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Lester F. Ward: Dynamic Sociology (1883)

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Lester F. Ward: Dynamic Sociology (1883) [i] DYNAMIC SOCIOLOGY OR APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCE AS BASED UPON STATICAL SOCIOLOGY AND THE LESS COMPLEX SCIENCES BY LESTER F. WARD Τί διαΦέρει μανίας àμαθία Socrates IN TWO VOLUMES Vol. II [ii] Copyright, 1883, 1897 by D. Appleton and Company [ Copyright, 1911, by Lester F. Ward ] Appleton and Company (2 1897) [iii] CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. CHAPTER VIII. ADAPTATION. RECIPROCAL RELATIONS OF MAN AND THE UNIVERSE. PAGE Aim of the chapter - Attitude of nature toward man - Man a part of nature - Man an evolved product of nature - Nature unconscious and non-intelligent - Attitude which man should assume toward nature: 1, that of a student; 2, that of a master - The environment - Fundamental schism between the various schools of thought - The philosophy of Kant - Teleological, dualistic, and genetic modes of thought - Divine free-will - Predestination - Fatalism - Necessitarianism - Doctrine of depravity - Optimism - Cases in support of optimism - Cases opposed to optimism - Unconscious and non-intelligent character of the universe - Intelligence a product of evolution - Classification of phenomena - Genetic phenomena - Teleological phenomena - Methods of conation - The direct method of conation - The indirect method of conation - Classification into natural and artificial - Recapitulation - Tabular exhibit - Statement of the argument - Definitions - Theorems of dynamic sociology. 1 CHAPTER IX. UTILITY. HAPPINESS THE ULTIMATE END OF CONATION. Nature and genesis of feeling - The object of nature, function; objective, or biological, point of view - The object of sentient beings, pleasure; subjective, or sociological, point of view - The indirect, or intellectual, contrasted with the direct, or physical, method of conation - Utilitarianism - The various alleged ends of conation shown to be merely means to the ultimate end, happiness - Right and wrong - Imperfection [iv] PAGE of the codes of law and ethics - Objections to the word happiness - Relativity of pleasure and pain - Increase of feeling with the degree of organization - The pursuit of happiness - Organization of happiness. 111 CHAPTER X. PROGRESS. PRIMARY MEANS TO HAPPINESS - OR FIRST PROXIMATE END OF CONATION. Dynamic sociology as distinguished from moral science - Dynamic sociology defined - Social progress defined - In what social progress consists - Introduction of the indirect method of conation - Origin and nature of art - Social agencies affecting human progress - Confusion of ideas respecting progressive agencies - Preliminary consideration of progress in the abstract - Progressive agencies - Communication of ideas - Language - Written language and literature - The invention of printing - Pursuit of subsistence - True position of the fine arts - Relation of science to art, and vice versa - Successive modes by which primitive man obtained subsistence - The scientific epoch - Artificial character of civilization - Material civilization increases the general sum of human happiness - Latent amelioration - Non-progressive agencies - Government - Objects of government - Protection - Accommodation - Improvement - Origin and genesis of government - Ideal government - Why government is odious - Nature of liberty and the principles upon which it rests - Successive elimination of the illegitimate functions of government - Superficial character of historical and political events - Ameliorative function of government - The two opposite schools of sociologists, both of which avoid the vital question lying between them - How the social forces may be controlled - General laws of social progress - Religion - Definitions - Sir John Lubbock's classification of religions - Major J. W. Powell's mythological philosophy - Herbert Spencer's views on religion - The three fundamental elements of religion - These reduced to one, viz., belief in spiritual beings - Causes that have led to the universal belief in spiritual beings - Relation of religion to human progress - To how far the essentials of religion are objectively true - Evolution of the belief in immortality - Evolution of the belief in deity - Religion a necessity of the existing condition of things - Fundamental identity of religion and science - Simultaneous development of religion and science from a common point of departure - Position of religion with reference to social progress - Alleged temporal benefits of religion - The moral sanction of religion - Solace derived from the belief in immortality - Contemplation, of the attributes of deity - Subjective moral efficacy of prayer - Anti-progressive tendencies of religions - Suicidal effects of superstition - Mutila- [v] PAGE tions, orgies, and sacrifices at funerals - Destruction of property at funerals - Opposition of religion to science - Negative opposition, the priesthood - Divorce of man from nature - Asceticism - Self-torture - Positive, or direct, opposition - Religion and progress - The conflict between religion and science - Conclusion: Method of human progress and means of accelerating it. 158 CHAPTER XI. ACTION. DIRECT MEANS TO PROGRESS, OR SECOND PROXIMATE END OF CONATION. General relations of action to progress - Classification of actions - Involuntary actions - Automatic actions - Compulsory actions - Voluntary actions - Nature of the will and the moral sentiment - Impulsive actions - Inconsistency of the moral code in condemning and commending certain emotions - Love - Anger - Ambition - Avarice - Impulsive actions possessing moral quality - Impulsive actions devoid of moral quality - Philosophy of habit - Deliberative actions - Deliberative actions possessing moral quality - Nature of the conscience - Virtue and vice - Responsibility - Crime - Normal deliberative actions - Supra-normal, or altruistic, deliberative actions - Deliberative actions devoid of moral quality - Dynamic actions - Man's dominion over nature - Examples of the application of the indirect method of conation - Knowing, knowing how, and doing - Individual and social dynamic actions. 308 CHAPTER XII. OPINION. DIRECT MEANS TO PROGRESSIVE ACTION, OR THIRD PROXIMATE END OF CONATION. The psychology of ideas - Correctness of opinions - The notion that harmony of opinion is a desirable end in itself - The opposite idea that it is something to be apprehended - Differences of opinion usually unnecessary - Subjective barriers to the acceptance of truth - Settlement of opinion in the individual - Ambiguity and varying definition of the term "belief" - Beliefs and opinions depend on the evidence presents regardless of its legitimacy - Tests of certainty - Nature of truth - Verification - Settlement of opinion in society - Subject-matter of opinions - Origin of opinions - Fruitless attempts to coerce opinions - Principal sources of error - Subjective influences - Ante-natal influences - Post-natal influences - Quantity distinguished from quality of opinions, or ideas - Objective influences - Theory of experience - Opinions and ideas the result of experiences, and will correspond to [vi] PAGE them in importance - Artificial determination of opinions - Ethical and dynamic opinions - Ethical opinions - Confusion of morals with religion - The Hebrew decalogue, in how far moral and in how far religious - The idea of advantage considered as underlying the ethical system - Scope of the advantage - Reliability of the judgment - Causes of the variability of ethical opinions - Varying powers of moral discernment - Confounding religion with morality - Confounding custom with morality - Dynamic opinions - Cosmological ideas - Biological ideas - Anthropological ideas - Sociological ideas - Conclusion. 400 CHAPTER XIII. KNOWLEDGE. IMMEDIATE DATA OF IDEAS, OR FOURTH PROXIMATE END OF CONATION. The data of thought - Composite character of intelligence - Two influential popular errors - Dangers of pure intellectual activity - Relative claims of intellect and knowledge upon culture - Explanation of the fact that the capacity for knowledge has always exceeded its amount - Relative ease with which intellect and knowledge may be increased - The two legitimate modes of increasing Intellect - Chasm between the knowledge extent and that possessed by the average mind - Résumé of the preceding considerations - Experience as the vehicle of knowledge - Laws of the mind in arriving at certainty - Aid rendered to intellect by knowledge - Qualitative increase of knowledge - What knowledge is most important - Generality as a test of importance - Practicability an a test of importance - Scientific and unscientific knowledge - Coordination of the present with the two preceding chapters - Ethical knowledge - Dynamic knowledge - Principles of certitude - Limits of absolute certainty - Doctrine of innate ideas, or necessary truths - Deductive and inductive knowledge - The senses as the primary source of all knowledge - Testimony as a mode of diminishing the degree of certainty - Nature of scientific knowledge - Distribution of knowledge - Legitimate effect of the existing inequality in the distribution of knowledge. 470 CHAPTER XIV. EDUCATION. DIRECT WAYS TO KNOWLEDGE; FIFTH AND LAST PROXIMATE END, AND INITIAL MEANS TO THE ULTIMATE END OF CONATION. Education the highest application of the indirect method of conation - Attainment of ends through means, organization only possible through generalization - Elimination of self-executing processes - Inadequacy [vii] PAGE of the word “education" - Definitions of education - The five kinds of education, viz., of experience, of discipline, of culture, of research, and of information - Education of experience
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