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ED 059 646 FL 002 914

AUTHOR Kiriazis, James W. TITLE Folklore and Cultural Character. INSTITUTION Pennsylvania State Modern Language Association. PUB DATE 71 NOTE 9p.; Speech presented at the Pennsylvania State Modern Language Association Conference, OctobPr 1970, at Gannon College, Erie, Pennsylvania JOURNAL CIT Bulletin of the Pennsylvania State Modern Language Association; v49 n1-2 p8-16 F 1970 -Spr 1971

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29 DESCRIPTORS *Anthropology; *Cross Cultural Studies; Cultural Background; Cultural Education; Cultural Factors; *Cultural Interrelationships; Cultural Traits; *Folk Culture; Social Characteristics; Social Structure; Social Values; *Sociocultural Patterns

ABSTRACT Encompassing a synthesis of studies exploring folktales and culture (more specifically cultural character) this report points out that the anthropologist or folklorist must gain familiarity with the culture and its members to gain some understanding of its integrative themes to determine whether they express wish fulfillment or reaction formation. The notion that a modal personality can be delineated for empirical examination through intensive study of the particular folklore of a particular society is examined through discussion involving examples of Polish, Zuni, Chinese, and Rhodesian culture. (R14 U.S. DEPARTMENT Of HEALTH. EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION From the Bulletin of thePennsylvania State THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR Modern Language AssooicktIon;Vol. 49, No. 1-2, ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED 00 NOT NECES. Fall 1970 - Spring 1971. SARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF ECIU. CATION POSITION OR POLICY FOLKLORE ANDCULTURALCHARACTER* James W. Kiriazis Youngstown State University be a central focus, Ido not subscribe tothe The relationship offolklore to modal per- theme, nor should intermittentidea of a single causative sonality has been studied on an one structure aset of themes based onthe and cursory basis leavingmuch still to be ex- individual, even one as in- modal personality isideas of a single plored. In this context, sightful as Sigmund Freud. t." used to represent thestatistical distribution of Cultural character andmodal personality C:2 the behavioral characteristicsof a cultural at configurations by be another survey,studies attempt to arrive character. This report will describing the correlativeregularities of the in- a synthesis ofstudies exploring folktalesand culture.2 Quite often cultural character.dividual's behavior in a tamil culture, or more specifically, these studies takechild-rearing techniques as The idea of culturalcharacter infers that cul- most often pro- personalities of individ-major clues to the personality tures encompass the jected. Some anthropologistschoose to empha- uals. "Culture's distinctiveconfigurational fea- existence and to con-size a particularfeature of these techniques, tures come to pattern the sleeping arrangements, toilettraining or others. dition the thoughts andemotions of individuals P. Murdock initiated the to participate in itsA few years ago G. born into it, or who come Human Relations AreaFiles, a cross-indexed activities." In attempting torelate configura- which also in- be aware that thecompilation of ethnographies tions to folklore one must clude a number of folktales.Although the Files groups using themchange with each generation. available, anthropol- creates difficulties forhave made some material The transition, in turn, ogists have made littleattempt to correlate the the analysis of configurationsand folklore. other parts of culture. usual references aresignificance of folklore to In most instances, the It must also bementioned that quite often not used in discussingfour diverse groups, withanthropologists have chosen notto transcribe whose folklore the authoris familiar. The cul- severely limitingthe tures selected for discussion arethe Polish, thefolk tales and myths, Rhodian Greek. Itamount of data available. Zuni, the Chinese, and the The approaches to"Culture and Personal- is, of course, impossible topresent a complete examplesity" have most oftenused, as their basis, series of folktales so, in most cases, themes borrowed frompsychoanalytic psychol- will be used solely forillustrative purposes initially devised by clinicalpsychol- folktale. ogy, tests without the narrative of the ogists, questionnairesinspired by sociologists I choose to use Fischer'sbroad definition of technique com- .. anytraditional,and the participant-observer folktale as inclusive of ". monly used by anthropologist*.Most anthro- dramatic, oral narrative,"and in this he in- the large societal those usedpologists have dealt with cludes myths of the supernatural or approach on such alimited basis that theydo exclusively for entertainment.2Folktales con- models prior to the study, culture with annot structure their stitute a part of "expressive" but arrive at conclusionsafter the fact. To empirical result designed toeffect a reaction their approach issimilar to the the participants. It isnoteworthysome extent on the part of one employedby folklorists, andsimilar in the that a folktale is adramatic narrative insofar studies conducted by the conflict that must beresolved.fact that most of the as it states a men of bothfields are mainly withtechnolog- These conflicts are, of course,expressive and non-literate societies.4 As culture they repre-ically simple, often reflective of the particular stated above a few ofthese studies of cultural sent, thus making thefolktale an important theme, a form of psy- folktales also serve tocharacter stress a single tool of analysis. Many chological reductionism atits worst. For in- convey a moral or alesson. stance, Geoffrey Gorerplaces extreme stress on Today, as in the past twodecades, there is swaddling of infants inGreat anthropologiststhe importance of a revivedinterest on the part of Russia to which heattributes that country's in the area of "Cultureand Personality." Thisnational UMW. La Barrecontends that the interest is paralleled by anattempt to make training techniques of theJap- scientific by using a widersevere toilet the approach more anese are largelyaccountable for their obses- variety of analytical tools.One of the aspects 0-- Personality" is that phasesive-compulsive personality.0 of "Culture and Methods of discovering acultural character which stresses the studyof the behavioral traits of pro- group.or a modalpersonality include the use characteristic of a particularsocial tests such as Rorschachdata, the These behavioral traits areintegrated by cer-jective ("K existential themes into aThematic ApperceptionTest, and drawing tain normative and Although there cananalyses. Anthropologistssuch as Hallowell, unified cultural character. Honigmann, Mead andothers utilize these techniques extensively.While it is true that culture-bound, Conference (1970) of thesome ofthese tests are not ° Delivered at Fall there is. nevertheless,considerable doubt as to PSMLA. 8 1 their cross-cultural applicability in termsof the protocol usedin scoring and seen as a necessity; howeverit must be noted upon the partial knowledge over-reliancethat after immigration of the language.7many of the formerto the United States, Modified series ofTAT cardsor protmol need peasants did beginto testing themselves. idealize work andthe consequent Drawing analysesmay re-that "manual labor attitude is flect cultural traditions,but the interpreter has more dignitythan com- be subjective. maymercial occupations."14 These statements donot mean The child-rearing that all of thesetests are to be practices in Polandtradi- rather that they disregarded,tionally emphasizethat a child must should be used onlywith greatunder strict rules be raised caution as adjuvantsto other methods and unquestionableobedience analysis. ofis demanded ofthe child. It is mediately following true that im- According to Barnouw,there are "three World War II therewas eral kinds of studies gen-an attempt to change which concern folkloreinthat the individual's the familial valuesso relation to personality."8First, the work of the allegiance was shiftedto psychoanalysts who the authority ofthe state. Except stress symbolism. Mostre-and middle classes for theupper cently, it was Frommwho stated that who constitutea distinct of universal symbolism a typeminority, the planhas not caused exists; the idea thatanchanges although it overall individual interpretssymbols similarly if gives some credenceto cultural contexts thethe adolescent'sarguments for greater are alike, A secondapproach The husband is control. to folklore involvescross-culturalsurveys, for regarded as the headof the example, the studies family, but the wiferules over household conducted by JohnWhit-ters. He is hard and mat- ing and his colleagueson child training.10 The unbending while sheoften third approach assumes the role of the involves a more intensivestudyis seen as protectress. The infant of the folklore ofa particular society, an extremely fragilebeing that must times in addition some-be hardened."Swaddling is conceived to other socio-psychologicalstep in a long as a first evidence basedon the idea thata modal per- process of 'hardening'the sonality can be child."15 The Poleswho tend to value delineated for empiricalex-feel that it is also suffering amination. Thispaper is primarily conceived necessary for the child'sup- with a critical bringing, and further, survey of this aspect inrelation swaddling differentiates to cultural character between the clean anddirty zones of the and where applicable,tothe latter being the body, modal personality. genitals and feet."In peas- ant villages it is goodfor a baby tocry without POLISH CULTURE attention, for itstrengthens the lungs; the child is good beating The people of Poland because it ishardening."18 have long been sub-Food is not deniedand its withdrawal jected to a series ofwars that have continuallyused as punishment is never placed them in precariousor subservient posi- as it is necessary for tions. Most of thePoles are landless strengthening; nevertheless,weaning is sched- who live in small peasantsuled for a saint's dayand occurs suddenly. villages, but whomaintainpeasants possess The fairly close contactwith the neighboring a strong fear that the childis comprising n fairly towns, especially susceptibleto the evil cohesive territorialkinshipmother seldom allows eye so a system. Another integrativeforce is the Romanchild. anyone else to feed her Catholic Church which influences many aspects The Polish child is of this culture, andits influence pervades taught to be brave,self- the syntax of the Polish evenreliant, and respectful."Children's language which recallsinvolve competitive games often the Latin of theChurch." performance for featsof The Pole places bravery and abilityto sustain pain."17 a high value on hisnational child grows and As the origin even thoughhe often feels seeks independencethe con- toward the seat of animosityflict with the parentssometimes becomes government which generallyintense. The parents quite proves to be more factionaland divisive rather do expect, however,that than unifying.12 There they will dependupon their children for is unity in hislanguage,least partial economic at religion, and nationalconsciousness, but support in lateryears. a Much of the Polishfolklore contains sense of cooperation is weaklydeveloped andmixture of religious an ad- this is exhibitedeven among the peasants and secular motifsin which whoit is notuncommon to find God show a reluctance toshare land, workwith or satan in- neighbors or lend tools.13 cluded as naturalcharacters. An overwhelming According to some students emphasis is placedon stories of conflict be- of Polish culture,tween good and evil. respect is considereda highly valued courtesy, Good usuallytriumphs, and except for but many of thetales are sad with very close kin relationships,subjugation and suppression themes of most contacts are kepton a rather formal and with the longing reserved plane. A Pole is for unrestrainedfreedom. Onemay cognize easily offended, findsthese as examples of it difficult to admitfaulty judgementor to wish-fulfillment not only understand why a in relation to familialrelationships, but to the person changes his mindre- political sphereas well. The Poles tend garding particular objectives.Close friendshipsgard their country to re- are very limited, but highly valued as being identified with and durable.crucifixion; a country the Work is not idealizedor even valued; it isby many that has been crucified oppressors, but in the end,resur- 9 matrilineal, that is,descent is nation is The family is unilineally, and it rected. The protectressof the Polish traced throughthe female of Csetochowa whohas, on the husband andwife reside the Blessed Virgin invaders.is also matrilocal, As ex- occasion, intervenedagainst foreign with or near thehome of her parents. with womanhoodin Po- figure. Bene- She is also identified who is de-pected, the womanis a dominant land, especiallythe peasant wife, the Pueblo'sceremonial ap- folktales as a thriftyand harddict describes in modera- picted in many theproach as"Apollonian," practice In the working individualwho often intervenes on tion, as opposedto the "Dionysian." part of thechildren. This themeis elaboratedApollonia ethos "thePueblos distrust and re- Konopnicka. take the individual on by amodern poet, Maria ject thoseexperiences which folktales deal with thechild's of bounds andforfeit his so- Several Polish begin with thein any way out the frenzy susceptibility to evil, and some briety ."22 Tortureis never used and embryo may becursed or Plains tribes isalien to the idea that even an the ideasought by the influenced by thedevil, reaffirming Pueblos. The dances areprescribed and tend Because of aspects of religion, of the fragile andweak infant.18 to emphasizethe communal their belief thatthe nervous systemof the their folktales andmythology. thequite evident in in Zuni cul- mother and theembryo are connected, In describingthe "ideal" man in the folktales, as aperson states "Personalauthority is mother is depicted In reality this isture, Benedict trait," to be givenspecial protection. perhaps the mostvigorously disparaged the case, and it isnot unusual for apregnant mentions that no one consider-and praise for a person is not am- Polish woman to beaccorded special hears much fromhim and that he ation, an element uncommonamong Europearbitious.23 Traits ofmodesty are alsovaluable peasants, with theexception of thesouthern well, and whilethe responsible for women as brother, Balkans. head of a householdis the mother's seldom points out lacking. The virtueof co- Folklore about childrenemphasis is on aauthority is largely a playfulnature, rather the operation is consistentlyemphasized, and disci- child learning toaccept adult-likeresponsibil-pline of even youngchildren is discouraged. obedience of adults.10 mentioned above,is purifying ities, and unquestioning display, as aThe exorcism accompanied by a The adults, onthe other hand, and initiatory, andthe boy is complacent acceptanceof Another importanttrait is matter of course, a supportive sponsor. within their suffering. the fact that theindividual is submerged national symbol ofPoland which is thefunctioning unit. In no The traditional prophetica group reflected is the white eaglewhich is part of a way is theindividual autonomous as legend.20 Although manyof the talesinvolve "We shall be one and wars, and thechar-in their main prayer, stories of battle heroes person."24 concerned for theircountry, above, violenceis rare and acters seem quite the war As mentioned Suicide is the hero does notinvolve himself until tales of homicide arejust as rare. takes on a personalmeaning for him. too violent anact even tocontemplate, and folktales tend to supportthe that deal with thissubject are In this case thestudies conducted on a num-two folktales that it is modal personality masked to the extentthat they deny ber of variablesand to displaythe value ofsuicide. For instance, adeserted wife goes out complementary to other areas Apache raiding partyand is killed; folklore data as to meet azi vengefulness, but do of study. the Zuniacknowledge her not go any further. ZUNI CULTURE is usuallyminimized in in the Sexual symbolism inappropri- The Zuni is aPueblo tribe located folktales ant_ceremonies, often by southwestern part ofthe United States,basing perhaps a result ofpuritanical Perhapsate substitutions, it to our own its subsistenceprimarily on gardening. recorders. Benedict compares study of Zunicultural person- of the past, butthere is a the best known Shepuritanical attitudes is not associ . ality was conductedby Ruth Benedict.21 vast contrast inthe fact that sin emphasizes that theZuni are a peoplewhoated with sex amongthe Zuni. of ritual observances,and ideas bring themclose stress the importance Their cosmological supernatural are often spend theirtime interpretingreligiousto theirsupernatural. If the practices. They tendto be rather performing certain acts sodoes man, omens or de-prone to compulsive regardingthe ritual formulas life is inevitableand so is death: rain or humanfertility. The signed to promote breath of your fathers, men's societies areresponsible for depicting Do not despise the Kachinas, for whomthey But draw it into yourbody . . . the masked gods, That we may finish ourroads together. have much affectionand respect. The young with life; into one of thesecults in ex- May my father blePs you boy is initiated May your road befulfilled.25 orcism rites designedto "take awaythe bad" and whippinghim. Yet, the have a class system,but by frightening establish bonds withthe The Zuni do not the lan- initiation serves to with thestatus differentiationis apparent in supernatural, modifiesthe boy's ties ritual purpose becauseit is the and integrates himintoguage used for people. matrilocal household, prestigeful languageassociated with old an approvedmale role. 10 3 Benedict either does not perceive this aspectdisplays conservatism,but also variations. or fails to attach any importance to thislin-Nevertheless, folklore, even among non-literate guistic phenomenon. Newman makes a pointgroups is brought up to date by the tellers who of it and states "vocabulary levels reflect cul-adopt them. Quite often, a variant in the tale tural phenomena of a very general nature.may be an idealization of the culture or even Words acquire connotative gradations in ac-an exaggeration indicating prowess in a par- cordance with the cultural values assigned toticular area, used in a compensatory manner. ideas, status groups, and situations."20 Thus An extremely contrastive theme found in what Benedict appears to overlook is exhibitedseveral Zuni folktales is the abandonment of in a linguistic study by Newman. children which is completely alien to their prac- Another linguistic approach is one in whichtices even for illegitimate children. In the tales Benjamin Colby looks for word forms andthe audience identifies with the child who is themes in the patterns of narratives in con-protected by supernatural forces, and finally junction with the administration of the The-grows up to a tine adult while the parents who matic Apperception Test. One part of the studyabandoned the child lead a miserable life, or compared Zuni conceptual areas against thosethe mother is punished because she did not con- of other preliterate and literate cultures. Onfess her pregnancy. Benedict states an interpre- the test results regarding word-groups encom-tation with a Freudian bent, the idea that passing meteorologicalinterests,the Zunichildren daydream of their parent's sorrow over showed much concern with forms of moisture,their own death, and she compares this to and less concern for exposure to the elements.fantasies of children in our culture. I think that The Zuni are horticulturalists in an arid areaalthough there may be some validity in this where they welcome some snow in the winterinterpretation, it would seem more precise to for early spring water to germinate their corn.say, on the basis of the data collected, that it is In comparing the frequency of the meteorolog-a means of asserting a moral sanction and ical terms the student achieves an idea of thejustifying it with illustrations. relative importance of terms. The Zuni scored Tales dealing with a deserted husband or low on the word forms for "travel", but inter-wife (see above) amoach the idea of suicide estingly enough the word "home" gave an indi-as he (or she) calls the Apache and exposes cation of a place of discord and tension. Inhimself to be killed. The Apache apparent./ order to cross-check this interpretation baseddo not stop with one killing, but cause a ca- primarily on the TAT, the anthropologist ad-lamity; thus Benedict concludes that in day- ministered a word test in conjunction with thedreams a Zuni who is unhappy wishes that word "home", using such key words as "assist,others should suffer. Taking one of her earlier comfort, easy, affection, play" as themes of re-interpretations of this culture, one will remem- lation and words like "destruction, discomfort,ber that the Zuni are an extremely communal difficult, dislike, sad, battle and anger" to de-group where the individual is submerged, thus note the theme of tension. The Zuni showedthe idea that if one suffers then the group will more tension at home, forinstance than thesuffer; furthermore, overt vengeance can lead Navajo, which suggests an interesting and per-to disaster. If we are to borrow a Freudian haps contradictory phenomenon in view of theme, we may point out that carrying a grudge Benedict's study. Nevertheless, Colby cautionsor wishing to seek revenge is frowned uponin that "this does not necessarily ...reflect actualreality, but permitted ih fantasies which give Navajo or Zuni life. What we have is an ob-vent to suppressed emotions (note Colby's find- jective measure of two modes as they appear inings of discontent). The person who is hurt, testion despised, deserted, not appreciated, finds an Colby contends that it is not enough merelyoutlet. to ascertain patterns or structures in folktales; Most Zuni folktales dealing with courtship, that these schemes should not only be the in-sex or marriage usually place the woman in the vestigator's scheme, but also objectively de-role of the aggressor, and in fact it is almost termined conclusionsthat are part of thealways the woman who rapes the timid man culture. who tries to flee the "Toothed Vagina Woman." The most intensive studies stressing theThe reverse is seldom perceived, but when value of folklore for an understanding of cul-women are victims it is seldom for sexual rea- ture in terms of the Zuni must again besons, rather for some form of violence.30 It has credited to Benedict whose interpretations arealready been mentioned that the grouping of made as a participant-observer in contrast tokin iwith the wife's family which may be a an objective analysis. Shecontends, and I be-factor in showing the woman as the aggressor lieve with much justification, that an analysisin the folklore. In real culture the woman waits of folktales cannot be validly attempted unlessfor the man to court her and is instructed not one has a thorough knowledge of theculture. to turn him down if he asks for marriage. In- It is admitted that variants of tales exist andterestingly, if divorce does occur, it is usually some may reflect customs andbeliefs of manyinitiated by the woman. As for the reasons for generations past. Also, current folktales are col- the violence referred to by the male figures in lected long after their origin which not onlyfolktales, perhaps this is a form of wish-fulfill-

1 1 4 ment. Nevertheless, the importance of the uni-of Confucius are in complete control of their fied family is a major theme in Zuni folklorechildren. which is generally much milder than the ex- In the political field, the familial idea is also amples presented in this report. manifest insofar as officials are charged with a Zuni tales are generally expressive of thesense of mutual dependence, andit is con- social values of the culture, allow a person totended that this is the case in Communist evaluate human actions, and serve to exemplifyChina today.32 Rampant nepotism of past knowledge of tradition. Yet, it is also apparentregimes has been modified recently although that they reveal some striking contrasts to be-the foundational ideas are still relevant. The havior unacceptable to "real" culture; theyextended family of all living generations resid- serve, in effect, to express ideas andactionsing together is still the ideal of eiese who can otherwise forbidden and to give vent to sup-afford it. The mythology of the past classical pressed wishes. In some ways they reveal thetimes clearly defines hierarchies and gradations underlying currents of tensions that may provethat are reminiscent of Imperial China. It is disruptive; however, the tales are usually acontended that in the past it was not un- means of rectifying, correcting andunifying. common to include ones ancestors in some of the myths that were already popular thus in- CHINESE CULTURE suring that his memory be kept alive.33 In fact, The Chinese culture has beenundergoingseveral authors claim that the intense historical butorientation of the Chinese, along with their vast changes in the last quarter century, tendency to reject supernatural explanations, indications are that the values surrourding theoften causes them to accept myth as history.34 family unity remain fairly strong, and that Perhaps one of the most popular pieces of even the new governmenthas had to adapt realization of thisChinese folklore is Monkey which is now con- some of its policies to the sidered a children's classic. "Monkey is of conservatism. The value of filial piety, for in-supernatural origin, yet his character is quite stance, is an extremely difficult attitude todis- lodge for this idea dr:fines many of the roleshumanly aggressive and assertive." 35 Monkey with their related obligations and duties. Theis most often intelligent, uninhibited and vic- child is inculcated with the theme that it owestorious, with a sense of justice and fairness. His a great deal to the parentswho bore him andconquests are checked by three supernatural sacrificed to rear him. The family structure isfather-figures, and on occasions when he rebels, given major credence with sets of rules regu-he is punished by imprisonment. Through vari- lating a mutual dependence unequalledbyous means of interventionby the goddess of other literate cultures. According to Hsu, themercy, Monkey finally learns thepath to sal- Chinese are raised in a situation-orientedvation by following the moral code of a good world where different rules apply todifferentBuddhist. situations.34 An individual is secure and com- The anthropologists who interpret this story placent in the knowledge that he has"multiplepoint out that the narrative displays the po- standards" and the morality varies with thetential source of conflict with parental author- situation. His main objective is to liveinity. A child, who resembles Monkey, believes harmony with the universe, not to changeitthat he deserves a higher place in society, but and this theme is evident in Chinesefolkloreafter a series of frustrations settles down to a and mythology. The Chinese acceptanceof thewell structured order that benefits the entire universal determination of natural and super-family. natural tends to structure a societywhich Studies of Chinese child-rearing practices in- through the centuries has shown little impetusdicate that the period from six to ten years of for internal change. In contrast toAmericans,age seems to be the mostdifficult. The child for instance, the Chinese do not cognize prac-leaves the tender care of his mother and is tical phenomena as polar opposites,good-bad,placed under the tutelage of a teacher, but in and right-wrong. On theother hand,thethe meantime he fairly avoids his father. The Chinese do perceive of a polarity of forces,Yin,mother no longer shields the child from punish- which signifies dark, dry, passive, female;andment, but offers moral support and urgeshim Yang, light, moist, active, male, which are al-to identify with the father. The resemblance to most if not in total importance,cosmic forces.Monkey, who is immobilized when he deviates The parental bond is extremely valuable,andfrom the norm, is unmistakable. the pattern of mu' ad dependencewith those in Another character in the tale resembles a pig one's own primary group produces a deep sensewho seems mentally slow compared to Monkey, of security. Conversely a schism with thepri-and is depicted as a greedy individual. "The mary group may produce anindividual withChinese commentator remarks, and with good little identification or few affiliations, ineffect,reason, that Monkey symbolizes themind of an outcaste. Eveneconomic pursuits are in noman and Pigsy his carnalappetites." 30 The way divided from thefamilial bonds, and theyrelationship between these two reminds one of do not hesitate to expose thechildren to thesibling relationships with its accompanying world of adults, economically orsocially.rivalry. On occasion, Monkey shows acceptance Parents that act according to thephilosophyof his sibling and even extricates his cohort and 12 other friends fromdifficulties, especially lewd female spirits with the such as an extendedfamily or clan minimize implication thatsextheir conflicting interests may be used as a weapon. TheChinese closely regarding societyas a identify vitality with sexuality whole, but themere fact that such units exist and this is mani-may prove divisive. Note the fested in a psychologicalillness known as "suo- fact that in their yang", wheie the works the Chinese stressmodesty in reference person afflicted feels that histo their own group while penis is disappearing. TheChinese believe that identifying with them the loss of semen through fully; "in general theself-aggrandizement of nocturnal emissions,special interest a masturbation or frequentcopulation with the group within a society will be wrong persons may cause the more restrained than theself-aggrandizement of loss of vitality.the whole society." 39 This This idea is also notedin another tale, "The potential conflict is seen both in the division betweenthe peasantry Mandarin-Duck Girdle" wherethe unfortunateand the upper class. To hero succumbs to the wilesof several nuns who some extent, the pre- seduce him causing his sent government of Chinais aware of this divi- eventual demise. sive element in the class As Monkey developa heachieves some extra- system, but attempts ordinary powers by the to replace this by instillinga complete identity good spirits whoareto the state. As statedabove, the Communist now willing to help him in hisworthy mission,government of China has attempted, and he is granted thepower of immortality. on an ex- Chinese folklore contains perimental basis, to doaway with the family by many examples ofherding large units intocommunes, but ap- concern with immortality of theflesh and fearparently this experiment has of the separation of thebody and the soul. In not been success- the final analysis, Monkey ful so that theyare now attempting acom- learns that the onlypromise. way that he can truly achievesome of the powers he envies or rebels against,is throughRHODIAN GREEK service to the CULTURE group. In "real" culture, the idea The last group to be of reward6 and punishmentsamong children discussed are Rhodian are definitely associated with Greeks from the island ofRhodes, although the certain types ofmajor focus of this behavior. Chinese children'sgames also empha- paper is primarily on those size the idea of unity who came to the UnitedStates as immigrants. or of several working to- Rhodes is located in the gether as a single body.Confucius quoted southeastern part of Motzu in the statement, "I the Aegean Sea. Es politicalhistory began prior have transmittedto the Hellenic period what was taught me withoutmaking up any- as one of the early thing of my own." 37 Minoan outposts andgrew to the point where it wread settlements Some may argue that the and controlled Aegean description takesand Eastern Mediterraneantrade. The Rho- account only of the Chineseupper classes; how-dians identified with ever, much the same valuesare upheld by the the Greek world and peasants who make shared so much of its culturethat they came to a living of small scaleconsider themselvesa part of it. After the fall farming. The peasant, ofcourse, comes from aof Classical Hellas, basic group that is smallerthan that found Rhodes came under the domination of a variety ofconquerors: Romans, among the gentry but the feeling offamilialGenoese, Crusaders, the security is apparent in both.The social unit is Ottoman Empire, Italy part of a system of collective and finally in 1948, theislanders spoke of their responsibilitydeliverance as the DodecaneseIsland chain where the entire family receivespraise for awas returned to Greece. contribution, butmay all be punished for the offense of one. Up to the time of Romandomination Rhodes was one of the most progressiveareas of the Among the gentry as wellas the peasantry,Hellenic world as reflected patriarchal authority is imminentas described in its great sculp- in the literature, TheDream of the Redtures, the Winged Victory ofSamothrace and the Colossus; as seen by theRhodian Maritime Chamber. In addition, it pointsto the fact thatLaw, the only living Gmek there is a system of mutualdependence be- law; by the estab- lishment of government supportedschools; the tween families of the lower classto those offirst insurance for the upper, and it is notuncommon to find that cargo on ships; and the initi- ation of programs of exchangestudents with peasants rely on a particulargroup of theother states. upper class for protection againstpolitical offlcials.88 What was then .one of themost progressive areas of the world was subjected The folktales of the Chineseappear to pre- to the ex- sent conflicts, but are adjustive. treme inhibition of itsconquerors. This, in They empha-addition to the fact that the size the unity of the familialunit or clan, butin a negative Rhodians reacted there are those who point outthat internal manner caused a major change unity can only be achieved by in their attitudes, andthey settled down toa emphasizing thestage of complacency and contrasting segments. Themores of a society conservatism. They may be patterned uniformly, but individualsrejected innovations identifiedas "foreign" and looked to their religion ofChristianity, inter- show allegiance only to theirown particularmingled with a smattering unit which, of course createsa system Wch of classical poly- becomes extremely static. Segments of theism, for justification. It isparadoxical that a societythe Rhodians displayedan inconsistent attitude 13 0 centers as steelworkers. is still prevalent, rem-in the large industrial settled towards religion which fromThe immigrantsfrom various villages iniscent of theirpolytheistic days. Aside together formingextremely cohesiveunits. religion, the most unitivefactor was language, others homes, asoften as GreekThey met in each and the Rhodiansfervently clung to the possible, where theyexchanged conversation through twenty centuriesof foreign rule. highlight of theseevenings far as one can ascer-and drink, but the arrived. As he Rhodian mythology; as was whenthe folktale narrator tain, was closely relatedto Hellenic myths, andunfolded his lore, theaudience reacted in a to this day theinhabitants tell thatAppolloserious manner to thehero's antics. Like most claimed this island ashis own. Actually, not abhorred; how- the main diety in theGreek myths, trickery was Helios, the sun god, was ever, thefolktales tended tohappier endings these two appear tohave myths, although themyths pantheon although is in-than the classical merged in the mindsof the people. It were clearlyin evidence. Themodern folktales teresting to note thatfemale deities held ahigh good overcame evil the correspondingly true ofoften asserted that as position and this was hero was then in aposition to improve the 1 their human counterparts. his own group. Manyof much emphasis onplight of the world or Rhodian folklore placed the folktales had afatalistic ring that conceived the idea that theday of de- change until the oppres- the "Great Idea," "Glory ofthat society could not liverance was athand, that the sor wasvanquished. Any means ofovercoming Greece" would berestored to that area.Stories whether immoral orthrough mixed with ancientthe oppressor, of modern heroes were trickery, was permissable.At the conclusion of meantime they acceptedtheir audience would applaudand myths, but in the does notthe narration, the plight as the "willof God". This commend the teller. Onoccasion, the tales were lost their will to struggle,rather evenings. mean that they andcontinued through several they rationalizedfor the lack of change Another favorite meetingplace of the Rho- idealized a great age ofthe past. house. Here they also religion and folklore be-dians was the coffee To a great degree, listened to folktalesalthough this was notthe minds of the people,inextricably practice. Instead, theyheld came, in the expression in ritual cere-usual place for this mixed and found puppet shows presentedby a troupe of travel- monies and tales. Forinstance, fertility rites of the dramas presented festivals with songs toling puppeteers. Most of Spring evolved to flower the same themes asthe folklore althoughthe the ancient gods.Nilsson contends that"the precisely iden- been made between re-combatting groups were more distinction which has tified; for instance, inthis case, the villain was ligion and folkloresince Christianity van- who was inevitably religions did not existinalmost always the Turk quished the pagan vanquished. antiquity." 40 Many of thebeliefs persisted in that some Rhodians con- magico-religious It must be stated . some areas aspart of the tinue to identify veryclosely not only totheir customs because they werepart of everyday life. with their supernatural of Hellenic polytheismhuman heroes, but also Many of the beliefs ones who areoften, at least partially respon- underwent only slightchanges in their assimi- outcome of the tale.It Christianity, and this canbesible for the successful lation by Greek myth-is also noteworthy thatalthough the Rhodians seen in theinfiltration of polytheistic (and those from otherGreek provinces) en- forklore: Poseidon, godof particular ology into Christian protector ofgage inself-aggrandizement of their the Sea, becameSt. Nicholas, the province, area, or island, thefolktales stress a sailors and ships; Ares,the god of War,became the idea that they heroic warrior; Demeter,thetheme of national unity, St. George, the St.must present a cohesiveforce against outsiders. goddess of Plenty,found a substitute in The Greeks in the UnitedStates, in fact, have Demetrios, the patronof agriculture; and members from their later identifiedorganizations made up of Apollo, the god of the sun, was own province;for instance, theMacedonians, with the ProphetElijah who ascendedto Ikarians, etc., each with a fire. Some of the namesthe Athenians, the heaven in a chariot of specific name. ThePan-Rhodian organization did not change in thefolklore and on several is the ancient namesis called Apollo. Theidea presented here occasions, they still use that the Rhodians, like theGreeks, identify interchangeably with thesaint's names. For myths; gods who display teaches a belief in after-with the gods in their example, the church human characteristics and assumelocal affili- life, but according tothe people's beliefs,the fiercely indepen- the dead is Charon,ations and attributes of the angel of God who transports dent communities andwho are free to inter- mentioned by Homer. Thestatement that some- gods," collectively orvene in everydayaffairs. thing is the "will of the The Rhodianchild-rearing techniques,in the "divine" is not somuch a religious attitude permissive for thefirst six magical fatalism. Alsoit is not un-many ways, are as it is a years althoughthey are a bit morerigid after usual to talk of demons orsuperstitions which commits a wrong, pressure with religious rituals,forthat. When a child have to be overcome is usually exerted byteasing followed by a instance the evil eye. the child indicates migrating to the Newshow of affection as soon as The Rhodians began a sense ofshame. Trickery anddeceit are used World prior to WorldWar I, settling primarily 14 by adults, on occasion, to induce a child toin the power of the evileye. Certain women en- conform although the latter isusually madejoy the power of exorcism, aware of the act immediately. A child below and employ brief six years of age may show rituals to rid people of thepsychogenic ail- aggression toward aments. The remarkable elementis that for parent without the fear of corporalpunishment;most of these people, apparently however, the adults usually feign it works. The surprisedunfortunate part of this is thatin the 1970's astonishment of his behavior. Theymay laughthe only part of the Rhodian about it later, especially if the child folklore being ex- uses un-pressed in the United Statesis descriptions of usual or clever statements in hisattack. Theevil eye fantasies andcures. child realizes that mild formsof deception or Rhodian culture in the U.S. cleverness are valuable in certain is undergoing situations,change although there isan expressed wish to although respect within the familycircle ismaintain traditional expected. "The total situation ways. The few elders left does not resultstill expresssome faith in the power of folklore in an inability to predict thebehavior of othersand myths; the valuea to the point of chaos in human are to them still reminis- relationships,cent of the classicalage, and they still speak of but rather in all expectationon the part of thethe gods and the fates. In villagers of a widerange of alternative actions the near future, the and responses by others. There only acquaintance thesecond generation Amer- is uncertaintyican-Rhodians will have withfolklore or myth- within set limits, but there isalso enjoyment of,ology, is through academic and a taste for, the unpredictable." concern. 41 In some In the case of theRhodians in the United respects, these attitudesare reminiscent ofStates, the changes in folklore some of the myths in which the hero reflect a shift in acts in athe values of a people notedfor the rejection of clever way, using deceit whennecessary, usu-innovations. The adaptation ally for socially approved ends. to their new cul- It must be noted that in ture, which permits themto continue to identify many of the folk-with their idealizedpast, creates a need for tales there is another themethat crops upachievement that is almost consistently;the child lacking in their Old gains independenceWorld cultural themes.It is significant that the early, matures, undergoesdifficulties, triumphs,orientation of the folktales, achieves greatness, and finally although making ends up by as-use of past themes, precedesthe value change suming responsibility for hisextended family orof the culture. perhaps even his village. A detailed review of + Before concluding, Irealize that there the folktales of the islandersand the Rhodians are in the United States objections raised tosuch analyses. Barnouw indicates a remarkablepoints out that folkloremay reflect patterns of similarity except that in theNew World careeran earlier stage in a society's or occupation appears often, and history and may achievementshow a kind of culturallag. Secondly,some imagery becomesa major theme. The value ofanthropologists like Boas conflict and independence in stress the fact that childhood can betales are often diffusedfrom other societies. understood asvariablesthat are alreadyThus, we cannot tell present in motivational striving whether folklore motifs through meansreflect wish-fulfillmentor reactions against of effective arousal that givesfrequent evidencecertain aspects of culture.44 of motive formation.42 A partialanswer to these questions is thata As an example of the changethat is occur-society will adapt the ring among the Rhodians, it reinterpret folklore and is significant thatits motifs to itsparticular themes, if up to 1940 in the largest Ithodiansettlement in one ac- the United States, cepts the idea that thereare such things as no child had gone throughthemes. It is essentialthat the anthropologist eight years of school withoutfailing at leastor folklorist gain a familiarity once, whereas, twenty-five of the culture years later the edu-and its members to gainsome understanding of cational level completed byRhodians is higherits integrative themes than that of the U.S. national to know whether they average. Most ofexpress wish fulfillmentor reaction formation. the other Rhodian communitiesin the U.S. areFolklore, like ahead of the record set by any other aspect of culture,must the largest immi-be understood incontext not abstractedand grant group. Folklore, in thiscase, is changingscrutinized in a culturalvacuum. and adjusting to sociologicalfactors. The popu- lar themes reflect theculture somewhat ob- NOTES TO TEXT liquely because there I J. J. Honigmann, are also contrasting con- Personality in Culture,(New servative elements in theRhodian familynowYork: Harper and Row,1967), p. 8. undergoing assimilation. For 2 J. L. Fischer, "The instance, it is de-of Folktales," CurrentSociopsychological Analysis creasingly fashionable forthe family to select AnThropology, Vol. 4, 1963, one's mate, and it is p. 236. no longer desirable for the M. Mead, "NationalCharacter," in Anthro- parent to dependon their grown children. Thepoloigy Today, ed. byA. L. Kroeber, et. children still feel (Chicago: University of al., a sense of responsibility and 642.667. Chicago Press, 1953),pp. do try to st,nplement theparent's income, but 4 S. Thompson, "Advances to a much lesser degree.43 in Folklore Studio.," in Anthropoloo Todayed. by A. L. Kroeber, al., (Chicago: University et. Interestingly enough, quitea few of the of Chicago Press, 1953), immigrants and their descendantsstill believep. 592. 5 G. Gorer and J. Rickman,The People ol Great 1 5 Russia: A Psychological Study,(New York:Childhood in Contemporary Cultures, (Chicago: Chanticleer Press, 1950), p. 123. University of Chicago Press, 1955), p. 246. 6 W. La Barre, "Some Observations on Character 36 Ibid., p. 249. Structure in the Orient: The Japanese," Psychi- 37 Ibid.. p. 368. atry, Vol. 8, 1945, p. 326. 38 H. Fei, "Peasantry and Gentry: An Inter- 7 J. Henry, "Rorschach Technique in Primitivepretation of Chinese Social Structure and Its Cultures," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,Changes," A»zerican Journal of Sociology, Vol. 52, Vol. 11, 1941, pp. 230-34. 1946, p. 14. 8 V. Barnouw, Culture and Personality, (Home- " J. L. Fischer, Op. Cit., p. 260. wood, Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1963), p. 301. 40 M. P. Nilsson, Greek Folk Religion, (New 9 E. Fromm, Escape From Freedom, (New York:York: Harper & Bros., 1940), p. 40. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1951), pp. 6 & 7. 41 E. Friedl, Vasilika: A Village in Modern

io J. W. *.N .Whiting and I.L. Child, ChildGreece, (New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, Training and Personality: A Cross-Cultural Study, 1962), p. 81. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953). 42 D. C.McClelland and G.A.Friedman, 11 C. Barnett, Poland: Its People, Its Society, Its"Child Training Practices and the achievement Culture, (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1958), p. 3.Motivation Appearing in Folk Tales," in Cross- 12 P. Cazin and K. Saipse-Tobiczyk, Poland,Cultural Studies of Behavior, ed. by I. Al-Issa and (New Cork: Hastings House, 1958), p. 15. W. Dennis, (New York:Holt, Rinehart and 13 C. Barnett, Op. Cit., p. 396. It must be men-Winston, 1970), p. 329. tioned that there are factional divisions in the re- 3 J. W. Kiriazis, A Study of Change in tWo ligious area and that a schism does exist betweenRhodian Immigrant Communities, (Unpublished the Polish Roman Catholic Church and the PolishPh.D. Dissertation. University of Pittsburg, 1967), National Church. The greatest differences here are p. 160. not so much the dogma or rituals, but the author- 44 V. Barnouw, Op. Cit., p. 303-4. ity of the Churches. 14 F. A. Schermerhorn, These Our People: Mi- ARTICLES norities in American Culture, (New Yorlc: D. C. 1. Benedict, Ruth, "Child Rearing in Certairik Heath and Co., 1949), p. 290. European Countries," American Journal of 13 R. Benedict, "Child Reariac in Certain Euro- Orthopsychiatry, 1949, Vol. 19, pp. 342-350. pean Countries", American Journal of Orthopsy- 2. Bodde, Derk, 'Myths of Ancient China," in chiatry, Vol. 19, 1949, p. 347. Mythologies of the Ancient World, edited by 16 Ibid. Samuel N. Kramer, Chicago: Quadrangle 17 Barnett, Op. Cit., p. 352. Books, 1961, pp. 367-408. 18 M. M. Coleman (Editor), Polish Folklore, 3. Colby, Benjamin N., "The Analysis of Culture (Cambridge Springs, Pa.: Alliance College Press, Content and the Patterning of Narrative Con- Vol. 5, 1960), p. 49. cern in Texts," American Anthropologist, Vol. 19 Else Benecke (Translator) Tales by Polish 68, 1966, pp. 374-388. Authors, (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co.,/4. Fei, Hsiao-tung, "Peasantry and Gentry: An 1915). Interpretation of Chinese Social Structure and 20 A. P. and M. M. Coleman (Editors). The Its Changes," American Journal of Sociology, Wayside Willow, (New Jersey: White Eagle Pub- Vol. 52, 1946, pp. 1-17. lishing Co., 1945). 5. Fischer, J. L., "The Sociopsychological Anal- 21 R. Benedict, Patterns of Culture, (Boston: ysis of Folktales," Current Anthropology, Vol. Houghton Mifflin, 1934). 4, 1963, pp. 235-296. 22 Ibid., p. 89. She was apparently not aware of 6. Henry, Juicy, "Rohrschach Technique in Prim- the widespread use of narcotics and intoxicants itive Cultures," American Journal of Ortho- by the Zuni. psychiatry, Vol. 11, 1941, pp. 230-34. 23 Ibid., p. 98. 7. Hsu, Francis L. K., "Family Fi'stem and the 24 Ibid., p. 128. Economy: China," in Personahties and Cul- 23 Ibid., p. 129. tures: Readings in Psychological Anthropology, 20 5. Newman, "Vocabulary Levels: Zuni Sacred edited by Robert Hunt, New York: Natural and Slang Usage," in Language in Culture and History Press, 1967, pp. 291-311. Society, ed. by Dell Hymes, (New York: Harper 8. Karlgren, Benhard, "Legends and Cults in and Row, 1964), p. 402. Ancient China," Bulletin of the Museum of 27 B. N. Colby, "The Analysis of Culture Con- Far Eastern Antiquities, No. 18,1946, pp. tent and the Patterning of Narrative Concern in 199-365. Texts," American Anthropologist, Vol. 68, 1966, 9. LeBarre,Weston, "Some Observations on pp. 374-388. Character Structure in the Orient: The Jap- 28 Ibid., p. 380. anese," Psychiatry, Vol. 8, 1945, pp. 320-332. 20 R. Benedict, Zuni Mythology, Columbia10. McClelland, David C. and G. A. Friedman, University Contributions to Anthropology, XXI. "Child Training Practices and the Achieve- (New York: Columbia University Press,1935). ment Motivation Appearing in Folk Tales," in 2 Volumes. Cross-Cultural Studies of Behavior, edited by 30 E. C. Parsons, "Zuni Tales," Journal of Ihsan Al-Issa and Wayne Dennis,New York: American Folklore, Vol. 43, 1930, p. 25. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970, pp. 323-332. 31 F. S. Hsu, "Family System and the Economy:11. Mead, Margaret, "National Character," in China," in Personalities and Cultures, ed. by Anthropology Today, by A. L. Kroeber, et. al., Robert Hunt. (New York: Natural History Press, Chicao: University of Chicago Press, 1953, 1967), p. 292. pp. 642-667. 32 E. 0. Reischauer and J. K. Fairbank, East12. Newman, Stanley, "Vocabulary Levels: Zuni Asia: The Great Tradition, (Boston: Houghton Sacred and Slang Usage," in Language in Cul- Mifflin Co., 1960), pp. 28-29. ture and Society: A Reader in Linguistics and 33 B. Karlgren, "Legends and Cults in Ancient Anthropology, edited by Dell Hymes, New China," Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern York: Harper and Row, 1964, pp. 397-403. Antiquities, No. 18, 1946, pp. 199-365. 13. Parsons, Elsie Crew, "Zuni Tales," Journal of 34 D. Bodde, "Myths of Ancient China," in American Folklore, Vol. 43, 1930, pp. 1-58. Mythologies of the Ancient World, edited by14. Thompson, Stith, "Advances in Folklore S.N. Kramer, (Chicago:Quadrangle Books, Studies," in Anthropology Today, by A. L. 1961), p. 404. Kroeber, et. al., Chicago: University of Chicago 33 M. Mead and M. Wolfenstein,(Editors), Press, 1953, pp. 587-596. 16 9