Korean Buddhism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search An image of Shakyamuni Buddha at a Seokguram Temple in South Korea Part of a series on Buddhism Dharma Wheel.svg History[show] Dharma Concepts [show] Practices[show] Nirv??a[show] Traditions Canons [show] Outline Portal icon Buddhism portal v t e Korean Buddhism is distinguished from other forms of Buddhism by its attempt to resolve what it sees as inconsistencies in Mahayana Buddhism. Early Korean monks believed that the traditions they received from foreign countries were internal ly inconsistent. To address this, they developed a new holistic approach to Budd hism. This approach is characteristic of virtually all major Korean thinkers, an d has resulted in a distinct variation of Buddhism, which is called Tongbulgyo ( "interpenetrated Buddhism"), a form that sought to harmonize all disputes (a pri nciple called hwajaeng or ûúîµ) by Korean scholars.[1] Korean Buddhist thinkers refined their predecessors' ideas into a distinct form. As it now stands, Korean Buddhism consists mostly of the Seon lineage, primarily represented by the Jogye and Taego orders. Seon has a strong relationship with other Mahayana traditions that bear the imprint of Chinese Ch'an teachings, as w ell as the closely related Japanese Zen. Other sects, such as the modern revival of the Cheontae lineage, the Jingak order (a modern esoteric sect), and the new ly formed Won, have also attracted sizable followings. Korean Buddhism has also contributed much to East Asian Buddhism, especially to early Chinese, Japanese, and Tibetan schools of Buddhist thoughts.[2][3][4][5] Contents 1 Historical overview of the development of Korean Buddhism 2 Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms 2.1 Goguryeo 2.2 Baekje 2.3 Silla 3 Buddhism in the North South States Period (668?935) 3.1 Unified Silla (668?935) 3.2 Balhae (698?926) 3.3 Seon 4 Buddhism as state religion in the Goryeo period (918?1392) 5 Suppression under the Joseon Dynasty (1392?1910) 6 Buddhism during Japanese colonial rule 7 Buddhism and Westernization (1945?present) 7.1 South Korea 7.2 North Korea 7.3 Current situation 7.3.1 Antagonism from Korean Protestantism 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Historical overview of the development of Korean Buddhism Monks going down to their rooms after evening prayers at Haeinsa. When Buddhism was originally introduced to Korea from Former Qin in 372,[6] or a bout 800 years after the death of the historical Buddha, Shamanism was the indig enous religion. As it was not seen to conflict with the rites of nature worship, Buddhism was allowed to blend in with Shamanism. Thus, the mountains that were believed to be the residence of spirits in pre-Buddhist times became the sites o f Buddhist temples. Korean Shamanism held three spirits in especially high regard: Sanshin (the Moun tain Spirit), Toksong (the Recluse) and Chilsong (the Spirit of the Seven Stars, the Big Dipper). Korean Buddhism accepted and absorbed these three spirits and, even today, special shrines are set aside for them in many temples. The Mountai n Spirit receives particular recognition in an attempt to appease the local moun tain spirits, on whose land the temple stands. This blend of Buddhism and Shaman ism became known as Korean Buddhism, although the fundamental teachings of the B uddha remained. Though it initially enjoyed wide acceptance, even being supported as the state i deology during the Goryeo period, Buddhism in Korea suffered extreme repression during the Joseon Dynasty, which lasted for over five hundred years. During this period, Neo-Confucian ideology overcame the prior dominance of Buddhism. Only after Buddhist monks helped repel a Japanese invasion at the end of the 16t h century (see Imjin wars) did the persecution of Buddhism and Buddhist practiti oners stop. Buddhism in Korea remained subdued until the end of the Joseon perio d, when its position was strengthened somewhat by the colonial period, which las ted from 1910 to 1945. After World War II, the Seon school of Korean Buddhism on ce again gained acceptance. A 2005 government survey indicated that about a quarter of South Koreans identif ied as Buddhist.[7] However, the actual number of Buddhists in South Korea is am biguous as there is no exact or exclusive criterion by which Buddhists can be id entified, unlike the Christian population. With Buddhism's incorporation into tr aditional Korean culture, it is now considered a philosophy and cultural backgro und rather than a formal religion. As a result, many people outside of the pract icing population are deeply influenced by these traditions. Thus, when counting secular believers or those influenced by the faith while not following other rel igions, the number of Buddhists in South Korea is considered to be much larger.[ 8] Similarly, in officially atheist North Korea, while Buddhists officially acco unt for 4.5% of the population, a much larger number (over 70%) of the populatio n are influenced by Buddhist philosophies and customs.[9][10] Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms When Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the 4th century CE, the Korean peninsul a was politically subdivided into three kingdoms: Goguryeo in the north, Baekje in the southwest, and Silla in the southeast. There is concrete evidence of an e arlier introduction of Buddhism than traditionally believed. A mid-4th century t omb, unearthed near P¡¯y?ngyang, is found to incorporate Buddhist motifs in its ceil ing decoration. Some Korean Buddhist monks traveled to China or India in order to study Buddhism in the late Three Kingdoms Period, especially in the 6th century. In 526, The m onk Gyeomik (ÌÅìÌ) from Baekje travelled via the southern sea route to India to learn Sa nskrit and study Vinaya. The monk Paya (÷îå´; 562?613?) from Goguryeo is said to have st udied under the Tiantai master Zhiyi, and other Korean monks of the period broug ht back numerous scriptures from abroad and conducted missionary activity throug hout Korea. Several schools of thought developed in Korea during these early times: the Samnon (ß²Öåðó, or Sanlun in Chinese) school focused on the Indian M?dhyamika (Middl e Path) doctrine, the Gyeyul (Ìü×Èðó, or Vinaya in Sanskrit) school was mainly concerned with the study an d implementation of moral discipline (??la), and the Yeolban (æîÚéðó, or Nirv?na in Sanskrit) school, which was based in the themes of th e Mah?parinirv?na-s?tra Toward the end of the Three Kingdoms Period, the Wonyung (ê­ë×ðó, or Yuanrong in Chinese) sc hool was formed. It would lead the actualization of the metaphysics of interpene tration as found in the Huayan jing(ü¤åñÌè) and soon was considered the premier school, espe cially among the educated aristocracy. This school was later known as Hwaeom (ü¤åñðó, or Hua yan in Chinese) and was the longest lasting of these "imported" schools. It had strong ties with the Beopseong (Ûöàõðó), the indigenous Korean school of thought. The date of the first mission from Korea to Japan is unclear, but it is reported that a second detachment of scholars was sent to Japan upon invitation by the J apanese rulers in 577. The strong Korean influence on the development of Buddhis m in Japan continued through the Unified Silla period; only in the 8th century d id independent study by Japanese monks begin in significant numbers. Goguryeo In 372, the monk Sundo (â÷Ô³, or Shundao in Chinese) was sent by Fu Ji?n (?̱) of Former Qin to the court of the King Sosurim of Goguryeo. He brought texts and statues with him and the Goguryeo royalty and their subjects quickly accepted his teachings. Buddhism in China was in a rudimentary form, consisting of the law of cause and effect and the search for happiness. This had much in common with the predomina nt Shamanism, which likely led to the quick assimilation of Buddhism by the peop le of Goguryeo. Early Buddhism in Silla developed under the influence of Goguryeo. Some monks fr om Goguryeo came to Silla and preached among the people, making a few converts. In 551, Hyeryang (û³ÕÕ), a Goguryeo monk was appointed the first National Patriarch (kuk t'ong) of Silla. He first presided over the One Hundred Seat Dharma Assembly (pa ekchwa hanghoe) and the Dharma of Eight Prohibitions (p'algwan pop). Baekje In 384, the Indian monk Marananta arrived in Baekje and the royal family receive d the similar strain of Buddhism he brought. King Asin proclaimed, "people shoul d believe in Buddhism and seek happiness." In 526, the Baekje monk Gyeomik went directly to Central India and came back with a collection of Vinaya texts, accom panied by the Indian monk Paedalta. After returning to Baekje he translated the Buddhist scriptures in Sanskrit into seventy-two volumes. The Vinaya School in B aekje was established by Gyeomik, about a century earlier than that of in China. As a result of the work, he is regarded as the father of Vinaya studies in Kore a. Silla Reliquary Buddhism did not enter the kingdom of Silla until the 5th century. The common pe ople were first attracted to Buddhism here, but there was resistance among the a ristocrats. In 527, however, a prominent court official named Ichadon presented himself to King Pophung and announced he had become Buddhist. The king had him b eheaded, but when the executioner cut off his head, it is said that milk poured out instead of blood. Paintings of this are in the temple at Haein-sa and a ston e monument honoring his martyrdom is in the National Museum of Kyongju. During the reign of the next king, King Chinhung, the growth of Buddhism was enc ouraged?eventually being recognized as the national religion of Silla. Additiona lly, selected young men were physically and spiritually trained at Hwarangdo acc ording to Buddhist principles to be able to defend the kingdom. King Chinhung la ter became a monk himself. The monk Jajang (í±íú) is credited with having been a major force in the adoption of Bud dhism as a national religion. Jajang is also known for his participation in the founding of the Korean sangha, a type of monastic community. Another great scholar to emerge from the Silla Period was Won-hyo. He renounced his religious life to better serve the people and even married a princess for a short time and had a son. He wrote many treatises and his philosophy centered on the unity and interrelatedness of all things. He set off to China to study Budd hism with a close friend, Ui-sang, but only made it part of the way there. The l egend is that Won-hyo awoke one night very thirsty, found a container with cool water, drank, and returned to sleep. The next morning he saw the container from which he had drunk was a human skull and he realized all enlightenment depended on the mind. He saw no reason to continue to China, so he returned home. His com panion, Ui-sang, continued to China and after studying ten years, offered a poem to his master in the shape of a seal that geometrically represents infinity. Th e poem contained the essence of the Avatamsaka Sutra. Buddhism was so successful during this period that many kings converted and citi es/places were even renamed after famous places during the time of Buddha. Buddhism in the North South States Period (668?935) Unified Silla (668?935) A stone image of a Buddha, near Gyeongju, South Korea. 7th century Silla. In 668, the kingdom of Silla succeeded in unifying the whole Korean peninsula, g iving rise to a period of political stability that lasted for about one hundred years. This led to a high point in the scholarly studies of Buddhism in Korea. I n general, the most popular areas of study were Wonyung, Yusik (Ch. êæãÛ; Weishi; "consc iousness-only"; the East Asian form of Yog?c?ra), Jeongto (Pure Land), and the i ndigenous Korean Beopseong ("dharma-nature school"). The monk Wonhyo taught the "Pure Land"-practice of yeombul, which would become very popular amongst both sc holars and laypeople, and has had a lasting influence on Buddhist thought in Kor ea. His work, which attempts a synthesis of the seemingly divergent strands of I ndian and Chinese Buddhist doctrine, makes use of the essence-function (ô÷éÄ, or che-yon g) framework, which was popular in native East Asian philosophical schools. His work was instrumental in the development of the dominant school of Korean Buddhi st thought, known variously as Beopseong, Haedong (ú­ÔÔ, "Korean") and later as Jungdo (ñéÔ³, iddle way") Wonhyo's friend Uisang (ëùßÏ) went to Chang'an, where he studied under Huayan patriarchs Zhiyan (òªåð; 600?668) and Fazang (Ûöíú; 643?712). When he returned after twenty years, his w k contributed to Hwaeom and became the predominant doctrinal influence on Korean Buddhism, together with Wonhyo's tong bulgyo thought. Hwaeom principles were de eply assimilated into the Korean meditational school, the Seon school, where the y made a profound effect on its basic attitudes. Influences from Silla Buddhism in general, and from these two philosophers in pa rticular, even crept "backwards" into Chinese Buddhism. Wonhyo's commentaries we re very important in shaping the thought of the preeminent Chinese Buddhist phil osopher Fazang, and Woncheuk's commentary on the Sa?dhinirmocana-s?tra had a str ong influence in Tibetan Buddhism. The intellectual developments of Silla Buddhism brought with them significant cu ltural achievements in many areas, including painting, literature, sculpture, an d architecture. During this period, many large and beautiful temples were built. Two crowning achievements were the temple Bulguksa and the cave-retreat of Seok guram (à´ÏßäÝ). Bulguksa was famous for its jeweled pagodas, while Seokguram was known for t he beauty of its stone sculpture. Balhae (698?926) Buddhism also flourished in the northern Korean Kingdom of Balhae, established a fter the fall of Goguryeo, as the state religion. The remains of ten Buddhist te mples have been found in the remains of the capital of Balhae, Sanggy?ng, togeth er with such Buddhist artifacts as Buddha statuettes and stone lanterns suggest that Buddhism played a predominant role in the life of the Balhae people. Th Bal hae tomb Majeokdal in Sinpo Hamgyeongnam-do, are associated with pagodas and tem ples: This also indicates that Buddhism had a strong influence over the funerary rituals in Balhae. After the fall of Balhae, sixty monks from Balhae including the monk Jaeung (î°ê©) fled together to the newly founded kingdom of Goryeo (918-1392). Seon A new epoch in Korean Buddhism began during the latter Silla with the birth of s chools of Seon in Korea. In China, the movement toward a meditation-based view o f practice, which came to be known as Chan, had begun during the sixth and seven th centuries, and it was not long before the influence of the new meditational s chool reached Korea, where it was known as Seon. Meaning "meditation," the term is more widely known in the West in its Japanese variant Zen. Tension developed between the new meditational schools and the previously existing academically or iented schools, which were described by the term gyo, meaning "learning" or "stu dy." Kim Kiaokak (ÑÑÎâÊÆ; 630?729), a prince who became a monastic, came to the region of Anhui t o Mount Jiuhua in China. Many Chinese Buddhists believe he was indeed the transf ormation body of K?itigarbha. Two uncles sent by his mother and wife to call him back also became monastics there. His well-preserved, dehydrated body is seen a t the monastery he built on Mount Jiuhua today. The two uncles, unable to resist wine and meat as they were official before becoming monastics, practiced in ano ther place on the mount. People built the palace of the two saints (ì£á¡îü) in their practic e place to memorialize them. Many Buddhists visit there. Beomnang (ÛöÕÇ; fl. 632?646), said to be a student of the Chinese master Daoxin (Ô³ãá; 580?651 is generally credited with the initial transmission of Seon into Korea. Seon wa s popularized by Sinhaeng (ãêú¼; 704?779) in the latter part of the eighth century and b y Doui (Ô³ëù; died 825) at the beginning of the ninth century. From then on, many Korean s studied Chan in China, and upon their return established their own schools at various mountain monasteries with their leading disciples. Initially, the number of these schools was fixed at nine, and Korean Seon was termed the "nine mounta ins" (Îúߣ or gusan) school at the time. Eight of these were of the lineage of Mazu Daoy i (Ø©ðÓÔ³ìé; 709?788), as they were established through connection with either him or one of h eminent disciples. The one exception was the Sumi-san school founded by Ieom (××åñ; 869 ?936), which had developed from the Caodong (ðÇÔ×) lineage. Buddhism as state religion in the Goryeo period (918?1392) Avalokiteshvara painting from the Korean Goryeo Dynasty, 1310 CE., Kagami Jinjya , Japan (ja:ÌðãêÞä (ÓÐòÐã¼)) Sam-Taegeuk and Gankyil. As Buddhism in medieval Korea evolved, it served to legitimize the state.[11] In itially, the new Seon schools were regarded by the established doctrinal schools as radical and dangerous upstarts. Thus, the early founders of the various "nin e mountain" monasteries met with considerable resistance, repressed by the long influence in court of the Gyo schools. The struggles which ensued continued for most of the Goryeo period, but gradually the Seon argument for the possession of the true transmission of enlightenment would gain the upper hand. The position that was generally adopted in the later Seon schools, due in large part to the e fforts of Jinul, did not claim clear superiority of Seon meditational methods, b ut rather declared the intrinsic unity and similarities of the Seon and Gyo view points. Although all these schools are mentioned in historical records, toward t he end of the dynasty, Seon became dominant in its effect on the government and society, and the production of noteworthy scholars and adepts. During the Goryeo period, Seon thoroughly became a "religion of the state," receiving extensive s upport and privileges through connections with the ruling family and powerful me mbers of the court. Although most of the scholastic schools waned in activity and influence during t his period of the growth of Seon, the Hwaeom school continued to be a lively sou rce of scholarship well into the Goryeo, much of it continuing the legacy of Uis ang and Wonhyo. In particular the work of Gyunyeo (гåý; 923?973) prepared for the recon ciliation of Hwaeom and Seon, with Hwaeom's accommodating attitude toward the la tter. Gyunyeo's works are an important source for modern scholarship in identify ing the distinctive nature of Korean Hwaeom. Another important advocate of Seon/Gyo unity was Uicheon. Like most other early Goryeo monks, he began his studies in Buddhism with Hwaeom. He later traveled to China, and upon his return, actively promulgated the Cheontae (ô¸÷»ðó, or Tiantai in Chines e) teaching, which became recognized as another Seon school. This period thus ca me to be described as "five doctrinal and two meditational schools" (ogyo yangjo ng). Uicheon himself, however, alienated too many Seon adherents, and he died at a relatively young age without seeing a Seon-Gyo unity accomplished. The most important figure of Seon in the Goryeo was Jinul (ò±Òí; 1158?1210). In his time , the sangha was in a crisis of external appearance and internal issues of doctr ine. Buddhism had gradually become infected by secular tendencies and involvemen ts, such as fortune-telling and the offering of prayers and rituals for success in secular endeavors. This kind of corruption resulted in the profusion of incre asingly larger numbers of monks and nuns with questionable motivations. Therefor e, the correction, revival, and improvement of the quality of Buddhism were prom inent issues for Buddhist leaders of the period. Tripitaka Koreana at Haeinsa. Jinul sought to establish a new movement within Korean Seon, which he called the "sam?dhi and prajn? society", whose goal was to establish a new community of di sciplined, pure-minded practitioners deep in the mountains. He eventually accomp lished this mission with the founding of the Songgwangsa monastery at Mt. Jogye (ðÇ͢ߣ). Jinul's works are characterized by a thorough analysis and reformulation of the me thodologies of Seon study and practice. One major issue that had long fermented in Chinese Chan, and which received special focus from Jinul, was the relationsh ip between "gradual" and "sudden" methods in practice and enlightenment. Drawing upon various Chinese treatments of this topic, most importantly those by Zongmi (780?841) and Dahui (ÓÞû´; 1089?1163), Jinul created a "sudden enlightenment followed b y gradual practice" dictum, which he outlined in a few relatively concise and ac cessible texts. From Dahui, Jinul also incorporated the gwanhwa (κü¥) method into his p ractice. This form of meditation is the main method taught in Korean Seon today. Jinul's philosophical resolution of the Seon-Gyo conflict brought a deep and la sting effect on Korean Buddhism. The general trend of Buddhism in the latter half of the Goryeo was a decline due to corruption, and the rise of strong anti-Buddhist political and philosophical sentiment. However, this period of relative decadence would nevertheless produc e some of Korea's most renowned Seon masters. Three important monks of this peri od who figured prominently in charting the future course of Korean Seon were con temporaries and friends: Gyeonghan Baeg'un (ÌØùØÛÜê£; 1298?1374), Taego Bou (÷¼Í¯ÜÅé×; 1301?13 eun (Ôûèºû´ÐÃ; 1320?1376). All three went to Yuan China to learn the Linji (×üð­ or Imje in Ko hwa teaching that had been popularized by Jinul. All three returned, and establi shed the sharp, confrontational methods of the Imje school in their own teaching . Each of the three was also said to have had hundreds of disciples, such that t his new infusion into Korean Seon brought about considerable effect. Despite the Imje influence, which was generally considered to be anti-scholarly in nature, Gyeonghan and Naong, under the influence of Jinul and the traditional tong bulgy o tendency, showed an unusual interest in scriptural study, as well as a strong understanding of Confucianism and Taoism, due to the increasing influence of Chi nese philosophy as the foundation of official education. From this time, a marke d tendency for Korean Buddhist monks to be "three teachings" exponents appeared. A significant historical event of the Goryeo period is the production of the fir st woodblock edition of the Tripitaka, called the Tripitaka Koreana. Two edition s were made, the first one completed from 1210 to 1231, and the second one from 1214 to 1259. The first edition was destroyed in a fire, during an attack by Mon gol invaders in 1232, but the second edition is still in existence at Haeinsa in Gyeongsang province. This edition of the Tripitaka was of high quality, and ser ved as the standard version of the Tripitaka in East Asia for almost 700 years. Suppression under the Joseon Dynasty (1392?1910) Dalmado by Kim Myeong-guk, 17th century In 1388, an influential general named Yi Seonggye (1380?1400) carried out a coup d'etat, and established himself as the first ruler of the Joseon Dynasty under the reign title of Taejo in 1392 with the support of this Neo-Confucian movement . Joseon Buddhism, which had started off under the so-called "five doctrinal and two meditational" schools system of the Goryeo, was first condensed to two scho ols: Seon and Gyo. Eventually, these were further reduced to the single school o f Seon. Despite this strong suppression from the government, and vehement ideological op position from Korean Neo-Confucianism, Seon Buddhism continued to thrive intelle ctually. An outstanding thinker was Giwha (Ðùûú; (Hamheo Deuktong ùä?Ôð÷×) 1376?1433), who had studied at a Confucian academy, but then changed his focus to Buddhism, where h e was initiated to the gwanhwa tradition by Muhak Jacho (ÙíùÊí»õ±; 1327?1405). He wrote many s olarly commentaries, as well as essays and a large body of poetry. Being well-ve rsed in Confucian and Daoist philosophies, Giwha also wrote an important treatis e in defense of Buddhism, from the standpoint of the intrinsic unity of the thre e teachings, entitled the Hyeon jeong non. In the tradition of earlier philosoph ers, he applied che-yong ("essence-function") and Hwaeom (sa-sa mu-ae, "mutual i nterpenetration of phenomena"). Common in the works of Joseon scholar-monks are writings on Hwaeom-related texts , as well as the Awakening of Faith, Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment, Shurangama Sutra, Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra. The Jogye order instituted a set curri culum of scriptural study, including the above-mentioned works, along with other shorter selections from eminent Korean monks, such as Jinul. During the Joseon period, the number of Buddhist monasteries dropped from severa l hundred to a mere thirty-six. Limits were placed on the number of clergy, land area, and ages for entering the sangha. When the final restrictions were in pla ce, monks and nuns were prohibited from entering the cities. Buddhist funerals, and even begging, were outlawed. However, some rulers occasionally appeared who looked favorably upon Buddhism and did away with some of the more suppressive re gulations. The most noteworthy of these was the Queen Munjeong, who, as a devout Buddhist, took control of the government in the stead of her young son Myeongjo ng (r. 1545?67), and immediately repealed many anti-Buddhist measures. The queen had deep respect for the brilliant monk Bou (º¸¿ì, ÜÅéë; 1515?1565), and installed him as the ead of the Seon school. One of the most important reasons for the restoration of Buddhism to a position of minimal acceptance was the role of Buddhist monks in repelling the Japanese i nvasions of Korea, which occurred between 1592 and 1598. At that time, the gover nment was weak from internal squabbles, and was not initially able to muster str ong resistance to the incursion. The plight of the country encouraged some leade rs of the sangha to organize monks into guerrilla units, which enjoyed some inst rumental successes. The "righteous monk" (ëùÞÍ; uisa) movement spread during this eight- year war, finally including several thousand monks, led by the aging Seosan Hyuj eong (¼­»ê´ë»ç, à¤ß£ýÌð¡; 1520?1604), a first-rate Seon master and the author of a number of i texts. The presence of the monks' army was a critical factor in the eventual ex pulsion of the Japanese invaders. Seosan is also known for continuing efforts toward the unification of Buddhist d octrinal study and practice. His efforts were strongly influenced by Wonhyo, Jin ul, and Giwha. He is considered the central figure in the revival of Joseon Budd hism, and most major streams of modern Korean Seon trace their lineages back to him through one of his four main disciples: Yu Jeong (1544?1610); Eongi (1581?16 44), Taeneung (1562?1649) and Ilseon (1533?1608), all four of whom were lieutena nts to Seosan during the war with Japan. Statue of one of the Four Heavenly Kings The biographies of Seosan and his four major disciples are similar in many respe cts, and these similarities are emblematic of the typical lifestyle of Seon monk s of the late Goryeo and Joseon periods. Most of them began by engaging in Confu cian and Daoist studies. Turning to Seon, they pursued a markedly itinerant life style, wandering through the mountain monasteries. At this stage, they were init iated to the central component of Seon practice, the gong'an, or gwanhwa meditat ion. This gwanhwa meditation, unlike some Japanese Zen traditions, did not consi st of contemplation on a lengthy, graduated series of deeper k?ans. By contrast, the typical Korean approach was that "all gong'an are contained in one" and the refore it was, and still is, quite common for the practitioner to remain with on e hwadu during his whole meditational career, most often Zhaozhou's "mu." Buddhism during the three centuries, from the time of Seosan down to the next Ja panese incursion into Korea in the late nineteenth century, remained fairly cons istent with the above-described model. A number of eminent teachers appeared dur ing the centuries after Seosan, but the Buddhism of the late Joseon, while keepi ng most of the common earlier characteristics, was especially marked by a reviva l of Hwaeom studies, and occasionally by new interpretations of methodology in S eon study. There was also a revival, during the final two centuries, of the Pure Land (Amit?bha) faith. Although the government maintained fairly tight control of the sangha, there was never again the extreme suppression of the early Joseon . Buddhism during Japanese colonial rule Under the Meiji Restoration in Japan during the 1870s, the government abolished celibacy in the Buddhist monkhood. Japanese Buddhists demanded the right to pros elytize in the cities, lifting the five-hundred year ban on monks and nuns enter ing cities. The Japanese J?do Shinsh? and Nichiren schools began sending mission aries to Korea. The formation of new Buddhist sects, such as Won Buddhism happen ed.[12] Soon after the Japanese annexation of Korea, Korean Buddhism took many changes. The Temple Ordinance of 1911 (ÞÑóËÖµ) virtually changed the traditional Korean system, where by temples were run as a collective enterprise by the Sangha, replacing this sys tem with Japanese-style management practices, in which temple abbots appointed b y the Japanese Governor-General were given private ownership of temple property and given the rights of inheritance to such property.[13] More importantly, monk s from pro-Japanese factions began to adopt Japanese practices, by marrying and having children.[13] In 1920, the Temple Ordinance was revised to reorganize temple administration an d allow the Japanese government to directly oversee the 31 main temples in the c ountry, with new headquarters at Kakwangsa (now Jogyesa).[14] Following the Japa nese invasion of China in 1937, Korean Buddhism was placed under greater control .[14] Japanese authorities had many temples' artworks shipped to Japan. Negotiat ions for the repatriation of Korean Buddhist artworks are still ongoing. See also: Yongseong Buddhism and Westernization (1945?present) Typical interior of a Buddhist temple When Korea was liberated from Japanese occupation in 1945, the celibate monastic s of what has become the main sect of Korean Buddhism, Jogye Order, began to tak e over for the married priests who ran the temples during the occupation. This o rder sees itself as the primary representative of traditional Korean Buddhism in existence. South Korea Starting in the 1950s, Syngman Rhee and others worked to further divide and weak en the Buddhist Sangha in the country. Rhee campaigned in 1954 against the so-ca lled "Japanized Buddhists". Western education and scholarship, and the empowerme nt of women and the poor, caused divisions among Koreans. Specifically, a deep r ift opened between married priests and celibate monks, a carryover from Japanese Buddhism. The differences were so great that fistfights over the control of tem ples became frequent. Monks, mostly belonging to the celibate Jogye order, threa tened to kill themselves. Many of them were against the Japanized Buddhists. As the Buddhist riots continued, the influence of Buddhism lessened. Buddhism conti nued to lose followers to Christian missionaries, who were able to capitalize on these weaknesses. From the 1960s onward, Buddhism has grown considerably, through the formation of independent lay associations (that is, not funded or affiliated to the main ord ers), with many focused on youths, particularly to propagate and evangelize Budd hist teachings, fellowship and spiritual development, based on the Protestant mo del.[15] These adaptations have modernized Buddhism in South Korea.[15] Moreover , the South Korean government began devoting substantial funds to restore and re construct historic Buddhist temples, helping to revive Buddhism in the country.[ 12] President Park Chung-hee unsuccessfully attempted during his rule (1961?1979 ) to settle the dispute by building a pan-national Buddhist organization. Howeve r, he did succeed in allying himself with the celibate faction, the Jogye Order. In the 1980s, President Chun Doo-hwan, a Methodist, adopted anti-Buddhist polici es and attempted to restrict Buddhist activities.[14] During his administration, many historic temples were converted into tourist resorts, which deprived templ es of their autonomy, as these "national parks" were government-run.[14] Consequ ently, Buddhists, especially the Chogye Order, were highly critical of these mea sures. From 27 to 31 October 1980, during the Kyeongsin Persecution, the governm ent raided major Buddhist temples throughout the country, including the headquar ters at Seoul's Chogyesa, under the guise of anti-government investigations and an attempt to "purify" Buddhism.[14][16] 55 monks were arrested and many others were interrogated and tortured, including the abbot of Naksansa, who died from t he abuses.[16] None of the investigated monks were ever charged, although many w ere sent to reeducation camps. Throughout the 1980s, the Buddhist community was kept under strict surveillance of government agents and many were prosecuted und er false charges of supporting Communists or conspiracy.[14] To Buddhists, the construct of a state-protecting Buddhism (ûÞÏÐÝÖÎç, Hoguk Bulgyo) had vanish , which served to radicalize a generation of Buddhists, including monks and lait y and propelled them to into a movement called Minjung Buddhism (¹ÎÁߺұ³ or ÚÅ?ÝÖ?, "practica " or "Buddhism for the masses").[16] This modernization emphasized ordinary peop le and was a reaction to aggressive Christian proselytization in Korea.[12] From the mid-1980s to date, Buddhism has expanded by through media and education . There are two major Buddhist media networks in South Korea, the Buddhist Broad casting System (BBS), founded in 1990 and the Buddhist Cable TV Network, founded in 1995.[15] Buddhist orders are also affiliated to or operate 3 universities, 26 schools and 16 seminaries in the country.[15] The Kwan Um School of Zen is on e of South Korea's most successful international missionary institutions.[17] Lotus Lantern Festival During the 1990s, conflicts between the South Korean government and Buddhist lea ders, as well as with fundamentalist Protestant denominations, continued. The go vernment accused Buddhism of immorality[citation needed] and many Protestants us ed this to forward their missionary work. Some religious gatherings have even tu rned violent, vandalizing statues of Buddha and Dangun, the founder of Korea. So on after the Buddhist Broadcasting Service's FM radio station was launched in 19 90, young men vandalized and destroyed sound facilities worth $200,000 USD.[13] There was also a rash of temple burnings in the 1980s and 1990s, and attacks on Buddhist artwork have continued. In one instance, a Protestant minister used a m icrophone on a cord as a bolo weapon and smashed temple paintings and a statue. In other instances, red crosses have been painted on temple walls, murals, and s tatues. Buddha statues have also been decapitated. Furthermore, students at Budd hist universities report aggressive attempts to convert them on campus, especial ly near campus temples.[18] On and off, sectarian tensions between fundamentalist Protestants and Buddhists occasionally rise due to what has been seen as a tendency of government official s?many of whom are Christians, especially of Protestant denominations?to tilt th e political balance in favour of Christians over Buddhists which has led to disc ontent within the Buddhist community.[19] Of particular note was after Lee Myung -bak's ascendence to the Presidency when the high proportion of Christians in re lation to Buddhists in the public sector became known?particularly the president 's cabinet, where there were 12 Christians to only one Buddhist.[20] among other reported incidences.[21] Though the state of Korea is fundamentally attached to Buddhism in its source, the continued persecution and destruction at the hands of Christians have not stopped. Recently, the South Korean public has become increasingly critical of Protestant churches and leaders attacking Buddhist institutions and carrying out aggressiv e missionary tactics, with many Protestants leaving their churches and convertin g to either Buddhism or Catholicism.[22] The growing discontent with Protestant Christianity in South Korea has contributed to a spiritual and cultural revival of Buddhism in South Korea, with the number of followers increasing in recent ye ars.[23] The new presidency of Park Geun-hye might also help contribute to the s uppression of Protestant attacks against Buddhists and Catholics in South Korea, with increasing calls for religious cooperation in the country under the admini stration.[24] North Korea The regime in North Korea actively discourages the practice of religion, includi ng Buddhism. Currently, the country claims to have about 10,000 active adherents