnsworth the challenge we face to answer questions such as “How many species of medicinal plants are there?” and “How many of those species are threatened with extinction?” A few weeks later, Professor Farnsworth sent a base list of more than 20,000 species with documented medicinal uses derived from the NAPrAlert (Natural Products Alert) Database he created in 1975. This list, together with the MAPROW database created by former MPSG Chair Uwe Schippmann, was an important contribution to our Global Checklist of Medicinal Plants, which now includes more than 28,000 species of plants with well-documented medicinal uses. Danna J. Leamann

Taxon file

Conservation of the Palo Santo tree, Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb, in the South American Chaco Region Tomás Waller, Mariano Barros, Juan Draque & Patricio Micucci

Introduction Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb (Zygophyl- laceae), locally known as Palo Santo (holy tree), is Figure 1. Distribution range of Bulnesia sarmientoi in the Gran Chaco with locality records from the Mis- a large endemic tree of what is known as the Gran souri Botanical Garden (MOBOT) Data Base. Chaco region of Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and, marginally, Brazil (Figure 1). Mature individuals settlement conditions in more sparsely distributed reach a height of 8 to 20 m and 30 to 70 cm in di- soil-specific plant communities. These communi- ameter, and exhibit a high-density aromatic wood ties in Paraguay cover about 3.7 million ha (UNA- (1,280 kg/m3). GTZ 1991) and in Argentina about 2.5 million ha (FB 2010). In these areas average trunk standing The species inhabits the semi-arid sectors of the volumes range from 0.7 to 3.3 m3/ha (MUTARELLI Gran Chaco, where annual rainfall varies from 600 1979, GIMÉNEZ ET AL. 2007a); however, at localized to 900 mm, sharing the area with other typical lo- spots old trees dominate the forest in relatively cal hardwoods (ZERBATTO ET AL. 2009). The Palo dense patches known as palosantales. In very spe- Santo can be found mixed in the forest throughout cific sites trunk timber volumes can reach up to ten 25 million hectares, but it only achieves adequate fold the regional average, i.e. 30 m3/ha (ZERBATTO Page 4 May 2012 bark, crust or leaves. It is locally used as a blood cleanser, sudorific (induces perspiration), diuretic, to heal gastric pain, syphilis, leprosy, gout, rheu- matism, rheumatoid arthritis, lumbago and skin wounds and diseases; moreover, to relieve stress and depression, control blood pressure, and pre- vent atherosclerosis and colds (MERELES & PÉREZ DE MOLAS 2008, CITES 2010, JANZEN 2010). Essential oil trade B. sarmientoi extracts have been used for decades by different industries, mainly as a fixative in per- fumes. Residual sawdust, a by-product of the tim- ber industry, is treated with solvents to produce ‘Palo Santo’ resin, which is used to manufacture varnish and dark paints. Mixed with pyrethrum it is used to make mosquito repellent coils. The essen- Figure 2. The Palo Santo, Bulnesia sarmientoi, tree can tial oil, also known as ‘lignum vitae oil’, ‘guaiac reach a height of 20 m and a trunk diameter of 70 cm. oil’, ‘guayacol’, ‘guajol’, or ‘guayaco’, has been ET AL. 2009). used to perfume luxury soaps by masking the un- pleasant smell of synthetic components and as an The species exhibits slow growth and has the abil- excipient in the manufacturing of cosmetics. It is ity to regenerate vegetatively; it has been estimated most widely used in the perfume industry because that trees reach 45 cm basal diameter at 100 years of its mild and pleasant Rose (and Violet) fra- of age (GIMÉNEZ ET AL. 2007b, Figure 2). grance. Its ethyl acetate is used as a natural fixative The Palo Santo has historically been exploited be- in aromatic compositions (DI LELLA & RIQUE 1955, cause of the pleasantly-smelling essential oil that MERELES & PÉREZ DE MOLAS 2008, CITES 2010, is widely used in the perfume and soap industry. JANZEN 2010, HARBORNE & BAXTER 2011). Commercialisation of Palo Santo timber was un- The oil of Palo Santo is highly valued in aroma- til recently very limited; as of 2002, however, high therapy to which the following advantages are at- demand, mainly from China, has been a driver for tributed: mood uplifting, helpful for meditation large-scale exploitation in Argentina and Paraguay. and rest, improvement of mental clarity, calming, As a result of increasing concerns regarding the relaxing, stress and tension reduction. It is applied sustainability of Palo Santo trade the species was through aroma lamps, light bulb rings, massage and listed in CITES-Appendix II at the 15th Meeting mist spray (SCHILLER & SCHILLER 2008). However, of the Conference of the Parties to CITES (Doha, this industry treats it as ‘Guaiac oil’ in broad sense, Qatar). grouping in this category other Zygophyllaceae Local uses species from the Genus Guaiacum. B. sarmientoi oil is characterized by containing a high propor- The common name, Palo Santo (holy tree), says tion of Bulnesol (>45%) and Guaiol (>31%). It is it all about what local people feel for this spe- pale yellow, waxy in consistence (solid) at room cies, which has a very unique place in the culture temperature and with a strong warm woody aroma. throughout the Gran Chaco region. It has tradi- The wood/oil yield is reported to be around 3.5 - tionally been employed for domestic purposes: 4% in weight (JACOBS 1990, ALPACA 2010, JANZEN the burning of its wood is used as an insect repel- 2010). It is obtained by simple steam distillation lent and its long-lasting wood is harvested for the of wood chips. According to JANZEN (2010) wood production of posts to build cattle fences or for scraps and logs are shredded into small chips the manufacturing handicrafts. The species is highly size of beans. These woodchips are loaded into valued as a medicinal plant for the many healing autoclave stainless steel distillation stills. Steam powers attributed to infusions brewed from of its Page 5 May 2012 is passed through the layers of chips, which is af- 2004) have mainly been destined to China: 94% terwards cooled in condensers and separated in and 89% of each country’s exported volume, re- Florentine vase units. spectively. According to traders, wood is used for Argentina started the distillation of Palo Santo handcrafting top-quality furniture and for apart- essential oil in the beginning of the last century, ment floorings. Main products exported by Argen- but extraction stopped completely by the 1970s tina (pooled data from 2006-2008) and Paraguay (pooled data from 2000-2006) were trunks in dif- (ZERBATTO ET AL. 2009). In the beginning, Paraguay exported the entire logs to Europe for oil distilla- ferent stages of processing (debarked logs, cylin- tion, but after World War II this was carried out ders and posts), representing 87% and 67% of all products exported by each country, respectively. locally (JANZEN 2010). Paraguay currently sup- plies most of the international demand of Guaiac Secondarily, both countries traded sawn wood (mainly tables for flooring): 13% and 33% of to- oil (MERELES & PÉREZ DE MOLAS 2008) and during the last decade the country exported 130-180 tons tal exports, respectively (Figure 3). Since 2008 of essential oil per year, equivalent to an annual internal provincial regulations in Argentina have harvest of up to about 5,000 tons of timber. Main limited the sale of raw wood (logs), favouring the destination countries for the last three years were, production of sawn wood to foster local labour (FB in order of importance, France, Germany, United 2010). States, India, Spain, United Kingdom, Korea, the Dynamic of Palo Santo timber harvest in Netherlands and Switzerland. According to Para- Argentina guayan producers, most of the wood used in the Argentina is currently the main supplier of B. distillation of Guaiac oil is the byproduct of tim- sarmientoi timber for the international market. The ber extraction or land clearing activities, such as species occurs in three different provinces: Chaco, branches, fallen or useless trees, sawmill leftover Formosa and Salta. Based on MORELLO (1968) we boards and sawdust. This information still needs to estimate the area of occupation to about 8.3 million be corroborated (JANZEN 2010, WALLER & PUCCIO hectares, and its ecological optimum (sensu MORE- 2010). LLO 1968) to 1.7 million hectares. Timber trade Timber primary production (in tons of logs) of B. sarmientoi in Argentina and Paraguay soared from less than 500 tons in 2000 to 35,000 tons annually in the last years, considering both countries togeth- er. Argentina seems to be the main producer, with more than 20,000 tons of timber harvested each year. Most of the timber is destined to the interna- tional market as logs or sawn wood. Export records from Argentina diminished sharply in 2008 in the context of a global economic crisis (FB 2010), however, local authorities expect that trade will reach, or even exceed, 2008s harvest levels by the end of 2011. Trade statistics available from Para- guay are dubious and probably under-represent ac- tual trade volumes due to inconsistencies in report- ing schemes (FB 2010). The recent inclusion of the Palo Santo in CITES-Appendix II is expected to improve trade control and reporting in both coun- tries. Figure 3. Bulnesia sarmientoi debarked logs being Timber exports from Argentina (pooled data from transported to a sawmill (above); sawn wood finished 2006-2008) and Paraguay (pooled data from 2000- for flooring ready to export (bottom). Photo: T. Waller. Page 6 May 2012 Formosa and Salta have been the main sources of 2000, 2002, 2010). Overall recorded trade in Guai- Palo Santo timber; Formosa has accounted for 74% acum timber and extracts accounted for about 345 of all exports (data pooled for all years, Figure 4). tons in 29 years, and mostly involved Mexico as The proportion of Palo Santo of total timber ex- the exporter and Germany as the importer and re- ports increased from 0% in 2000 to about 9% in exporter (CITES Trade Database). There is no clear 2007 (FB 2010). indication that timber and essential oil trade in Palo The two provinces allow harvest and transport of Santo have augmented as a result of the increased timber under a weak enforcement system, mostly CITES-derivated controls over Guaiacum species. based on quotas, minimum log diameter restric- In fact, current timber trade in Palo Santo is due to tions, extraction permits and transport certificates. the increase in the demand from China since 2002, Main constrains identified are the result of low while trade in its essential oil dates back to the be- levels of in situ control of the harvest and of tim- ginning of the century. On the other hand, essential ber transportation. Different taxes and rules with oil trade from Guaiacum species and B. arborea regard to wood processing levels have indirectly has not been properly documented. It seems that fostered smuggling activities between provincial Germany was a major importer of chips and wood jurisdictions. Adulteration of transport permits and pulp of Guaiacum that could be attributed to this false declaration of origin are usual practices – in industry (CITES 2000, CITES Trade Database), fact, logs are known to rarely proceed from de- however, according to CITES statistics direct trade in Guaiacum essential oil for the last two decades clared harvest sites (FB 2010). seems negligible (i.e. 386 kg). B. arborea should A recent study highlights the mining nature of the be included in Appendix II for look-alike reasons selective B. sarmientoi logging at the local or plot and identification material either for essential oil level (ZERBATTO ET AL. 2009). Accordingly, most and timber must be developed. size classes of Palo Santo trees were harvested in six sites evaluated. The volume of wood extracted Habitat trends was, on average, 41% of the original standing vol- Deforestation has increased dramatically over the ume, with 85% of extraction corresponding to trees last 15 years throughout the Chaco region in Ar- larger than 30 cm in diameter (as required by the gentina and Paraguay. In Argentina the deforesta- industry). The timber volume extracted was equal tion rate is about 1.3% per year (UMSEF 2006), but to or higher than the volume of timber remaining mostly occurring out, or in the periphery, of the in the forest. An analysis of the health condition distribution range of Palo Santo. Up to 2008 de- of standing B. sarmientoi trees suggests that when forestation has affected less than 5% of the original large trees persist in the forest these are cracked, Palo Santo distribution area, mostly in the province hollow or have crooked logs, and would therefore of Salta (Figure 4). The situation in Paraguay is be discarded by the industry. Large trees are thus no better, deforestation over the last 5 years has not conserved because of forest management. Fi- reached unprecedented levels for the region. Trends nally, it was observed that the amount of felled in Bolivia are much better: about 95% of its Chaco logs abandoned in the forest, plus the volume of region is still under forest cover. the thick branches of felled trees, is twice the vol- At one hand, deforestation is expected to increase ume of timber effectively removed by the industry along the Palo Santo range area due to livestock (ZERBATTO ET AL. 2009, Figure 3). rearing projects, but on the other hand, new legisla- Trade in similar species tion in Argentina and Paraguay seeks to foster the Bulnesia arborea from Northern South America progressive settlement of land management plans and other Zygophyllacea species of the Genus to ensure forest persistence. In this scenery, the Guaiacum from Central America and the Carib- long-term conservation of B. sarmientoi in these bean used to be marketed under similar commer- countries will depend on land use planning and cial names (“Lignum Vitae” or “Guaiac”) as B. regulation and the proper management of the re- sarmientoi. All Guaiacum species are listed in maining Chaco forests (FB 2010). CITES but this is not the case for B. arborea (CITES Page 7 May 2012 The Netherlands for supporting our research, par- ticularly, to Hajo Schimtz-Kretschmer (DE), Jonas Luthy (CH), Mathias Loertscher (CH) and Stephan Verbunt (NE). Emilio Buongermini gathered infor- mation related to Paraguay; Juan Draque and Mari- ano Barros carried out field-work in the provinces of Formosa and Salta, Argentina; Marcelo Zerbatto and Walter Degano designed field inventory activi- ties. An anonymous reviewer provided useful com- ments that helped us to improve this publication. References

Figure 4. Deforestation (black areas) throughout the ALPACA. (2010): Al Pa Ca S.A. Guaiac Wood Oil, Bul- Palo Santo distribution range (stripped area) in North- nesia sarmientoi, technical specifications. – Unpub- ern Argentina (FB, 2010). lished data sheet. Paraguay. CITES. (2000): 11th Meeting of the Conference of the Closing remarks Parties to CITES. Proposal 11.62. Transfer of Guaia- cum sanctum from Appendix II to Appendix I. – Avail- Argentina is currently the major exporter of B. able at: www.cites.org/eng/cop/11/prop/62.pdf. sarmientoi timber, while Paraguay is the main pro- CITES. (2002): 12th Meeting of the Conference of the ducer of essential oil for the international perfumes Parties to CITES. Proposal 12.54. Inclusion of Guaia- industry. cum spp. in Appendix II in accordance with Article II, paragraph 2(b). Available at: www.cites.org/eng/ Under the observed pattern of extractive and selec- cop/12/prop/E12-P54.pdf. tive use of Palo Santo in Argentina, conditions for CITES. (2010): 15th Meeting of the Conference of the sustainability at the regional level are not yet en- Parties to CITES. Proposal 15.42. Inclusion of Bul- sured for this species, and much less at plot scale. nesia sarmientoi in CITES-Appendix II. Available at: It is worth mentioning that Argentina is currently www.cites.org/eng/cop/15/prop/E-15-Prop-42.pdf. undertaking a major effort to establish provincial DGCRNMA. (2006): Exportación de Palo Santo. Años management plans aimed to protect the most im- 2000-2006. – Informe inédito de la Dirección Gen- portant forest regions. As a result of this process eral de Control de los Recursos Naturales y el Medio large tracts of woods are expected to persist and to Ambiente de la Contraloría General de la República be managed for sustainable use. (CGR) del Paraguay. 20pp. DI LELLA, E. & RIQUE, T. (1955): El palo santo: su in- Timber trade statistics in Paraguay are not reliable dustrialización. Publicación Técnica N° 20. – Admin- to assess the magnitude of the harvest. Additional- istración Nacional de Bosques. ly, Palo Santo inventory information is very scarce. FB. (2010): Palo Santo Bulnesia sarmientoi in Argen- Producers argue that essential oil trade is not a tina – Timber trade and sustainability. Information threatening factor for the B. sarmientoi, but for document prepared for the 15th Meeting of the Con- this to be confirmed it will be necessary to clearly ference of the Parties to CITES, 13 to 25 Mach 2010, demonstrate that wood used in oil distillation is by- Doha, Qatar. – Fundación Biodiversidad – Argentina. Available at: www.biodiv.org.ar/images/stories/pdfs/ products of other activities (i.e. saw-mill debris, Palo-Santo-Bidodiv-en.pdf) abandoned logs, land clearing). GIMÉNEZ, A.M., HERNÁNDEZ, P., GEREZ, R. & SPA- We hope that the recent inclusion of Palo Santo in GARINO, C. (2007b): Anatomía de leño y anillos de CITES-Appendix II will contribute to monitor in- crecimiento de Palo Santo (Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorez ternational trade and to foster internal management ex. Griseb Zygophyllaceae). – Rev. de Cs. Forestales schemes both in Argentina and Paraguay to warrant Quebracho, 14:23-35. Santiago del Estero. GIMÉNEZ, A.M., HERNÁNDEZ, P., GEREZ, R. & RÍOS, the sustainable utilization of this precious species. N.A. (2007a): Diversidad vegetal en siete unidades Acknowledgements demostrativas del Chaco semiárido argentino. – Mad- era y Bosques (México), 13(1):61-78. We would like to express our acknowledgments HARBORNE J.B. & BAXTER, H. (2001): Chemical Dic- to the Governments of Germany, Switzerland and Page 8 May 2012 tionary of Economic Plants. – John Wiley and Sons Manejo Integral de poblaciones silves- Ltd. West Sussex, England. tres y cultivo agroecológico de Hombre JACOBS, H. (1990): Vegetationsanalytische und struk- turelle Untersuchungen einer regengrunen Trocken- grande (Quassia amara) en el Caribe de waldvegetation im östlichen Bereich des zentralen Costa Rica, América Central Chacos unter Berucksichtigung des Einflusses der Viehweide. – Diplomarbeit der Forstlichen Fakultät Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez der Georg-August-Universität Göttingen. 113 p. JANZEN, H.K. (2010) Guaiac wood oil, Paraguay and Introducción CITES. Paper presented at the International Confer- La madera del arbusto tropical conocido en Costa ence “North African and Mediterranean Essential Oils Rica como Hombre Grande, en inglés se conoce and Aromas: 2010 Tales and Realities of our Industry – a new decade of challenges and opportunities”. 26 - como Surinam quassia (Quassia amara), es una 30 Sept. 2010, Marrakech. – International Federation importante planta medicinal nativa del Trópico of Essential Oils and Aroma Trades, London. Húmedo de América Tropical (Figura 1, 2). Con- MERELES, F. & PÉREZ DE MOLAS, L. (2008): Bulnesia stituye una materia prima que, por más de 150 sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb (Zygophyllaceae): estu- años, ha sido objeto de comercio en América Lati- dio de base para su inclusión en el Apéndice II de la na, en dos direcciones: localmente, para abastecer Convención CITES. – WWF. Asunción, Paraguay. el mercado regional, caracterizado por volúmenes MORELLO, J. (1968): La vegetación de la República pequeños; e internacionalmente para Europa y Es- Argentina. Las grandes unidades de vegetación y am- tados Unidos de América, en mayores volúmenes biente del chaco argentino. Primera parte: objetivos y (OCAMPO 1999). metodología. – INTA, Serie Fitogeográfica 8:125pp. MUTARELLI, E. J. (1979): Riqueza de los bosques es- pontáneos. – In: COZZO, D. (Ed.), Arboles fore- stales, maderas y silvicultura de la Argentina, Enciclo- pedia Argentina de Agricultura y Jardinería, Segunda Edición, Tomo II, Fascículo 16-1. Editorial ACME. Buenos Aires. pp 18-33. SCHILLER, C. & SCHILLER, D. (2008): The Aromath- erapy Encyclopedia: A concise guide to over 385 plant oils. – Basic Health Publications, Inc. 235pp. UNA–GTZ. (1991): Vegetación y uso de la tierra de la region occidental del Paraguay. – Universidad Na- cional de Asunción and Misión Forestal Alemana, San Lorenzo. Paraguay. WALLER, T. & PUCCIO, G. (2010): Informe de la Fun- dación Biodiversidad sobre la Misión a Paraguay. Asunción, 1 al 4 de noviembre de 2010. – Fundación Biodiversidad – Argentina, Buenos Aires. Figura 1. Quassia amara L. (Simaroubace- ZERBATTO, M., DEGANO, W.A., BARROS, M., DRAQUE, ae). Photo: Autor. J., ALVARENGA, E. & WALLER, T. (2009): Situación de la especie Palo Santo (Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz Las Buenas Prácticas de Cosecha de Poblaciones ex Griseb) en la provincia de Formosa: estudio de si- Silvestres constituyen una forma de contribuir con tios de extracción en los Departamentos Matacos y la conservación de la especie. Por esta razón la em- Bermejo. – Estudio de Base para la Fundación Bio- presa Bougainvillea (Box 1) ha adoptado las nor- diversidad con el apoyo de la Oficina Federal para la mas creadas por el Centro Agronómico de Investi- Protección de la Naturaleza – Alemania. Provincia de gación y Enseñanza (CATIE) para su aplicación, Formosa. bajo la supervisión técnica de un Técnico Forestal. Tomás Waller • Fundación Biodiversidad Argenti- De igual forma se han dado acciones de domesti- na • Juncal 754, 7th Floor, Apt. 60 • Buenos Aires • cación de la especie, por parte del Jardín Agr- Argentina • email: [email protected] oecológico de Plantas Medicinales Bougainvillea en condiciones de cultivo agroecológico en el Car- ibe de Costa Rica. Page 9 May 2012 Como fortaleza de las acciones de manejo y con- La investigación va en la dirección de analizar y servación de la especie, es importante señalar que comparar el abastecimiento de materia prima del Q. amara tiene la capacidad de rebrotar posteri- arbusto de Q. amara, en relación con el suministro ormente a su cosecha; por esta razón, solamente de madera proveniente de poblaciones silvestres, estamos aprovechando el producto de cosecha, bajo un Plan de Manejo, en la Reserva Indígena sin poner en peligro el recurso natural. Además, de Kekoldi, Talamanca, Limón, Costa Rica, y de para completar un buen manejo del recurso natural poblaciones silvestres en Costa Rica. Estos últimas debemos aplicar acciones en la cosecha silvestre se estima a nivel nacional en 40 ton como cosecha que respeten árboles productores de semilla. En potencial para su comercio justo y el aprovechami- este sentido, VILLALOBOS (1997) hace referencia ento de madera producida bajo un sistema produc- a dejar 60 árboles mayores de 6 cm de diámetro tivo agroecológico, en asocio con el árbol mader- por ha, con el propósito de aplicar una práctica de able, denominado laurel (Cordia alliodora), en el cosecha silvestre bajo un Plan de Manejo. Pero el Jardín Agroecológico de Plantas Medicinales Bou- mayor problema, que se podría relacionar con la gainvillea, en la Comunidad rural de la Esperanza, desaparición de la Q. amara silvestre, es el cambio Matina, Limón, Costa Rica. Se analiza una estrate- de uso del bosque húmedo tropical, para su trans gia de aprovechamiento de materia prima por un período de 8 años, proveniente de ambos sistemas de producción. Características químicas de la materia prima La industria requiere una materia prima que re- sponda a normas de calidad, referido a la autenti- cidad taxonómica de la especie y al contenido del amaroide cuasina, lactona intensamente amarga. También contiene neocuasinas y alcaloides del tipo de la catin-6-ona. Los radios medulares son de solo una o dos células en el sentido de la anchura pero de hasta 30 célu- las en sentido longitudinal (TREASE & EVANS 1988, Figura 2. Hojas de Quassia amara. Photo: Autor. CÁCERES 2006). formación a otros sistemas de producción agrícola La materia prima de la Q. amara esta constituido y ganadera. por la corteza y la madera, ambos de coloración Bajo esta realidad latinoamericana de desaparición blanco-crema, con sabor amargo. El contenido de de los bosques tropicales húmedos, hábitat de Q. cuasinoides en la madera proveniente de pobla- amara, que esta poniendo la especie en peligro ciones silvestres esta entre un rango de 0.28-0.20% de extinción y, en otra dirección, el aumento de la que corresponde a diámetros de 4.5 cm a hasta de demanda local e internacional de la madera de Q. 1.5 cm., respectivamente. amara, es urgente establecer sistemas de produc- La madera (xilema) tiene una humedad de 40%; ción agroecológicas. Esto para lograr abastecer mientras la corteza contiene, en promedio, 60% la demanda y contribuir con la conservación de (Villalobos et al. 1996) si la madera proviene de la especie y su variabilidad genética, de las pocas poblaciones silvestres; mientras que en el material poblaciones silvestres establecidas dentro del Sis- proveniente de rebrotes de iguales poblaciones, el tema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación en Costa contenido de humedad promedio de la madera más Rica. Precisamente la presión ejercida por el mer- la corteza es de 49.3% (GUZMÁN 2000). cado internacional hacia las poblaciones silvestres Estas características de contenidos de humedad conlleva que para el año de 1999 la materia prima constituyen aportes para lograr la industrialización exportada ya no corresponde a la especie de Q. am- de la madera de la Q. amara como extracto estand- ara, en su lugar se incorporan otras especies de la arizado, empleado como saborizante en la industria Familia Simaroubaceae (OCAMPO & MORA 2012). Page 10 May 2012 combatir nauseas. En Italia se usa contra los piojos. Además del uso etnomédico ya mencionado, en Costa Rica se utiliza la madera en el uso veteri- nario para desparasitar animales. En Nicaragua las hojas y madera se emplean en forma externa para el control de garrapatas. En Costa Rica se ha desarrollado un fitofármaco a partir de la madera y corteza autorizado por el Ministerio de Salud. Q. amara - producto no maderable del bosque

Figura 3. Quassia amara cultivación. Photo: Autor. Costa Rica, es un país de solamente 51,000 km2, de los cuales un 40% corresponde a cobertura arbórea. alimentaria, biopesticida, uso veterinario y fitofár- De esta cobertura, un 30% está bajo diversas cat- maco. Además de su aprovechamiento como planta egorías de protección por parte del Ministerio del ornamental por sus atractivas flores rojas, visitadas Medio Ambiente, lo que conduce a la existencia de por aves e insectos. un 10%, de área potencial para el aprovechamiento de poblaciones silvestres de Q. amara. Los estudios Uso tradicional e industrial de distribución de Q. amara en Costa Rica (VILLA- En Costa Rica, al igual que en otros países latinoa- LOBOS 1996) confirman poblaciones dispersas y de mericanos y de Europa, hay varios usos etnomédi- tamaño reducido, en bosques de baja altitud (0-500 cos de Q. amara. metros sobre el nivel del mar), en ambas regiones En Costa Rica, se usa tradicionalmente la infusión costeras del Caribe y Pacífica. No existen estudios de la corteza y madera partida en trozos como técnicos que identifiquen, de manera sistemática, tónico amargo, estimulante del apetito, febrífugo el volumen de materia prima proveniente de pobla- y en forma de enemas. También se usa como an- ciones silvestres dentro del territorio nacional. tihelmíntico contra oxiuros, contra las afecciones De acuerdo con la ejecución de un Plan de Aprove- gástricas, para purificar la sangre, contra la fiebre y chamiento Sostenible, planificado en la Reserva los parásitos intestinales. Indígena de Kekoldi (MARMILLOD ET AL. 1995), la En Guatemala se usa la infusión, el polvo y la tin- capacidad productiva de 125 ha es de 12 ton, con tura de la madera, el polvo y la decocción de la un corte promedio anual de 1,800 kg y una rotación raíz y en homeopatía. El vino amargo se usa para de 6 años. Es importante aclarar que no toda el área combatir la nausea y mejorar la digestión. de 125 ha es productiva comercialmente, además que debido a ser plantaciones silvestres, no es ac- En Honduras se toma la corteza hervida para el do- onsejable dar rendimientos por hectárea. De acuer- lor de estomago, diabetes, fortificar la sangre, mal do con este estudio a nivel nacional se estima un de orin, diarrea y migraña. También se utiliza la volumen aprovechable de 40 ton, lo que representa corteza cocinada para lavados de heridas. una cosecha anual de 6.6 ton, igual situación se da En Colombia se usa madera en maceración en en este caso, no es viable dar rendimientos por ha. agua fría o infusión y es reconocido como uno de Posterior a la cosecha de la población selecciona- los mejores tónicos amargos empleados contra la da, la Q. amara tiene la capacidad de rebrotar. Por atonía de los órganos digestivos. esta razón se analiza el escenario de aprovechami- En Argentina y Bolivia, la madera del palo amargo, ento de rebrotes procedentes de poblaciones silves- macerada en alcohol se emplea en forma externa tres, en donde la situación de rendimiento es más para el control de piojos. compleja, debido a que su crecimiento depende de factores de luminosidad de forma natural. Sobre En Europa se preparan vinos amargos, por mace- este manejo, existe poca investigación, que aporte ración de una pequeña cantidad de madera, para elementos para su rendimiento. Page 11 May 2012 A manera de estudio de caso se hace referencia a Estas producciones no contemplan la producción una primera investigación, realizada en Talamanca de poblaciones silvestres. (GUZMÁN 2000), en donde de acuerdo con las ta- sas de rebrote de la especie, de 134 g/tallo/año, que Estrategia de aprovechamiento de madera de responde a una zona productiva de alta luminosi- Q. amara dad. Es importante señalar que al aplicar el Plan de Dos estrategias están definidas: Aprovechamiento, el rendimiento por individuo no se repite en el futuro, debido a lo heterogéneo del 1. Aprovechamiento de poblaciones silves- dosel superior, ya que la respuesta va a ser muy es- tres, bajo un plan de manejo. pecifica, determinada por las condiciones de sitio, 2. Aprovechamiento de poblaciones culti- además, es importante señalar que no existe aún vadas bajo buenas prácticas agrícolas. referencia sobre los contenidos de cuasinoides en la madera. Esta situación es diferente cuando se trata El aprovechamiento en ambos casos va a estar bajo de la primera cosecha de poblaciones silvestres, en supervisión técnica de la Empresa Bougainvillea las cuales la primera cosecha produce volúmenes S.A. Es importante señalar que las proyecciones entre 9-16 kilos por individuo, ya que responde a establecidas parten de un proceso de investigación un crecimiento silvestre que ha consumido mucho en progreso y diagnósticos preliminares que, con tiempo. el transcurso del tiempo, van a aportar elementos técnicos para su ajuste Cultivo agroecologico La investigación en progreso es importante, para Las características ecológicas de poblaciones sil- su análisis, pues este es el caso de un arbusto que vestres de Q. amara, de una distribución restring- provee madera como materia prima, además de ser ida en el sotobosque y con una alta respuesta de objeto de extractivismo de los bosques. Para las producción de biomasa por efecto de la luminosi- consideraciones del estudio de proyección parti- dad (MARMILLOD ET AL. 1995, VILLALOBOS 1995, mos de que la empresa Bougainvillea – Extractos LEIGUE 1997, GUZMÁN 2000), contribuyen a bus- Vegetales, va a procesar esta especie para el mer- car alternativas para su manejo agroecologico, con cado; principalmente como biopesticida. el propósito de aumentar la producción de materia prima. Abastecimiento de Q. amara cultivado en un sis- Por esta razón el Jardín Agroecologico de Plan- tema agroecologico y de poblaciones silvestres tas Medicinales Bougainvillea inició acciones La empresa Bougainvillea, S.A. ha implementado de manejo de Q. amara a partir del año 2000, acciones de domesticación de Q. amara desde 1986. planteándose el establecimiento de 100,000 plantas Por esta razón cuenta en el Jardín Agroecológico en un período de 10 años, con el apoyo financiero con una población aproximada de 2,000 arbustos del Proyecto O.E.A./A.I.C.D “Desarrollo de Tec- que, para el año 2004, estarán aportando más de nología de Cultivo de Plantas Medicinales y Pro- 8,000 semillas para su multiplicación. Al presente ducción de Fitoterápicos”. El proyecto avanza con se cuenta con una cosecha estimada de 2 millones el establecimiento de 62,000 individuos dentro de de semillas anual. un modelo Agroecológico de producción. El Cuadro no. 1 muestra la población estimada de Para el año 2012 se ha establecido el cultivo agr- siembra acumulada, a partir del año 2001 y hasta oecológico y se cuenta con la producción de mad- 2006. Además estima la producción anual de mate- era y hojas para abastecer la industrialización de ria prima, seis años después de la siembra, en kilos la Q. amara, transformada en extractos estandari- de material seco, por un período de 5 años (2007 zados. En la actualidad, la empresa Bougainvillea – 2012). esta en capacidad de producir un volumen de 20 Condiciones ecológicas y Sistema de siembra ton de madera deshidratada, por año, para su indus- trialización. De igual forma existen iniciativas de La empresa ha implementado el cultivo orgánico, cultivo asociado a cultivos agrícolas por parte de utilizando semilla sexual, bajo un sistema de pro- pequeños agricultores que aumentan el volumen. ducción agroecológica en el Caribe de Costa Rica, con una precipitación de 4,000 mm, una temperat- Page 12 May 2012 Cuadro 1. Fecha de siembra de Quassia amara y primera Cuadro no. 3. Aprovechamiento de madera de Quassia cosecha estimada. Período 2001 – 2012. amara silvestre, bajo Plan de Manejo, Costa Rica. Año de No. acu- Año de Producción Año Cosecha, kg Volumen, kg siembra1 mulado de cosecha2 anual, kg fresco1 seco2 plantas de material 2009 7,000 4,200 seco3 2010 7,000 4,200 1 (2001) 8,000 2007 5,280 2011 7,000 4,200 2 (2002) 10,000 2008 6,600 2012 7,000 4,200 3 (2003) 10,000 2009 6,600 2013 3,400 2,000 4 (2004) 10,000 2010 6,600 2014 3,400 2,000 5 (2005) 12,000 2011 7,920 6 (2006) 12,000 2012 7,920 razón, posterior a partir de la primera cosecha, se inicia el rebrote que se permite desarrollar por un 1 Siembra Octubre – Diciembre 2 Referido a un período de 6 años período de dos años (determinado por la empresa), 3 Calculado para una producción de 1.1 kilos/planta y un en dondeestá lista la planta para volver a cosechar. rendimiento de 60% Se estima, basado en observaciones previas, que las cosechas de rebrotes se pueden realizar cada ura media de 28 C, y una humedad relativa de 90%. dos años, a partir de la primera cosecha, a nivel Además se cuenta con material sembrado por me- de la base, con un rendimiento de 1.3 kg de mate- dio de acodos y se investigan métodos de reproduc- rial fresco por individuo-rebrote (OCAMPO & DÍAZ ción por estaca. El propósito de los dispositivos de 2006). No se cuenta con datos de investigación que investigación es aumentar el rendimiento por árbol demuestren la vida útil de la plantación, aunque en Producción de primera cosecha de cultivo agr- forma silvestre es perenne. oecológico El Cuadro no. 2 muestra la producción de la pob- Para realizar las estimaciones de producción por lación por un período de 6 años (2007 – 2012), que año, previamente se contó con un dispositivo de corresponde a una población de 62,000 individuos investigación establecido en 1998 en donde se ob- en un área estimada de 14 ha. tuvieron los siguientes resultados: la primera co- secha se ejecuta a los 6 años, para un volumen pro- Cosecha sustentable de madera de poblaciones sil- medio estimado de 1.1 kilo fresco por arbusto, con vestres un diámetro mayor a 2.5 cm., a una altura sobre la Como se mencionó en párrafos anteriores, la pro- superficie del suelo de 0.30 m., y un contenido de ductividad de poblaciones silvestres es estimada. cuasina no menor a 0.20 %. También es importante señalar que para ejecutar la primera cosecha de poblaciones silvestres, el Cuadro no. 2. Estimación de rebrote de Quassia amara cultivada. Período 2009 – 2014. rendimiento es alto (9 – 16 kilos por árbol), como consecuencia de mayor período de crecimiento. El Año No. de plan- Rebrote año Masa de material período de cosecha silvestre, a nivel de empresa, es tas seco, kg estimado para un lapso de tiempo de únicamente 5 años (2009 – 2014) (Cuadro no. 3). 2001 8,000 2009 6,720 A partir del año 2013, se considera un menor volu- 2002 10,000 2010 8,400 men de aprovechamiento, estimado en 2 ton, por 2003 10,000 2011 8,400 ser rebrote con menor rendimiento. A partir de la 2004 10,000 2012 8,400 primera cosecha (2009 – 2014), se va a incentivar el 2005 12,000 2013 10,080 manejo de las poblaciones silvestres y el enriquec- 2006 12,000 2014 10,080 imiento del área para aumentar el rendimiento y su rentabilidad. Es importante señalar, que a partir del Cosecha de rebrotes año 2012, la empresa únicamente está procesando La Q. amara, tiene la capacidad de rebrotar, cuan- un 20% de material silvestre y, a partir del 2013, do se realiza la cosecha de la madera. Por esta solamente un 10.0%. Page 13 May 2012 Aprovechamiento integral de materia prima pro- manejo integral constituye la forma adecuada para cedente de cultivo y poblaciones silvestres. enfrentar una demanda creciente en el futuro. Durante el primer año de producción, en el 2007, la Esta iniciativa desarrollada con un importante pro- planta será abastecida con 5,280 kilos de material ducto no maderable del bossque, propio del bosque secos procedente de cultivo. El Cuadro No. 4 hace tropical húmedo, que ha sido explotado de pobla- referencia a los volúmenes de materia seca por un ciones silvestres, demuestra que es factible desarr- período de 8 años (2007 – 2014) y su procedencia ollar herramientas técnicas para contribuir a la con- para una industrialización total de 132,840 kilos, servación y desarrollo de la biodiversidad nativa. en un período de 8 años. Es importante señalar que se cuenta con herramien- La materia prima está constituida por corteza y tas técnicas básicas para lograr un manejo sustent- madera con un promedio de humedad entre 12- able, pero ello implica el considerar la realización 18%. de investigaciones para lograr mejores resultados hacia el futuro. Cuadro no. 4. Abastecimiento estimado de madera seca Agradecimiento de Hombre grande. Período 2007 – 2014. Al Proyecto Desarrollo de Tecnología de Cultivo Año Cultivado Silvestre Masa de de Plantas Medicinales y Producción de Fitoterápi- material seco, kg cos O.E.A. (AICD), por el aporte financiero para 2007 5,280 0 5,280 establecer el modelo agroecologico para el cultivo del arbusto de Q. amara en el Jardín Agroecolog- 2008 6,600 0 6,600 ico Bougainvillea, Matina, Costa Rica, al Centro 2009 6,600 + 4,200 17,520 de Investigación y enseñanza (CATIE) en Turri- 6,720 alba, Costa Rica, por la iniciativa de investigación 2010 6,600 + 4,200 19,200 de la Quassia amara como producto no maderable 8,400 del bosque (PNMB), dentro del Proyecto de Con- 2011 7,920 + 4,200 20,520 servación y Desarrollo.(OLAFO), al CIPRONA, 8,400 U,C.R. y al Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad 2012 7,920 + 4,200 20,520 (INBIO) dentro de la iniciativa del Proyecto IN- 8,400 BIO/BID/Fomin, que la empresa Bougainvillea fue 2013 7,920 + 2,000 20,000 participé. 10,080 Referencias 2014 7,920 + 2,000 20,000 CÁCERES, A. (ed.). (2006): Propuesta de Monografías 20,080 Farmacopeicas de 10 plantas medicinales Centroa- Totales 108,840 20,800 129,640 mericanas. – Proyecto OEA/AICD/USAC-089/05. Guatemala. 88p. Discusión GUZMÁN, V. (2000): Evaluación del crecimiento de Hombre Grande (Quassia amara) como respuesta a la Es evidente que para el aprovechamiento de la poda en “Baja Talamanca”, Limón, Costa Rica. Tesis madera de Q. amara, existen herramientas impor- de grado. – Universidad Nacional, Escuela de Cien- tantes para lograr un aprovechamiento integral de cias Ambientales, Heredia. 89p. las poblaciones silvestres y cultivadas, sin poner en LEIGUE, L. (1997): Elementos ecológicos para la silvi- peligro la especie dentro del medio ambiente y con- cultura de Quassia amara en Talamanca. Costa Rica. tar con volúmenes adecuados en la fase de industri- Tesis Mag. Sc. – CATIE, Turrialba. 93p. alización de la madera de Q. amara, manteniendo MARMILLOD, D., CHANG, Y., BEDOYA, R. (1995): Plan factores de calidad. De igual forma, es evidente de aprovechamiento sostenible de Quassia amara en que el suministro exclusivo de materia prima de la Reserva Indígena de Kékoldi. In: Ocampo, R. (ed.), Potencial de Quassia amara como insecticida natural. poblaciones silvestres, al menos en Costa Rica, no Serie técnica, informe técnico 267. – CATIE, Turri- satisface el desarrollo industrial de una pequeña alba. pp. 68-90. empresa basado exclusivamente en poblaciones OCAMPO, R. (1999): Situación de comercio de plan- silvestres de Q. amara. Por esta razón el lograr un tas medicinales en América Latina In: Memorias XII Page 14 May 2012 Seminario Nacional de Plantas Medicinales. Petén, Chile, in a surface of 155,000 km2, accounting for Guatemala. pp. 127-132. 20 percent of the total country. This flora has a high OCAMPO, R. & DÍAZ, R. (2006): Cultivo, conservación degree of endemism with 2,630 species, reaching e industrialización del Hombre Grande (Quassia ama- 51,8% of the total number of species (MARTICORE- ra). – Litografía e Imprenta LIL, San José. 70p. NA 1990). Central Chile has also supported a long OCAMPO, R. & MORA, G. (2012): Ethnomedicine of history of human occupation and has a relatively Quassia and related plants in tropical America. In: high density of population. In fact, 80% of the RAI, M., ACHARYA, D., RÍOS, J.L. (eds.), Ethnomedic- inal plants, revitalization of traditional knowledge of country’s population is distributed in this area thus herbs. – Science Publishers, Enfield, New Hampshire. and the high demand for land to develop cities and pp. 301-332. agriculture has caused a significant reduction in the TREASE, G. & EVANS, W. (1988): Tratado de Farmacog- area occupied by native wild vegetation (ARROYO nosia 12 ed. – Editorial Interamericana México, D.F. & CAVIERES 1997). Furthermore, the survival of VILLALOBOS, R. (1995): Distribución de Quassia ama- some species, particularly endemic species and ra en Costa Rica y su relación con los contenidos de those of restricted distribution, is threatened by cuasina y neocuasina (insecticidas naturales) en sus indiscriminate extraction for medicinal and aro- tejidos. Tesis Mag. Sc. – CATIE, Turrialba. 174p. ONTENEGRO ONTENEGRO ET VILLALOBOS, R., MARMILLOD, D., OCAMPO, R., matic uses (M 2000, M MORA, G., ROJAS, G. (1997): Variations in the AL. 2003) Quassin and Neoquassin content in Quassia amara In Chile, there is a vast traditional knowledge on (Simaroubaceae) in Costa Rica: ecological and man- medicinal plants, a fundamental resource of prima- agement implications. In: GILBERTI, G., CRAKER, ry health care for a great part of the population in L., LORENZ, M., MATHÉ, A., GIULIETTI, A. (eds.), II indigenous and rural zones, as well as an important WOCMAP Congress Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Part 3: Agricultural Production, Post Harvest Tech- source of income for these sectors. Besides wild niques, Biotechnology. International Society for Hor- harvesting a source of plant material is through ticultural Science, Leuven. cultivation. As quality requirements are becom- ing more and more stringent, standardization for Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez • Jardín Agr- pure products, extracts or crude drugs is of crucial oecológico de Plantas Medicinales Bougainvillea • importance. In Chile a few exotic and introduced Santo Domingo, Heredia, Costa Rica • e-mail: species of medicinal and aromatic plants are under [email protected] cultivation. Examples are: Matricaria chamomilla, Hypericum perforatum, Rosa eglanteria sin. Rosa rubiginosa, Calendula officinalis, and Rosmari- nus officinalis. Favorable growing conditions and Regional file public-private investments in research has enabled increases in the national supply of plant material and production for export. Threats to Chilean medicinal plants Chilean medicinal plants Wild harvesting of plant material from natural hab- Gloria Montenegro & Sharon Rodríguez itats of the medicinal species in central Chile is a very popular tradition and practice, and there is con- cern due to the great amount of biomass collected Introduction every year; especially regarding plants classified as Central Chile represents one of the biodiversity vulnerable (SQUEO ET AL. 2010). Concerns of me- hotspots on earth, with high plant diversity and en- dicinal plant trade reach to policy makers and local demism, and increasing human population density people, mainly because of the lack of knowledge (CINCOTTA ET AL. 2000). A total of 5,082 species regarding in situ regeneration and the conservation have been described for continental Chile (ARROYO status of species that are intensively harvested. A & CAVIERES 1997), and around half of these are few case studies focusing on species biology have found in the Mediterranean climate area of central been done (MONTENEGRO ET AL. 1979, 2001, 2003, Page 15 May 2012 WILCKENS 2005, MONTENEGRO 2006, FISCHER ET Chilean Mediterranean arid and semiarid zone are: AL. 2010) to establish models of plant regeneration Balsamocarpon brevifolium, Adesmia hystrix, Fa- based on morphology, seasonality and the position biana imbricata, Acacia caven, Peumus boldus, of renewal buds, suggesting the right way to har- Quillaja saponaria, Porlieria chilensis and Schi- vest a given species in a sustainable way. nus polygamus. Natural fires have not played an important role in A history of studies of medicinal plants in Chile plant species evolution of the Chilean matorral The high floral diversity of Chile incorporates a (ARMESTO & GUTIERREZ 1978, MUÑOZ & FUENTES great number of species with healing properties. 1989, MONTENEGRO ET AL. 2004). But anthropogen- The curative attributes of some plants have been ic fires affect thousands of hectares, especially the historically transmitted by indigenous populations matorral, every year in central Chile (CONAF 2010). through many generations, mainly orally and with Native species’ seeds generally cannot tolerate tem- great development in the 19th century. The diver- peratures above 100 degrees Celsius and the soil sity of the Chilean flora made possible the natural seed bank is reported reduced (MUÑOZ & FUENTES growth of more than a thousand species of medici- 1989, GOMEZ-GONZALEZ & CAVIERES 2009). An nal plants, forming diverse pharmacological vari- example is Helenium aromaticum, an important eties of astringent, diuretic, analgesic, antipyretic medicinal plant growing on the herbaceous strata and soothing, among others attributes, identified of the matorral, whose seedlings do not emerge by the doctors then. Native plants like cachanla- after application of intense fire on soil samples gua (Centaurium cachanlahuen), paico (Chenopo- (GOMEZ-GONZALES ET AL. 2011). H. aromaticum dium ambrosioides), quinchamalí (Quinchamalium appears today as one of the most vulnerable annual chilense), viravira (Gnaphalium viravira) and cin- species due to severe fires and heavy commercial namon tree (Drymis winteri) are some of the best- harvesting during the vegetative growth period. known by their therapeutic uses during the Colo- In the arid zones of the country charcoal produc- nial Period in Chile (CRUZ-COKE 1995). tion from woody shrubs is one of the main threats CRUZ-COKE (1995) is one of the first authors to to native vegetation (ESTEVEZ ET AL. 2010). The compile information on medicinal plant species main species used for charcoal production in the used in Chile. He details the investigations of Fa-

Figure 1. Boldo - Peamus boldus. Photo: G. Montenegro. Page 16 May 2012 ther Luis Feuilleé, published in 1714, who indicated Chemical properties of native plants medicinal uses of plants of Peru and Chile; he pro- There is an ancient knowledge regarding the iden- vides information on the social and medical work tification, harvesting and medicinal use of Chilean of Doctor Adolfo Murillo, mainly the publication native plants and their chemical principles (active of the Chilean Pharmacopoeia in 1886; and he in- ingredients) that are used in fields like medicine, forms of Guajardo’s work in the year 1890, which perfumery, cosmetics, eating industry, industrial described chemical characteristics of some Chilean and agricultural use. Results of scientific inves- medicinal plants. GUSINDE (1936) published works tigations ratify the efficacy of the majority of the related to the traditional uses of medicinal plants medicinal plants used by native towns on specific by the southern indigenous tribes of the country. illnesses, like skin and urinary infections or hy- In the early twentieth century, plants in their natu- pertensive crisis, as well as for their antioxidant, ral state were already part of medical studies. Sup- antirheumatic or diuretic properties (RUZ 2011). ported by the constant development of chemistry it The Chilean flora has shown to be a good resource was possible to investigate the active ingredients of of biologically active compounds, such as antibac- medicinal plants. Scientific publications from the terials, antifungals, and antioxidants (MONTENE- second half of last century strengthened medicinal GRO 2000, 2006, VOGEL 2000, MUÑOZ ET AL. 2001, herbs through the study of the chemical components MONTENEGRO ET AL. 2001, 2003, 2005, FISCHER ET that give value to medicinal plants, diversifying the AL. 2007, 2010, VOGEL ET AL. 2010). Because of the medical practices (PACHECO ET AL. 1977, MONTES high degree of endemism, primarily from Chile’s & WILKOMIRSKY 1987, MUÑOZ ET AL. 2001). central regions (ARROYO & CAVIERES 1997), it is Recently, HOFFMAN ET AL. (2003) identified and de- reasonable to propose that products with unique scribed medicinal plants commonly used in Chile and particular bioactive properties are likely to be through ethnobotanical information about the tra- found. Examples are chemical compounds present ditional medicinal uses of more than 60 species in honey and propolis, which are closely associated of Chilean plants. LOOSER & RODRÍGUEZ (2004) with the botanical origin that they have (ÁVILA ET described the medicinal attributes of the Chilean AL. 1993, MONTENEGRO 2000, MUÑOZ ET AL. 2001, pteridophytes based on an unpublished manuscript 2007, MONTENEGRO ET AL. 2008, 2009, 2010). of the naturalist Walterio Looser. The authors do Research on determining levels of antimicrobial clarify, however, that in relation to Chilean medici- activity (HEDERRA 2011), on the antioxidant, an- nal plants “many points that have to be clarified timicrobial and antihypertensive activity levels of still remain”. native plants and on the identification of types of MONTENEGRO ET AL. (2009) in their work “Secret responsible compounds for this activity through of our plants and other species: how to use them the combination of bioassays with chemical analy- for the benefit of the people”, made a contribution sis has been extensively developed (MONTENEGRO to the rescue and preservation of the cultural patri- 2000, SIMONSEN ET AL. 2006, MONTENEGRO ET AL. mony of Chile, putting together antecedents related 2008, 2009, 2010). to the multiple uses of the plants (medicinal, cos- Extraordinary medicinal and cosmetic properties metic, and domestic uses, among others) that form have been identified in murta or murtilla (Ugni part of the traditions and traditional knowledge of molinae), a southern native Chilean fruit that his- our country. In a similar trend MONTENEGRO (2000) torically has been part of the diet of native towns and MONTENEGRO ET AL. (2010) rescue the value of (INIA 2005). It has a high content of poliphenols, those native plants used selectively by honeybees terpenes and tannins, compounds that make murta (Apis mellifera) for collection of nectar yielding a very attractive element for the dermatological honey with medicinal properties (MONTENEGRO industry, given its regenerative tissue and healing 2007). Lastly, it is worth mentioning the significant qualities, besides multiple uses already applied in contribution made by a group of experts called by the national agro food industry. the Department of Health who carried out an em- pirical land registry of the medicinal plants, regis- Chilean medicinal plants and their use tering 460 different species (PROTEGE 2009). Only a few species of Chilean medicinal plants are Page 17 May 2012 widely available in natural populations, with no distribution. need of management for protection. Many of the The main species exported from Chile are rosa plants that are part of Chile’s national herbarium mosqueta (Rosa aff. rubiginosa) and oregano (Ori- are in a state of vulnerability associated mainly ganum vulgare), with a considerable increase in with informal indiscriminate harvesting. the production of chamomile and boldo. Rosa mos- The increase in demand for natural products (es- queta and hazelnut seed oils occupy an important pecially plants), nationally and internationally, has place in the national and international cosmetic positive effects in promoting the conservation of dustry, with Chile the major producer and export- natural plant populations with commercial poten- er of rosa mosqueta oil in the world, mainly to tial. For this reason it is useful to characterize the France, Germany and Japan. Also, the exports of conservation state of native Chilean plants with plants extracts have considerably increased, among medicinal potential. Table 1 was constructed with them, processed extracts of quillay, hiperico, va- that purpose; it shows native and endemic species nilla and parsley, and also a growing production in Chile, their taxonomic identification, growth and export of peppermint essential oils (FIA 2008). form, and state of conservation. Sustainable harvest: regeneration models in Chilean medicinal plant trade plants used for medicinal purposes Medicinal plants are traded in fairs and local mar- Research on conservation and sustainable use of kets by fruit pickers and herbalists. The products are medicinal plants is being developed at the Catholic hand-packed and characterized by irregular qual- University as part of the International Cooperative ity. Data from 2007 show the entrance of medicinal Biodiversity Group (ICBG); the studies seek to herbs in Chilean homes, with an average growth in strike a balance between exploitation and conser- the consumption of around 20% (PROCHILE 2007). vation of natural plant resources in collaboration This has encouraged the development of compa- with people who collect and sell medicinal plants, nies and research institutions to use plant products with a focus on explaining the impact of local and plant selection in areas of food, cosmetics and practices on the conservation of intensively har- drugs, focusing mainly on folk medicine (EVENSON vested species (MONTENEGRO 1994, 2005). So far & WESTPHAL 1995, GUZMÁN ET AL. 2004). Still the data on species threatened by overexploitation has yearly per capita consumption of purchased me been collected: areas of exploitation, the amount dicinal plant based material is low compared with- of biomass gathered, the frequency of collection, Europe. and methods of plant harvesting. The biology of these species has been studied to develop morpho- There is in Chile a recent approach to the global logical models of regeneration based on position market for medicinal plants (POLANCO 2011). Fig- and location on types of branches of renewal buds. ures from the last decade (FIA 2008) indicated an Based on monitoring of experimental plots growth increase of almost 60% in exports of medicinal dynamics have been studied to calculate rates of herbs. Shortcomings identified in relation to trade regeneration after harvesting (MONTENEGRO ET AL. are associated with safety and efficiency records, 2003). standardization, and clinical knowledge, among others (LOBOS 2011, MARLES 2011, POLANCO Sustainable medicinal plant management strategies 2011). based on regeneration models have been developed by MONTENEGRO ET AL. (2007). The quantification The industrialization of the medicinal herb prod- of the increment rates of the number of leaves, fo- ucts has great potentials but entrance to the de- liar area and length of the stems provides informa- manding markets of Europe and USA is challeng- tion on the seasonal dynamics of vegetation growth ing and requires elaboration and implementation (MONTENEGRO ET AL. 1979, 1982, MONTENEGRO of supportive regulations. The recognition of the 1987). Species-specific growth measurements, in Chilean Department of Health of 52 herbs as ‘tra- combination with the information about the availa- ditional medicine herbs’ is a measure that, besides bility of the resources, then allow determination of recognizing officially the curative properties of the sustainable use rates and use types (cutting of trees, plants, implies a greater control in their sale and Page 18 May 2012 TABLE 1. Identification, description and conservation status of major Chilean plants. Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name form form Growth Growth Growth Growth Cons. status Cons. status

Acacia caven Espino, Aromo T, S Ephedra chilensis Pingo-pingo, Trans- S Acaena alpina Cepacaballo, Cadillo P montana, Solupe, Sea grape Acaena splendens Cadillo, abrojo, amores P secos Equisetum bogotense Yerba del platero, P Limpia plata, Hierba de Acantholippia deserticola Rica-rica, Kore S la plata, Canutillo Adesmia emarginata Paramela, Paramilla P Escallonia illinita Barraco, Corontillo, S Aloysa salvifolia Cedrón del monte/Chil- S V Ñipa ean lemon beebrush, Escallonia pulverulenta Madroño, Corontillo, S Lemon verbena Siete camisas Araucaria araucana Araucaria, pehuén, T V Escallonia revoluta Lun T Piñonero Escallonia rubra Siete camisas colorado, S Argemone hunnemannii Cardo santo A Ñipa, Yang-yang Argemone subfusiformis Cardo blanco A, B Escallonia virgata Mata negra, Meki S Aristolochia chilensis Oreja de zorro, Hierba P Eucryphia cordifolia Ulmo, muermo T de la Virgen María, Birthwort, Pipevine, Fabiana imbricata Pichi, Peta, Romero S Dutchman’s pipe Francoa appendiculata Llaupangue, Vara de P Aristotelia chilensis Maqui T mármol Azara mycrophylla Chin-chin, Roblecillo S Fuchsia magellanica Chilco, Chilca, Palo S blanco Azorella compacta Llareta S V Gaultheria mucronata Chaura S Berberis empetrifolia Uva de la cordillera, S Palo amarillo, Barberry Geranium Bomarea salsilla Salsilla, Zarcilla, S core-core Geranium core-core P Copihuito Geum quellyon Hierba del clavo, Hal- P Buddleja globosa Matico, Pañil S V lante Calceolaria arachnoidea Capachito morado P Gevuina avellana Avellano, Gevuín T Calceolaria thyrsiflora Capachito, Hierba P Gnaphalium viravira Viravira, Hierba de la P dulce vida, Hierba de la diuca Centaurium cachanla- Cachanlahue, Cachen, A V Gunnera tinctoria Nalca, Pangue S huen Kachan-l-awen Haplopappus baylahuen Baylahuén S Cestrum parqui Palqui, Parqui, Hedi- S Haplopappus foliosus Cuerno de cabra S ondilla Haplopappus multifolius Bailahuén, Cacho de S Cheilanthes glauca Doradilla P cabra Cissus striata Voqui colorado S Helenium aromaticum Manzanilla del cerro P V Colletia spinosa Crucero, Yaqui, Cunco S Kageneckia oblonga Bollén T Colliguaja odorifera Colliguay, Coliguay, S Lampaya medicinalis Lampaya S Lechón Latua pubiflora Palo muerto, Palo de S Convulvulus arvensis Correhuela, Correvuela P brujos, Latué Coriaria ruscifolia Deu, Huique, Matara- S Laurelia sempervirens Laurel, Trihue T tones Linum chamissonis Ñancolahuén, Reta- P Corynabutilon viride Huella S milla Corynabutilon vitifolium Huella T, S Lithrea caústica Litre T Cryptocarya alba Peumo T Lobelia tupa Tabaco del diablo, S Cuscuta chilensis Cabello de ángel A Tupa, Trupa Discaria serratifolia Chacay, Espino blanco S Lomatia dentata Piñol, Avellanillo, Palo T negro Drimys winteri Canelo, Fuñe, Boighe, T Boique Lomatia ferruginea Fuinque, Palmilla T Elytropus chilensis Quilmay, Poroto del S Lomatia hirsuta Radal, Raral, Nogal T E campo silvestre Page 19 May 2012 TABLE 1. Continued - Chilean plants. grazing and harvest for human medicinal use) by Scientific name Common name the community (MONTENEGRO 1986, 1987, ÁVILA- ET AL. 1988), as well as the efficiency in the use of the available resources. Cons. status Growth form Growth The massive extraction of certain plant species for Lophosoria quadripinnata Ampe, Palmilla, F medicinal use, by either folk medicine or for export Pesebre purposes requires the evaluation of the conserva- Luma apiculata Arrayán, Palo colorado T tion status of medicinal plants. Causes of overex- Luma chequen Chequén, Arrayán S ploitation, their potentiality and the specific rates blanco of regeneration after harvest must be identified Margyricarpus pinnatus Hierba de la perilla S (SIMONETTI & MONTENEGRO 1996). This requires Maytenus boaria Maitén T involvement of local communities in the recovery Mitraria coccinea Botellita, Vochi-vochi S of the traditional knowledge about species-specific Muehlenbeckia hastulata Quilo, Voqui negro, S Molleca utilization activities (TIMMERMANN & MONTENE- Mulinum spinosum Hierba negra, Palo S GRO 1997). It is important to emphasize the local negro, Hierba de la responsibility in the conservation of the biological culebra diversity, promoting programs of sustainable pro- Myrceugenia exsucca Pitrilla, Pitra, Patagua T duction, cultivation and protection. Myrceugenia planipes Picha, Pitra, Patagua de T Valdivia The study of the mechanisms of species regenera- Nothofagus obliqua Roble T tion used in folk medicine, specifically the loca- Oenothera stricta Flor de San José, Don P tion and activity of the renewal buds, their growth Diego de la noche dynamics and the way and time that they sprout amarillo, Evening primrose allows for determination of patterns of regenera- Passiflora pinnatistípula Granadilla, Flora de la C tion (MONTENEGRO ET AL. 2003). Also, the abil- pasión, Pasionaria ity of a species to recover from extraction can be Peumus boldus Boldo T established, correlating the regeneration rate with Podanthus mitiqui Mitique, Palo negro S the frequency and amount of material removed. Puya berteroniana Chagual, Puya, Cardón P Through an analysis of productivity per season, the Puya chilensis Chagual, Puya, Cardón P rate of productivity per plant with the rate of remov- Quillaja saponaria Quillay T al by harvesters can be compared. Comparing the Quinchamalium chilense Quinchamalí P extraction and regeneration of plants at individual Retanilla trinervia Tevo, Tebo S sites currently used by growers with the ones used Schinus molle Pimiento, falso pi- T in the past and projecting the data to be applied at miento community level, it is possible to evaluate whether Schinus latifolius Molle, Lilén T the population of a given species is maintaining or Senecio fistulosus Hualtata P decreasing as result of resource extraction. Some Solanum crispum Natre, Natri, Hierba del S chabalongo, Common results show that regeneration is possible when the nightshade harvest is done allowing the renewal buds to re- Sphacele salviae Salvia blanca, Lahuén- S main untouched in the plant (BOX 1). lahuén The knowledge about the cycles of life of the spe- Stachys albicaulis Toronjilcillo, Hierba de P Santa María cies helps using products of economic interest in Stellaria arvalis Quilloi-quilloi P the biologically most appropriate periods. For ex- Triptilion spinosum Siempreviva P ample, in the case of extract pieces of bark of Quil- Tristerix corymbosus Quintral S laja saponaria, a saponin-rich species, exploiting Ugni molinae Murta blanca, Murta, T individuals during their biological inactivity, i.e. in Tautau, Murtilla autumn and part of winter would be a good idea. So Weinmannia trichosperma Tineo, Palo santo T when growth resumes the extracted bark can be re- 1 P: perennial herb, A: annual herb, T: tree, S: shrub generated. Another example is the use of the leaves 2 E: endangered, V: vulnerable of Peumus boldus Mol., that are rich in boldina. Its Page 20 May 2012 biomass can be regenerated if renewal buds located in apical or axillary places are kept in place. Apart from all the procedures used to promote sustainable use of the natural plant resources, the reproduction through seed germination, vegeta- tive propagation and/or tissue culture will provide a powerful tool to recover degraded areas and to conserve endangered species helping to preserve the fragile plant biodiversity of our planet. Regulatory framework In Latin America and the Caribbean Islands coun- tries medicinal plants are protected under regula- tions of CITES. About 30 countries of the region, including Chile, have become signatory of the Convention. The permits and certificates of origin are issued by the SAG (Agricultural and Livestock

FIGURE 2. Medicinal plant vendor. Photo: G. Service of Chile). In Chile, the Ministry of Health Montenegro. has generated and incorporated changes in the leg- islation to ensure the rational use of medicines de- leaves grow from September to December, their rived from medicinal plants and natural products extraction during the inactive time is advisable (PARADA 2011). from a management point of view because the old leaves have larger amounts of the active compound Existing regulations regarding medicinal plants in and because extraction of leaves during the grow- Chile are associated (i) to the stage of production- ing season reduces the photosynthetic activity, extraction of plant species oriented to the sustain thereby affecting the formation of new organs. able use of plants or plant structures such as leaves Thus, the knowledge about the life cycle of species BOX 2. Regeneration models for different helps to quantify, with some accuracy, the pattern types of plants of biomass productivity throughout the growing season, enabling determination of the rate of accu- Regeneration model 1 represents perennial her- mulation of dry matter at different times (MON- baceous species that develop underground stems TENEGRO ET AL. 1988). where the reserve of renewal buds is found Many species can tolerate the removal of a certain Regeneration model 2 represents the perennial amount of biomass and can regenerate from renew- herbaceous species that develop a bank of buds in al buds or other meristematic tissues. Regeneration the crown located at ground level models that promote extraction procedures, con- Regeneration model 3 is linked to cushion plants sistent with a sustainable use of natural resources, that have a reserve of protected buds at ground have been elaborated for these specific cases (MON- level or underground, which help to regenerate TENEGRO ET AL. 2003, Box 2). their biomass if the woody structure that protects Other models of regeneration from specific parts them is not destroyed of the plant can be added to the previous models, Regeneration model 4 represents the woody spe- such as a regeneration pattern of the bark from lat- cies that have between the trunk and the root, a eral meristems (vascular cambium and phellogen) lignified tuber (lignotuber) which generates buds located on the periphery of the trunk. These meris- from vascular cambium when the aerial part has tems are capable of regenerating the bark removed suffered a serious environmental impact when part of them has been allowed to remain in place. Another example is a model related to the Regeneration model 5 represents annual plants that have a reserve of renewal buds in the seeds. woody species used for their leaves: the extracted Page 21 May 2012 and fruits, specifically the exploitation of quillay, Vegetales’ (EGCEV) en América Latina: El aporte from which mainly its bark is extracted; boldo de la Red Latinoamericana de Botánica al objetivo 1, (Peumus boldus) for the removal of its leaves, and meta 2. – Red Latinoamericana de Botánica. shrubs and native trees in general; and (ii) to the CONAF. (2010): Estadísticas históricas de Incendios processing of medicinal herbs for therapeutic use, Forestales. Corporación Nacional Forestal de Chile. – Ministerio de Agricultura. Disponible en: http://www. to obtain and register a pharmaceutical product with conaf.cl Accessed June 2011. medicinal properties. However, there is no legisla- CRUZ-COKE, R. (1995): Historia de la Medicina Chile- tion for the conservation of native germplasm of na. – Editorial Andres Bello. 584 páginas. medicinal plants that are exploited indiscriminately EVENSON, R.E. & WESTPHAL, L.E. (1995): Technolog- (FIA 2001). It is necessary to regulate access to ge- ical Change and Technology Strategy. In: BEHRMAN netic resources in Chile to prevent leakage of ma- & SRINIVASAN (eds.), Handbook of Development terial and protect traditional knowledge (MANZUR Economics. Elsevier Science B.V. Chapter 37. 2004). ESTÉVEZ, R.A., SQUEO, F.A., ARANCIO, G. & ERAZO, M.B. (2010): Producción de carbón vegetal a partir The “Global Strategy for Plant Conservation” de arbustos nativos de la Región de Atacama, Chile. – (GSPC) in Latin America intends to be established Gayana Botánica 67(2): 213-223. as a conceptual guideline for the conservation of FIA (2001): Estrategia de Innovación Agraria para Pro- plants from the experience developed by the Latin- ducción de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas. – Fun- American Network of Botany and also considers dación para la Innovación Agraria, Ministerio de Ag- the constant loss of species diversity of the world. ricultura, Santiago. 67 pp The work published by CHACÓN ET AL. (2011) is FIA (2008): Resultados y lecciones en plantas medici- a fundamental element to guide the decisions of nales y aromáticas. Proyectos de Innovación en Re- management that contribute to the conservation giones V, VII, VIII y X. Serie Experiencias de Inno- vación para el Emprendimiento Agrario, – Fundación and sustainable use of the vegetable species. para la Innovación Agraria, Ministerio de Agricultura, References Santiago. ARMESTO, J.J. & GUTIÉRREZ, J. (1978): El efecto del FISCHER, S, INOSTROZA, L., WILCKENS, R., BERTI, M. fuego en la estructura de la vegetación de Chile Cen- BAEZA, M. & PASTENE, E. (2007): Characterization tral. – Anales del Museo de Historia Natural 11: 43-48 and Evaluation of Two Chilean Populations of Geum ARROYO, M.T.K. & CAVIERES, L. (1997): The Medi- quellyon. – In: JANICK, J. & WHIPKEY, A. (eds.), Is- terranean type climate flora of central Chile. What sues in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alex- do we know and how can we assure its protection. – andria, VA. In: TIMMERMANN, B.N. & MONTENEGRO, G. (eds.), FISCHER S., BERTI, M., WILCKENS, R., BAEZA, M., Aspectos ambientales, éticos, ideológicos y políticos PASTENE, E., INOSTROZA, L., TRAMÓNE, C. & en el debate sobre bioprospección y uso de recursos GONZALEZ, W. (2010): Characterization and propa- genéticos en Chile. Noticiero de Biología 5(2): 48-56. gation of some medicinal plants in the central-south ÁVILA, G., MONTENEGRO, G, & ALJARO, M.E. region of Chile. – Ind. Crops Prod. Article in press. (1988): Incendios en la vegetación mediterránea. – doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.10.012. In: FUENTES, E. & PRENAFRETA, S. (eds.), Ecología GOMEZ-GONZALEZ, S. & CAVIERES, L. (2009): Litter del paisaje de Chile Central. Estudios sobre sus espa- burning does not equally affect seedling emergence cios montañosos. Ediciones Universidad Católica de of native and alien species of the Mediterranean-type Chile, Santiago. pp 81-89. Chilean matorral. – International Journal of Wildland ÁVILA, G., GÓMEZ, M., MUJICA, A.M. & MONTENE- Fire 18: 213-221. GRO, G. (1993): La flora nativa sustentadora de col- GÓMEZ-GONZALEZ, S., TORRES-DÍAZ, C. & GIANOLI, menas de Apis mellifera en Pichidangui, IV Región de E. (2011): The effects of fire related cues on seed Chile. – Ciencia e Investigación Agraria 20(3): 119- germination and viability of Helenium aromaticum 125. (Hook) H.L. Bailey (Asteraceae). – Gayana Botánica CINCOTTA, R.P., WISNEWSKI, J. & ENGELMAN, R. 68(1): 86-89. (2000): Human population in the biodiversity hotspots. GUSINDE, M. (1936): Plantas medicinales que los in- – Nature 404: 990–992. dios Araucanos recomiendan. – Anthropos XXXI: CHACÓN, P., LAGOS-WITTE, S., MORA, A. & MORAES, 555-571. M. (2011): Manual para la implementación de la ‘Es- GUZMÁN, A., LUDLOW, J. & GÓMEZ, H. (2004): Bre- trategia Global para la Conservación de las Especies chas tecnológicas y de innovación entre países indus- Page 22 May 2012 trializados y países en desarrollo en la industria farma- Latin America and the Caribbean. International Acad- céutica. – Investigación Económica. emy of the Environment, Geneva. HEDERRA, L.M. (2011): Control microbiológico en pro- MONTENEGRO, G. (2000): CHILE, nuestra flora útil. ductos vegetales para uso medicinal. Seminario De- Guía de uso apícola, alimentario, medicinal folclóri- safíos y oportunidades para los productos medicinales ca, artesanal y ornamental. Colección en Agricultura. de origen vegetal, 3-5 de August 2011. – Instituto de Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile. – Abaco Im- Salud Pública, Proyecto Farmacopea Chilena. San- presores, Santiago, Chile. 267 pp. tiago, Chile. MONTENEGRO, G. (2005): La Flora Chilena y sus Apli- HOFFMANN A., FRAGA, C., LASTRA, J., & VEGHAZI, E. caciones. – Revista Chile Agricola. 276-277(30): 182- (2003): Plantas medicinales de uso común en Chile. 183. 3rd ed. – Ed. Fundación Claudio Gay, Santiago, Chile. MONTENEGRO, G. (2006): Training Course on ‘MAPs 275 pp. (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants) Conservation INIA. (2005): Domesticación y desarrollo de la murtil- through sustainable harvesting’, Santiago, Chile, la, una baya nativa para la zona sur de Chile. – INIA 15-17 November, organized by ICS-UNIDO in col- Carillanca e INIA Remehue. Proyecto financiado por laboration with the Red Latinoamericana de Botánica FDI-CORFO 2003-2005. (Código RLB-CP06-06). LOBOS, M. (2011): Productos de Origen Vegetal y la MONTENEGRO, G. (2007): Natural Composition Based Industria Farmacéutica: alcances y necesidades. on Chilean Monofloral Honey extract from native veg- Seminario Desafíos y oportunidades para los produc- etable species for bacterial infection control in plants tos medicinales de origen vegetal, 3-5 August, 2011. at all. International Patent Customer Number 23599. – Instituto de Salud Pública, Proyecto Farmacopea MONTENEGRO, G., ALJARO, M.E., ÁVILA, G. & MUJI- Chilena. Santiago, Chile. CA, A.M. (1988): Las formas de las plantas y su poten- LOOSER, W. & RODRÍGUEZ, R. (2004): Los helechos cial como recursos. – In: FUENTES, E. & PRENAFRE- medicinales de Chile y sus nombres vulgares. – Gay- TA, S. (eds.), Ecología del paisaje de Chile Central. ana Bot. 61(1): 1-5. Estudios sobre sus espacios montañosos. Ediciones MANZUR, M.I. (2004): Experiencias en Chile de acceso Universidad Católica de Chile. pp 65-80. a recursos genéticos, protección del conocimiento MONTENEGRO, G., ALJARO, M.E. & KUMMEROW, J. tradicional y derechos de propiedad intelectual. – Fun- (1979): Growth dynamics of Chilean matorral shrubs. dación Sociedades Sustentables. Darwin Initiative. – Bot. Gazette 140(1): 114-119. MARLES, R.J. (2011): Challenges and Opportunities for MONTENEGRO, G., ARAYA, S., ALJARO, M.E. & the Safety Assessment of Herbal Medicinal Products. ÁVILA, G. (1982): Seasonal Fluctuations of Vegeta- Seminario Desafíos y oportunidades para los pro- tive Growth in Roots and Shoots of Central Chilean ductos medicinales de origen vegetal, 3-5 de August shrubs. – Oecologia 53: 235-237. 2011. – Instituto de Salud Pública, Proyecto Farmaco- MONTENEGRO, G., GINNOCCHIO, R., SEGURA, A., pea Chilena. Santiago, Chile. KEELEY, J.E. & GÓMEZ, M. (2004): Fire regimes and MARTICORENA, C. (1990): Contribución a la estadística vegetation responses in two Mediterranean-climate de la flora vascular de Chile. – Gayana Botánica 47: regions. – Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 77: 85-113. 455-464. MONTENEGRO, G. (1986): Formas de crecimiento: su MONTENEGRO, G., GÓMEZ, M. DÍAZ, J. & PIZARRO, R. definición y naturaleza de sus adaptaciones al ambi- (2008): Aplicación de la Norma Chilena Oficial de de- ente utilizando el sistema de monocaracteres. – Rev. nominación de origen botánico de la miel (NCh2981. Acad. Colomb. Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales Of2005) para la caracterización de la producción 61(16): 11-20. apícola nacional. – Ciencia e Investigación Agraria MONTENEGRO, G. (1987): Quantification of Mediterra- 35(2): 181-190. nean plant phenology and growth. – In: TENHUNEM, MONTENEGRO, G., GÓMEZ, M. MUJICA, A.M. & TIM- J.D., CATARINO, F.M., LANGE, O. & OECHEL, W. MERMANN, B.N. (2003): Theoretical Models for re- (eds.) Plant responses to stress. Functional analysis in generation of Medicinal Plants and their application Mediterranean ecosystems. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, in sustainable wild-harvesting. – In: LEMONS, J., VIC- NATO-ASI Series Ecological Sciences 15: 469-488. TOR, R. & SCHAFFER, D. (eds.), Conserving Biodi- MONTENEGRO, G. (1994): The Equitable and Sustain- versity in Arid Regions. Best Practices in Developing able Use of Biodiversity in Chile. Achieving National Nations. Kluwer Academic Publishers, London. 275- Objectives through Regional Collaboration. – In: 291. KRATTIGER, A.F. & LESSER, F. (eds.), Final Round MONTENEGRO, G., GÓMEZ, M. & TIMERMANN, B. Table Report on Sustainable Use of Biodiversity in (2007): Flora de la Zona Central, Matorrales de identi- Page 23 May 2012 dad. – Revista Universitaria 93: 14-17. Tradicionales. – Red de Protección Social, Ministerio MONTENEGRO, G., KORNFELD, R. & RIOSECO, V. de Salud, Gobierno de Chile. (2009): Secretos de nuestras plantas y otras especies. RUZ, J. (2011): Producción de extractos estandarizados Cómo usarlas en beneficio de las personas. Ediciones de origen vegetal. Seminario Desafíos y oportuni- UC, 128 pp. dades para los productos medicinales de origen veg- MONTENEGRO, G., PATRICK, G., ECHENIQUE, P., etal, 3-5 August, 2011. – Instituto de Salud Pública, GÓMEZ, M. & TIMMERMANN, B.N. (2001): Mecha- Proyecto Farmacopea Chilena. Santiago. nisms toward a sustainable use of Chorizanthe vagina- SIMONETTI, J. & MONTENEGRO, G. (1996): Conser- ta Benth. var. maritime Remy: a medicinal plant from vación y uso de la biodiversidad de la zona árida y Chile. – Phyton International Journal of Experimental semiárida de Chile. – In: Conservación y uso sosteni- Botany 91-106. ble de la biodiversidad en zonas áridas y semiáridas de MONTENEGRO, G., PIZARRO, R., ÁVILA, G., MUÑOZ, América Latina y el Caribe. FAO, PNUMA. 178 pp. O., MUJICA, A.M. & BAS, F. (2005): Determination of SIMONSEN, H.T., ANDERSEN, A., BERTHELSEN, L., the Botanical Origin and some Chemical Properties of CHRISTENSEN, S.B., GUZMAN, A. & MØLGAARD, P. Honeys from the Central Zone of Chile. – Phyton In- (2006): Ethnopharmacological evaluation of radal ternational Journal of Experimental Botany 213-223. (leaves of Lomatia hirsuta) and isolation of 2-meth- MONTENEGRO, G., RODRÍGUEZ, S., VÍO, S., GÓMEZ, oxyjuglone. – BMC Complementary and Alternative M., PIZARRO, R., MUJICA, A.M. & ORTEGA, X. Medicine 6(29): 1-4. (2010): Investigación científica y tecnológica en pro- SQUEO, F., ESTADES, C., BAHAMONDE, N., CAVIERES, ductos apícolas. – LOM Ediciones. 243 pp. L., ROJAS, G., BENOIT, I., PARADA, E., FUENTES, A., MONTES, M. & WILKOMIRSKY, T. (1987): Medicina AVILES, R., PALMA, A., SOLIS, R., GUERRERO, S., Tradicional Chilena. – Universidad de Concepción, MONTENEGRO, G., & TORRES-MURA, J.C. (2010): Concepción, Chile. 58pp. Review of the species classification in categories of MUÑOZ A., CASTAÑEDA, M., BLANCO, K., CÁRDENAS, threat in Chile. – Revista Chilena de Historia Natural C., REYES, J., & KOUZNETSOV, V. (2007): Compos- 83: 511-529. ición y capacidad antioxidante de especies aromáticas TIMMERMANN, B. & MONTENEGRO, G. (eds.) (1997): y medicinales con alto contenido de timol y carvacrol. Aspectos ambientales, éticos, ideológicos y políticos – Scientia Et Technica 13(33): 125-128. en el debate sobre bioprospección y uso de recursos MUÑOZ, M.R. & FUENTES, E.R. (1989): Does fire in- genéticos en Chile. – Noticiero de Biología 5(2): duced shrub germination in the Chilean matorral? – 1-119. Oikos 56: 177-181. VOGEL, H. (2000): Avances del cultivo de especies me- MUÑOZ, O., MONTES, M. & WILKOMIRSKY, T. (2001): dicinales nativas de Chile. Seminario Internacional y Plantas medicinales de uso en Chile. Química y far- Rueda de negocios Plantas medicinales: Mercado, cul- macología. – Editorial Universitaria. 330pp. tivo y procesamiento. Marzo 29–32. Fac. Agronomía. PACHECO P., CHIANG, M., MARTICORENA, C. & SILVA, – Universidad de Concepción, Chillán, Chile. M. (1977): Química de las plantas chilenas usadas VOGEL, H., RAZMILIC, I., POLANCO, X. & LETELIER, en medicina popular. – Universidad de Concepción, M.E. (2010): Effect of different provenances and pro- 78pp. duction conditions on antioxidant properties in Bud- PARADA, M. (2011): Normas para registro de produc- dleja globosa leaves. – Boletín Latinoamericano y del tos de origen vegetal en Chile. Seminario Desafíos y Caribe de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas 9 (5): oportunidades para los productos medicinales de ori- 333-342. gen vegetal, 3-5 August, 2011. – Instituto de Salud Pú- WILCKENS, R. (2005): Adaptación de plantas medici- blica, Proyecto Farmacopea Chilena. Santiago. nales en la zona centro-sur y sur de Chile: resultados POLANCO, X. (2011): Fitofármacos: proyecciones y de- proyecto FIA PI-C-2000-1-A-003. – Universidad de sarrollo. Seminario Desafíos y oportunidades para los Concepción, Facultad de Agronomía. 162pp. productos medicinales de origen vegetal, 3-5 August, 2011. – Instituto de Salud Pública, Proyecto Farmaco- Gloria Montenegro • Departamento de Ciencias pea Chilena. Santiago. Vegetales, Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería PROCHILE (2007): Plantas medicinales cada vez más Forestal, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile atractivas. – Revista Mundo del Agro. Diario El Mer- • Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Macul, Santiago, curio de Valparaíso. Available at: Chile • 3Fondecyt N° 1110808 • email: gmonten@ http://www.prochile.cl/valparaiso/noticias. uc.cl • Sharon Rodríguez • Facultad de Agronomía php?item=00000005938 e Ingeniería Forestal, Pontificia Universidad PROTEGE (2009): MHT Medicamentos Herbarios Católica de Chile • email: [email protected] Page 24 May 2012 Focus on Medicinal Plants in health centres (Centres de Santé de Base, CSB, mostly practising allopathic medicine) being lo- Madagascar cated at several hours’ walk. Julie Le Bigot Medicinal plants can be used in different ways: by self-medication at home in the family circle or in This work is part of the pilot project “Madagas- consultation with a traditional practitioner (called car: people, plants, remedies” by the association mpitsabo, mpanaody or nentin-drazana, depending AVERTEM (Association of Valorization of Eth- on the types of practices they exercise and the com- nopharmacology in tropical and Mediterranean ponents they use to treat). Medicinal plants do not, regions, www.avertem.fr). The multidisciplinary however, constitute the only therapeutic contribu- team of AVERTEM operates since 2009 in three tion of traditional practitioners. Medicinal plants, villages around the coastal rainforest of Tampolo, or raokandro (literally meaning “action of collect- a protected area located on the east coast of the is- ing plants every day”), carry also a meaning and a land (Analanjirofo - clove tree’s forest - region). therapeutic efficacy, both biological and symbolic, The three objectives of the association are the that can evolve according to their packaging, their knowledge and valorization of the use of medicinal use and the substances to which they are associ- plants, the return of information gathered from lo- ated. The herb-remedy can be perceived as the “ve- cal people to improve primary health care and the hicle of representations, the receptacle of symbols” preservation of local biodiversity. (BENOIST 1995:53). Traditional medicine also uses Introduction animal (including insect) and mineral material. Considered a “hot spot”, the island of Madagas- In recent years, the Malagasy Ministry of Health car is exceptional for its biological diversity. The has wished to restructure the traditional practices in floristic inventory, which is not yet completed, order to improve them. As part of this plan, a serv- amounts today to 12,000 to 13,000 vascular plants ice of Pharmacopoeia and Traditional Medicine species. This flora is also remarkable for its very (Service de la Pharmacopée et de la Médecine Tra- high endemism which is around 90% (GSPM 2011). ditionnelle, SPMT) was created. A Malagasy phar- Madagascar is one of the world priorities in terms macopoeia including hundreds of species has then of biodiversity conservation. been initiated; so far the first of four volumes have been completed. The pharmacopoeia is intended Medicine and medicinal plants in Madagascar to be distributed to CBS in order to facilitate the Biodiversity in Madagascar represents a consider- implementation of what is called integrative medi- able genetic diversity, still poorly understood, and cine, in other words, “the official recognition of which has long been used by local populations in traditional medicine and its integration with west- particular for therapeutic purposes. Despite the ern medicine“ (MACFARLANE & ALPERS 2010). introduction of conventional medicine, the use of In 2007 the National Association of traditional so-called traditional medicine and herbal remedies practitioners was created; it was commissioned by is still largely present. WHO (2009) has estimated the Ministry of Health to issue diplomas to tradi- that about 70% of the people in Madagascar use tional practitioners recognized as “efficient” and this form of medicine. Several reasons may explain considered legitimate, and to deny access to this this figure: first of all this medicine is ancestral and official title to traditional practitioners considered part of the Malagasy cultural practices and herit- “charlatans”. age; secondly, the use of medicinal plants allows for inexpensive treatments in a country where con- We can also observe in Madagascar the develop- ventional medication is costly (in 2005 85% of the ment of Improved Traditional Drugs (Remèdes Malagasy people lived on less than 2 USD per day Traditionels Améliorés, RTA) which notably allow (www.statistiques-mondiales.); and finally, tradi- optimizing component proportions to prevent tox- tional medicine is easily accessible and provides a icity. These RTA are in the form of cream, soap, rapid response in a country where health facilities herbal tea, balm, syrup or essential oil. Currently are sometimes very far from villages, some basic the Ministry of Health and its Traditional Medicine Page 25 May 2012 Department are considering the introduction of low over 900 tons of plants were exported in 2010, gen- cost RTA in the CSB to improve primary health erating foreign exchange earnings of nearly 7.980 care. The Malagasy Institute for Applied Research million Ariary (one euro equals about 2800 Ari- (Institut malgache de recherche appliquée, IMRA) ary). This export industry is based on 50 species, of and Homeopharma are the two largest manufactur- which 33 are from the forest (REPUBLIC OF MADA- ers of RTA in Madagascar. In addition, many small GASCAR 1995, FIGURE 1). Cinnamomum camphora structures practice also this business. (in Malagasy ‘the good plant’), Catharanthus ro- When used locally, the use of medicinal plants does seus, Centella asiatica, Aphloia theaeformis and not appear to pose a threat to the sustainability of Drosera madagascariensis are among the species the resource since the collecting is found to be rela- sought after for their active ingredients. Another tively low. The results of the first investigations on species, Prunus africana, is causing great concern. this matter by trainees from AVERTEM show that This African medicinal tree, over-exploited for its the plants are gathered mainly in the outskirts of bark, is listed on Appendix 2 of CITES. Pending the village and not in the forest. the results of a study which has just started, its ex- port quota is currently zero. It still could be considered to provide collectors with basic tips to optimize practices (such as not taking all the leaves from the same plant or not tak- ing all the bark from the same tree, etc). In addi- tion, laboratory studies could be initiated and gen- eralized to give traditional practice a sustainable orientation. A case was reported to us about a plant in Madagascar whose roots were usually used as a medicine. However laboratory studies have shown that the leaves contain the same active ingredients as the roots. Thus, the use of underground parts, detrimental to the survival of the specimen was substituted by the leafy parts. In view of all these elements it can be recognized that the practice of collecting medicinal plants in FIGURE 1. Harvest of Catharanthus roseus roots in Madagascar shows to a certain degree signs of sus- south Madagascar. Photo: Author. tainability. Most medicinal plants are exported from Madagas- Our data does not permit at present to determine to car in raw form, but the island also has aromatic what extent the use of plants at the national level plant resources. The two non-indigenous species threatens the resources. IMRA and Homeopharma Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) and clove (Syzy- grow crops, but they also collect plants from the gium aromaticum) make up almost the entirety of wild. Do they have wild plant supply networks? essential oil exports, both in quantity and value. What is the proportion of cultivated plants com- These two introduced species are being planted on pared to what is obtained from the wild? All these a large-scale. Madagascan endemics such as Cin- questions remained unanswered for now. Malagasy namosma fragrans (mandravasarotra, literally medicinal plants are also widely exported as they meaning “plant that overcomes the most serious represent a quality raw material for pharmaceutical ailments”), Helichrysum gymnocephalum and industries, including in Europe and North America. Ravensara aromatica are also much sought after The export of Medicinal plants from Madagas- by exporters. The latter species has numerous prop- car erties (broncho-pulmonary, anti-infective, etc.) and all its parts are aromatic (its vernacular name ha- Data from the National Institute of Statistics of zomanitra means “aromatic tree”). Madagascar (Institut national de la statistique de Although the cultivation of medicinal plants is Madagascar, http://www.instat.mg/) tell us that developing, most are still widely collected in the Page 26 May 2012 wild. In 1995, out of the 223 most exported species of charcoal for domestic purposes and wood for only 29 were cultivated and 43 were grown at the building material; mostly illegal logging of high National Centre for the implementation of pharma- quality timber (e.g., Dalbergia spp., Stephanoste- ceutical research (Centre national d’application des gia capuronii and Faucherea glutinosa); and the recherches pharmaceutiques, CNARP) (REPUBLIC introduction of cash crops and industrial crops OF MADAGASCAR 1995). Our recent enquiries with leading to the destruction of woodlands, for exam- Malagasy academics have confirmed that this prac- ple in the case of Sisal (Agave sisalana), a fiber tice of collecting in the wild is still largely wide- crop grown in the south of the country. Mining and spread. cyclones reaching the east coast of the island are The use of medicinal plants is regulated by a 1987 other causes of forest destruction, and invasive al- interministerial order. Article 3 states that the col- ien species harmful to the fragile island ecosystems lecting of wild plants for commercial purposes are of concern. requires the granting of an “operating regulation In 1990, an Environmental Charter was enacted document”. In principle, the harvest of more than (Law No. 90-033 of 21 October 1990) that “clearly two individual plants, whether for commercial, sci- recognize the links between environmental pro- entific or other purposes, requires the issue of an tection and economic development” (MONTAGNE authorization from the Ministry of Water and For- & RAMAMONJISOA 2006:15). In 1991 a National ests (Ministère des Eaux et Forêts). In fact, most Environmental Action Plan was launched (Plan small collectors and roadside sellers do not comply National d’Action Environnemental, PNAE, and with this legislation. as part of this the National Agency for Protected The collecting frequency and the amount collected Area Management (Agence nationale de gestion reach, at times, levels of overexploitation. The case des aires protégées, ANGAP) was created. This of P. africana mentioned above is not unique. is known today as Madagascar National Parks, to which the State has entrusted the management of The widespread cultivation of medicinal plants as most protected areas. Up to that time, the State was well as the setting up of quotas and a stricter con- the sole manager throughout the country. In 2003 trol of the amount of material collected and export- the President of the Republic of Madagascar com- ed could partly solve the overexploitation problem. mitted to triple over five years the size of protected The habitat destruction, in particular in the for- areas in his country. The objective of 6 million hec- est environment that undeniably hosts most of the tares has not yet been reached; currently 5 million biodiversity in Madagascar, is another important hectares are under some sort of protection status. threat to the sustainability of the medicinal plant In 1997 Madagascar adopted a new forest policy resources. (Nouvelle Politique Forestière, NPF, decree No. Conservation policies in Madagascar 97-1200 of 2 October 1997) considered “a real modernization of the environmental sector” (MON- Since the second half of the 19th century, policy TAGNE & RAMAMONJISOA 2006: 9). In line with makers have endeavoured to put policies in place the principle of decentralization, regions can have to conserve Malagasy forests (MONTAGNE & RAM- structures responsible for environmental manage- AMONJISOA, 2006). However, 150 years later the ment, for example Environment and Forest Re- forest degradation is still taking place, or has even gional Offices. In recognition of the contribution worsened. The lack of human and financial re- of wild environmental resources to people’s liveli- sources mobilized for the sector is one of the argu- hoods, but in opposition to the advice from interna- ments put forward to justify this failure. Estimates tional conservation NGOs, a conservation program for the assessment of current forest cover vary but has been established in consultation with people range generally between 8 and 10 million hectares. living in and around protected areas. This shift The causes of deforestation and overexploitation from coercive conservation policies based on bans of natural resources are mainly anthropogenic. Ex- and limitations of rights to community based con- amples are the slash and burn cultivation, or tavy, servation is considered in line with the Convention used to produce food crops; in some areas, the use on Biological Diversity (CBD), and in particular Page 27 May 2012 its Article 8j recognizing the efficient role of local A public policy can only be respected if it is mean- practices and knowledge in biodiversity conserva- ingful to the people. In this regard, an interesting tion. It is a form of regulation combining institu- point came out of an interview with the director tional and customary laws. of a school of natural resource management from Specifically, the conservation programs take place a village in the region of Analanjirofo. In Mada- as contract-management under the laws 96-025 gascar, the idea of endless and abundant natural and 97-017, respectively NPF (Nouvelle Politique resources is quite widespread, especially among Forestière) and Gelose Act of 1997 (Secure Local coastal communities in the east. The Malagasy Management – Gestion locale sécurisée) outside proverb “Tsy mety lany raha ramboarinjagnahary “ protected areas. The first contracts to the benefit of meaning “What God has created is never depleted” grassroots communities were signed in 2000. As- illustrates this perception. This way of thinking im- sisted by environmental mediators, communities plies that a resource taken from the wild does not must establish a sustainable management plan and need to be replaced. However, the local coordina- according to the law Gelose they are “entitled to tor of AVERTEM in Madagascar has very recently certain benefits in the marketing and promotion of observed interesting and encouraging initiatives. renewable resources and their by-products”. Awareness of the depletion of natural resources is beginning to emerge and people are starting plan- To implement the law Gelose, projects have been tations, including of medicinal plants. set up by CIRAD (Centre de coopération interna- tionale en recherche agronomique pour le dével- Conclusion oppement) and its partners to support local com- In Madagascar, the conservation of medicinal munities’ value-addition to timber and non-timber plants is important for at least three spheres: health, forest products: construction wood, charcoal, Raf- environmental and economic. More financial and fia palm (Raphia spp.) and essential oils. (For more human resources could be released to complete the information see www.cogesformada.org and www. floristic inventory of Madagascar and the in-situ gesforcom.eu). In the rural district of Didy (Ala- and ex-situ conservation of threatened species de- otra mangoro Region) production and marketing serves to be continued and accelerated. Meanwhile, of the essential oil from R. aromatica, the aromatic research on rural development could be further de- tree mentioned above, was established. A simpli- veloped to improve the socio-economic measures fied management and working plan was developed to fight against poverty. It is regrettable that public to put in place a judicious exploitation of R. aro- policies, particularly in the environmental field, matica. In addition, a series of technical trainings are not always fully implemented and are at times were provided: teaching of climbing techniques to slow to materialize. But that being said, it is im- prevent cutting down trees to collect material; pri- portant to remember that Madagascar is currently or identification of chemotypes to ensure the qual- undergoing a deep crisis. Political and economic ity of the oil produced; and better control of the problems are causing concern and in this context distillation process of the essential oil contained in environmental problems and the challenges they leaves. This collaboration has made it possible to represent are not seen as priorities. sustainably manage the resource while at the same To finish, the approach developed byMÉRAL & time enhance the economic value of R. aromatica REQUIER-DESJARDINS (2006) represent a possible by producing good quality oil. Further value-added solution. They suggest to dwell on “the relevance may be possible through certification. The positive of a more patrimonial vision in which preservation results cannot be generalized to all management is seen as the need to protect a legacy bequeathed transfers but Montagne and Ramamonjisoa note by past generations to transmit to the future ones that “contracts contribute significantly to improve as part of their well-being and identity“ (MÉRAL the environment” (MONTAGNE & RAMAMONJISOA & DESJARDINS 2006). Being then a strong element 2006: 21). Continued assessments such as that con- of identity, conservation of resources could be per- ducted by RESOLVE (2005), are expected to accu- ceived as essential. rately identify the adjustments needed to improve management transfer and multiply successes. Page 28 May 2012 References Medicinal Plants utilisation and BENOIST, J. (1995): La plante-médicament, entre ses conservation in the Small Island usages et ses témoins. – Ecologie humaine VIII(2) : 53-61. States of the SW Indian Ocean - GSPM. (2011): Liste rouge des plantes vasculaires with particular emphasis on endémiques de Madagascar. – IUCN SSC Madagas- car Plant Specialist Group. Mauritius MACFARLANE, J. & ALPERS, M. (2010): National Poli- Ameenah Gurib-Fakim cy for an Integrated Health System and Local Imple- mentation: the Case of Papua New Guinea and the Nasioi. – Human Organization 69(4): 387-398. Introduction MERAL, P. & REQUIER-DESJARDINS, D. (2006) : La Plants are known to be primary sources of all medi- gestion durable de l’environnement à Madagascar : cines in the world and continue to provide man- enjeux, opportunités et contraintes. – Économie rurale kind with new remedies. More than 80% of the 294-295: 4-8. Available at: http://economierurale.re- world’s population in the world still depend on vues.org/index891.html. traditional medicine for their primary health care MINISTERE DES EAUX ET FORETS. (1997): Décret n° 97-2000 portant adoption de la Politique forestière (WHO 1992). Natural products and their deriva- Malagasy du 2 octobre 1997. – Antananarivo, Jour- tives represent more than 50% of all drugs in clini- nal officiel de la République de Madagascar, p. 2324- cal use in the world (CRAGG & NEWMAN 2000). 2348. Higher plants contribute no less than 25% of the MONTAGNE, P. & RAMAMONJISOA, B. (2006) : Poli- total. Other drugs are derived from animals and tiques forestières à Madagascar entre répression et microorganisms. Therefore the possibilities for de- autonomie des acteurs. – Économie rurale 294-295: veloping new drugs from forest resources should 9-26. Available at : http://economierurale.revues.org/ feature in any calculation of their true worth. All index894.html the 119 plant-derived drugs used worldwide come RESOLVE. (2005): Evaluation et perspectives des trans- from fewer than 90 out of the 250,000 plant species ferts de gestion des ressources naturelles dans le cadre du Programme Environnemental 3. – Antananarivo, that have been identified DE( SMET 1997) The po- Rapport final de synthèse, 55p. tential for discovering more new chemical entities REPUBLIQUE DE MADAGASCAR. (1987): Arrêté In- is there. terministériel n°2915/87 portant conduite de The flora of the South West Indian Ocean belongs l’exploitation des produits accessoires des forêts du 7 to one of the global hotspots. To this date only two septembre 1987. – Journal officiel de la République de internationally recognised medicinal plants have Madagascar, p. 2092-2098. emerged from this part of the world – the Mada- REPUBLIQUE DE MADAGASCAR. (1995): Madagascar: rapport de pays pour la conférence technique interna- gascan Catharanthus roseus and Centella asiatica. tionale de la FAO sur les ressources phytogénétiques Yet the potential for the discovery of new entities (Leipzig,1996). as well as standardised extracts is enormous. REPUBLIQUE DE MADAGASCAR. (1996): Loi n°96-025 This paper presents the general situation of the relative à la gestion locale des ressources naturelles medicinal plant resources and their regulation in renouvelables du 30 septembre 1996. the Small Islands States of the South-West Indian Julie Le Bigot • AVERTEM, Faculté des sciences Ocean with particular emphasis on Mauritius. pharmaceutiques et biologiques, Département de botanique • 3, rue du professeur Laguesse, 59000 Flora of the Small Island States of the Indian Lille, France • email: [email protected] Ocean The flora of the Comoros Islands, which are geo- graphically close to the African continent, tends to show greater affinity to that of the continent, whereas the floras of the Seychelles and the Mas- carenes (Mauritius, Reunion and Rodrigues) are highly specialised and rich in endemics.

Page 29 May 2012 Flora of the Comoros entity (ADJANOHOUN ET AL. 1983a, GUEHO 1988). The entire flora of the Comoros archipelago is es- Mauritius has 7 phanerogames, which are endemic, timated to contain some 2.000 species and a close while Reunion Island has 5 and Rodrigues has 3. examination reveals a high degree of endemism. With respect to the endemic species, Mauritius Taxa from the Comoros illustrating the affinity to has around 300 or 60-65% of the indigenous flo- the African flora are for example Alangium salvii- ra, while Rodrigues has around 50 or 55% of its folium ssp. salviifolium, Tabernaemontana coffe- flora. There are 671 species of indigenous flower- oides, Saba comoriensis, Combretum coccineum, ing plants recorded in Mauritius of which 311 are Cycas comoriensis, Phyllanthus comoriensis, Nux- endemic (Mauritius has 8 endemic plant genera) ia congesta, Tambourissa sp., Norhonia sp., Pep- and 150 are endemic to the Mascarene Archipela- eromia sp., Piper sp., Mimusops comoriensis, and go. Seventy-seven of these indigenous species are Weinmannia bojeriana. classified as extinct. Of the extant flowering plants ADJANOHOUN ET AL. (1982) identified 120 medici- about 35% are classified as threatened as per the nal plants, out of which 2 were endemic to the Co- IUCN criteria (BACHRAZ & TEZOO 1997). Recent moros: Tambourissa leptophylla and Helichrysum classifications have revealed the following: 141 sp. species are Critically endangered, 55 are Endan- gered, and 98 are Vulnerable. This recent estimate shows that at least 95 of the 141 Critically Endan- gered species have less than 50 known adults in the wild (FLORENS 2007). Figure 1 shows the histori- cal development in forest cover on Mauritius. Recent studies of lower plants have shown there to be about 207 taxa consisting of 89 genera of moss- es and 59 genera of hepatics (TIXIER and GUEHO 1997). There are about 200 species, subspecies and varieties of pteridophytes of which 13 species are endemic and 40 are extinct. Among the interesting indigenous species in Mauritius we find the fol- lowing: Diospyros tesselaria, Cassine orientale, Foetidia mauritiana, Stadmania oppositifolia, Ter- minalia bentzoe, Protium obtusifolium, Eugenia FIGURE 1. Native forest loss in Mauritius (1773-1997). fasciculate, Erythroxylum sideroxyloides, Scutia myrtina amongst others. Flora of the Mascarenes [Mauritius, Rodrigues Rodrigues (Mru.) indigenous flora is also -char (Mru) and Reunion (Fr.)] acterised by a high degree of endemism. Accord- The Mascarene Islands are made up of three islands, ing to STRAHM (1989), the island has 36-38 taxa which have never been connected to the continental of endemic flowering plants but many of the in- mainland. The elements making up the indigenous digenous species have now become extremely rare flora have been introduced to the islands via ma- and are on the verge of extinction. Among them rine currents, trade and cyclonic winds, jet streams are Zanthoxylum paniculatum, Gouania legua- and marine and terrestrial birds during emigration. tii, Dombeya acutangula, Hibiscus liliiflorus and CADET (1977) presented the phytogeographical Antirhea bifurcata, which have all been reduced to analysis of the Mascarene Islands and reported that only a few individuals. Among the species, which 70% of the phanerogams come from Madagascar have been surveyed recently, and considered to be and the African continent, 8% are of oriental ori- more or less extinct are: Abrotanella rhynhocarpa, gin, 12% are of indopacific origin or cosmopolitan, Euphorbia daphnoides, Peperomia hirta, Syzygium while the remaining 10% are endemics. Phytogeo- balfourii amongst others. graphically, the Mascarenes can be considered an Reunion Island (Fr.) is the youngest of the is- Page 30 May 2012 lands of the Mascarenes. The island is entirely (1983a) identified 102 plants out of which 8 were volcanic and still has an active volcano claimed to indigenous to the Mascarene region (MAURITIUS & be 500,000 years old. The island is well placed to RODRIGUES). During a survey carried out between receive wind-borne seeds and has been colonised 1990-1994 (GURIB-FAKIM ET AL. 1995-1997), it partly by exotic plant materials. Nonetheless, the was found that reliable information is obtained island is still blessed with some interesting indige- mostly from persons aged 55 to 70 years, suggest- nous species like Foetidia mauritiana, Securinega ing a gradual erosion of the traditional knowledge. durissima, Cossigna pinnata, Cassine orientale Nonetheless, over 600 plants used medicinally amongst others. were collected and documented in the course of the study. More than 12% of the plants for which use Flora of the Seychelles was documented are endemic to the South West In- The Seychelles archipelago located to the North dian Ocean. East of Madagascar and discovered in the 17th century, encompass some forty islands and granitic It is also worth pointing out that local inhabitants islets. The flora is a model in itself because of its collect most of the medicinal plants from the for- high degree of specialisation and its rich diversity ests and that they often are unable to correctly iden- of highly endemic species. It has a few taxonomic tify them. Whilst forest collection is not legal, it is curiosities, for example Lodoicea maldivica which difficult for the authorities to control the collection is a unique endemic palm tree with a unique and of plants. Many of the used plants are becoming unusual shape growing in the Valley of May and extremely rare and whilst efforts are being made Praslin. It is the largest seed in the plant kingdom towards their safeguard, for some plants it may be and takes 7 years to ripen and germinate. The tree too little too late. There is always the underlying itself takes 25 years to reach the adult stage and fear that several species may become critically en- to produce flowers and seeds. The granitic island dangered due to over-collection. presents a real floristic refuge. The rocks and boul- It is interesting to note that whilst the Mauritian ders making up these islands are among the oldest population is made up of immigrants who have on this planet (650 millions years). The insularity of brought along with them their medicinal plants the surroundings is ancient and the flora and primi- when they landed in Mauritius almost 200 years tive vegetation have evolved in an isolated manner ago, quite a few endemic plants also form part of over hundreds of millions of years. The level of en- the local pharmacopoeia. Among these are: Termi- demism has been brought to the fore by the variety nalia bentzoe ssp. bentzoe, Psiadia arguta, Chas- and diversity in the flora and fauna. The more im- salia coriacea, Antirhea borbonica, Faujasiopsis portant endemic plant species include Aphloia thei- flexuosa, Carissa xylopicron, Cassine orientale, formis ssp. madagascariensis, Begonia seychel- Crinum mauritianum amongst others. lensis, Campnosperma seychellarum, Canthium seychellarum, Curculigo seychellensis, Diospyros Threats to the propagation of local biodiversity seychellarum, Erythroxylum sechellarum, Gynura With human settlements, many plants have been sechellensis, Mimusops seychellarum, Tarenna introduced intentionally as food crops, ornamen- sechellensis amongst others. Another floristic cu- tals, forest species and as medicines from many riosity is Medusagyne oppositifolia – the only rep- parts of the world. Others have been introduced in- resentative of the Medusagynaceae family, which advertently to the country and have become weeds. had previously been reported extinct (ADJANOHOUN Some had been introduced to control imported ET AL. 1983b). In the course of their survey AD- pests, only to become pests themselves, e.g, Ligus- JANOHOUN ET AL. (1983b) identified 76 plants out of trum robustum var walkerii. The latter was intro- which 7 are indigenous/endemic to the Seychelles. duced to outcompete the Thorny Bramble (Rubus alceifolius) in forest plantation. Several of the in- Status of medicinal plants utilisation in the Mas- troduced exotic plants, such as Chinese Guava carenes (Psidium cattleianum) and Poivre marron (Schinus The use of Medicinal plants is still relatively com- terebinthifolius) have become naturalised in the na- mon and growing. In 1983, ADJANOHOUN ET AL. tive forests. Over the years, they have displaced the Page 31 May 2012 Table 1. Status of medicinal plant utilisation in Mauritius.

Botanical names Family name Common name Cons. status1 Use, trade2

Carissa xylopicron Apocynaceae Bois de ronde EN 1 Ochrosia borbonica Apocynaceae Bois de lait EN 1 Acanthophoenix Rubra Arecaceae Palmiste piquant EN 2 5 Sarcostemma viminale Asclepiadaceae Liane calé EN 2 Tylophora coriaceae “ Ipeca du pays EN 2 Psiadia arguta Asteraceae Baume du l’Ile Plate EN 2 Senecio lamarkianus “ Bois chevre EN 1 Ehretia petiolaris Boraginaceae Bois de pipe VU 1 Canarium paniculatum Burseraceae Bois colophane VU 1 Protium obtusifolium “ Bois colophane batard EN 1 Cassine orientale Celastraceae Bois d’olive VU 1 Grangeria borbonica Chrysobala-naceae Bois buis VU 1 Harungana madagascariensis Clusiaceae Bois harangue LC 3 Terminalia bentzoe Combretaceae Bois benjoin EN 3 Ipomoea pescaprae Comvolvulaceae Liane batatran LC 1 Agauria salicifolia Ericaceae Bois cabri VU 1 Erythroxylum laurifolium Erythroxylaceae Bois ronde EN 3 Antidesma madagascariensis Euphorbiaceae Bois queue de rate VU 4 Phyllanthus lanceolata “ Bois dilo VU 1 Phyllanthus phyllyreifolius “ Bois dilo VU 1 Aphloia theiformis Flacourtiaceae Bois fandamane EN, EW(R) 1 Foetidia rodriguesensis Lecythidaceae Bois puant EN 1 Lomatophyllum lomatophylloides Liliaceae Ananas marron EN(R) 1 Bakerella hoyifolia Loranthaceae Bois fier CR(M) 1 Badula balfouriana Myrsinaceae Bois papaye EN(R) 1 Jumellea fragrans Orchidaceae Faham CR(M) 1 Gouania leguatii Rhamnaceae CR(R) 1 Antirhea bifurcata Rubiaceae Bois goudron EN 1 Mussaenda arcuata “ Liane cacapoule VU 1 Ramosmania heterophylla “ Café marron CR 1 Zanthoxylum paniculatum Rutaceae Patte poule piquant CR 1 Zanthoxylum heterophyllum Rutaceae Bois catafaille EN(M), 1 EW(R) Allophyllus cobbe Sapindaceae Bois de reinnette VU 1 Clerodendrum laciniatum Verbenaceae Bois cabri VU(R) 1 Clerodendrum heterophyllum Verbenaceae Bois cabri EN 1 1LC - Least concern, VU - Vulnerable, EN - Endangered, CR - Critically endangered 21: Sold at local market, 2: Collected, 3: Bark sold, 4: Entire plant sold native plants from their habitat through intense camara, Psidium cattleianum, Rubus alceifolia, Li- competition. gustrum robustum, Spathodea campanulata, Syzy- Among the other serious offenders in the Mauritian gium jambos. Among the other potential invasives and Rodriguan forests are: Ardisia crenata, Cin- are Cinnamomum verum, Schinus terebinthifolius, namomum verum, Hiptage benghalensis, Lantana Casuarina equisetifolia, Litsea glutonosa, Sola- Page 32 May 2012 num mauritianum, Ulex europaeus (KUEFFER ET AL. Park and 4 are in Rodrigues. The Forest and Re- 2004). serves Act provides protection for designated areas The regeneration of native species is compromised of state land but is inadequate to safeguard against by exotic seed predators such as rats and monkeys loss of privately owned areas with rich biodiver- etc.. These factors impoverish the indigenous veg- sity, as penalties are too weak to be an adequate etation both genetically and in numbers and the net deterrent. result is that many species are threatened with ex- Nonetheless, the Forest and Reserves Act has been tinction. instrumental in the setting up of the Conservation This has prompted the Mauritian Government to Management Areas (CMAs). The CMAs provide a take measures towards the protection of its native safe haven for rare, endemic plants, such as Termi- genetic resources through the creation of a number nalia bentzoe and Zanthoxylum sp., amongst oth- of protected areas. With funds from the Environ- ers. The CMAs are regularly weeded of invasive ment Investment Programme, the World Bank plants and this makes the environment particularly funded the establishment of the first National Park suitable for slow growing endemics. Collection is in Mauritius along with the setting up of institu- now regulated and this action has led to the safe- tions like the National Parks and Conservation guard of many of the threatened medicinal plants Services. on the brink of extinction. In Rodrigues Island, where similar CMAs have Existing legislation and framework been established, rare endemic plants, such as Ra- Mauritius is signatory to 18 international treaties mosmania rodriguesensis (Rubiaceae), have been and conventions on the environment and was the re-introduced after propagation by in vitro tech- first signatory country of the 1992 Rio Convention nique at the Royal Botanical Gardens in Kew (UK). on Biodiversity. In addition, there are four national The Wildlife and National Parks Act (1993): This laws of relevance to terrestrial biodiversity conser- is the principal legislation for the protection of flo- vation: ra and fauna, with the Wildlife Regulations of 1998 The Environment Protection Act (EPA) (1999 and giving effect to the CITES Convention in Mauri- 2002): This Act established the Ministry of Envi- tian law. The National Parks and Reserves Regula- ronment as the body responsible for overall co- tions made in 1996 lay down the rules regarding ordination of environmental management. Under activities on reserved land. The Act and its regu- the EPA, five ministries are assigned the role of lations are currently being revised to make them enforcement for implementation of environmental fully compliant with the provisions of CITES. The policies. The Act covers all aspects relating to EIA opportunity is also being taken to increase the le- procedures. gal protection of native biodiversity at the national Through the implementation and enforcement of level. the EPA, operators now have to resort to getting Whilst the Act makes provision for flora and fauna, their EIA certificates prior to property develop- there are some short-comings for the plants listed. ment. This has resulted in some biodiversity-rich To this date only rare endemic orchids figure in the areas being protected through the non-award of de- list. It means that while one endemic medicinal velopment permits. orchid is listed – Jumellea sp., other rare endemic The Forest and Reserves Act (1983 amended in plants can be exported without problems. A revi- 2003): This is the principal legislation governing sion of the plant list is planned, where other plants the management of forests resources; it established will be added so as to limit collection and export the power to declare national forests, nature re- where needed. serve, mountain reserves, river reserves and road The Plant Act (1976): This Act has been revised reserves. Sixteen nature reserves have been select- recently to the Plant Protection Bill. A Black List of ed for the purpose of maintaining vegetation cover the worst invasive weeds to be prevented entry into and the provision of ecosystem services. Two of Mauritius has been proposed to help protect native these nature reserves now form part of the National biodiversity. Import of plant species, especially Page 33 May 2012 horticultural species, has been scrutinised so as to that invasive plants present. The respective govern- avoid the inadvertent introduction of new invasive ments have been alerted to the conservation actions plant species. along with the appropriate policies that need to be put in place so as to safeguard this genetic resource. Conservation and protection measures Various documents lay down the policy regarding References conservation of terrestrial biodiversity: ADJANOHOUN, E.J., AKE ASSI J., ALI AHMED, L., EYME J., GUINKO, J., KAYONGA, A., KEITA, A. & LEBRAS, • The White Paper for a National Conservation M. (1982): Contributions aux etudes ethnobotaniques Strategy (NCS) (1985). The NCS defines the et floristiques aux Comores. – ACCT, Paris, France. major objectives for the conservation of natural ADJANOHOUN, E.J., AKE ASSI J., EYME J., GASSITA, resources but has been outdated and superseded J.N., GOUDOT, E., GUEHO, J., IP, F.S.L., JACKARIA, by Mauritius’ commitments under the CBD and D., KALACHAND, S.K.K., KEITA, A., KOUDOGBO, the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP). B., LANDEAU, D., OWADALLY, A.W. & SOOPRAM- The NEAP contains a programme on terrestrial ANIEN, A. (1983a): Médecine traditionelle et phar- biodiversity with a strategic goal to ‘ensure that macopée. Contribution aux études ethnobotaniques et floristiques à Maurice (Iles Maurice et Rodrigues). native Mauritian biodiversity survives, flourishes – Agence de Cooperation Culturelle et Techniques. and retains its genetic diversity and potential for 214pp. evolutionary development’. ADJANOHOUN, E.J., ABEL, A., AKE ASSI J., BROWN, • In the field of genetic diversity, priorities have D., CHETTY, K.S., CHONG-SENG, L., EYME, J., been given to: FRIEDMANN, F., GASSITA, J.N., GOUDOTE, E.N., GOVINDEN, P., KEITA, A., KOUDOGBO, B., LAI SAM, - Avoid extinction of endangered and threat- G., LANDREAU, D., LIONNET, G. & SOOPRAMAN- ened species of flora and fauna by providing IEN, A. (1983b): Contributions aux etudes ethnobota- sound planning for on-site preservation in pro- niques et floristiques aux Seychelles. – ACCT, Paris, tected areas as well as off-site protection such France. as in botanical gardens. BACHRAZ, V. & TEZOO, V. (1997): A review of ex- - Preserve as wide a genetic diversity as pos- situ conservation activities in Mauritius. In: MUNGROO sible of many varieties of plants and animals & BACHRAZ (eds.), Proceedings of the workshop on restoration of highly degraded and threatened native - Preserve as many habitats as possible forests in Mauritius. – National Parks and Conserva- - Maintain the existing nature reserves and cre- tion Services. pp. 12-19. ate new ones CADET, T. (1977): La végétation de l’Ile dela Réunion: - Encourage cooperation with international Etude phyto-écologique et phytosociologique: Thèse de Doctorat-ès-Sciences. – Université Aix Marseille bodies in the furtherance of biosphere reserves. III. Among these international organisations are: CRAGG, G.M. & NEWMAN, D.J. (2000): Antineoplastic Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust (UK), Per- agents from Natural sources: achievements and future egrine Fund (USA), World Wide Fund for Na- directions. – Expert Opinion on the Investigation of ture (WWF), and Kew Gardens. Drugs 9: 2783-2797. DE SMET, P.A.G.M. (1997): The role of plant-derived Conclusion drugs and herbal medicine in health care. Drugs, 54: Small Islands States like those of the South West 801-840. Indian Ocean are blessed with unique vegetation. FLORENS, V. (2007): Indian Ocean Island Plant Special- At the global scale, the flora of the South West In- ist Group. Species 47: 16-17. dian Ocean constitutes one of the planet’s hotspot. GUEHO, J. (1988): La végétation de l’île Maurice. – Many unique specimens of plants are found within Edition de l’Ocean Indien, Mauritius 57pp. and will benefit Science and Medicine as they can GURIB-FAKIM, A., GUEHO, J., SEWRAJ, M.D. & DUL- potentially provide important leads for the devel- LOO, M.E. (1994): Plantes medicinales de l’ile Rod- rigues. – Edition de l’Ocean Indien, Mauritius 580pp. opment of new medicine or standardised extracts. GURIB-FAKIM, A., GUEHO, J. & BISSOONDOYAL, M.D. This unique flora remains highly vulnerable not (1995-97): Plantes Medicinales de Maurice (Tomes 1, only to habitat destruction but also to the threat 2, 3). – Edition de l’Ocean Indien, Mauritius. Page 34 May 2012 KUEFFER, C., VOS, P., LAVERGNE, C. & MAURE- of which is plant-based (MAHUNNAH ET AL. 2003). MOOTOO, J. (2004): FAO Report – Forestry Depart- However, various factors, including limited access ment. Forest & Biosecurity Working Papers. Case to information, knowledge, technology and capi- studies on the status of invasive woody plant species tal, compromise the ability of the people to derive in the Western Indian Ocean. Working Paper FBS/4- maximum benefits from these resources. 1E. – FAO, Rome Italy. STRAHM, W. (1989): Plant Red Data Book for Rod- An estimated 80% of the population in Tanzania rigues. WWF/ IUCN. – Koeltz Scientific Books, West depend on traditional, often plant based, medicine Germany. for health care (WHO 2002); use of medicinal plants TIXIER, P. & GUEHO, J. (1997): Introduction to Mauri- is found in both rural and urban areas (GESSLER ET tian Bryology a check list of mosses and liverworts. AL. 1995a, AUGUSTINO & GILLAH 2005). Depend- – Mauritius Sugar Industry Research Institute, Reduit, ence is often found linked with economic and cul- Mauritius. tural factors so that traditional medicine is mostly WHO. (1992): Analysis of questionnaires on tradition- al medicine. – World Health Organisation, Geneva, used for, and also preferred for, holistic treatments Switzerland. (GESSLER ET AL. 1995b, OBERLÄNDER & ELVERDAN 2000). Attention on medicinal plant dependence is Ameenah Gurib-Fakim • Centre for Phytotherapy increasing in urban Tanzania (URT 2005) and the Research, 7th Floor, Cybertower 2, Ebene, Mauri- need is likely to increase (FOSU 1989), possibly due tius • email: [email protected] to the belief that plant remedies are free from unde- sirable side effects; this trend is increasing (GOOD & KIMANI 1980). Conservation assessment and Medicinal plants can be symbolically significant, management planning of medicinal being held in high cultural esteem. The concept of plants in Tanzania the ‘medicinal plant’ carries charismatic resonance across many societies, with the potential to be a R.L.A. Mahunnah, S. Augustino, J.N. Otieno universal symbol for nature conservation. A poten- & J. Elia tial problem of actively promoting integration of traditional and modern health care in Tanzania is that the medicinal plant resource is feared threat- Background ened in the wild (WHO 2001). Causes are argued Plants are the major ingredients of medicines in to be commercial collection for livelihood security most medical traditions. The total number of plants (CUNNINGHAM 1997) and selective intensive use of used worldwide may be around 40,000-50,000, species for health treatment. representing roughly one-in-six to one-in-ten of all plant species. This represents by far the biggest hu- Threats to Tanzanian medicinal plants man use of individually targeted species (HAMIL- The majority of Tanzanians still depend on biologi- TON 2005). cal resources and the limited opportunities for so- Africa is endowed with a rich biodiversity and the cio-economic development continuously put pres- African flora is estimated to have 40,000 plant spe- sure on these (PADOCH & VAYDA 1983). Tanzanian cies (MAHUNNAH 2002), with over 35,000 species medicinal plants are mainly derived from the wild, in the East Africa region. In Tanzania, about 1,200 and population increase, pastoralist migration, en- plant species, out of the total flora of 12,667 spe- ergy requirements and policy neglect are leading to cies, are used in traditional medicines (MAHUN- their overuse and destruction of their habitat (URT NAH 1991, MAHUNNAH & MSHIU 1991, URT 1998). 1998). The use of plants for medicine leads to se- Medicinal and aromatic plants are key components lective consumption of specific plant species and of biodiversity, vital for ensuring primary health their disappearance may go unnoticed in otherwise care and livelihoods of the poor in Sub-Saharan relatively intact natural habitats, with consequences Africa and Eastern Africa in particular. Tanzania, for the integrity and functions of ecosystems. For like most African countries, has a high utility of example, recent claims on plant properties by Rev. traditional medicine in primary health care, most Ambilikile Mwasapila of Samunge in Loliondo in Page 35 May 2012 Tanzania created an increased demand for Carissa BOX 1. Medicinal plant species increasingly marketed spinarum (Mugaringa), that subsequently became locally in Tanzania and internationally threatened by overexploitation. According to in- formation provided by local communities a similar Adansonia digitata, Afzelia quanzensis, Aloe lateritia, A. trend can be observed for species such as Rubia secundiflora, A. volkensii, Artemisia affra, Mondia whitei, Myrsine africana, Piper capensis,, Rauvolfia vometoria, cordifolia, Pavetta crassipes and Crassocepha- Steganotoenia araliacea, Osyris lanceolata, Balanites ae- lum manii in the Lake Victoria basin. The threat gyptiaca, Prunus africana, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Zanha to plants is increased when plants are marketed in africana, Warburgia salutaris and W. Stulhmanii. urban areas in addition to the rural consumption. Nine medicinal plant species are reported to be of The Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) Global general conservation concern in Tanzania (MAR- Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) provides a SHALL 1998). framework to halt the current and continuing loss Medicinal plants are also harvested for other non of plant diversity. An East Africa Regional Project medicinal uses. Species such as Bombax rhodog- on the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation” was naphalon, Milicia excelsa, Dalbergia melanoxylon, implemented in East Africa to advance the imple- Ocotea usambarensis, Pterocarpus angolensis, P. mentation of the GSPC in the East African Region, tinctorius, P. rotundifolius are heavily harvested by establishing a baseline for further investment in for timber, most of which is used for construction, biodiversity informatics as key to biodiversity con- furniture and production of coffins in town centres. servation and sustainable development in Kenya, Additional pressure is the result of indiscriminate Uganda and Tanzania (NMK 2007). A major activi- tree cutting for charcoal production. ty in the process was to conduct a Conservation As- sessment and Management Planning (CAMP) The demand for medicinal plants both for local and workshop in each country. international markets is on the rise (BOX 1). For example, Prunus Africana (used by pharmaceutical The national CAMP workshop was organized in companies to manufacture a drug for treating pros- mid July 2010 with the support of BGCI/JRS East tate cancer) is threatened all over Africa by debark- Africa regional project at Muhimbili University of ing. A total of between 3,200 to 4,900 tons of its Health and Allied Sciences with representatives bark are exported annually from African countries from 12 institutions in Tanzania and 2 from Ken- to Europe and USA (CITES 1997). ya. The aim of the workshop was to determine the conservation status of medicinal plants used in tra- Local trade of medicinal plants is known to occur ditional medicine in Tanzania, based on priorities but information on amounts traded and income derived from traditional knowledge. The purpose generated by the local population is very limit- was to develop appropriate conservation strategies ed, while data on export do not exist (MARSHALL and guidelines for sustainable use. The workshop 1998). STANGELAND ET AL. (2008) noted that while addressed natural resource status assessments for many ethnobotanical studies are available, few priority actions as one of the strategies to solve have focused on harvesting regimes, sustainability the medicinal plants conservation challenges that of harvesting, trade and pharmacological studies. include: approaches for conservation of medicinal Therefore, in order for Tanzania to sustain the sen- plant species and their genetic diversity; develop- sible utilization of medicinal plants, conservation ment of sustainable harvest systems for wild me- has to be kept as a central research focus. dicinal plants; and achievement of environmental- Medicinal Plants Conservation Assessment and ly-friendly cultivation of medicinal plants. management planning initiatives Prioritization of medicinal plants for conserva- The extensive national, regional and international tion trade in traditional medicinal plants emphasizes In realization of the threats facing medicinal plants the global need for the conservation of medicinal in Tanzania, the general protocol for CAMP was plants and the revitalization of the native health tra- used for prioritising species for ex-situ conserva- ditions of local communities (GELDENHYUS 2005). tion, first using ethnobotanical parameters. Ethno- Page 36 May 2012 botanical practices were scored as 1 or 0 according There is a lack of protection of medicinal plant and to whether extraction was considered to have a se- traditional medical knowledge. E.g., in Tanzania vere effect on plant diversity or not. The total score cultivation and/or domestication of medicinal wild for each species was added to the value – index varieties is constrained by the perception embed- (importance of species based on Red List status) ded in culture, attitudes and awareness that domes- and the legislation-index (adequacy of legislation tication stoops the medicinal potency compared to provisions). The Value-index includes the sum of wild plants. To some, planting of wild varieties is all the scores associated with Red List status, key- not a priority even if knowledge on propagation ex- stone species, sustainability of use and cultural/ ists. Further, commercialization of medicinal plants spiritual value. The Legislation-index allows the has been projected as a sustainable means of pov- researcher to evaluate the importance of the spe- erty alleviation, with additional value in terms of cies in relation to whether it is adequately protected biodiversity and conservation purposes. This is still under the legal provisions (BOX 2). A high index a challenge in Tanzania since there is no regulation value indicates the need to protect a species; a low and monitoring for medicinal plants and products index value may be used to rank the species low sold in the local markets. Especially in relation to for conservation but does not necessarily disquali- supply sources and harvesting methods to ensure fy recommending a species for conservation meas- sustainable use of the resources. ures. A high rating for one criterion, such as the Red List status or Sustainability of use, was consid- Research ered sufficient to list a species for protection under Research and training activities for the conser- the National Forests Act. The analysis resulted in vation of medicinal plants have not received ad- only 74 priority medicinal plants for possible com- equate support and attention in Tanzania. Various mercialization. The list of species and the proposed researchers, including RUKANGIRA (2001), have re- conservation strategies are presented in Table 1. ported rare successful experiences and approaches on conservation of African medicinal plants. Fur- Medicinal Plants Conservation Challenges thermore, in relation to medicinal plant conserva Policy and legal frameworks tion in Tanzania several aspects are still unknown, The Tanzania government’s political commitment including: to promoting traditional medicine is clearly spelled (i) the documentation of all major medicinal out in the Tanzanian Health Policy of 1996 and the plants, Traditional and Alternative Medicine Policy and Act of 2000 and 2002, respectively; both recog- (ii) documentation for the medicinal plants that nize the role of traditional health practices in the have been lost and those that remain in the wild, country’s health care system (URT 2000, 2002). (iii) knowledge on how gender issues are prop- However, little effort has been done to address con- erly taken into consideration while planning for servation of medicinal plant resources. There has conserving the resources, been poor reinforcement of the existing policy and (iv) incorporation of local and traditional knowl- legal frameworks to conserve and ensure the future edge into propagation, sustainable use and con- sustainable use of the potential medicinal plants. servation of medicinal plants, Support and emphasis on promoting cultivation of (v) identification of cultural practices and beliefs potential identified medicinal plants in the coun- that are supportive of the conservation and sus- try, both in-situ and ex-situ, have also been poor. tainable use of medicinal plants, and The national forest policy has for a long time been (vi) knowledge on effective agro-ecological biased towards safeguarding tradable timber plant methods for enhancing propagation and cultiva- species. There is a strong need to harmonize vari- tion of specific medicinal plants. ous sectorial policies and legal frameworks that in- fluence the utilization and conservation of medici- The latter two as proposed by CUNNINGHAM (1997) nal biodiversity in Tanzania to ensure sustainable primary health care services in Africa. Institutions Page 37 May 2012 TABLE 1. Tanzania priority medicinal plants matrix for immediate conservation. Species Traded Justification Recommendations Acacia xanthophloea No Narrow distribution Use in agro- forestry systems, amenity Adansonia digitata Locally Regeneration poor, Include in dryland plantations growth slow Aerangis flabellifolia No Ecosystem fragile In-situ conservation of supporting trees Afzelia quanzensis Yes Overexploited Legislation, in- & ex-situ conservation Albizia anthelmintica No Potential demand Use in agroforestry Aloe lateritia Locally Overexploitation Legislation, in- & ex-situ conservation Aloe secundiflora Locally Overexploitation Education of farmers Aloe volkensii Locally Overexploitation Legislation, in- & ex-situ conservation Artemisia affra Locally Overexploitation, limited Large commercial plantations ecological range Balanites aegyptiaca Yes Overexploitation Emphasize planting in home gardens Begonia oxyloba No (no Horticultural use, limited Consider as bio-indicator of climate change in need) ecological range forests Berberis holstii No Habitat specificity In-situ conservation Bombax rhodognaphalon Yes1 Overexploited In-situ conservation Brachylaena huillensis (hutch- No Overexploited National legislation insii) Breonadia salicina No Habitat specificity National legislation required Brucea antidysenterica No Rare National legislation required Cassia abbreviata No Diverse uses Promote ex-situ cultivation Catha edulis Yes Overexploited Legislation, stricter in-situ conservation Clausena anisata Habitat specificity Legislation, in-situ conservation Commiphora swynnertonii Disjunct distribution Estimate market value Cordia ovalis Multiple uses, habitat In-situ conservation specificity Crinum papillosum No Narrow distribution Domestication, sustainable harvesting Crinum kirkii No Limited distribution Domestication Croton dichogamus No Multiple uses Domestication Cucumis profetarum Multiple uses Milicia excelsa Yes1 Overexploited Domestication, legislation enforcement Dalbergia melanoxylon Yes High demand In- & ex-situ conservation Deinbollia borbonica No Harvest: uprooting Use biotechnology in propagation Entada abyssinica No Increasingly scarce Sensitization: plant in home gardens Entada stuhlmannii No High demand Ex-situ conservation Erythrina abbyssinica No High demand, harvest: Emphasis on on farm planting uprooting Hydnora abbyssinica Possibly host specific (Acacia xanthophloea) Hydnora africana No Host specific Kigelia africana No Harvest: debarking Domestication Millettia puguensis No Limited distribution, Try planting in other ecological regions habitat loss Monanthotaxis trichocarpa No High demand Effort to collect more data Mondia whitei Yes High demand Myrsine africana Locally High demand Emphasize ex-situ conservation Ocotea usambarensis Yes High demand1 Enforce policy Page 38 May 2012 TABLE 1. Continued, Tanzania priority medicinal plants matrix for immediate conservation Species Traded Justification Recommendations Osyris lanceolata Yes High demand Commercial plantations, harvest ban Pericopsis angolensis No High demand Piper capensis Locally High demand Sensitize, ex-situ conservation Polyalthia stuhlmanii No Multiple treatments In-situ conservation Prunus africana Yes High demand, multiple On farm & in-situ conservation, enforce policy (bark) uses Pseudospondias microcarpa No Less distribution In-situ and ex-situ conservation Pterocarpus angolensis Yes1 High demand In- & ex-situ conservation, law enforcement Pterocarpus tinctorius Yes1 High demand In- & ex-situ conservation, law enforcement Pterocarpus rotundifolius Yes1 Multiple uses In-situ and ex-situ conservation Myrsine melanophloes (Rapa- No Available in low densities nea melanophloeos) Rauvolfia vometoria Yes High demand, multiple On-farm, in-situ conservation, policy enforce- uses ment Rhamnus prinoides No Multiple treatments, uses Rhamnus staddo No Available in low densities Domestication Ritchiea capparoides No Available in low densities On farm planting Rubia cordifolia No Climber dependent on Domestication high canopy vegetation Sansevieria bagamoyensis No Endemic to coastal areas Shirakiopsis ellipticum No High demand, mode of (Syn:Sapium ellipticum) harvesting Sclerocarya birrea ssp. caffra Yes Multiple uses (wine sold) Large scale domestication Scutia myrtina No Available in low densities Steganotoenia araliacea Locally Rare Domestication Stephanostema sternocarpum No Endemic to coastal areas Need national legislation Tamarindus indica Yes Multiple uses (fruits) On-farm conservation Tarenna littoralis No Restricted distribution To be prioritized for diversity assessment Tephrosia vogelii No Demand: pesticidal effect Incorporated in agroforestry schemes Toddaliopsis sansibarensis No Limited distribution Trichilia emetica Yes Multiple uses (seeds sold) Potential: medicines, oil for soap and cosmetics Vangueria infausta Yes Multiple uses (fruits sold) Ex-situ may solve competition with wild fruc- tivorous Vepris glomerata Root used in medicine Education on sustainable harvesting Warburgia stulhmanii Yes Restricted distribution Domestication, national legislation and policy Warburgia salutaris Yes Restricted distribution Cultivation Ximenia caffra Yes Multiple uses Discourage the use for fuel Xylopia arenaria No Coastal endemic Trial in different ecological regions Zanha golungensis No Key stone species, multi- ple uses Zanha africana Locally Multiple uses Zanthoxylum chalybeum Locally High demand, over-ex- Domestication ploited in locality serve the potential identified medicinal plants in Community involvement/IK holders Tanzania. There are no guidelines that take into ac- There is little involvement of community/indig- count the Intellectual Property Rights, Access and enous knowledge holders in collaboration with Benefit Sharing issues, and this constrains the free research institutions and other stakeholders to con- sharing of biological information required for de- Page 39 May 2012 veloping sustainable use of medicinal plants; fears species of Tanzania, especially those which are al- of bio-piracy especially limits the involvement of ready under threat, require conservation measures traditional medical practitioners in conservation to ensure their future sustainability. initiatives. References Advocacy and awareness AUGUSTINO, S. & GILLAH, P.R. (2005): Medicinal plants In Tanzania, little effort seems to have been di- in urban districts of Tanzania: plants, gender roles and sustainable use. – International Forestry Review 7: rected towards increasing the awareness and ad- 44-58. vocacy on sustainable use of medicinal plants to CITES. (1997): Newsletter for the African region. Re- the public, policy-makers, researchers, traditional port from the plants committee, Article 9. health practitioners and end users through mass CUNNINGHAM, A.B. (1997): An Africa-wide overview of media, tailored radio/television programmes, flyers medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health and other educational materials. Another challenge care. – In: BODEKER, G., BHAT, K.K.S, BURLEY, J., & has been for the two national health care systems VANTOMME, P. (Eds.): Medicinal plants for forest con- to find a way to complement rather then compete servation and heath care. Non-Wood Forest Products with each other. 11. FAO, Rome, Italy. pp. 116-129. FOSU, G.B. (1989): Access to health care in urban areas As for national strategies and policies, various of developing societies. – Journal of Health and Social studies (MILLEDGE & KAALE 2004) have pointed Behaviour 30: 398-411. out that the majority of local communities and GOOD, C.M. & KIMANI, V. N. (1980): Urban traditional even government employees involved in trade of medicine: A Nairobi case study. – East African Medi- flora from coastal forests are not aware of the exis- cal Journal 57: 301-316. ing legal instruments. For example, the Forest Act GELDENHUYS, C.J. (2005): Sustainable harvesting No. 14 of 2002 provides regulations on the trade of methods for medicinal plants: a research and develop- flora and fauna: Part VI provides details on permits ment framework. – Paper for Methodology Workshop and licenses, Part VII provides details on trade in on Medicinal plants and Traditional medicine, 5-7 De- cember, 2005. IDRC/ESARO, Nairobi, Kenya. forest products, while Part XI provides details on GESSLER, M.C., MSUYA, D.E., NKUNYA, M.H.H., offences and penalties. The Plant Protection Act SCHAR, A., HEINRICH, M. & TANNER, M. (1995a): No. 13 of 1997 provides the basis for regulation Traditional healers in Tanzania: the perception of ma- of plants and plant protection substances and the laria and its causes – Journal of Ethnopharmacology protection of the natural environment against plant 48:119-130. protection substances. Concerted efforts are there- GESSLER, M.C., MSUYA, D.E., NKUNYA, M.H.H., fore required to raise community awareness on le- SCHAR, A., HEINRICH, M. & TANNER, M. (1995b): gal instruments related to sustainable forest man- Traditional healers in Tanzania: the treatment of ma- agement and trade in flora, including the medicinal laria with plant remedies. – Journal of Ethnopharma- plants, for poverty eradication and improvement of cology 48: 131-144. community livelihoods. HAMILTON, A.C. (2005): The Ecohealth approach, with a special focus on medicinal plants. Paper presented at Conclusion the Methodology workshop on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine, 5-7 December 2005. IDRC/ The present article presents the medicinal plant ESARO, Nairobi, Kenya. conservation assessment and management plan- HAMILTON, A.C. (2004): Medicinal plants, conserva- ning initiatives in Tanzania. Seventy-two prior- tion and livelihoods. – Biodiversity and Conservation ity medicinal plants for possible commercializa- 13: 1477-1517. tion and the conservation strategies are identified. MAHUNNAH, R.L.A., UISO, F.C., MOSHI, M.J., The medicinal plants conservation challenges are MBWAMBO, Z.H., KAPINGU, M.C. (2006): The wealth discussed; these include policy, legal and institu- of medicinal plants of eastern Tanzania. – In: MITAWA tional frameworks, capacity building, community G.M. ET AL. (Eds.), Plant genetic resources and bio- involvement, research, climate change, and educa- technology in Tanzania; Part II: Policy, conservation tional and awareness gaps with regard to conser- and utilization. Peramiho Printing Press. pp 543 - 553. vation strategies and sustainable use of medicinal MAHUNNAH, R.L.A. (2002): Ethnobotany and conser- vation of medicinal plants in Africa: the way forward plants in Tanzania. The prioritized medicinal plant Page 40 May 2012 in the next decade. – In: ADENIJI, K.O. (ed.), 2001 - WHO (2001): Legal status of traditional medicine and 2010: OAU decade For African traditional medicine. complementary/alternative medicine: a worldwide re- OAU/STRC, Lagos. pp. 70-80. view. World Health Organisation, Geneva. MAHUNNAH, R.L.A. (1991): Utilization and conserva- WHO (2002). WHO traditional medicine strategy 2002– tion status of medicinal plants in Tanzania. – In: SHAO, 2005. World Health Organisation, Geneva. F.M., MAGINGO, F.S.S., MINJAS, A.N., BITANYI, H.F. WHO (2005). Global atlas of traditional, complemen- & MAHUNNAH, R.L.A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the tary and alternative medicine. Text volume. – WHO, workshop on plant genetic resources and biotechnol- Centre for Health Development, Kobe, Japan. ogy held at Arusha, Tanzania, January 16-20, 1990. Benedict Publications Ndanda, Peramiho, Tanzania. R.L.A. Mahunnah & J.N. Otieno • Muhimbili Uni- pp. 280-289. vesity College of Health and Allied Sciences, Insti- MAHUNNAH, R.L.A. & MSHIU, E.N. (1991): Ethno- tute of Traditional Medicine • P.O.Box 65001, Dar botany and conservation of medicinal plants. – In: es Salaam, Tanzania MSHIGENI, K.E., NKUNYA, M.H.H., FUPI, V., MA- S. Augustino • Sokoine University of Agriculture, HUNNAH, R.L.A. & MSHIU, E.N. (Eds.), Proceedings of an international conference of experts from devel- Faculty of Forestry and Nature Conservation, oping countries on traditional medicinal plants. Dar es Department of Wood Utilization • P.O.Box 3014, Salaam University Press, Tanzania. pp. 83-86. Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania • email: sanhe- MARSHALL, N.T. (1998): Searching for a cure: con- [email protected] servation of medicinal wildlife resources in East and J. Elia • National Herbarium of Tanzania, Tropi- Southern Africa. – TRAFFIC-International, Cam- cal Pesticides Research Institute • P.O. Box 3024, bridge, UK. Arusha, Tanzania MILLEDGE, S.A.H. & KAALE, B.K. (2004): Bridging the gap: linking timber trade with infrastructure de- velopment and poverty eradication efforts in southern Tanzania. – TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa, Dar es Community based conservation of Salaam, Tanzania. ethno-medicinal plants by tribal NMK (2007): The East African project on the global strategy for plant conservation funded by the JRS Bio- people of Orissa state, India. diversity Foundation. OBERLÄNDER, L. & ELVERDAN, B. (2000): Malaria in Saujanendra Swain & Nihar Parida the United Republic of Tanzania: cultural considera- tions and health-seeking behaviour. – Bulletin of the An ex-situ ethno-medicinal garden named Biju World Health Organization 78: 1352–1357. Patnaik Medicinal Plants Garden and Research PADOCH, C. & VAYDA, A.P. (1983): Patterns of re- Centre is established in 5 ha land donated by the source use and human settlement in tropical forests. government of Orissa; it is located in Jeypore city – Tropical rain forest ecosystems, structure and func- of Koraput district, Orissa state, India. This Gar- tions 1: 301-313. den consists of nine tribal gardens devoted to nine RUKANGIRA, E. (2001): The African herbal industry: constraints and challenges. – In: Proceedings of the major tribal groups of the region: Bhatra, Bhumia, natural products and cosmeceutcals 2001 conference. Bonda, Gadaba, Gond, Kandha, Koya, Paroja and Erboristeria, Domani. pp 179-184. Saora. Each tribal garden is being planted, main- STANGELAND, T., TABUTI, J.R.S. & LYE, K.A. (2008): tained and managed by the traditional healthcare The influence of light and temperature on -the ger practitioners and traditional birth attendants of the mination of two Ugandan medicinal trees. – African respective tribal communities. A total of 347 me- Journal of Ecology, 46: 565-571. dicinal plants used in the traditional healthcare sys- URT (2002) The traditional and alternative medicines tems of the nine tribes of the region are conserved Act, 2002. – The Government Printer, Dar es Salaam, in this garden (109 trees, 91 shrubs, 39 climbers, Tanzania. 102 herbs and 6 others - orchids, grasses, ferns etc). URT (2000) The national traditional and birth attend- The garden serves as a repository of genetic stock ants implementation policy guidelines. – Ministry of Health, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. of the undivided Koraput district and as a living URT (1998): Tanzania country study on biological bio- gene bank for the tribal people; it has immense util- diversity. UNEP, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. ity for the present and future generations. Page 41 May 2012 1,200 medicinal plant species are available in the forests of this area. Some of the endemic medicinal plant species available are used for curing common diseases like fever, cold, pyorrhea, gastrointestinal disorders, skin diseases, malarial fever, etc. But certain plant species with specific traits are used for setting fractured bones, curing asthma, jaun- dice, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. And many specific plant species have anti-helminthes, anti-inflamma- tory and anti-fertility properties for curing several diseases (BOX 1). The tribal populations residing in the region have their own local physicians/healers FIGURE 1. Distribution of dominant tribes in Jeypore who have outstanding knowledge on the plant spe- tract of Orissa, India. cies used for traditional healing. They have been in the practice of preserving a rich heritage of in- Introduction formation on medicinal plants and their manage- In every ethnic group a culturally patterned tradi- ment. They have both the know-how and do-how tional health care system exists. In rural commu- for preparing the medicine and its application. This nities health care is the first and foremost line of local healing system is a part of the Indian tradi- defense and the WHO has recognized the contribu- tional medicinal system. The tribal populations are tion of traditional health care in tribal communi- poor but their endowment of bioresources is rich. ties. It is very essential to have a proper documen- Very little research has been done so far on the vast tation and conservation both in-situ & ex-situ of medicinal plant resources in the Koraput region, medicinal plants and to know their potential for the particularly in the areas of conservation, sustain- improvement of health and hygiene through an eco ability, value addition and equitable sharing of ben- friendly system (AMBASTA 1986). efits from the medicinal plant heritage. Despite the increasing use of medicinal plants in primary health care in addition to allopathic drugs, their future is being threatened in relation to their BOX 1. Medicinal plants commonly used among tribal conservation, sustainable use and benefit shar- people in Orissa, India. ing. Several important species are in danger of Fever Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook. f. extinction due to growing trade demands for new and Thoms plant-based therapeutic products and biopharma- Cold Ocimum sanctum L. ceuticals. Such concerns have stimulated action in chronicling and conserving medicinal plants and Pyorrhoea Jatropha gossypifolia L. sharing of benefits with the indigenous tribes as a Gastrointestinal token of acknowledgment for their contribution to disorder Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. the final product (JAIN 1971). Skin diseases Azadirachta indica A. Juss In this context the undivided Koraput district of Orissa state merits special mention as it is known Malaria fever Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. for its richness of medicinal flora and as it is a treas- Fractured ure of useful plant resources. Tribal communities bones Cissus quandraangula L living in this region have been conserving and uti- Asthma Justicia adhatoda L. lizing these resources, including medicinal plants. Gradual depletion of the forest cover in the area Jaundice Lawsonia inermis L. is slowly eroding the indigenous/traditional knowl- Rheumatoid edge associated with the medicinal plants (CHAUD- arthritis Paederia foetida L. HURI ET AL. 1985). It is estimated that more than

Page 42 May 2012 The ethno-medicinal garden TABLE 1. The nine tribes, their population and the Realizing this M.S. Swaminathan Research Foun- number of medicinal plants used by them. dation, Chennai, India established a Research and Development Centre in Jeypore city of Koraput Tribe Population District No. of medici- (2001 census) nal plants used district in Orissa state, primarily to undertake in- Bhatra 375,845 Nawarangpur 81 tensive and integrated studies on medicinal and Bhumia 103,537 Koraput 69 aromatic plants, their conservation, sustainable and value-added use, and equitable sharing of benefits. Bonda 9,378 Malkangiri 55 The center has been dedicated to the various tribal Gadaba 782,104 Koraput 83 communities, residing in the area, and more spe- Gond 72,982 Nawarangpur 67 cifically to the nine predominant tribes who have Kandha 1,395,643 Koraput & 124 Rayagada been custodians of the plant genetic resources since Koya 122,535 Malkangiri 48 time immemorial. The centre has been working with the different tribal communities residing in Paroja 317,301 Koraput 74 the region to document their traditional knowledge Saora 473,233 Rayagada 59 on medicinal and other useful plants since 1997- 9 tribes 3,652,558 4 districts 660 98, to protect and safeguard the traditional knowl- edge for potential future benefit sharing. nine different tribal groups were found in the area, out of the total 62 in Orissa state. Their population Area and people varies from 10,000 to 0.4 million. Out of the total Koraput district is situated in the South-eastern re- 29 tribes 9 tribes were selected for further detailed gion of Orissa and is located between 170 50’and study on their plant used for primary healthcare. 200 3’north latitude, and 81027’ and 840 1’ east The THPs and TBAs of the tribes were contacted, longitudes (FIGURE 1). Administratively, the old and their traditional knowledge on use of medicinal Koraput district is now divided into 4 districts plants for primary healthcare was systematically namely Koraput, Malkangiri, Nabarangpur and documented. Information on 660 ethno-medicinal Rayagada. The total geographical area of the dis- plant species was documented. It was observed that trict is 0.84 million ha. The different areas in this nearly 50% of the plants are common to all nine zone are situated at altitudes of 150-1,000 meters tribes, but that the same plant may be used to treat above sea level. A major portion of the tribal habi- different diseases. During the survey 87 ethno-me- tat is hilly and forested; the hill slopes are highly dicinal plants were found to be endangered as they eroded and of low fertility, they are over-grazed are harvested from the wild in unsustainable ways. and represent the symbol of poverty. The district Nearly 10% of the medicinal species reported to is home to a large number of different tribal com- be used are not found in the wild or they are on munities: approximately 29 tribes forming 54.30% the verge of extinction. Details of the nine tribes of the total population of the district. and the number of medicinal plants used by them are presented in Table 1. TABLE 2 presents the 12 The traditional health care practitioners most commonly used medicinal plants. Most of the tribal villages have their own tradition- After analyzing the facts and figures from the al health care practitioners (THPs) who are known above survey, it was decided to establish a tribe- as Disari in the local language. Women work as tra- wise traditional healers association to address the ditional birth attendants (TBAs) called Gurumayi. issues onorganized traditional healthcare prac- They have specialized knowledge on childbirth tice, conservation and use of medicinal plant, and and related herbal medicines. Each and every com- monitoring of the medicinal plant biodiversity. Till munity/tribe has their own Desari and Gurumayi. to date associations were established for the nine Genesis of the ethno-medicinal Garden tribes by involving around 764 THPs and TBAs. During the year 2006, a study was carried out by Just after the formation of association, a process M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation to map was carried out to prioritize the ethno-medicinal the distribution of tribes in the Koraput. Twenty- plants that need immediate attention for ex situ Page 43 May 2012 conservation in consultation with the members of TABLE 2. Tvelwe medicinal plants commonly used by the association. tribal people in Orissa state, India. Nine tribal ethno-medicinal conservation gardens Local Botanical Name Family With the generous support of 5 ha of land from the name Government of Orissa, the ex-situ conservation Bhuin- Andrographis paniculata Acanthaceae garden was established at Jeypore city of Koraput Nimba (Burm.f.) wall.ex.Nees district in April 2007. The garden was named after Brudha- Argyreia nervosa Convolvulaceae the former Chief Minister of Orissa. The garden daraka (Burn.f.)Boj was established for ex-situ genetic conservation Brahmi Bacopa monnieri (L.) Scrophulariaceae penn. of ethno-medicinal plants used by major tribes of Thalakudi Centella asiatica (L.) Apiaceae this region under a project mode with the finan- Urban cial support from Department of Biotechnology, Rukuna – Coleus ambonicus Lour. Lamiaceae Government of India. The Garden was devoted to Hatapocha the above mentioned nine major tribal groups of Basanga Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae the region and the actual garden is located in nine Patragaja Kalanchoe pinnata Crassulaceae 2 acres (1 acre is 4047 m ) of land. One acre of land (Lam.) Pers was allocated to each of the tribes for conservation Podina Mentha spicata L. Labiatae and cultivation of plants they use for their primary Tulasi Occimum sanctum L. Lamiaceae health care needs (FIGURE 2). The THPs and TBAs Pasaruni Peaderia foetida L. Rubiaceae from each of the tribes collected ethno-medicinal Pipali Piper longum Piperaceae plants from their respective areas and planted them Guluchi Tinospora cordifolia Menispermaceae in their garden. (Wild) Hook.f.& Toms Each of the nine tribal ethno-medicinal plant gar- dens is being maintained by the THPs and TBAs dens, the garden also has one RET (rare, endan- of the respective community. Each garden has gered, threatened) ethno-medicinal plant garden more than 50-60 plant species, representing herbs, having 24 RET ethno-medicinal plant species of shrubs, creepers/climbers and trees used in the pri- the region. Additionally, a model of a Home Herb- mary healthcare practice of the tribe. The gardens al Garden and a Women’s Medicinal Plant Garden are rounded in shape and the plants are planted representing the plant species used in the tradition- without any order so it looks like a forest. The en- al system of women healthcare were established in- tire garden has nine circles for nine tribes. Each side the garden. One Spice garden was established garden has a big signboard with a photo of the tribe to conserve the wild and cultivated spices of the and demographic and cultural information a=bout region. One Introduced Plants Garden of the region the tribe. Each plant species has a label depicting was developed to demonstrate the plants that have the local name of the plant, the botanical name, been introduced in the region. One Forest Food family, habit, parts used, and diseases for which Garden with plants yielding food for the tribal peo- the plant is used. At the centre of these nine gar- ple, including wild edible tubers, has been devel- dens there is a traditional tribal hut with thatched oped inside the garden. One artificial sacred groove roof that serves as a meeting place for the THPs was established, where plants used by the tribes for and TBAs. The management of the garden was car- religious purposes were planted and conserved. ried out by female and male healthcare practition- A few portions of the garden are devoted to propa- ers democratically selected from the communities. gation of ethno-medicinal plants in great demand Every month the nominated members from the tra- through establishment of two large shade-net hous- ditional healers association (from each of the nine es and three ultraviolet stabilized poly houses. This tribal communities) monitor the health of garden caters to the needs of tribal people for ethno-me- and add new plants to the garden. dicinal plants. Demonstrations on cultivation of 24 Ethno-medicinal plant diversity commercially exploited medicinal plants were laid down inside the garden. Continuous training and Apart from the above 9 ethno-medicinal plant gar Page 44 May 2012 FIGURE 2. The tribal ethno-medicinal gardens. Photo: S. Swain.

ditional healthcare knowledge & conservation of capacity building programs on conservation and the rare genetic base of ethno-medicinal plants for use of ethno-medicinal plants were conducted for centuries. The authors are thankful to the Depart- the tribal youths, THPs, TBAs and volunteers. ment of Biotechnology (Government of India) for Three booklets and two posters were developed, supporting the conservation activities of the tribal both in English and local language, to create aware- people. Thanks to the Government of Orissa state ness on conservation of ethno-medicinal plants. for their concern towards conservation of the won- The garden also organizes campaigns on herbal derful tribal treasures of medicinal plants and as- remedies against malaria through preparation and sociated traditional knowledge. We pay out deep administration of herbal formulation to the tribal sense of gratitude to Dr. Ajay Parida, Executive people. The garden facilitates information sharing Director & Dr. K.U. K . Nampoothiri, Director of on ethno-medicinal plants between different tribal MSSRF for his periodic motivation & guidance. groups through periodic exchange visits, meetings and informal discussions. References AMBASTA, S.P. (1986): The useful plants of India. – Conclusion Publications and information, Directorate, CSIR, New Broadly Biju Patnaik Medicinal Plants Garden and Delhi. Research Centre is a conservation centre which pro- CHAUDHURI, H.N. Rai, PAL, D.C. & TARAFDAR, C.R. vides a living gene bank for the tribal families and (1985): Less known uses of some plants from the trib- gives them a sense of ownership. A participatory al areas of Orissa. –Bull. Bot. Surv. India 17: 132-136. knowledge management system is slowly evolving JAIN, S.K. (1971): Some magico-religious beliefs about plants among Adibasis of Orissa. – Adibasi, 12:39-40. which fosters genetic, trade and legal literacy. The center has the mandate of helping the nine tribal Additional literature communities to protect their intellectual property ANONYMOUS (1948-76): Wealth of India. Raw Materi- rights under the provisions of the Protection of als 11. – CSIR, New Delhi. Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act and the BRAHMAM, M. & DUTTA, P.K. (1981): Ethnobotanical Biodiversity Act (2002). It is envisioned that this studies in Orissa. In: JAIN, S.K. (ed.), Glimpses of In- initiative will help to convert plant resources into dian ethnobotany. – Oxford and IBH publishing Co., economic wealth on an ecologically sustainable New Delhi. pp. 232-244. basis, and to overcome the prevailing dichotomy BRAHMAM, M. & SAXENA, H.O. (1990): Ethnobotany of the poverty of the people and the prosperity of of Gandhamardan hills – some noteworthy folk-me- dicinal uses. – Ethnobotany 2: 71-79. Nature thereby leading to an era of biohappiness. DAS, P.K. & KANT, R. (1998): Ethnobotanical studies Acknowledgement of the tribal belt of Koraput (Orissa). Bull. medicoeth- no. – Bot. Res. 9(3&4):123-128. The paper is being dedicated to the tribal people DAS, P.K. & MISHRA, M.K. (1987): Some medicinal of Koraput district for their selfless sharing of tra- plants used by the tribal of Deomali and adjacent ar- Page 45 May 2012 eas of Koraput District, Orissa. – Indian J.For. 10(4): En el caso de la conservación de las plantas me- 301-303. dicinales, es a partir de 1985 que diversas organ- GIRACH, R.D. ET AL. (1998): Medico ethnobotany of izaciones (OMS, UICN, WWF) se están refiriendo Sundargarh, Orissa. – India. Phar. Biology 36(1):20. al tema, y que han formulado e impulsado distintas SATAPATHY, K.B. & PANDA, P.C. (1992): Medicinal estrategias y acciones conjuntas para determinar uses of some plants among the tribals of Sundargarh cuál es el estado de estas plantas. Estos lineamien- Disrict, Orissa. – J. Econ. Tax. Bot. Addl. Ser. 10: 241- 249. tos están plasmados en el documento “Directrices SAXENA, H.O. & BRAHMAM, M. (1996): The flora of sobre conservación de plantas medicinales” (OMS, Orissa (4 Vols.). UICN, WWF 1993). Uno de los resultados con- SAXENA, H.O. and DUTTA, P.K. (1975). Studies on the cretos es la recientemente creada Comisión para la ethnobotany of Orissa. – Bull. Bot. v. India, 17(1-4): Conservación de las Plantas Medicinales (1994). 124-131. Esta ha sido una iniciativa de la UICN, apoyada por investigadores vinculados con distintas etapas Saujanendra Swain & Nihar Parida • M. S. Swa- del proceso de conservación y desarrollo de las minathan Resaerch Foundation • Regional Centre: plantas medicinales en el mundo. Phulbad, Umuri P.O, Jeypore -764 002, Koraput District, Odisha state, India • e-mail: saujanen- La conservación desde la óptica de un análisis [email protected] integrado A pesar del gran interés demostrado a nivel inter- nacional e interinstitucional, se ha especulado mu- Estado de la conservación de las cho con respecto a las plantas medicinales y con razón, ya que su utilización es antigua y es parte plantas TRAMIL incluidas en la de una dinámica cultural compleja por la relación Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña existente entre las plantas medicinales y el ser hu- mano. Sonia Lagos, Xinia Robles & Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez El análisis sobre el estado de la conservación, no solo debe abordarse desde la óptica biológica sino que debe incorporarse el enfoque cultural, para ser Antecedentes más consecuente con la realidad y para entender la Ante la responsabilidad que representa la extinción dinámica en que están inmersas las plantas medici- y uso sostenible de los recursos naturales, muchas nales. personas y organizaciones han integrado sus esfu- erzos a nivel mundial en la promulgación de políti- Los esfuerzos técnicos para determinar el estado cas y directrices, dirigidas hacia la conservación de de la conservación de los recursos naturales se han la fauna y la flora. dirigido especialmente hacia los recursos nativos de una región, área, paisaje o continente. Esta sit- Es precisamente bajo el amparo de la Unión Mun- uación es razonable, en tanto que, cuando los re- dial para la Naturaleza (UICN), una de las organ- cursos naturales silvestres son objeto de comercio izaciones que mayores esfuerzos ha realizado en indiscriminado están en peligro de extinción. este sentido, que se elaboró el tratado internacional o convención denominado CITES en 1973, el cual En el caso de la conservación de las plantas me- involucra aproximadamente 132 países del mundo dicinales existe un elemento muy importante, que que están dispuestos a asumir el compromiso de está vinculado con la “cultura de las plantas medic- regular un uso inadecuado. Los países de Cen- inales”. Hay un interés particular del ser humano troamérica y el Caribe también han firmado esta de llevar consigo los recursos naturales (tomar una convención, demostrando su interés por asumir el parte de la planta y luego establecerla en un nuevo compromiso y cumplirlo. ambiente) de importancia para su salud. Por esta razón plantas de origen africano como la Momor- Se han creado varios instrumentos de apoyo a este dica charantia, poseen una distribución muy am- convenio, establecido para alcanzar objetivos es- plia en el Caribe y Centroamérica. En este sentido pecíficos a nivel global y abarcando distintas áreas. el origen de los recursos naturales posee un peso Page 46 May 2012 fundamental para la definición del estado de la con- CITES y las acciones que promueven las organiza- servación. ciones interesadas en esta problemática. Veamos El uso y aprovechamiento de las plantas medici- en detalle algunos elementos que inducen al cues- nales, constituye no solo un sincretismo cultural tionamiento planteado. (al involucrar diversos grupos humanos), sino que El Convenio sobre el Comercio Internacional de ha promovido el intercambio de recursos naturales Especies Amenazadas de la Fauna y la Flora Sil- útiles entre las regiones del mundo. Es por este vestres (CITES), es una iniciativa que funciona con motivo que en América existen diversas plantas base en sus cuatro apéndices. Establece diferentes medicinales de uso popular que tienen diferentes restricciones de comercio para las especies inscri- orígenes; caso contrario sucede con las orquídeas tas en sus Apéndices y permite el comercio sola- (Orchidaceae) que generalmente son nativas y por mente cuando una autoridad gubernamental com- lo tanto las acciones de conservación deben ajus- petente emite una autorización conforme al modelo tarse a esta condición. de permiso del Apéndice IV. La presencia de plantas medicinales en Centro- CITES es una herramienta clara en cuanto a las cat- américa y el Caribe es la conjugación de diversos egorías definidas, tiene un mandato internacional y orígenes geográficos del mundo. Hierbas como enfatiza en las plantas silvestres que son objeto de el zacate de limón (Cymbopogon citratus) o el comercio. En la práctica el problema sigue siendo árbol de limón (Citrus aurantifolia) son recursos la capacidad técnica establecida en los países, para exóticos de amplia distribución y uso en la región. discernir cuáles recursos son objeto de comercio y, Precisamente, las plantas medicinales que se en- en algunos casos, cuáles son los criterios que deben cuentran en la Farmacopea Caribeña (GERMOSEN- aplicarse para saber si un recurso entra o no en de- ROBINEAU 1996) son una excelente representación terminada categoría. de esta situación. Por ejemplo, la palma areca o múltiple (Chrysa- El acercamiento a la Farmacopea Caribeña, para lidocarpus lutescens) es una palma ornamental determinar el estado de la conservación de sus plan- originaria de la Isla de Madagascar. Esta es la pal- tas, debe involucrar criterios diferentes de los ya ma de mayor comercio en el mundo y por ende su definidos para los recursos en su estado natural, de- distribución geográfica se ha ampliado. El prob- ben ampliarse con el propósito de lograr establecer lema con esta especie radica en que las autoridades una realidad más consecuente con la dinámica del de CITES de Costa Rica, solicitan un trámite para aprovechamiento y uso de las plantas medicinales. la exportación de esta palma que ha sido introduc- Para elaborar este documento partimos con el obje- ida y cultivada en el país. Este trámite no es nec- tivo de analizar el estado actual de conservación de esario en estas condiciones; lo es en su país de las plantas medicinales que están en la Farmacopea origen donde la especie silvestre está en peligro de Caribeña. Para definir la vulnerabilidad se requirió extinción y el comercio debe regularse. aplicar una serie de criterios tanto biológicos como Otro ejemplo lo constituye la rana venenosa (Den- culturales, con el propósito de esclarecer con una drobates pumila y D. auratus), de la cual no se base objetiva el cambio, no tan evidente en algunos tienen estudios detallados sobre su comportami- casos, en la abundancia de las plantas medicinales. ento en algunos de los países centroamericanos Esperamos que este análisis conlleve a definir nue- (ambas investigadas actualmente por su actividad vas estrategias que contribuyan a la permanencia y farmacológica), y sin embargo no se restringe su uso sostenible de estas especies en beneficio de la exportación. En este caso es evidente que si los salud popular de la comunidad Caribeña, en par- países cuentan con el recurso silvestre, están en la ticular, y del mundo en general. obligación de tener la información técnica adecua- da que respalde la toma de decisiones en cuanto al Ante la disyuntiva de la conservación uso sostenible y comercial de la especie, así como Cuando se toca el tema de la conservación de los de la categoría a la que se debe asignar y los crite- recursos naturales y la preocupación por su esta- rios por los cuales se asignó. do, aparece la disyuntiva sobre el papel que juega Estos ejemplos nos indican que existe un dilema Page 47 May 2012 relacionado con el estado de las especies que son gional del Caribe y Centroamérica. La aplicación exóticas de una región y la aplicación de los Apén- de estos criterios retroalimenta los apéndices de dices de CITES, así como ausencia de conocimien- CITES y conlleva a establecer las listas rojas no to científico sobre la dinámica de poblaciones que por país (límites políticos) sino por regiones bio- son objeto de comercio y que su extracción con- geográficas, respetando situaciones de endemismo tinua podría conducir a la desaparición dentro su propias de áreas específicas. ambiente natural. A la luz de esta realidad, diversos organismos inter- Criterios científicos como garantía de objetivi- nacionales están promoviendo acciones de domes- dad ticación de plantas medicinales, como un esfuerzo Hasta ahora, distintos criterios se han utilizado para orientado hacia la conservación y aprovechamiento definir cuándo una especie (independientemente de las especies. Por esta razón es de suma impor- del aprovechamiento o interés comercial) está o no tancia ser consecuentes con la realidad y la necesi- en peligro de extinción. dad de conservar nuestros recursos naturales, así como contar con criterios aplicables y adaptados a Probablemente, la UICN ha sido la organización nuestras condiciones. que por más tiempo ha estado vinculada con el tema, y por esto su madurez al plantear la necesidad Para evaluar el estado de la conservación de las de ser objetivos en el proceso de clasificación. Re- plantas medicinales de la Farmacopea Caribeña se cientemente esta organización acaba de establecer establecieron criterios para realizar un análisis ob- una serie de categorías, que constituyen el método jetivo, consecuente con la realidad y, finalmente, más acertado para brindar insumos para la toma de poder clasificar las plantas medicinales en las cat- decisiones en cuanto a los recursos naturales se re- egorías adecuadas. fiere. Estas categorías representan el marco teórico Criterios para su determinación global de una situación hipotética, que aunque im- Existe en la actualidad una gran preocupación por portante desde la óptica científica debe analizarse la conservación y aprovechamiento de las plantas considerando la capacidad real de la región bioge- medicinales. Esta situación no solamente se refleja ográfica del Caribe y Centroamérica. en el ámbito propiamente ambientalista (en época Las categorías de CITES representan un marco reciente se circunscribía exclusivamente a este teórico global de una situación hipotética, que ámbito) sino que ha alcanzado a personas de otras aunque importante desde la óptica científica, de- disciplinas que anteriormente no se sentían involu- ben analizarse tomando en consideración la base cradas de alguna manera con el desarrollo de los existente, la capacidad real y las características recursos naturales; se ha reconocido que la conser- biogeográficas y culturales a las que corresponde vación de la biodiversidad es de interés común de el sitio. toda la humanidad. Además es importante señalar que por la misma Es precisamente el CITES que dio la voz de alerta, riqueza en biodiversidad, de las regiones tropi- al regular el comercio ilegal de las especies ame- cales, se hace casi imposible documentarla to- nazadas en diferentes grados. A partir de este talmente. Solo en Centroamérica (sin incluir el momento, y cada vez con mayor vehemencia, se Caribe), se han reportado aproximadamente mil escuchan más intervenciones sobre la necesidad especies medicinales. Esta situación es muy difer- de determinar el estado de la conservación de los ente en regiones templadas, no solo con respecto a recursos naturales. la biodiversidad sino también en cuanto a las con- Hay que recordar que CITES nace como una re- diciones socioeconómicas, de capacidad técnica y spuesta, con enfoque conservacionista, hacia un tecnológica. problema de uso inadecuado como lo es el com- Es precisamente con criterios uniformes y cientí- ercio ilegal de recursos naturales (principalmente ficamente fundamentados, que se pueden agilizar fauna), producto de las acciones de extractivismo. acciones de conservación y desarrollo con aquellas Conforme a transcurrido el tiempo se han incor- especies de interés sociocultural en el ámbito re- porado grandes grupos taxonómicos vegetales, por Page 48 May 2012 ejemplo Cycadales y Orchidaceae, y recientemente BOX 1. Estado de conservación de las especies de la la categoría de plantas medicinales. Esta última, no Farmacopea Caribeña responde a un grupo biológico-taxonómico, sino a una categoría de uso que representa una cantidad 1. Estructura morfológica – biológica apreciable de especies, familias, estructuras, ambi- ESTRUCTURA PORCENTAJE entes, orígenes e intereses (conservacionistas, pro- Hierbas 46 ductivos y políticos). Arbol 28 Los grupos de presión también han aumentado, no Arbustos 18 solamente en cantidad sino en diversidad cultural Liana 7 y de enfoques, y van desde investigadores, cientí- Palmas 1 ficos, profesionales, empresarios hasta el público en general. 2. Origen De las plantas que están en la Farmacopea Caribeña 60% Estas circunstancias nos brindan elementos impor- son especies nativas de América, el 40% restante son tantes para tener un enfoque holístico que conlleve plantas introducidas al Caribe desde otros continentes del a la identificación de soluciones, acordes con el mundo. equilibrio deseado entre la conservación de los re- 3. Otras categorías de uso cursos naturales y su explotación racional en ben- Aunque el total de plantas es utilizado como recurso ter- eficio de los países productores, que son los dueños apeútico, es importante señalar que 77% de las plantas de los recursos con actividad terapéutica. tienen otros usos.

La definición sobre el estado de la conservación es 4. Estado del recurso más compleja que una simple consulta a un profe- Se ha mencionado que cuando se hace referencia al estado sional experto en un tema específico. Este análisis de la conservación de los recursos naturales se hace ref- debe abordarse desde la perspectiva interdiscipli- erencia a plantas silvestres. Por esta razón al analizar el naria. Por esta razón, y con el propósito de analizar estado del recurso se observa que 50% son plantas que se cultivan con diferentes niveles e intensidades. Sólo 37% cuál es el estado de la conservación de las plantas son plantas silvestres, que de acuerdo con el órgano co- de la “Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña”, se deter- sechado y la intensidad de uso, así como el estado biológi- minaron algunos criterios que responden la reali- co de la planta, podría presentar indicios de vulnerabilidad. dad actual en materia de conservación y desarrollo El 13% de las plantas es una mezcla de un estado incipiente de cultivo con poblaciones silvestres. de las plantas medicinales (Box 1). El orden de los criterios no corresponde a ningún nivel de prioriza- 5. Grado de amenaza ción, cada uno cumple una función y el resultado Al hacer el análisis final para determinar el grado de ame- de la suma de criterios es el indicador del estado de naza que tienen estas plantas se encontró que 84% no la conservación. tienen amenazas, 13% son vulnerables y 3% no cuenta con datos suficientes para ubicarlas en una determinada cat- Criterios para evaluar el estado de la conser- egoría. Los datos detallados de cada una de las especies vación de las plantas medicinales incluidas en la que se consideraron para el análisis se puede obtener de los autores. Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña. 1. Identificación taxonómica que se encuentran en los bosques se están comer- cializando a nivel local e internacional y el pro Este criterio de identificación taxonómica debe ser ducto que se cosecha es la raíz. Este conjunto de prioritario, por que para clasificar el recurso y darle criterios hacen que la planta se considere como el seguimiento adecuado debe tenerse definido cuál vulnerable y se ubique en la categoría II de CITES; es el nombre científico y las sinonimias que le cor- sin embargo el problema es definir cuál o cuáles responden. A pesar de su importancia, la situación son las especies vulnerables. al respecto aún debe mejorarse en la región. Muchas plantas carecen de información taxonómi- 2. Categorías de uso y germoplasma ca fidedigna, tal es el caso de las especies del gén- Cuando se hace referencia a la biodiversidad veg- ero Smilax cuya información es hasta el momento etal útil, es claro que muchas especies poseen bastante confusa e incierta. Las especies silvestres diferentes usos para los humanos. Las plantas se Page 49 May 2012 han categorizado de acuerdo con estos usos. La in- fica de un recurso natural se amplíe, en principio se clusión de alguna especie dentro de una categoría disminuye el riesgo de entrar en las diversas cat- de especial importancia para la sociedad, le brinda egorías de amenaza o conservación. a la planta mayor seguridad en su conservación. El endemismo se considera como sinónimo de au- Por ejemplo, la okra (Abelmonchus esculentus) tóctono, indígena (FONT 1977) y nativo. Como además de ser medicinal es alimenticia (hortaliza). antónimos se mencionan exótico e introducido. Esta situación ha inducido a los especialistas en mejoramiento genético a crear bancos de germo- Por ejemplo, el árbol Peltogyne purpurea Pittier plasma a partir de colectas de material silvestre y a (nazareno), utilizado para aserrío, es nativo de Cos- impulsar acciones para su conservación. ta Rica y Panamá. En Costa Rica se distribuye únicamente en la vertiente Pacífica. Por su limita- En general la existencia de bancos de germoplasma da distribución, lo valioso de la madera y su conse- representa un mecanismo para la conservación ex cuente sobreexplotación es una especie amnazada. situ de la especie. Es importante señalar que las plantas medicinales son para los investigadores en Contrariamente tenemos el ejemplo del árbol Si- mejoramiento genético, especies no convencion- marouba glauca (aceituno), de uso medicinal y ales (o sea especies que no han entrado a la cadena para aserrío. Posee una distribución amplia en de comercialización “oficial” de mejoramiento, América Tropical y subtropical. Todavía no está producción y comercialización). Bajo la categoría amenazada. de no convencionales también se incluyen las plan- Es evidente que el origen y la distribución de una tas nativas de los trópicos y subtrópicos, por esta especie están vinculados estrechamente con su razón una planta que es nativa es, en consecuencia, conservación. A mayor distribución biogeográfica vulnerable. menor vulnerabilidad. Recientemente, se ha empezado a considerar la con- 4. Estructura morfológica - biológica servación in situ como una alternativa viable para Son las formas biológicas, denominadas en térmi- conservar los recursos naturales en su medio am- nos vulgares como árbol, arbusto, hierba, liana y biente. El CATIE está realizando investigaciones palma. De estas formas de vida se utilizan y comer- con dos importantes especies medicinales, Quasia cializan diversos órganos (hojas, flores, raíz, corte- amara y Smilax chiriquensis en Tamalanca, Costa za, etc.) que conducen en mayor o menor grado a Rica. Bougainvillea SA (empresa costarricense, la vulnerabilidad de una especie. Por ejemplo, el véase el artículo sobre Quassia amara en este volú- aprovechamiento de tubérculos de poblaciones sil- men) está realizando actividades de conservación vestres de Dracontium pone en mayor peligro la y desarrollo con Dracontium gigas y Arrabaidea especie que el aprovechamiento de sus hojas. chica, en ambos casos se está promoviendo la con- servación in situ (bancos de germoplasma). En general la tendencia que se manifiesta con re- specto al concepto de especies medicinales es que 3. Origen y distribución geográfica son principalmente plantas arvenses. Igualmente, El origen es una condición propia de cada especie, diversas publicaciones se refieren a la categoría de género o familia. Responde a características am- plantas medicinales como “hierbas medicinales”. bientales generales o específicas. Una nueva espe- Es evidente que la mayoría de las plantas introduci- cie puede sobrevivir si compite en un plano igual das a América son hierbas de porte pequeño. Cuan- o de ventaja con las poblaciones con que convive, do se realizan investigaciones etnofarmacológicas o bien por encontrarse en un ambiente favorable o con grupos nativos en América, nos damos cuenta aislado (este aislamiento puede ser ecológico, ge- que se amplía la gama de recursos y también de ográfico o genético) o porque tiene la protección estructuras. Así, se puede encontrar árboles, arbus- del ser humano. tos, lianas y palmas, además de hierbas. En este contexto, el endemismo constituye el fac- El tipo de estructura morfológica – biológica posee tor limitante para la conservación de una especie un peso importante en la determinación del estado o género en su ambiente natural dentro de un país, de la conservación, relacionado con los aspectos región o isla. Conforme la distribución biogeográ- Page 50 May 2012 biológicos de cada especie (abundancia, ciclo de c. Agricultura avanzada: caracterizada por tec- vida, volumen de semilla, etc). nologías que impulsan su desarrollo y modern- ización. 5. Propagación El factor de propagación es un elemento básico Recientemente el CATIE inició investigaciones en la conservación y cultivo de las plantas, y los sobre recursos de la biodiversidad vegetal útil, in- recursos naturales con actividad terapéutica no cluyendo las plantas medicinales. Estas investiga- constituyen la excepción. Esta característica da lu- ciones están orientadas hacia el manejo de pobla- gar para evaluar y seleccionar el mejor método de ciones silvestres en el sistema bosque. propagación. De esta manera es común que especies medicinales En este sentido, es importante señalar que las plan- de origen exótico sean objeto de cultivo comercial tas medicinales que se establecen en huertos y jar- en su región de origen, y en Centroamérica y el dines se han propagado con métodos empíricos y Caribe se cultiven en jardines con propósitos or- que son acciones anteriores al desarrollo de inves- namentales como sucede con Zingiber purpureum, tigaciones sobre domesticación. otras se encuentran espontáneas en sitios ruderales (orillas de caminos) como sucede con Plantago La facilidad de reproducción así como poder utili- major. zar diversos métodos de propagación, representan para la especie una forma de garantizar su conser- De igual forma ocurre con especies nativas, que vación. debido al interés se toman del medio natural y se establecen en medios disturbados como huertos; en 6. Estado del recurso este caso lo que existe es “protección a la especie” Este indicador es básico para determinar el grado o sea nos ubicamos en la etapa de selección de ma- de amenaza de una especie y está vinculado di- teriales silvestres. rectamente con el origen biogeográfico. Por estas razones la categoría cultivada y silvestre En el caso de los recursos naturales medicinales no en algunos casos no es tan transparente. es tan fácil determinar este indicador como lo es Los resultados de la aplicación de los criterios con el maíz (Zea mays), por su trayectoria histórica planteados anteriormente a las plantas incluidas en cultural en América. Con respecto al estado de la Farmacopea Caribeña se encuentran en el Box 1. las plantas medicinales la información es escasa. Como ejemplo se puede citar la ipecacuana (Psyco- Literatura citada tria ipecacuanha), que es posiblemente la especie FONT Q, P. (1977): Diccionario de botánica. – Editorial medicinal más importante en América Central por Labor, Barcelona. su comercio internacional y sin embargo aún no GERMOSEN-ROBINEAU, L. (ed.). (1996): Farmacopea existe claridad sobre su estado, a pesar de acciones vegetal caribeña. – TRAMIL, Santo Domingo. 360p. dispersas de cultivo en países centroamericanos y a OMS/UICN/WWF. 1993. Directrices sobre conser- vación de plantas medicinales. – UICN, Gland. 55p. su presencia silvestre en áreas boscosas. Según LEÓN (1968), esta situación se debe a que Sonia Lagos • PLATS, Universidad Nacional del estado silvestre al cultivado (proceso de domes- Autónoma de Honduras • email: slagos09@gmail. ticación) existen tres etapas básicas, que conducen com al manejo de poblaciones de plantas: BOX 2. TRAMIL a. Selección de materiales silvestres: se inició TRAMIL es un programa de investigación aplicada a en el neolítico con la aparición de la agricultura, la medicina popular del Caribe. Su misión es validar pero en los pueblos indígenas actuales estableci- científicamente los usos tradicionales de plantas dos en el trópico se desarrolla una actividad im- medicinales para la atención primaria de salud. Sus investigaciones etnofarmacológicas se han extendido portante de selección. hacia prácticamente todos los territorios que tocan el mar b. Agricultura incipiente: el hombre establece en Caribe, a través de la realización de encuestas utilizando el campo semillas que recoge del bosque y las una metodología uniforme. http://www.tramil.net/ mantiene por propagación vegetativa o sexual. Page 51 May 2012 FairWild in the South Caucasus strategy for the protection of biodiversity in the South Caucasus. The economic use of wild plant Heiko Schindler & Bryony Morgan resources has been practiced for centuries, but de- structive harvest practices were historically com- Introduction mon. The economic benefits of collecting wild The Caucasus is a geopolitical region between plant resources are often small, and the collection Europe and Asia, well known for its diversity in activities are seen as seasonal work for old people. cultures, languages and a high diversity of fauna The low esteem and small economic benefits from and flora. The South Caucasus comprises Armenia, wild collection activities encourages rapid destruc- Georgia and Azerbaijan, as well as parts of Turkey tive harvesting practices. and Iran, and is also called Transcaucasia. North Sustainable use of wild plant diversity Caucasus or Ciscaucasia, comprises the Russian Republics north of the Great Caucasus mountain Through its Caucasus Initiative, the German Fed- range as well as some regions of Georgia and Az- eral Ministry for Economic Cooperation and De- erbaijan. velopment (BMZ) is actively supporting the South Caucasus region with a wide range of activities, Despite their great wealth, the fragile ecosystems partly implemented by the Deutsche Gesellschaft of the Caucasus are threatened by over-exploitation für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ, former of their natural resources. The main threats include GTZ). From 2008 until 2016, GIZ is implementing over-grazing of the alpine meadows, poaching a project on “Sustainable management of the bio- and logging as well as the construction of pipe- diversity, South Caucasus”, which has developed lines, roads, dams and urbanisation. The wild activities in various sectors such as hunting and plant resources are especially threatened by non- forestry, but also monitoring of biodiversity and sustainable harvesting methods. Driving the over- sustainable use of wild plant diversity (GTZ 2011). exploitation are the prevailing economic, political From March 2010 to May 2011 the Institute for and institutional settings, which mostly affect ru- Marketecology (IMO) was assigned by GIZ to im- ral populations. The main resource users of wild plement a project on facilitating value chains from plants, collectors from villages and small towns, sustainably collected wild plant resources in Geor- often have only little economic alternative but to gia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. IMO is one of the exploit natural resources above their regeneration first and most experienced international bodies for capacity. To date, none of the countries of the Cau- the inspection, certification and quality assurance casus have managed to realize the socio- economic of sustainably produced products and has been ac- potential of a sustainable use of biodiversity prod- tive in the field of organic certification world-wide ucts. for more than 20 years. Today, IMO is a department There is a lack of comprehension, by both the pri- of the Bio-Foundation, Switzerland and is based at vate sector and the responsible government insti- Weinfelden, Switzerland. tutions, that the economic use of biodiversity can Based on the criteria, principles and indicators of pose a threat to nature, especially in and around the FairWild Standard Version 2.0 (FAIRWILD 2010 protected areas. The uncontrolled pressure on a,b), IMO developed a series of activities in co- the natural resources of Armenia, Azerbaijan and operation with collectors of wild plants, intermedi- Georgia is especially high and accelerates the de- ate traders, processors and exporters. The activities struction of the economic base of large parts of the also involved consultants and local certification rural population. The combination of poverty, high bodies, as well as the competent authorities of the levels of energy and raw material consumption, three participating countries. rapid economic growth and a neoliberal economic policy combined with corruption aggravate these The FairWild Standard provides a management negative effects. tool to put sustainable collection of plants harvest- ed from the wild into practice, and also to man- The facilitation of sustainable but economically age the people - collectors, workers and others in- viable use of plant diversity is one element of a volved in the value chains. It introduces fair trade Page 52 May 2012 principles for products marketed with the FairWild During the whole project the concept of “training brand and logo. It unifies the International Stand- of trainers” was pursued by establishing a network ard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal of national experts, such as consultants and inspec- and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) Version 1.0 tors, with the requirements of FairWild. IMO was (IUCN & MPSG 2007), and the FairWild Standards also assigned to facilitate the development of na- Version 1 (MEINSHAUSEN ET AL. 2006). The purpose tional standards for wild collected plant products, of the FairWild Standard is to “ensure the contin- and to liaise with participating governments. ued use and long-term survival of wild species and The strategy of upgrading value chains through populations in their habitats, while respecting the implementation of the FairWild Standard was traditions and cultures, and supporting the liveli- determined by simultaneously implemented ap- hoods of all stakeholders, in particular collectors proaches. One approach was to enhance the desir- and workers” (FAIRWILD 2010a). ability of the final products through labelling cer- The IMO activities were targeted towards improv- tified ingredients with the FairWild logo. Another ing the quality and sustainability of harvested wild approach was to upgrade the processes of collec- plant products, and facilitating existing and new tion and manufacturing through the improvement value chains for these products. Knowledge trans- of harvesting and processing practices, good man- fer was established through a series of trainings, agement and quality awareness. workshops and seminars and through providing Plants and value chains were carefully selected, guidance manuals to the different target groups taking into account the commitment of stakehold- (FIGURE 1, 2). ers to the project, the complexity of each value chain, its transparency, the accessibility of the col- lection region and market demand. Value chains of plants listed in TABLE 1 were selected for certifica- tion. Project results The work with various stakeholders in the wild collection sector has shown that, although chal- lenging, implementation of the FairWild Standard in the South Caucasus was possible and also wel- comed. All participating collectors and companies received training in various issues such as sustain- FIGURE 1. Workshop with collectors in Georgia. Photo: H. Schindler. able wild collection, the fair trade system, quality criteria for wild collected raw and processed plant Project implementation material, and the FairWild certification system. In its initial phase, the project identified the rele- Thirty-four companies dealing with wild collection vant stakeholders in the wild collection sector of in the Caucasus were trained in at least one of the the three countries. Members of rural communities afore mentioned aspects. Altogether 340 collectors who depend on the income from wild collection from 17 collection companies were trained in sus- were targeted, as well as the first or second buyers tainable wild collection. of wild collected plants - the collection companies. Selected companies were inspected during the sec- In its second phase, collectors and collection com- ond half of 2010 and certification results are now panies were helped to implement FairWild Prin- available for all companies. As result, 12 out of 13 ciples. The quality and traceability systems of the inspected companies could receive the FairWild production and processing steps were scrutinized Certificate for their harvest 2010, and 16 different for improvement. In parallel, IMO facilitated the wild collected plants species could be certified. process of finding buyers for the selected value The support and development of value chains has chains. resulted in the establishment of several relations Page 53 May 2012 cine, teas and cosmetics (Thyme, Mint, Haw- TABLE 1. Origin and parts used of plants selected for certification. thorn, Hypericum etc) • Wild vegetables (Staphylea pinnata, Asparagus Country of Plant scientific Common name origin name & plant part officinalis and other wild vegetables, mushrooms Armenia Juglans regia Walnut, young etc.) fruit with pericarp • Wild plants for horticulture (Normann Fir seeds, Picea orientalis Oriental spruce, Snowdrop bulbs etc) tree cones Pinus sylvestris Scotch pine Wild fruits and nuts from the first group are pro- cones, buds and duced annually and in large quantities, thus the needles likeliness of over-harvesting these resources is low. Pinus kochiana Pine cones, buds On the other hand, collectors do not value the re- and needles sources very highly because of low prices paid per Rosa canina Rose, hip kg. Collectors also perceive wild fruits and nuts as Azerbaijan Cornus mas Cornelian cherry, ubiquitous. As a result of this perception, the dam- fruit age to a single plant does not seem to matter since Crataegus pen- Hawthorn, berries tagyna there are so many harvestable plants left, and care Prunus cerasifera Cherry plum, fruit during the harvest is not a priority. The collector trainings focused on correct harvesting techniques, Rubus fruticosus Blackberry, fruit agg. the quality of harvested goods, personal hygiene Urtica dioica Stinging nettle, and appropriate processing activities such as cor- leaf rect cleaning, drying and cutting. Georgia Abies nordman- Normann fir, niana seeds Castanea sativa Sweet Chestnut, Marroni Humulus lupulus Hop, strobile Hypericum perfo- St. John’s Wort, ratum herb Mentha longifolia Horse Mint, leaf Origanum vul- Oregano, leaf and gare flower Vaccinium arctos- Caucasian bil- taphylos berry, fruit between interested producers and importers from FIGURE 2. Children of Bilberry collectors in Georgia. Europe. The programme as well as the participat- Photo: H. Schindler. ing companies were presented to the visitors of Biofach (February 2010 and 2011 in Nuremberg, Plants from the MAP group have a much wider Germany) and to Ecology Fair (May 2011, Izmir, scope of harvested plant parts (leaves, seed, fruit, Turkey). roots or even the whole plant). Destructive harvest methods are common, such as ripping out perenni- Regarding the sustainability of wild collection, al herbs and shrubs with their roots if only leaves or experiences have shown that wild collected plants flowers are needed. Regeneration periods and max- from the South Caucasus can be grouped into four imum harvestable quantities need to be well de- different groups: fined and the collection instructions need to be • Wild fruits/ nuts for human consumption (Core- thoroughly implemented by collectors, since po- lian Cherry, Wild Plum, Wild Apple and Pear, tentially many more mistakes can be made by col- Bilberries, Walnut, Hazelnut etc) lectors than in the fruit/nut group. Various MAP species or their close relatives are listed on Nation- • Medicinal / aromatic plants (MAP) for medi- al Red Lists. Thus, the risk of unsustainable collec- Page 54 May 2012 tion is much higher than for the wild fruit and nut Feedback from participants group. The training activities focused on the cor- Participating wild collection companies have rect botanical identification of targeted plants as stressed that the focus of activities needs to con- well as defining concrete criteria for sustainable centrate more strongly on linkages to international wild collection, plus correct processing activities. markets. Producer companies often do not have the Wild vegetables are very traditional products of capacity or have not seen the possibility in the past the South Caucasus, and collectors have long ex- to contact potential international buyer companies. perience with their collection. They are mainly The main barriers from the sellers’ side are igno- harvested for home consumption and for national rance of how international markets work, and lack markets, thus there are few or no written quality of knowledge or inflexibility in relation to quality standards available. In terms of risk of unsustain- requirements of the herbal industry. able wild collection, the same conclusions as for Potential buyer companies of importing countries the MAP group can be drawn. Since none of the se- said that prices for the raw materials have to match lected value chains focused on wild vegetables for quality requirements; this is often a problem. Prob- home consumption or national markets, no train- lematic or even adverse export conditions poten- ings were developed specifically for this group. tially also impede the development of new business However, relevant issues were covered within the links; this pushes up the prices for traded commod- generic training material delivered. ities. Also, potential buyers were reluctant to get Wild plants for horticultural use have a potentially involved in new business activities in the Caucasus very high risk of non-sustainable collection prac- because they could not fully judge the reliability of tices because of the large extent of collection due potential suppliers in terms of constant quantities at to high prices and market demands. The collection the same quality level. and trade of some economically important geo- Collectors’ feedback was positive throughout. phytes are regulated through international agree- Many collectors were surprised but also pleased ments, e.g. Snowdrops are regulated through the that somebody from “outside” was interested in Convention on International Trade in Endangered their activities and economic situation. The train- Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). ing reached not only the active collectors but also a young generation of potential future collectors. It Quality criteria and risks in collection and is important to maintain active groups of collectors processing and to recruit new collectors to maintain a supply On the collector level, the mixing of wild collected of high quality wild collected raw materials. Im- plants with the same species harvested from gar- plementing the FairWild principles gives addition- dens, fields or plantations has shown to be of high al incentives for collectors if they are guaranteed risk, especially for fruits and nuts which are often good social and economic conditions. cultivated. The risk of contamination of cultivated species through pesticides, herbicides and other Feedback on the fair trade component of the Fair- agro-chemical substances as well as contamina- Wild Standard indicated that most of the partici- tion through animal faeces and dust is comparably pants were confronted with the fair trade concept higher than in wild resources. Also a big risk at the for the first time. Their opinion was that the Cau- collector level is harvesting the wrong plant. Close casus region is not yet fully prepared for the imple- relatives of the targeted plant, or even toxic plants, mentation of a fair trade certification system. It can can accidentally be harvested. be concluded that most participants did not fully understand the general concept of fair trade. During processing and storage, the most common mistakes are insufficient and incorrect drying, Participants recommended a step-wise approach to introducing the FairWild Standard in the South cleaning and contamination (Box 1). In the food industry, quality problems can occur through cross- Caucasus, with the principal focus initially on the contamination due to processing equipment which sustainable management of wild collected plants. was not properly cleaned after processing other Understanding and implementation of the social raw materials. and fair trade aspects of the FairWild Standard Page 55 May 2012 the experience of the first 15 months of implemen- BOX 1. Processing and storage challenges tation, IMO strongly recommends continuing to Insufficient drying work with the collectors and processing/exporting Moisture content too high. The danger of microbiological companies. contamination (aflatoxins, mould etc) increases. Further activities need to put a much stronger fo- Incorrect drying cus on the marketing aspects for certified products, Sun-drying or too slow drying alters the colour and quality with activities in the following fields: of, e.g., leaves or flowers. Too quick drying with artificial heat can adversively affect the product quality. • A marketing study is needed to investigate Incorrect cleaning the potential of wild collected products for Processed products contain foreign bodies such as stones or different markets and industries, such as the other plants and plant parts. food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical indus- tries. Contamination Through pests such as mice and insects, either already dur- • Meetings should be organised where pro- ing collection or during processing and storage. ducers and processors from the countries of Storage origin can meet their potential buyers from food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical compa- Crushing of stored materials due to inadequate packing or stacking. nies. The meetings should take place both in the countries of origin and the countries of could then be built more gradually. import of wild collected plant products. The uptake of the FairWild Standard in national • Lead companies should be invited to par- processes other than certification was targeted, but ticipate in international trade fairs such as co-operation with the competent authorities of par- Biofach in Nurnberg, Germany and Anaheim ticipating countries was difficult as interest and un- Natural Products Expo West in the US. Also derstanding of the importance of the topic is low. fairs with a more regional character such as Under the “Sustainable management of biodiver- the Ecologj fair in Izmir, Turkey can be of sity in the South Caucasus” project, GIZ continues major importance. to work at the policy level in order to facilitate the • The responsible quality managers and deci- introduction of regulatory guidance for sustainable sion makers of Caucasian companies should use of natural resources. be invited to visit the processing sites of po- Feedback from national experts has shown that a tential buyers, in order to understand the re- lot of knowledge can be provided by specialists quired traceability and quality criteria. Vice from the Caucasus itself, especially regarding the versa, potential buyers should be invited to management of wild plants. National experts are visit the collection and processing sites of needed for the correct identification of the targeted Caucasian companies. plants, as well as confirmation of sustainable har- • In order to achieve results in the long term, vest limits and monitoring activities. National ex- continuous FairWild certification needs to perts can also effectively contribute to improving be facilitated by supporting lead companies the quality of raw and processed materials through with certification costs. Companies should giving input on processing efficiency. also be supported to gain organic certifica- tion, in order to open up the organic market Recommendations segment for them in addition to the access to It is not an easy endeavour to raise low income the fair trade market segment provided by economic activities using simple technologies to FairWild certification. an advanced level. Considerable time is needed to change the understanding of quality and sustaina- Future Perspectives bility both at the collector and processor levels, and The initial experiences of implementing the Fair- more time is needed to implement changes. After Wild Standard in the Caucasus demonstrated the Page 56 May 2012 plants (ISSC-MAP). Version 1.0. BfNSkripten 195, Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn, Germany. 36pp. MEINSHAUSEN, F., WINKLER, S., BÄCHI, R., STAUBLI, F. & DÜRBECK, K. (2006): FairWild Standards, Ver- sion 1 (11/2006). FairWild Foundation, Weinfelden, Switzerland. Heiko Schindler • Institute for Marketecology (IMO) • Weststr. 51, CH - 8570 Weinfelden, Swit- zerland • email: [email protected] • Switzerland www. imo.ch • Bryony Morgan • FairWild Foundation Secretariat c/o TRAFFIC International • 219a Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DL • email: [email protected]

Update FIGURE 3. Bilberry collection areas. Photo: H. Schindler. positive impact that such standards, and implemen- tation pathways including certification, can have. World Health Organization Con- However, the importance of continued support and sultation on Conservation Guide- of linking activities such as certification into the lines for Medicinal Plants broader context of sustainable development cannot be underestimated. IMO will continue to support Danna J. Leaman, with background notes FairWild certified companies by linking interest- provided by WHO ed parties with producer companies, and is aim- ing at continuation of the activities in the Cauca- A years-long process to revise Guidelines on the sus. Projects of similar scope, however, can only Conservation of Medicinal Plants, first published be realized if external funding is provided, since by WHO, IUCN, and WWF in 1993, has taken a at present most of the participating companies do significant step towards completion with an expert not have the necessary financial capacities to sub- consultation held in Toyama, Japan, 15-18 October, stantially invest into sustainable management prac- 2011. The consultation was organized by the WHO tices on their own. Most participating companies programme on Traditional Medicine, Department stressed that they are willing to improve the current for Health System Governance and Service Deliv- management system if they could sell their produce ery and the Institute of Natural Medicine, Univer- to new markets and buyers, and if they would re- sity of Toyama, and was hosted and financed by ceive a price premium. the Toyama Prefectural Government. Revised text was endorsed by IUCN, WWF, and TRAFFIC in References 2008. However, a formal expert consultation was FAIRWILD. (2010a): FairWild Standard: Version 2.0. – required for WHO’s endorsement of the final re- FairWild Foundation, Weinfelden, Switzerland. vised text. FAIRWILD. (2010b): FairWild Standard Version 2.0., Performance Indicators, FairWild Foundation, Swit- The Guidelines revision process was last updated zerland. in this newsletter in the “Chair’s Note”, volume 13, GTZ (2011): BMZ Caucasus Initiative. GTZ homepage, 1 December 2007. accessed on 11.08.2011. URL http://www.gtz.de/en/ weltweit/europa-kaukasus-zentralasien/2829.htm International actions to address concerns regarding IUCN & MPSG (2007): International standard for sus- unsustainable harvest of medicinal plants were ini- tainable wild collection of medicinal and aromatic tiated by WHO, IUCN, and WWF in 1988 with Page 57 May 2012 consultation, drawn from a broad range of insti- tutions and agencies involved in various research and policy activities concerning medicinal plants, including: university faculties of pharmacy, phar- macognosy, and traditional medicine; centres of research on traditional and complementary medi- cine, botany, and materia medica; government ministries of health and agriculture; other inter- governmental agencies (FAO); and the co-author organizations IUCN, WWF, and TRAFFIC. Many of the participating experts are members of WHO’s FIGURE 1. More than 60 experts made intensive discus- Advisory Panel on Traditional Medicine and WHO sions in Toyama, Japan, and reached the conclusion. Collaborating Centres for Traditional Medicine. Photo: K. Kanari. The Guidelines will now undergo further revisions the convening of the International Consultation on based on the Toyama consultation, and will be re- Conservation of Medicinal Plants in Chiang Mai, leased following endorsement of the four co-author Thailand. Outcomes of this consultation included organizations. the “Chiang Mai Declaration”, calling for action to In May 2008, the World Health Assembly adopted “save the plants that save lives”, the proceedings of a resolution on public health, innovation, and intel- the meeting published in 1991, and the publication lectual property (WHA.61.21). Traditional medi- of the first edition of the Guidelines on the Conser- cine is identified as a “quick-start” programme to vation of Medicinal Plants in 1993. implement this resolution within WHO’s Global Since their original publication, the Guidelines Strategy and Plan of Action , aiming to support have provided an agenda for national level policy research and development and to promote stand- and action to increase knowledge and conservation ard-setting for traditional medicine in developing of medicinal plants, including through actions to countries. The revised Guidelines will support the protect these resources in their natural habitats, to efforts of WHO member countries and partners conserve their genetic diversity in botanic gardens to conserve medicinal plants as an important re- and gene banks, and to bring commercially impor- source for human health. tant and threatened species into cultivation. In May 2003, representatives of the original three partner institutions – WHO, IUCN and WWF – with the addition of a fourth partner, TRAFFIC – met in Oxford, in the United Kingdom, and agreed to up- date these Guidelines to incorporate more recent policies and approaches relevant to conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants. The re- vised edition has been prepared with broad global consultation and responds to significant changes and advances that have occurred in conservation thinking over the past two decades. The updated Guidelines will take into account conservation FIGURE 2. Dr. Andrew Rodrigues introduced the commitments such as the Convention on Biologi- contributions of IUCN to the Guidelines in the expert cal Diversity (CBD) and support health initiatives consultation in Tokoyama, Japan. Photo: K. Kanari. such as WHO’s Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002-2005 and Medicines Strategy 2008-2013, the latter including access to and rational use of me- dicinal plants as two of its central objectives. More than 60 invited experts participated in the Page 58 May 2012 BUCHER, S.F., Ghorbani, A., Langenberger, G., Notices of publication Küppers, M., & Sauerborn, J. (2011): Asparagus spp. in traditional Chinese medicine: wild collection and its sustainability. – TRAFFIC Bulletin 23 (2): 61-61. Helle O. Larsen BUTOLA, J. (2011): Post-cultivation evaluation of germplasm in Himalayan threatened medicinal The list includes publications from 2011 as well herbs: Implication for ex-cultivation and conserva- as older material not previously listed here. tion. – National Academy Science Letters-India 34 (1-2): 49-58. ADNAN, M. & HOLSCHER, D. (2011): Medicinal Compton, J. & Ishihara, A. (2005): PC15 Inf. 6. plants in old-growth, degraded and re-growth forests The use and trade of Agarwood in Japan. Prepared of NW Pakistan. – Forest Ecology and Management for the CITES secretariat. TRAFFIC. Available at: 261 (11): 2105-2114. http://www.cites.org/common/com/PC/15/X-PC15- AL-QURAN, S. (2011): Conservation of medicinal 06-Inf.pdf. plants in Ajlun woodland/Jordan – Journal of Me- CORDELL, G.F. (2011): Sustainable medicines and dicinal Plants Research 5 (24): 5857- 5862. global health care. – Planta Medica 77 (11): 1129- Alves, R.R.N. & Rosa, I.M.L. (2005): Why study 1138. the use of animal products in traditional medicines?. DE ALBUQUERQUE, U.P., SOLDATI, G.T., SIEBER, - Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 1: 5. S.S., RAMOS, M.A., DE SA, J.C. & DE SOUZA, L.C. AREMU, A.O., CHEESMAN, L., FINNIE, J.F. & VAN (2011): The use of plants in the medical system of STADEN, J. (2011): Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae): the Fulni-(o)over-cap people (NE Brazil): a perspec- A review of its biological activities, conservation tive on age and gender. Journal of Ethnopharmacol- strategies and economic potential. – South African ogy 133 (2): 866-873. Journal of Botany 77 (4): 960-971. Dharani, N., Rukunga, G., Yenesew, A., Mbora, Baniya, A. (2010): FairWild implementation in a A., Mwaura, L., Dawson, I. & Jamnadass, R. high risk species (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora). (2010): Common antimalarial trees and shrubs of – WWF Nepal, Kathmandu. 18p. East Africa. A description of species and a guide to BHUTYA, R.K. (2011): Ayurvedic medicinal plants of cultivation and conservation through use. – ICRAF, India, Vol. 2. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. 298p. Nairobi. 96 pp. Available at: http://www.worldagro- forestry.org/downloads/publications/PDFS/B16781. BIRHANE, E., AYNEKULU, E., MEKURIA, W. & EN- PDF. DALE, D. (2011): Management, use and ecology of medicinal plants in the degraded dry lands of Tigray, DHARMADASA, R.M., HETTIARACHCHI, P.L. & PRE- Northern Ethiopia. – Journal of Medicinal Plants MAKUMARA, G.A.S. (2011): Geographical distri- Research 5 (3): 309-318. bution and conservation of a rare medicinal plant Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Theob. (Meliaceae) in Sri Uddin, S.B. (sd): Medicinal plants of Bangladesh. Lanka. – Bangladesh Journal of Plant Taxonomy 18 Database. – http://www.mpbd.info/ (1): 39-49. Brendler, T., Eloff, J.N., Gurib-Fakim, A. & Duke, J.A. (ed.) (2009): Duke’s handbook of medici- Phillips, L.D. (eds.) (2010): African Herbal Phar- nal plants of Latin America. – CRC Press, Boca macopoeia. – Graphic Press, Mauritius. 289p. Raton. 901p. BRINCKMANN, J. (2011): Reproducible Efficacy EL MANSOURI, L., ENNABILI, A. & BOUSTA, D. and Safety Depend on Reproducible Quality: Match- (2011): Socioeconomic interest and valorization of ing the Various Quality Standards that have been medicinal plants from the Rissani oasis (SE of Mo- Established for Botanical Ingredients with their rocco). – Boletin Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Intended Uses in Cosmetics, Dietary Supplements, Plantas Medicinales y Aromaticas 10 (1): 30-45. Foods, and Medicines. – HerbalGram 91: 40-55. ENGELS, G. & BRINCKMANN, J. (2011): Bacopa. – BRUSCHI, P., MORGANTI, M., MANCINI, M. & SI- HerbalGram 91: 1-4. GNORINI, M.A. (2011): Traditional healers and laypeople: A qualitative and quantitative approach ENGELS, G. & BRINCKMANN, J. (2011): Dragon’s to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda blood. – HerbalGram 92: 1-4. (Mozambique) – Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 ENGELS, G. & BRINCKMANN, J. (2011): Gupta kola. – (2): 543-563. HerbalGram 90: 1-4. Page 59 May 2012 FIFANOU, V.G., OUSMANE, C., GAUTHIER, B. & intermediate collected in Kazakhstan. - Biological & BRICE, S. (2011): Traditional agroforestry systems Pharmaceutical Bulletin 26 (6): 867-871. and biodiversity conservation in Benin (West Af- HOUEHANOU, T.D., ASSOGBADJO, A.E., KAKAI, R.G., rica). – Agroforestry Systems 82 (1): 1-13. HOUINATO, M. & SINSIN, B. (2011): Valuation of lo- FIGUEIREDO, E., PAIVA, J., STEVART, T., OLIVEIRA, F. cal preferred uses and traditional ecological knowl- & SMITH, G.F. (2011): Annotated catalogue of the edge in relation to three multipurpose tree species in flowering plants of Sao Tome and Principe. – Both- Benin (West Africa). – Forest Policy and Economics alia 41 (1): 41-82. 13 (7): 554-562. FOSTER, S. (2011): A Brief History of Adulteration JAIN, A., SUNDRIYAL, M., ROSHNIBALA, S., KOTOKY, of Herbs, Spices, and Botanical Drugs. – Herbal- R., KANJILAL, P.B., SINGH, H.B. & SUNDRIYAL, Gram92: 42-57. R.C. (2011): Dietary use and conservation concern GAIKWAD, J., WILSON, P.D. & RANGANATHAN, S. of edible wetland plants at Indo-Burma Hotspot: a (2011): Ecological niche modeling of customary me- case study from Northeast India. – Journal of Ethno- dicinal plant species used by Australian Aborigines biology and Ethnomedicine 7: 29. to identify species-rich and culturally valuable areas JOSHI, K., JOSHI, R. & JOSHI, A.R. (2011): Indig- for conservation. – Ecological Modelling 222 (18): enous knowledge and uses of medicinal plants in 3437-3443. Macchegaun, Nepal. – Indian Journal of Traditional GANDOLFO, E.S. & HANAZAKI, N. (2011): Ethnobot- Knowledge 10 (2): 281-286. any and urbanization: knowledge and use of rest- KHAN, N., AHMED, M., AHMED, A., SHAUKAT, S.S., inga plants by the native community of Distrito do WAHAB, M., AJAIB, M., SIDDIQUI, M.F. & NASIR, Campeche (Florianopolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil). M. (2011): Important medicinal plants of Chitral Gol –Acta Botanica Brasilica 25 (1): 168-177. national park (CGNP) Pakistan. – Pakistan Journal GILANI, S.A., FUJII, Y., KIKUCHI, A., SHINWARI, Z.K. of Botany 43 (2): 797-809. & WATANABE, K.N. (2011): Ecological consequenc- KHAN, S.M., HARPER, D., PAGE, S. & AHMAD, H. es, genetic and chemical variations in fragmented (2011): Residual value analyses of the medicinal populations of a medicinal plant, Justicia adhatoda flora of the western Himalayas: the Naran valley, and implications for its conservation. – Pakistan Pakistan. – Pakistan Journal of Botany 43: 97-104. Journal of Botany 43: 29-37. KINGSTON, D.G.I. (2011): Modern natural products GRACE, O.M. (2011): Current perspectives on the drug discovery and its relevance to biodiversity economic botany of the genus Aloe L. (Xanthor- conservation. – Journal of Natural Products 74 (3): rhoeaceae). – South African Journal of Botany 77 496-211. (4): 980-987. KUMAR, G.P., KUMAR, R., CHAURASIA, O.P. & GUO, H.B., LIANG, Z.S. & ZHANG, Y.J. (2011): On- SINGH, S.B. (2011): Current status and potential farm conservation of genetic diversity for endan- prospects of medicinal plant sector in trans-Hima- gered medicinal plants. – Journal of Medicinal layan Ladakh. – Journal of Medicinal Plants Re- Plants Research 5 (24): 5667-5670. search 5 (14): 2929-2940. HAMEED, M., ASHRAF, M., AL-QURIANY, F., NAWAZ, LEE, R., Shere, N., Balick, M. et al. (2010): Pohn- T., AHMAD, M.S.A., YOUNIS, A. & NAZ, N. (2011): pei Primary Health Care Manual. Pohnpei Council Medicinal flora of the Cholistan desert: a review. – of Traditional Leaders & New York Botanical Gar- Pakistan Journal of Botany 43: 39-50. den, New York. 178p. HARRIS, E.S.J., CAO, S.G., LITTLEFIELD, B.A., CRAY- LEONTI, M. (2011): The future is written: impact of CROFT, J.A., SCHOLTEN, R., KAPTCHUK, T., FU, scripts on the cognition, selection, knowledge and Y.L., WANG, W.Q., LIU, Y., CHEN, H.B.A., ZHAO, transmission of medicinal plant use and its implica- Z.Z., CLARDY, J. WOOLF, A.D. & EISENBERG, tions for ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology. – D.M. (2011): Heavy metal and pesticide content in Journal of Ethnopharmacology 134 (3): 542-555. commonly prescribed individual raw Chinese herbal LI, H.T., WANG, H., YANG, J.B. & LI, D.Z. (2011): medicines. – Science of the Total Environment 409 Genetic diversity of the traditional Chinese medici- (20): 4297-4305. nal plant Ypsilandra thibetica (Melanthiaceae): ap- Hayashi, H., Hattori, S., Inoue, K., Sarsenbaev, plications for conservation. – Biochemical Systemat- K., Ito, M. & Honda, G. (2003): Field survey of ics and Ecology 39 (4-6): 425-433. Glycyrrhiza plants in Central Asia (1). Characteri- LI, M., CAO, H., BUT, P.P.H. & SHAW, P.C. (2011): zation of G. uralensis, G. glabra and the putative Identification of herbal medicinal materials using Page 60 May 2012 DNA barcodes. – Journal of Systematics and Evolu- 254. tion 49 (3): 271-283. PADMANABHAN, M. (2011): Institutions of agrobio- LINDSTROM, A. (2011): The Paris Kitâb al-Diryâq diversity management in Kerala-gendered collec- - Book of Theriac: An Introduction to a Medieval tive action. – Society & Natural Resources 24 (2): Arabic Manuscript Describing a Classic Herbal For- 174-184. mula. – HerbalGram 91: 56-67. PHILANDER, L.A. (2011): An ethnobotany of Western MAN, S.R. & SAMANT, S.S. (2011): Diversity, in- Cape Rasta bush medicine. – Journal of Ethnophar- digenous uses and conservation status of medicinal macology. 138 (2): 578-594. plants in Manali wildlife sanctuary, North western PHILANDER, L.E.A., MAKUNGA, N.P. & PLATTEN, Himalaya. – Indian Journal of Traditional Knowl- S.J. (2011): Local medicinal plant knowledge in edge 10 (3): 439-459. South Africa preserved by apartheid. – Human Ecol- MATI, E. & DE BOER, H. (2011): Ethnobotany and ogy 39 (2): 203-216. trade of medicinal plants in the Qaysari Market, PIRONDO, A., COULLERI, J.P., KELLER, H.A. & FER- Kurdish Autonomous Region, Iraq. – Journal of RUCCI, M.S. (2011): External factors influence the Ethnopharmacology 133 (2): 490-510. marketing of medicinal plants in an urban environ- MCCORMACK, J.H., MAIER, K. & WALLENS, P.B. ment: the case of creoles and indigenous vendors in (2011): Bush medicine of the Bahamas: cross-cul- Corrientes, Argentina. – Boletin Latinoamericano y tural perspective from San Salvador Island, includ- del Caribe de Plantas Medicinales y Aromaticas 10 ing pharmacology and oral histories. JHM Designs (6): 553-569. Publications, Virginia. 396p. PRADHAN, B.K. & BADOLA, H.K. (2011): Assess- MILLER, J.S. (2011): The discovery of medicines from ment of seedling emergence and vigour for quality plants: a current biological perspective. – Economic planting material in thirteen populations of Swertia Botany 65 (4): 396-407. chirayita - a high value endangered medicinal herb, Molares, S. & LADIO, A. (2011): Mapuche percep- using substrate combinations. – Zeitschrift fur Arznei- tions and conservation of Andean Nothofagus forests & Gewurzpflanzen 16 (1): 34-41. and their medicinal plants: a case study from a rural Qu, B.H., Li, W., Chen, Y.Q. & Liu, J.S. (2011): community in Patagonia, Argentina. – Biodiversity Protection versus culture-driven exploitation of wild and Conservation 21 (4): 1079-1093. plant resources: the case on Changbai Mountain. – MONTEIRO, J.M., NETO, E.M.F.L., ARAUJO, E.D., International Journal of Sustainable Development AMORIM, E.L.C. & ALBUQUERQUE, U.P. (2011): and World Ecology 18 (5): 404-411. Bark regeneration and tannin content in Myracrod- RAI, P.K. & LALRAMNGHINGLOVA, H. (2011): Threat- ruon urundeuva Allemo after simulation of extrac- ened and less known ethnomedicinal plants of an tive damages-implications to management. – Envi- Indo-Burma hotspot region: conservation implica- ronmental Monitoring and Assessment 180 (1-4): tions. – Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 31-39. 178 (1-4): 53-62. NCUBE, B., FINNIE, J.F. & VAN STADEN, J. (2011): RANA, M.S. & SAMANT, S.S. (2011): Population Seasonal variation in antimicrobial and phytochemi- biology of Lilium polyphyllum D. Don ex Royle-A cal properties of frequently used medicinal bulbous critically endangered medicinal plant in a protected plants from South Africa. – South African Journal of area of Northwestern Himalaya. – Journal for Nature Botany 77 (2): 387-396. Conservation 19 (3): 137-142. OK, K. & OKAN, T. (2011): A review of the cultural RAY, R., GURURAJA, K.V. & RAMCHANDRA, T.V. heritage of Anatolian civilizations for the purpose of (2011): Predictive distribution modeling for rare nature conservation. – African Journal of Agricul- Himalayan medicinal plant Berberis aristata DC. – tural Research 6 (1): 89-96. Journal of Environmental Biology 32 (6): 725-730. Olsen, C.S. & Helles, F. (2009): Market efficiency RIEDL, P. (2011): Collection and cultivation of and benefit distribution in medicinal plant markets. medicinal plants for homeopathy. – Zeitschrift fur Empirical evidence in South Asia. – International Arznei- & Gewurzpflanzen 16 (2): 87-92. Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 5 Rukangira, E. (2001): The African herbal industry. (2): 53-62. Constraints and challenges. – Prepared for presenta- Olsen, C.S. & Larsen, H.O. (2003): Alpine medici- tion at the Natural Products and Cosmeceutcals 2001 nal plant trade and Himalayan mountain livelihood conference, . Published in Erboristeria Domani, Au- strategies. – The Geographical Journal 169(3): 243- Page 61 May 2012 gust 2001. Available at: http://www.conserveafrica. a threatened medicinal plant Curculigo orchioides org.uk/main/images/documents/herbal_industry.pdf. Gaertn. in Nepal. – Tropical Ecology 52 (1): 91-101. Saxena, S. (2005): Glycyrrhiza glabra. Medicine over SILVA, F.D., RAMOS, M.A., HANAZAKI, N. & DE AL- the millenium. – Natural Product Radiance 4 (5): BUQUERQUE, U.P. (2011): Dynamics of traditional 358-367. Avauílable at: http://nopr.niscair.res.in/ knowledge of medicinal plants in a rural community bitstream/123456789/8122/1/NPR%204(5)%20358- in the Brazilian semi-arid region. – Revista Brasilei- 367.pdf. ra de Farmacognosia - Brazilian Journal of Pharma- Schmelzer, G.H., Achigan-Dako, E.G. & Bosch, cognosy 21 (3): 382-391. C.H. (eds.) (2010): Medicinal plants of tropical SINGH, H., GAHLAN, P., DUTT, S., AHUJA, P.S. & KU- Africa. Conclusions and recommendations based on MAR, S. (2011): Why uproot Picrorhiza kurrooa, an PROTA 11(1) Medicinal plants. – PROTA Founda- endangered medicinal herb? – Current Science 100 tion, Nairobi. 148p. Avalable at: http://www.prota. (7): 1055-1059. co.ke/en/publications-a-resources/publications/ Slane, V. (1986): Verna Slane’s St. Lucian herbal doc_download/41-medicinal-plants. medicinal plants. – Available at: http://www.saint- SEID, M.A. & TSEGAY, B.A. (2011): Ethnobotanical lucianplants.com/downloads/vernaslaneherbaluses. survey of traditional medicinal plants in Tehuledere doc. district, South Wollo, Ethiopia. – Journal of Medici- STAFFORD, L. (2011): Ayurvastra: dyeing fabric nal Plants Research 5 (26): 6233-6242. with medicinal Ayurvedic plants. – HerbalGram 92: SHAHEEN, H., KHAN, S.M., HARPER, D.M., ULLAH, 16-18. Z. & QURESHI, R.A. (2011): Species diversity, com- STANGELAND, T., TABUTI, J. & LYE, K.A. (2011): munity structure, and distribution patterns in western The framework tree species approach to conserve Himalayan alpine pastures of Kashmir, Pakistan. medicinal trees in Uganda. – Agroforestry Systems – Mountain Research and Development 31 (2): 153- 82 (3): 275-284. 159. Swai, R.E.A. (2003): Utilization and commercializa- SHER, H., ELYEMENI, M., KHAN, A.R. & SABIR, A. tion of medicnal tree products in Tanzania. – SADC/ (2011): Assessment of local management practices ICRAF Agroforestry Research Programme, Tabora. on the population ecology of some medicinal plants Available at http://www.worldagroforestry.org/ in the coniferous forest of Northern Parts of Paki- downloads/publications/PDFs/PP03081.PDF. stan. – Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 18 (2): TRAFFIC. (2011): Beyond trials: an update on TRAF- 141-149. FIC projects implementing FairWild. – TRAFFIC SHER, H. & AL YEMENI, M. (2011): Economically Bulletin 23 (2): 76-78. and ecologically important plant communities in TSHISIKHAWE, M.P., SIAGA, N.M. & BHAT, R.B. high altitude coniferous forest of Malam Jabba, (2011): Population dynamics of Millettia stuhlman- Swat, Pakistan. – Saudi Journal of Biological Sci- nii Taub. in Ha-Makhuvha, Vhembe district of Lim- ences 18 (1): 53-61. popo Province, South Africa. – Phyton-International Chen, S. & Lin, Y. (eds.) (2010): A colored identifi- Journal of Experimental Botany 80: 127-132. cation atlas of Chinese Materia Medica and plants UNIYAL, A., UNIYAL, S.K., RAWAT, G.S. (2011): Com- as specified in the Pharmacopoeia of the People’s mercial extraction of Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Republic of China. 2 volumes. – People’s Medical Benth. in the Western Himalaya. – Mountain Re- Publishing House, Beijing. 1236p. search and Development 31 (3): 201-208. Saslis-Lagoudakis, C.H., Klitgaard, B.B., For- Uprety, Y., Asselin, H., Boon, E.K., Yadav, S. & est, F., Francis, L., Savolainen V, WILLIAMSON, Shrestha, K.K. (2010): Indigenous use and bio-ef- E.M. & HAWKINS, J.A. (2011): The use of phylog- ficacy of medicinal plants in Rasuwa district, Central eny to interpret cross-cultural patterns in plant use Nepal. – Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedi- and guide medicinal plant discovery: an example cine, 6: 3. from Pterocarpus (Leguminosae). PLoS ONE 6 (7): e22275. Uprety, Y. & Poudel, R.C. (2010): Medicinal plants of Nepal: an analysis of use, trade and conserva- SHINWARI, Z.K. & QAISER, M. (2011): Efforts on con- tion aspects in the Rasuwa District. – LAP Lambert servation and sustainable use of medicinal plants of Academic Publishing, Saarbrücken. 102p. Pakistan. – Pakistan Journal of Botany 43: 5-10. Uprety, Y., Poudel, R.C., Asselin, H., Boon, E.K. SHRESTHA, B.B., JHA, P.K. & KANDEL, D.R. (2011): & Shrestha, K.K. (2011): Stakeholder perspectives Reproductive ecology and conservation prospects of Page 62 May 2012 on use, trade, and conservation of medicinal plants Journal of Traditional Medicines 23: 27-35. in the Rasuwa District of Central Nepal. – Journal of ZHANG, J.T., XU, B., LI, M. (2011): Diversity of com- Mountain Science, 8: 75-86. munities dominated by Glycyrrhiza uralensis, an WECKERLE, C.S., CABRAS, S., CASTELLANOS, M.E. endangered medicinal plant species, along a precipi- & LEONTI, M. (2011): Quantitative methods in eth- tation gradient in China. – Botanical Studies 52 (4): nobotany and ethnopharmacology: considering the 493-501. overall flora-hypothesis testing for over- and under- Zhang, J.T., Xu, B. & Li, M. (2010): Genetic diver- used plant families with the Bayesian approach. – sity of populations of an endangered medicinal plant Journal of Ethnopharmacology 137 (1): 837-843. species (Glycyrrhiza uralensis) in different environ- Yamamoto, Y. & Tani, T. (2006): Brief survey of ments of North China. - Journal of Medicinal Plants Glycyrrhiza plant resources in Xinjiang, China. – Research 4 (9): 830-836.

The Medicinal Plant Specialist Group is chaired by Danna J. Leamann • 98 Russel Avenue • Ot- tawa, Ontario K1N 7X1 • Canada • Tel. +1/61/235-7213 • Fax +1/61/235-9622 • E-mail: djl@ green-world.org.

Contributions for the next issue of Medicinal Plant Conservation are very welcome, please refer to format requirements on the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group homepage http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/about_ssc/specialist_groups/directory_ specialist_groups/directory_sg_plants/ssc_medicinalplant_home/ssc_medicinalplant_newsletter/

Medicinal Plant Conservation is edited by Helle O. Larsen • University of Copenhagen • Rolighedsvej 23 • 1958 Frederiksberg C • Denmark • email: [email protected]

Page 63 May 2012