Calhoun: The NPS Institutional Archive DSpace Repository Theses and Dissertations 1. Thesis and Dissertation Collection, all items 2018-03 The U.S.-Latin America space cooperation equation Serna, Angel E. Monterey, California: Naval Postgraduate School http://hdl.handle.net/10945/58368 Downloaded from NPS Archive: Calhoun NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA THESIS THE U.S.–LATIN AMERICA SPACE COOPERATION EQUATION by Angel E. Serna March 2018 Thesis Advisor: Christopher Darnton Co-Advisor: James Clay Moltz Approved for public release. Distribution is unlimited. THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved OMB No. 0704–0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instruction, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302, and to the Office of Management and Budget, Paperwork Reduction Project (0704-0188) Washington, DC 20503. 1. AGENCY USE ONLY 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED (Leave blank) March 2018 Master’s thesis 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. FUNDING NUMBERS THE U.S.–LATIN AMERICA SPACE COOPERATION EQUATION 6. AUTHOR(S) Angel E. Serna 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING Naval Postgraduate School ORGANIZATION REPORT Monterey, CA 93943-5000 NUMBER 9. SPONSORING /MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND 10. SPONSORING / ADDRESS(ES) MONITORING AGENCY N/A REPORT NUMBER 11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES The views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government. IRB number ____N/A____. 12a. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE Approved for public release. Distribution is unlimited. 13. ABSTRACT (maximum 200 words) This thesis investigates why U.S. space cooperation efforts with Latin American countries have decreased over the past three decades. This thesis also addresses the following questions: Is the reduced number of U.S.–Latin American space cooperation projects an indication of a loss of U.S. regional influence? Is there an indication of a shift in the “partner of choice”? If so, what are the factors “alienating” the U.S. and preventing the establishment of cooperative space efforts, and what can be done about them? This thesis argues that U.S.–Latin American space cooperation has decreased due to the increased availability of providers, the maturing domestic space sectors, and the committed drive toward technological independence. Latin American countries are pursuing space capabilities mainly to support socio-economic development efforts. Their specific resource constraints motivate them to pursue cooperative projects. The increasing availability of providers allows for greater flexibility, and Latin American countries chose engagements that best suit their requirements. Therefore, the smaller number of cooperative U.S.–Latin American space projects is not an indication of a loss of U.S. regional influence but instead of a competitive market with pragmatic consumer base. Thus, the United States is not being “alienated” but challenged to engage on equitable terms. 14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF space policy, space cooperation, Latin America, space program, Argentina, Peru, Venezuela, PAGES China, Europe, satellite, launch vehicle, export control, Missile Technology Control Regime, 119 MTCR 16. PRICE CODE 17. SECURITY 18. SECURITY 19. SECURITY 20. LIMITATION CLASSIFICATION OF CLASSIFICATION OF THIS CLASSIFICATION OF OF ABSTRACT REPORT PAGE ABSTRACT Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified UU NSN 7540–01-280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2–89) Prescribed by ANSI Std. 239–18 i THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK ii Approved for public release. Distribution is unlimited. THE U.S.–LATIN AMERICA SPACE COOPERATION EQUATION Angel E. Serna Captain, United States Air Force B.S., University of California, San Diego, 2008 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN SECURITY STUDIES (WESTERN HEMISPHERE) from the NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL March 2018 Approved by: Christopher Darnton Thesis Advisor James Clay Moltz Co-Advisor Mohammed Mahmoud Hafez Chair, Department of National Security Affairs iii THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK iv ABSTRACT This thesis investigates why U.S. space cooperation efforts with Latin American countries have decreased over the past three decades. This thesis also addresses the following questions: Is the reduced number of U.S.–Latin American space cooperation projects an indication of a loss of U.S. regional influence? Is there an indication of a shift in the “partner of choice”? If so, what are the factors “alienating” the U.S. and preventing the establishment of cooperative space efforts, and what can be done about them? This thesis argues that U.S.–Latin American space cooperation has decreased due to the increased availability of providers, the maturing domestic space sectors, and the committed drive toward technological independence. Latin American countries are pursuing space capabilities mainly to support socio-economic development efforts. Their specific resource constraints motivate them to pursue cooperative projects. The increasing availability of providers allows for greater flexibility, and Latin American countries chose engagements that best suit their requirements. Therefore, the smaller number of cooperative U.S.–Latin American space projects is not an indication of a loss of U.S. regional influence but instead of a competitive market with pragmatic consumer base. Thus, the United States is not being “alienated” but challenged to engage on equitable terms. v THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK vi TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................3 A. MAJOR RESEARCH QUESTION..........................................................6 B. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH QUESTION ...........................6 C. LITERATURE REVIEW .........................................................................9 D. POTENTIAL EXPLANATIONS AND HYPOTHESES .....................12 E. RESEARCH DESIGN .............................................................................17 F. THESIS OVERVIEW AND CHAPTER OUTLINE ............................19 II. THE PERUVIAN SPACE PROGRAM AND THE ACQUISITION OF PERÚSAT-1..........................................................................................................23 A. THE EFFORT BEGINS–PRESIDENT ALEJANDRO TOLEDO .....24 B. EVALUATING OPTIONS–PRESIDENT ALAN GARCIA ...............26 C. PERÚSAT-1, A REALITY–PRESIDENT OLLANTA HUMALA .................................................................................................28 D. ANALYSIS ...............................................................................................33 III. THE ARGENTINE SPACE PROGRAM ..........................................................35 A. THE GOLDEN AGE OF THE ARGENTINE SPACE PROGRAM (1960–1982) .........................................................................35 B. THE INFLUENCE OF THE FALKLAND ISLANDS WAR ON THE SPACE PROGRAM (1982–1991) .................................................40 C. NORMALITY AND PROGRESS (1991–PRESENT) ..........................44 D. ANALYSIS ...............................................................................................51 IV. THE SPACE PROGRAM OF THE BOLIVARIAN REPUBLIC OF VENEZUELA .......................................................................................................53 A. THE ANDEAN PACT COUNTRIES AND PRE-CHAVEZ APPROACH TO SPACE ........................................................................54 B. THE RISE OF HUGO CHAVEZ AND THE BOLIVARIAN REVOLUTION ........................................................................................55 C. THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF THE BOLIVARIAN REVOLUTION AND SPACE ACTIVITIES IN VENEZUELA ........56 D. THE RADICALIZATION OF THE BOLIVARIAN REVOLUTION AND THE ACQUISITION OF VENESAT-1 ...........59 E. CHAVEZ’S SECOND TERM (2007–2012): THE ADVANCEMENT OF THE BOLIVARIAN REVOLUTION ............62 F. ENTER NICOLÁS MADURO (2013–PRESENT) ...............................68 G. ANALYSIS ...............................................................................................70 vii V. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................73 A. SUMMARY OF RESEARCH ................................................................73 B. FINDINGS ................................................................................................76 C. RE-EXAMINATION OF THE HYPOTHESES ...................................79 D. IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS .........................................................................82 APPENDIX .......................................................................................................................85 LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................................................89 INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST .................................................................................101