344 SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY

latitude (1.15 statute miles), but a minute topographic map gives a more accurate of longitude varies with its distance from position than determining a location with the equator. It is one mile in Texas, 0.5 reference to a landmark, using protractor mile in Dawson, Y. T., and only 300 yards and compass direction. The old collectors at Hazen Lake, Ellesmere Island, where cannot be blamed for not doing so, as the biologists are now working and collecting. required maps were not available. The I agree with Axtell that the addition of a difficulties of the process have been exag-

word—one should be sufficient—naming gerated by some objectors. Let any biolo- Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article/14/4/344/1624563 by guest on 02 October 2021 the state, province, or city is useful. It gist try it for a year or two, and he is not provides a mental image and enables an- likely to go back 'x a_iy otner system. other person to find at once the general area on the map. ZH+JBUZS C. STEWABD I am convinced, as one with years of P.esearch Station practical experience in navigation, that tak- Canada Department or Agriculture ing L. and L. from any chart or gooc Lethbridge, Alberta

Sources of Error in Locality Data Recent comments regarding locality data persons using them, (5) a general locality by Axtell (1965, Systematic Zool. 14:84), is more useful than a specific locality for Hutchison (1964, ibid. 13:156), and Wheelei purposes of a quick survey, (6) greater (1965, ibid. 14:66) bolster a conclusion precision is better than less precision, (7) that I drew some time ago, namely, that a unique designation is better than an there is no perfect system. Every system ambiguous one, (3) a more accurate map has both advantages and disadvantages is preferable to a less accurate one, and No alternative system to supplant those (3) a method that requires less work on already proposed is here offered. These the part of the user (or curator, or collector, authors have discussed the advantages of as the case may be) is better than one re- certain maps and of certain methods of quiring more work. plotting and designating localities, but they The problem is in the supposition, "other have not discussed pertinent sources of things being equal," because other things error. Some of these sources are noted are not equal, and there are both theoreti- here, along with general comments on pur- cal and practical limits to the above-listed poses, limitations, and methods of locality virtues—brevity, common knowledge, mem- designations. ory, simplicity, clarity, precision, unambi- Biologists concerned with zoogeographic guity, and efficiency. Beyond a certain problems on any scale need to be familiar point greater precision is gained only at with a variety of methods because speci- greater expense. A more lengthy designa- mens in collections are labeled in various tion may be more accurate or contain more ways. Most biologists would agree that, information, but it also takes more cura- other things being equal, (1) a short local- torial time and costs more to publish. Maps ity designation is better than a long one, are not equally accurate, not even all parts (2) a well-known name is better than a of the same map are. A township, range, poorly known one, (8) an easily remem- and section designation is the best system bered designation is better than one diffi- in some parts of the United States of Amer- cult to remember, at least insofar as dis- ica that were surveyed according to the cussions are concerned, (4) an easily cited lectangular system adopted in 1735. The designation is better than one cited with d'dy feasible means of designating most difficulty because it is in terms that are oceanic localities is by latitude and longi- unfamiliar or liable to be confused by tude, and if a competent (and willing) POINTS OF VIEW 345

navigator and adequate instruments are a different map. In this replotting, as else- available, this is not a problem. Some col- where, there will be some error, perhaps lectors have worked with less. Some entire negligible but certainly present. The pub- expeditions have cost less than it would lished list or map will be used by others, cost to obtain, transport, and use the in- who may make errors, such as assuming struments that would be needed to locate an unwarranted accuracy in a list of local- collecting places accurately within five ity designations. One revisor may cite only

minutes of latitude and longitude. part of the original designation of locality, Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article/14/4/344/1624563 by guest on 02 October 2021 Errors enter the process of recording and for example he may omit a "near" or a "2 retrieving locality data at all stages, and km N of that preceded the place-name, or users of information should be constantly was recorded on the other side of the label, aware of the sources and the probable mag- in his list of localities for a certain taxon. nitude of errors. Another revisor may use the same speci- Assuming that the collector has a map, men, assign it to a different taxon, and cite there are, first of all, errors in the map. the entire designation. A later worker com- These go back to the raw data and methods piling information from the literature may used in preparing the map, the care of the compare the two reports, take them at face cartographers, and the quality of printing. value, and conclude that they provide in- I have used different maps of the state of formation of zoogeographic importance be- Chihuahua, Mexico, that had the same cause they show close proximity of tiie place located at different map positions supposed two taxa involved. That is not more than five kilometers apart. It is pos- an imaginary situation; it has happened. sible to take one of these maps and measure A locality designation is nearly always a and designate the location of some village, compromise, but it should not be a hap- mouth of a river, or other feature, to the hazard amalgam. It should be the result of nearest minute of latitude and longitude. a careful attempt to maximize clarity, brev- The implied accuracy of such a designation ity, convenience, and precision, within the is spurious. Most parts of the world have limits imposed by the accuracy of available not been mapped with accuracy to within maps, instruments, and other factors. When one minute of latitude and longitude. a designation has been decided upon, it Assuming that the available map is ac- should be used in the same form (prefer- curate within some specified limits, whether ably down to- punctuation and abbrevia- five kilometers, one-half kilometer, or one tion) by all members of a collecting party meter, the collector needs to decide where and for all labels, field notes, or other on the map his specimen, came from L records pertaining to that locality. One have collected in places—in Mexico and in does not expect to be able to return to the Bolivia, for example—where I felt 1 wac same spot by using a label designation, but doing well to locate myself, let alone a it is desirable, if possible, for a worker with monkey brought in by a hunter, within ten generally available maps to be able to plot kilometers of a definite map position, and the locality within one kilometer of the this is the situation in many parts of the actual position if he so desires. Most dis- world. tribution maps will show dots that cover Assuming that the collector does locate as much as ten kilometers, so precision himself on the map, he must then decide on within a range of one kilometer is more a designation to write on his labels and in than adequate. his notes. There will be some approxima- Collectors should realize that the im- tion (or "error") in that designation. portant thing they are collecting is informa- The designation will be used- later, per- tion about animals. The specimens them- haps by a different person unfamiliar with selves are a basic source of this information, the area, to list the locality or to plot it on but not more basic than, accurate, durable, 846 SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY and complete labels and carefully written de;;ail, and the sources of individual speci- notes, good photographs, and other records, mens should be recognizable by the citation It is desirable for another worker with the In the notes of their field catalog numbers. information available in these records to And, of course, the records belong where be able to return within a few meters of the they can be used with the specimens. same spot (or hundreds of meters, if only Copies should be made when the records that accuracy is feasible, or even centi- are needed in more than one place.

meters, in a fossiliferous bed5 for example), In conclusion, everyone makes mistakes, Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article/14/4/344/1624563 by guest on 02 October 2021 at the same time of year, at the same hour and it is wise to know how they make them of the day, and in the same local habitat. and how great the mistakes are liable to be, It is neither possible nor desirable to record so that one can decide whether the mis- all of this information on every specimen tares are important in any given case. Limitations of time and the priorities SYDNEY ANDERSON among tasks in the field often prevent the Lepartment of Mammalogy recording of all this detail, but when American Museum of Natural History feasible the records should include suck i Tew York, New York 10024

Notes on Uninominal Nomenclature When Charles 1J Michener, at the De- traits. We speak about chairs as if the word cember 1968 meeting of the Entomological were a generic name, and straight-backed Society of America, delivered his address chairs, rocking chairs, armchairs, etc., as if on Future Evolution in Taxonomy, a well- they were specific names. The plan seems known entomologist, during the following to extend at least to all of our naming of question period, expressed doubt as to concrete objects: Michener's seriousness in proposing Uni- Shirts: dress shirt, sport shirt, undersiiiit, nominal Nomenclature, After Michener's hair shirt; answer and the publication of his two Oranges: navel orange, seedless orange, papers (1968, Systematic Zool. 12:151-172; temple orange, satstima orange, Seville 19849 ibid. 13:182-190) there seems to be little doubt as to his seriousness. The thing; orange; is indeed serious and calls for serious ac- Roads: main road, side road, dirt road, tion. paved road, winding road; The present system of binominal nomen- Water: well water, seawater, rainwater, clature, formulated in 1758 after a long branch water, dishwater. period of growth and only now, two hun- Tiiis hierarchy of ideas seems to extend dred years later, really attaining mature throughout language, and the first two development, is the result of an evolution- ranks are always closely associated, so ary process of human communication em- iiiuch so that many names are considered bodying so* many features of linguistic and as single compound words (rainwater, dish- semantic development that it is highly water, undershirt), apparently "uninomi- questionable whether any radically diffej- nal," but the idea of the "genus" is always ent plan could now be an improvement. close to the foreground in mind. If the It frequently helps in discussing ques- context is dear the "species5' designation is tions of nomenclature to compare the codi- commonly omitted: take the soup out of fied systems with ordinary language? ok Hie water (dishwater); there were two which they are a part, probably the higherr beds in the room (bedroom); he raised his development. The ordinary language wilf_ a "'7i to look at his watch (wrfstwatch); he be found less precise, but sharing basir* left the oars in the boat (rowboat).