The Elk Hill Site, 14RY328: Survey and Testing in Riley County, Kansas The Elk Hill Site 14RY328:

Kansas Historical Society Contract Archeology Program Kansas Historical Society Contract Archeology Publication Number 27

The Elk Hill Site, 14RY328: Survey and Testing in Riley County, Kansas

Robert J. Hoard, Gina S. Powell, Tricia J. Waggoner, and Chris Garst with a contribution by Richard L. Josephs

2014

Submitted to the Kansas Department of Transportation by the Contract Archeology Program Kansas Historical Society, Topeka.

Kansas Historical Society Contract Archeology Publication Number 27

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Abstract In 2009 the Kansas Department of Transportation requested cultural resources consultation with the Contract Archeology Program of the Kansas Historical Society and the Kansas State Historic Preservation Office regarding a proposed borrow area associated with the reconstruction of Highway K-18, KDOT project 18-81 KA-0410-01, SFBA no. 1. A Phase II survey conducted by the Contract Archeology Program led to the discovery and documentation of three archeological sites: 14RY328, the Elk Hill site; 14RY329; and 14RY330. All three sites were recommended for Phase III National Register of Historic Places eligibility testing.

Because of the urgency of the project, limited Phase III testing was implemented at 14RY328 before the completion of the survey of the project area. The test excavations are the focus of this report; the survey also is described.

Testing indicates the presence of Late Woodland and Central Plains tradition Smoky Hill phase components. The Late Woodland component is represented by only one arrow point, but ceramic vessel fragments and triangular arrow points, as well as areas of charcoal and burned earth, indicate a more robust Central Plains tradition occupation at the site. This occupation is confirmed by radiocarbon age determinations of 580±70 and 820±70 with median probabilities of 1356 and 1200 CE from buried, intact occupation layers at the site. Nine test excavation units encountered four features. These include a probable house floor (Feature 3), two pits (Features 1 and 2), and an artifact concentration (Feature 4).

The recovered artifact assemblage is consistent with a Central Plains tradition component. Chipped stone tools are made predominantly from local Permian-aged chert and include notched triangular arrow points, scrapers, bifacial and unifacial knives, and cores. Pottery sherds are consistent with the Central Plains tradition Riley cord-roughened type. Visible temper in the ceramic sherds consists of sand, grit, grog, and shell. Some sherds show combinations of temper types. Several sherds are decorated with incised designs.

Only 5.9 g of faunal material—bone and a mussel shell—were recovered. Plant remains are represented by two maize cupules, one maize glume, two monocot stem fragments, and one Polygonum sp. seed.

The Elk Hill site provides information on a habitation site at the southeastern edge of the Smoky Hill phase of the Central Plains tradition. It is relatively undisturbed and in our opinion it is eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places.

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Table of Contents Abstract ...... iv Table of Contents ...... v List of Figures ...... vii List of Tables ...... viii Chapter 1. Introduction and Background Information ...... 1 History of Investigations at 14RY328 ...... 1 Chapter 2. Environmental Setting ...... 3 Physiography ...... 3 Soils ...... 4 Cultural-Historical Setting ...... 5 Late Woodland (unnamed phase) ...... 7 Smoky Hill phase overview ...... 7 Chapter 3. Previous Research ...... 11 Surveys ...... 11 Test Excavations ...... 13 14RY10 ...... 13 14RY115 ...... 14 Chapter 4. Field Methods ...... 15 Survey of the Pasture: 14RY328 ...... 15 Survey of the Cultivated Field: 14RY329 and 14RY330 ...... 16 Test Excavation Units at 14RY328 ...... 18 Chapter 5. Analysis...... 19 Non-Test Unit Results from 14RY328 ...... 19 Test Unit Excavations, Feature Descriptions, Radiocarbon Age Determinations ...... 19 Test Unit 1 ...... 19 Test Unit 2 ...... 25 Test Unit 3 ...... 25 Test Unit 4 ...... 30 Test Unit 5 ...... 30

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Test Unit 6 ...... 30 Test Unit 7 ...... 32 Test Unit 8 ...... 32 Test Unit 9 ...... 32 Historic Artifacts ...... 32 Pottery ...... 34 Rim Sherds ...... 34 Handle ...... 34 All Sherds ...... 34 Lithic Artifacts ...... 38 Introduction ...... 38 Methods ...... 38 Chipped Stone Sources ...... 39 Chipped Stone Artifacts...... 44 Other Stone Artifacts ...... 54 Local Collector’s Collection ...... 55 Summary and Discussion ...... 55 Fauna ...... 58 Charred Plant Remains ...... 59 Chapter 6. Discussion ...... 61 Late Woodland Component ...... 61 Central Plains Tradition Component ...... 61 Chapter 7. Summary and Conclusions ...... 64 References ...... 66 Appendix 1. Inventory of Plant Species at 14RY328...... 75 Appendix 2. Artifact Catalog ...... 77 Appendix 3. Petrographic Analysis of Six Sherds from 14RY328 ...... 92

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List of Figures

Figure 1 . General project area location...... 2 Figure 2 . Project area and archeological sites recorded as a result of the survey...... 2 Figure 3 . Significant archeological sites in the vicinity of 14RY328...... 12 Figure 4 . Locations of test units and positive and negative auger and shovel tests ...... 16 Figure 5 . Profile view of the east wall of Test Unit 1 ...... 21 Figure 6. Plan view of Test Unit 1 at 70 cmbs...... 22 Figure 7. Plan view of Test Unit 1 at 70 cmbs showing Feature 3 ...... 23 Figure 8. Profile view of the north wall of Test Unit 2 showing Feature 1...... 27 Figure 9. Plan view of Test Unit 2, at 80 cmbs, showing Feature 1 ...... 27 Figure 10. Two views of a single ceramic vessel handle from Feature 2, Test Unit 3...... 28 Figure 11 . Profile views of east and south walls of Test Unit 3, showing Feature 2...... 29 Figure 12. Profile view of north wall of Test Unit 6 showing the location of Feature 4...... 31 Figure 13 . Sherds decorated with one to three incised lines ...... 37 Figure 14 . Sherds with cross-hatched designs ...... 37 Figure 15. The Elk Hill site in relation to four quarry sites mentioned in text...... 40 Figure 16. Complete and mostly complete arrow points ...... 47 Figure 17 . Arrow point preforms and arrow point fragments ...... 47 Figure 18. Biface fragments ...... 48 Figure 19. Artifacts classified as biface/cores ...... 48 Figure 20 . Cores ...... 50 Figure 21. Unifacial knives ...... 50 Figure 22. Scrapers ...... 51 Figure 23. Modified flakes ...... 53 Figure 24. Artifacts with notches ...... 53 Figure 25. Both sides of an elbow pipe blank from Feature 1, Test Unit 3, 70-80 cmbs...... 54 Figure 26. Pipe blank, view from the top, showing split along the sedimentary layers...... 54 Figure 27. Scrapers collected by a local artifact collector ...... 56 Figure 28. Bifaces and a battered stone collected by a local artifact collector ...... 56 Figure 29. Other artifacts collected by local artifact collector from the general area...... 57

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List of Tables Table 1. Cultural Sequence of Kansas by Region ...... 6 Table 2. Artifacts from 14RY329...... 17 Table 3 . Artifacts from 14RY330...... 17 Table 4. Artifacts from 14RY328 from the Surface and from Auger and Shovel Tests...... 20 Table 5. Results of Soil Probes in Transects on Cardinal Directions from Test Unit 1...... 24 Table 6. Radiocarbon Ages and Calibrated Date Ranges...... 26 Table 7 . Results of Soil Probes in Transects on Cardinal Directions from Test Units...... 26 Table 8. Feature Summary...... 33 Table 9. Historic Artifacts by Location and Depth...... 34 Table 10. Ceramic Sherds Shown by Location and Depth...... 36 Table 11. Summary of Chipped Stone Resources...... 43 Table 12. Subsample of Debitage Indicating the Flake Types...... 43 Table 13. Summary of Chipped Stone Artifacts Outside of Test Units...... 45 Table 14. Summary of Chipped-Stone Artifacts Found within Test Units and Features...... 45 Table 15. Summary of Modified Flakes...... 51 Table 16 . Faunal Material Showing Location, Depth, and Condition...... 58 Table 17 . Summary of Charred Plant Remains...... 60

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Chapter 1. Introduction and Background Information

History of Investigations at 14RY328 The Elk Hill site, 14RY328, was discovered and documented as a result of a survey conducted to ensure compliance with laws governing the treatment of cultural resources, specifically Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act and its implementing regulations, 36 CFR 800. The Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) had acquired property in proximity to K-18, which was being reconstructed. This property was being considered as a source of fill for the ongoing K-18 project.

The Contract Archeology Program (CAP) of the Kansas Historical Society (KSHS) carries out archeological investigations in compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act for KDOT. KDOT requested a Phase I investigation—archival research—on June 24, 2009. After reviewing the available documentation and consulting with the SHPO, CAP recommended that a Phase II field survey be performed. CAP archeologists Tricia Waggoner and Robert Hoard carried out the survey during June, July, and August 2009 (Hoard 2009a). The survey revealed the presence of three sites—14RY328, 14RY329, and 14RY330 (Figures 1 and 2). The amount of land covered in this survey amounted to approximately 28 acres.

As survey was being conducted on 14RY328, it became clear that the site had potential to be significant, when burned earth, charcoal, and a Woodland projectile point were recovered from a buried context on the top of the hill where the site is located. Because of the urgency of the project, limited Phase III testing was implemented at 14RY328 before the completion of the survey of the project. KDOT gave a notice to proceed on Phase III testing of the site on July 13, 2009; CAP conducted the investigations in July and August 2009.

Immediately upon completion of the Phase III testing CAP produced a management summary for KDOT (Hoard 2009a). In that report, and in a letter to the KDOT dated August 10, 2009, the CAP recommended that 14RY328 be considered eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places and that it should be avoided. If it could not be avoided, mitigation via data recovery was recommended. Sites 14RY329 and 14RY330 lie in geomorphological settings that have a high likelihood of producing evidence of intact, sub-plowzone deposits and therefore Phase III testing in the form of backhoe trenches and/or test excavation units was recommended to determine their potential for NRHP eligibility.

This report documents the procedures and results of the Phase III investigations, as well as information on the survey that led to the discovery of 14RY328.

Figure 1. General project area location. Base map, Kansas Department of Transportation, Riley County road map 2010. (Image removed to protect site location information)

Figure 2. Project area and archeological sites recorded as a result of the survey. Base maps, United States Geological Survey Ogden and Keats Kansas 7.5 minute quadrangles, 1982. (Image removed to protect site location information)

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Chapter 2. Environmental Setting

Physiography The project area lies in the Flint Hills Upland division of the Osage Plains section of the Central Lowland province of the Interior Plains division of North America (Schoewe 1949:291). Ranging from 20 to 80 miles wide, the Flint Hills Upland stretches from north to south across the eastern half of Kansas, taking in such towns as Clay Center, Manhattan, Junction City, Abilene, El Dorado, Augusta, and Winfield. This linear physiographic unit consists of a series of north- south irregularly trending escarpments with steep, terraced eastern faces and flat to gently inclined western slopes. The topography was formed by the exposure and consequent erosion at the ground surface of alternating beds of unequally resistant Permian-age limestones, sandstones, and shales, which dip gently to the west. Stream courses within the region are generally eastward flowing and typically have deeply entrenched channels lined with outcropping rock ledges. Valleys are usually asymmetrical with the steeper slopes located on the south sides. In places where the streams pass through resistant limestones, narrow box-like channels have been incised. In locations where the streams have cut through weaker shales, the valleys are wider and the slopes are much gentler.

The abundance of flint or chert bands in the limestones is perhaps the most important characteristic of the Flint Hills environment from an archeological perspective. Due to its superior flaking qualities, Permian-age Flint Hills chert provided excellent raw material for chipped stone tools, and prehistoric inhabitants of the region heavily exploited it.

The natural vegetation of the region prior to the encroachment of modern civilization apparently consisted of tall grass prairie interpenetrated by narrow bands of riverine forest (Kuchler 1974). Warm season grasses dominated the prairie vegetation community, with big and little bluestem, switchgrass, and Indian grass being the most important elements of that community. Moderate rainfall, a relatively long growing season, and rich soils provided conditions suitable for many other grasses and numerous annual and perennial herbs. Within the stream valleys, periodically flooded shallow depressions hosted wetland communities dominated by prairie cordgrass, while mud flats served as preferred sites for smartweed, dock, purslane, and chenopods. Gallery forests occurred in narrow bands along the major streams. The forest vegetation was dominated by medium tall to tall broadleaf deciduous trees like cottonwood, hackberry, willow, and elm. Hillsides and ravines along valley edges supported woodlands of bur oak with scattered individuals of bitternut and shagbark hickory. Black walnut, green ash, and sycamore prevailed in the lower, more mesic areas. The understory was mostly buckbrush and Missouri gooseberry, with the herbaceous flora being similar to that found in oak-hickory forests to the east.

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This vegetation provided shelter and food for an abundant mammalian fauna, including such large game animals as bison, elk, deer, antelope, and bear along with smaller animals such as cougar, wildcat, coyote, fox, beaver, otter, muskrat, raccoon, opossum, badger, squirrel, and rabbit. Wild turkey, prairie chicken, ruffed grouse, and quail also were present, and the larger streams yielded an abundance of edible fish and shellfish (Wedel 1959:14).

The natural habitats of the region have been greatly altered by modern land-use practices. Today, most of the lands within this part of the state are used for agricultural purposes, primarily the pasturing of cattle and the cultivation of crops such as wheat, corn, milo, and soybeans.

Soils Jantz et al. (1975:19), in the Riley County soil survey, map the slopes and hilltop of 14RY328 as Geary series soils, which consist of deep, gently sloping to sloping upland soils with a parent material of reddish loess. The terraced areas fall within Kenesaw silt loam (Jantz et al.1975:23- 24).

However, Rolfe Mandel of the University of Kansas and the Kansas Geological Survey visited the site August 10, 2009 and examined profiles in Test Units 3 and 6. He noted the presence of sand sheets, more consistent with the Ortello series.

The Ortello series consists of very deep, well-drained soils on uplands and stream terraces. They formed in loamy and sandy aeolian deposits derived from glacial deposits, alluvium, and residuum. The following is the 2007 USDA description of the Ortello series (https://soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/O/ORTELLO.html):

TAXONOMIC CLASS: Coarse-loamy, mixed, superactive, mesic Udic Haplustolls

TYPICAL PEDON: Ortello fine sandy loam with a slope of 3 percent in a cultivated field. (Colors are for dry soil unless otherwise stated.)

Ap—0 to 15 centimeters; dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) fine sandy loam, very dark brown (10YR 2/2) moist; weak fine granular structure; loose, very friable; neutral; abrupt smooth boundary.

A—15 to 30 centimeters; dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) fine sandy loam, very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) moist; weak medium blocky structure; slightly hard, very friable; neutral; clear wavy boundary.

AB—30 to 41 centimeters; brown (10YR 4/3) fine sandy loam, dark brown (10YR 3/3) moist; weak medium blocky structure; slightly hard, very friable; neutral; gradual wavy boundary. (Combined thickness of the A horizons is 20 to 50 centimeters.)

Bw—41 to 71 centimeters; brown (10YR 5/3) fine sandy loam, brown (10YR 4/3) moist; weak coarse prismatic structure; slightly hard, very friable; neutral; gradual wavy boundary. (20 to 36 centimeters thick)

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BC—71 to 86 centimeters (28 to 34 inches); yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) fine sandy loam, dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) moist; weak coarse prismatic structure; slightly hard, very friable; neutral; gradual wavy boundary. (0 to 40 centimeters thick)

C—86 to 203 centimeters; very pale brown (10YR 7/3) loamy fine sand, pale brown (10YR 6/3) moist; single grain; loose; slightly alkaline.

Mandel’s general assessment of the landform is that it is comprised of bedrock, overlain by Pleistocene alluvium. In Test Unit 6 the Pleistocene alluvium was covered with aeolian sand, then loess. The aeolian sand is not present across the entire site, it is absent in Test Unit 3, for example. Regardless, the aeolian sand, where present, and the loess cap are likely mid- to late- Holocene deposits.

Cultural-Historical Setting Archeological research in this region of Kansas has yielded evidence of prehistoric human occupation dating from more than 13,000 years ago up to the modern era. Sites in the region include historic and prehistoric period habitation areas, work areas, and burials, as well as other types of sites and include materials from all of the major cultural periods thus far identified in Kansas. The cultural sequence for Kansas is shown in Table 1. These are general categories, and there is some temporal overlap between periods. Summaries of Kansas archeology include Brown and Simmons 1987, Hoard and Banks 2006, Lees 1989, and Wedel 1959.

The general project area presents evidence for human occupation going back to the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene period up until the present day (Pajuelo-Flores et al. 2011:11-29). Most relevant to the evidence recovered from 14RY328 are the terminal Early Ceramic or Late Woodland (500-1000 CE) and the Middle Ceramic Smoky Hill phase (1000- 1350 CE).

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Table 1. Cultural Sequence of Kansas by Region. Adapted from Hoard and Banks (2006).

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LATE WOODLAND (UNNAMED PHASE ) The general temporal range for Late Woodland is 500-1000 CE (Logan 2006:84). Better-known archeological manifestations of this time period, such as the Grasshopper Falls phase of northeast Kansas and the Greenwood phase of the southern Flint Hills (Logan 2006) include sites with evidence of cultigens (Adair 1991:85-94; 2003:295, 2011:311-318) and residential structures (Adair 1981:254-260; Baugh 1991; Reynolds 1979). Late Woodland marks the beginning of the use of the bow and arrow in Kansas. This adaptation is marked by the Scallorn point, which is generally characterized as a small corner-notched or expanding-stemmed point. Many are barbed, blade edges can be straight or convex, and the base is generally straight but sometimes is concave or convex. The length range is 25-45 mm; the width range 15-20 mm (Bell 1960:84; Duncan et al. 2007:113-118; Justice 1987:255). Duncan et al. (2007:113-118) note that this descriptive type covers a large geographic area, and applies to any “corner-notched, straight-to- convex base arrow point.”

Other stone tools of the Late Woodland are similar to the previous Middle Woodland period and the later Central Plains tradition and include knives, scrapers, drills, and chopping tools. Ground stone tools include hand stones and grinding slabs, shaft abraders, and pipes.

Pottery tends to be utilitarian cooking vessels with conical bases, relatively straight walls, and a weak shoulder leading to a direct or outcurving rim. A variety of temper types were used, including sand, grit, limestone, indurated clay, or calcite, depending on available materials in a given location. Light structures are evident at several sites (Baugh 1991; Reynolds 1979).

Most Late Woodland sites are concentrated in the eastern part of Kansas, or, for the Keith phase, west of the 98 th meridian in western Kansas (Bozell 2006; Logan 2006). For example, a recent article by Adair (2012) documented the radiocarbon age sequence for Kansas Woodland period sites and reflects this distribution. In short, the Late Woodland is poorly represented and poorly known in the immediate vicinity of 14RY328.

SMOKY HILL PHASE OVERVIEW The Smoky Hill phase [or aspect, as it was originally defined by Wedel (1959:558, 562-566)] is subsumed by the Central Plains tradition, part of the Plains Village pattern (Lehmer 1954:139- 140, 143-147). Its distribution is generally north of the Kansas River from the Blue River to the east and the lower reaches of the Smoky Hill, Saline, Solomon, and Republican rivers to the west, and are concentrated in Ottawa, Saline, Clay, Riley, and Geary counties (Logan 1996:130; Roper 2006a). Smoky Hill phase sites are located in oak-hickory forests in the eastern extent of their range and in tall- and mixed-grass prairies to the west (Roper 2006a:108-109). While the Central Plains tradition dates to roughly 900-1400 CE, the Smoky Hill phase is best represented between 1000-1350 CE, as supported by radiocarbon age determinations (Hoard and Banks 2006:302-306; Roper and Adair 2012; Roper 2012). Some of the more well-known and thoroughly evaluated Smoky Hill phase sites include Minneapolis (14OT5), Griffing (14RY21),

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Budenbender (14PO4), and 14SA1, the Whiteford site or Salina Burial Pit (Roper 2006a, 2006b; Wedel 1959:178-187, 491-492, 512-523).

The Smoky Hill phase is characterized by small occupations, typically one or two unfortified square to rectangular houses, on terraces near rivers or large streams. The Budenbender site, 14PO4, had a circular house. Burial sites typically contain multiple secondary burials in a natural rise, such as a sand dune, or, in some cases, in a Woodland period burial mound. Roper’s (2006b) investigation of the Whiteford site, 14SA1, has a substantial discussion of not only that Smoky Hill phase burial site but of Early and Middle Ceramic burial sites in the Kansas River valley as well.

Some Smoky Hill phase sites, such as 14OT5, the Minneapolis site, have more than a dozen houses, though it is not clear that these were occupied simultaneously (Beck 1998; Fosha 1994; Wedel 1935; Wilke et al. 2002). These houses are earthlodges with large central support posts surrounded by wall posts. Smaller branches woven between the wall posts and roof beams were covered with earth. Typically there is a central hearth and an east-facing entry; many contain multiple cache pits and storage pits that can be a meter deep. Earthlodges show considerable variation but on the whole they are spacious and substantial and last as long as 15 years, and thus indicate commitment to an area. Roper and Pauls (2005) explore earthlodges in detail; the reader is referred to that work.

Subsistence Maize is frequently recovered at Smoky Hill phase sites, along with squash, beans, sunflower, chenopods, and other cultivated plants (Adair 1988:43-44; 2003:305-313). While not a subsistence plant, tobacco also was grown. Remains of wild plants—choke cherries, plums, hackberries, and grapes—also are recovered as are nuts in more heavily forested areas. Bison are present in most Central Plains tradition assemblages, but are not necessarily a primary resource. Other large ungulates such as deer, elk, and pronghorn also are frequently recovered, and faunal species diversity in assemblages tends to be high, including medium to small mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. Brown (1982), in her analysis of three Smoky Hill phase sites (14GE600, 14PO4, and 14RY401), states that deer was the most important meat source, and that secondary processing took place in camps, indicating most deer were killed nearby. The species diversity reflected in Smoky Hill phase sites may be the result of an emphasis on intensive maize farming. Mussel shells are common on Smoky Hill phase sites. The Middle Ceramic component of the Claussen site, 14WB322, 50 km east of the Elk Hill site, may be a short term mussel harvesting and consumption camp (Roper 2005:114-116).

Material Culture Pottery. Central Plains tradition pottery differs from Late Woodland vessels that tend to have conical bases, thick, straight walls; weak shoulders, and wide, undecorated openings (Hoard 2009b:260). Central Plains tradition ceramic vessels often have thin walls and are round with a

8 constricted opening and short, vertical, or outflaring rims that may be collared or decorated, and occasionally bear handles.

Wedel (1959:183-184) named and described Riley cord-roughened pottery as a result of his excavations at the Smoky Hill phase Griffing site (14RY21). It is described from 62 rim and 225 body sherds as being predominantly sand tempered but some fraction being either sand and indurated clay tempered or, importantly, shell tempered and most sherds are 4-8 mm thick (Wedel 1959:183). Cord-marking is vertical or criss-crossed on round vessel bodies that have constricted necks. Rims typically are unthickened and curve outward, though about a quarter are collared, but less conspicuously than the collared vessels of the Upper Republican phase. Decoration is rare and consists of angular designs; occasionally rims are scalloped or notched.

Johnson’s report (1973) on the Budenbender site (14PO4) excavations describes plain and cord- roughened shell-tempered rims and gives the shell-tempered plain sherds a separate—but unnamed—status from the Riley cord-roughened sherds that are more common at the site. Shell- tempered body sherds comprise 25% of the assemblage; cord-roughened shell-tempered ware is less than 3% (Johnson 1973:275-281). The assemblage also produced shell-tempered bowls, including a shell-tempered effigy bowl. Roper (2005:90-98) describes a shell-tempered, incised effigy bowl from the Claussen site, 14WB322. Other ceramic artifacts include clay pipes and drilled ceramic disks that could be used as spindle whorls (Logan 1996:132).

Rather than placing boundaries around described pottery types, Roper (2005:94-96) evaluates Middle Ceramic sand- and shell-tempered pottery wares as an indication of clinal variation, with a decline in shell-tempered wares from east to west. For example, she notes that vessel attributes of both sand- and shell-tempered ceramic vessels from the Budenbender site are similar even while having clay bodies of different composition. From this discussion it is reasonable to expect to find shell-tempered ceramic sherds in Smoky Hill phase sites, along with the more common sand-tempered wares (Roper 2011).

Bone and shell tools. The Smoky Hill phase Budenbender and Witt (14GE600) sites, along with 14RY401, produced a wide array of bone tools including hoes, knives, digging stick tips, deer mandible sickles or corn shellers, awls, fishhooks, handles, flaking tools, and ornaments (Brown 1982). With the exception of bison scapula hoes, most Smoky Hill phase bone tools are made from bones of deer, the most commonly-occurring species at these sites. These tools reflect the meat procurement and butchering patterns for the Smoky Hill phase, and confirm other activities: hoes and digging sticks indicate horticulture; fishhooks indicate a more than casual commitment to acquiring fish. Large mussel valves were perforated, hafted, and used as hoes, and shell was a source of material for pendants and beads.

Chipped stone tools. Throughout the Middle Ceramic period in the Central and Southern Plains there is a fairly consistent stone tool technology that includes triangular arrow points, typically side notched and sometimes with an additional basal notch, endscrapers made on blades,

9 diamond-shaped and often beveled Harahey knives, ovoid knives, and drills (Roper 2006a; Brosowske and Bevitt 2006). Most chipped stone in Smoky Hill phase sites is of local material, in contrast to Middle Ceramic sites further south that have assemblages containing materials from a variety of sources (Brosowske and Bevitt 2006:188).

Ground stone. As opposed to their Upper Republican neighbors to the north, Smoky Hill phase assemblages have ground, rather than chipped, stone celts. Other common ground stone tools are shaft abraders of locally-available Dakota sandstone, which also was used for hand stones and grinding slabs. Ground stone pipes indicate the smoking of tobacco but also other materials (Roper 2006a:115-118).

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Chapter 3. Previous Research

Surveys The site gets its name from the herd of elk that live on the Fort Riley Military Reservation. Elk were extirpated from Kansas by the beginning of the twentieth century, but a small herd has been maintained at the Maxwell Wildlife Area in central Kansas. In the 1980s, elk were captured from Maxwell and released at Fort Riley, where they thrive today and occasionally leave their tracks on the site (http://www.kdwpt.state.ks.us/news/Hunting/Big-Game-Information/Elk, Kansas Department of Wildlife, Parks, and Tourism website, accessed August, 2013).

Because Fort Riley Military Reservation is a federally owned property, its archeological resources are routinely investigated and reported. As a result, many surveys have been conducted in the immediate vicinity of 14RY328, and the survey areas tend to be larger and at times survey techniques are more rigorous. Significant surveys conducted in the immediate vicinity of the Elk Hill site are noted below.

Larson and Penny (1996) document a survey that encompassed 5,666 ha as part of an archeological inventory for the Fort Riley Military Reservation. The survey documents 50 sites, all but five of which were not previously recorded, and 49 isolated finds. There were 73 prehistoric sites and isolated finds, 21 historic period sites and isolated finds, and three sites with both historic and prehistoric components. Sites from the Paleoindian, Late Archaic and/or Early Ceramic, Early Ceramic, and Middle Ceramic periods were encountered, as well as a number of prehistoric sites from time periods that cannot be determined. Prehistoric site types include burial mounds, a possible habitation site (14RY115, discussed further below), quarries, and camps. Historic period sites dating between 1854 and 1954 include military and civilian camps, horse jumps, firing ranges, rock fences, a farmstead foundation, and a cistern.

Site 14RY5175 (Figure 3) is a lithic quarry area in a small saddle between ridges 4.3 km southwest of 14RY328 (Larson and Penny 1996:65, 70-71, 160-161). Shovel tests and a single 1- x-1-m test unit excavated next to a positive shovel test produced large quantities of decortication flakes, cores and core fragments, and two bifaces from near the surface to a depth of 50 cm where limestone bedrock and a seam of chert was encountered. Site 14RY5162 is a quarry area on a southeast facing hillslope with a mild grade 1.5 km west of 14RY328. Shovel tests and a test unit produced flakes, cores, and a biface fragment within the first 20 cmbs. The shallowly buried limestone at the site has chert seams, so chert could be acquired with little or no excavation (Larson and Penny 1996: 84, 89-90, 160-161). These quarries may have been used by the inhabitants of 14RY328.

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Figure 3. Significant archeological sites in the vicinity of 14RY328. (Image removed to protect site location information)

A single Plains Village (Middle Ceramic) sherd is reported from 14RY5129, 2.5 km north- northwest of 14RY328. The site is on a terrace of the Sevenmile Creek watershed. Larson and Penny (1996:183) recommended testing for the site to see if it is in fact a Middle Ceramic occupation. An updated site form indicates that shovel tests and test units were excavated on the site producing rim sherds from multiple vessels, daub, more ceramics, lithics, and charcoal from subsurface depths (Kansas archeological site files, 14RY5129). Glass was found above the prehistoric deposits. Excavation of 60 shovel tests and nine test units indicates that flooding and

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resulting sheet wash may have disturbed the prehistoric component (Indeck and Indeck 1998:32- 39).

Altizer et al. (2005), of the Archaeological Research Center of St. Louis, Inc., conducted a Phase II archaeological and architectural survey for the proposed expansion of the Manhattan Regional Airport. This survey documented 56 pre-1950 standing buildings and two historic-period archeological sites, 14RY7163 and 14RY7164, both the ruins of twentieth century farmsteads, the latter having a diminutive prehistoric component of unknown age.

Jim Railey (2002) of TRC Mariah Associates Inc. documented 14 sites, eight of which were newly recorded, in a survey covering 1,378 acres in seven upland tracts that had been burned the previous winter. Nine of the sites were prehistoric or predominantly prehistoric with a historic component, the balance was historic or historic with a minor prehistoric component. The historic components include foundations of farmsteads, remains of vehicles, and a redeposited dump. Of the prehistoric components, 14RY6191, 8.1 km north of 14RY328, is a terminal Early Archaic occupation; 14RY6172 includes two Middle Woodland burial cairns; 14RY3180 has Archaic, Middle Ceramic, and Late Ceramic components; and the other sites have only lithic debris scatters and thus are not temporally diagnostic. This large survey was useful in documenting upland sites in areas considered to have a low probability of having sites and used surface survey combined with shovel testing, all in areas with good ground surface visibility. Railey notes (2002:71) that close interval shovel testing did not discover any sites, and that this strategy can miss low-density sites. He does not suggest that shovel testing be abandoned as it remains useful for discovering buried high-density sites.

In 2009, the Contract Archeology Program of the Kansas Historical Society conducted a survey for a wetland mitigation project associated with improvements to K-18 (Waggoner 2009). Site 14RY327, a small lithic tool and debris scatter, was recorded during the survey and was tested using a backhoe trench to search for buried deposits. None were encountered.

Szarka (2009) surveyed a 75-foot-wide pipeline corridor that was 4.6 miles long. Her survey documented four buried prehistoric sites—14RY8107, 14RY8108, 14RY8109, and 14RY8110. None of these sites produced diagnostic artifacts.

Tomasic and Hoard (2010) surveyed 360 acres to be used for borrow for the same project as the one that is the subject of this report and documented a single late-nineteenth and early-twentieth- century historic-period site, 14RY311.

Test Excavations

14RY10 Site 14RY10, 17 km northeast of 14RY328, was a Middle Ceramic village near Manhattan. It was discovered and documented by Ralph Solecki and J. Mett Shippee during a survey of the

13 proposed, and now built, Tuttle Creek reservoir (Solecki 1953). The site had been severely impacted by farming practices at the time of discovery. Cummings (1958) tested the site and discovered 16 post molds, daub, a hearth, and possible pit remnants, indicating a Central Plains tradition house. It is not clear if any portion of the site remains (Ritterbush and Rau 2009:52-53). Recent AMS age determinations dates on maize (647±33, ISGS-A1556) and residue on pottery (665±15, AA-85341) are consistent with a Central Plains tradition occupation (Roper and Adair 2011:13-14).

14RY115 Site 14RY115, the Lower Sevenmile Creek site, is located about one half mile north of the Elk Hill site on the same creek. It was recorded in 1992 via auger tests during a survey on a part of Fort Riley (McDowell and McGowan 1993). Tom Larson, an archeological consultant, excavated a single test unit next to a positive shovel test in 1995 (Kansas archeological site files, 14RY115, first revision). This test unit produced approximately 1400 flakes, two cores, a hammer stone, four biface fragments, five flake tools, fragments of two projectile points, a rim sherd, 29 body sherds, and a nearly complete miniature vessel. The pottery fragments are sand- tempered, most are cord-marked and undecorated. The miniature vessel is round with a constricted neck and a rounded lip. One projectile point is side-notched, the other triangular, both are made of Permian chert.

The excavation of twelve 1-x-1-m test units was undertaken by Kansas State University (KSU) during a field school in the fall of 1996 (Root 2000). Those excavations concentrated on the near-surface component while backhoe trenching revealed the presence of a deeper component that was not excavated. Excavations took place in the path of a road that crosses and disturbs the site, leaving other parts of the site preserved. A wide variety of artifacts was recovered, including daub, which indicates that at least one structure once stood at the site. Ceramic artifacts were identified as Riley cord-roughened, diagnostic of the Smoky Hill Phase of the Central Plains tradition. Two maize kernels were identified during the fieldwork. Root identified almost all of the chert flakes and tools as Florence B chert, which might have been taken from 14RY5153, the nearby quarry site. Questions have been raised about the identification of chert on this landform, see the Lithic Analysis, below.

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Chapter 4. Field Methods Investigation of the proposed KDOT borrow area that led to the testing of 14RY328 had a very challenging timeline. As a result, the Phase II survey investigation was never fully reported. Still, the survey contributes to the understanding of the site as a whole. For this reason the field methods for both the project survey and the testing of 14RY328 are presented here.

Survey of the Pasture: 14RY328 The project area was in a mix of cultivated land and pasture at the time of the survey (Hoard 2009a) (Figure 4). Reportedly the pasture, which was on a pronounced rise at the south end of a long ridge, had never been plowed. However, some of the lithic artifacts that were found on the surface or above 20 cmbs exhibit rust stains, indicating that they had been hit by an iron plow. It seems that the area has been plowed, but not recently, often, or deeply. A prairie plant community was present at the time of the survey, and Norman (2009) conducted an inventory of the flora documenting a relatively undisturbed native tallgrass prairie. Norman’s inventory is presented in Appendix 1.

The lower elevations of the rise were altered by agricultural terracing. Vegetation was thick and there was no exposure of the ground surface. The original intent was to excavate an auger test every 20 m on 20-m transects, screening the sediment through quarter-inch hardware mesh. The first five tests were positive, producing pottery and debitage. It became clear that a site was present and that it was substantial. The site number 14RY328 was assigned.

From this point rigid adherence to the transect grid was dropped in favor of following a strategy of quickly finding the site boundaries. This entailed increasing the space between transects and as artifact densities fell, increasing the distance between auger tests on a transect line. At the top of the rise was a pronounced depression. Investigators deviated from the transect to place an auger test in the depression. This produced burned earth at a depth of 50 to 80 centimeters below the ground surface (cmbs), debitage, and a small, corner-notched Late Woodland arrow point at 60-70 cmbs. Because of a demanding timeline, shovel tests, which can be excavated fairly quickly, were used in some instances instead of auger tests.

In all, investigators excavated 35 auger and shovel tests in the pasture of which 20 were sterile and 15 contained artifacts. Figure 4 shows the locations of positive and negative auger and shovel tests. The positive tests successfully defined the boundaries of the site. Also, the amount and diversity of artifacts indicated a substantial buried prehistoric occupation on a landform that either had not been cultivated or had not been plowed frequently. This information indicated the possibility of a site that is eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places and that needed testing to confirm or refute this.

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Figure 4. Locations of test units and positive and negative auger and shovel tests in relation to site boundaries and land use areas. (Image removed to protect site location information) Survey of the Cultivated Field: 14RY329 and 14RY330 While about half of the survey area was in the pasture, the rest was in a cultivated area that was planted in corn that had grown to over 2 m in height. This was surveyed by walking rows and visually inspecting the exposed ground surface, which was about 30% visible. Two sites were observed and recorded. In the northern portion of the field surveyors observed a moderate density of artifacts, including Permian chert debitage, unifacial and bifacial chipped stone tools, and pottery scattered unevenly across the large site area. This is designated 14RY329 from which 177 artifacts were collected (Hoard 2009a) (Table 2). Five auger tests were excavated to a meter in depth to determine the depth of deposits. Four of the auger tests were sterile; one produced cultural material solely in the plowzone. However, consultation with geomorphologist Rolfe Mandel (personal communication, on August 10, 2009) led to the conclusion that the location of this site at the toe slope of a terrace remnant in the floodplain has a high potential of buried deposits deeper than a meter. Deep testing is recommended before any ground disturbing activity takes place on the site.

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Table 2. Artifacts from 14RY329. Count Weight Artifact type Description 127 473.9 Debitage 13 185.2 Modified flake 4 171.5 Core 8 126 Scraper 4 side scrapers, 4 end and side scrapers 1 0.7 Graver 1 80.8 Chopper 6 51.1 Biface 2 9.4 Preform 2 4.4 Projectile point 2 Fresno, 1 is broken 9 25.9 Body sherd Grit, CM 3 10.9 Rim sherd Grit, smooth lip 1 16.9 Bone Non ID

Table 3. Artifacts from 14RY330. Count Weight Artifact type Description 2 57.1 Modified flake 1 29.5 Core 19 95.5 Debitage 1 5.4 Body sherd Grit-tempered, cord-marked 1 7.5 Knife 1 11.5 Scraper Side scraper

Investigators recorded site 14RY330 south of 14RY329, noting a break in cultural material between the two areas. It is characterized by a light scatter of both historic and prehistoric artifacts over the site surface. Twenty-five artifacts were collected and include debitage, a modified flake, a core, a scraper, a biface fragment, and a body sherd (Table 3). Pieces of historic-era glass and whiteware were observed but not collected. Two auger tests to subsoil at about 80 cmbs did not produce artifacts, though charcoal and burned earth were encountered in the northernmost test at 40-50 cmbs. The proximity of the site to Sevenmile Creek makes it possible that deeply buried cultural deposits may be present. A local artifact collector states that he has found pottery eroding from the creek bank.

After the tall weeds died back, subsequent survey at 14RY330 revealed a three-sided mortared rough-dressed limestone structure. The walls measured 1.5 m high and 0.5 m wide, and the structure measured 5.8 m long on the north and south walls and 16 m long on the west wall. This U-shaped structure is open to the east side facing Sevenmile Creek and has soil banked against the west wall. Some of the stones from the upper courses are missing but overall the structure is 17

stable. Just west of the mortared structure's southwest corner is a poured concrete shaft 1.8 m square, 3.7 m deep, rising about a meter above the ground surface. These may be agrarian or domestic structures, they are not shown on plat maps or GLO records.

Test Excavation Units at 14RY328 Investigators excavated nine test units at the Elk Hill site to determine if intact deposits were present. Test unit locations were selected based on positive shovel and auger tests and position on the landscape. With the exception of Test Unit 1, which was a 1-x-2-m unit, all units were one meter square. Excavators either used skim shoveling or trowelling to excavate in 10-cm levels, depending on sediment changes or the relative density of artifacts. All fill was sifted through quarter-inch hardware cloth. Plan views and profiles were drawn when there was observable variation in the unit sediments, including artifact density. In-place artifacts were noted in plan views and profiles and in some instances the horizontal and vertical provenience was recorded for a single artifact. Samples for radiocarbon age determination and for flotation processing were taken at the discretion of the site supervisor.

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Chapter 5. Analysis

Non-Test Unit Results from 14RY328 As noted above, artifacts were recovered from the surface, shovel tests, and auger tests. As a result of the survey, the boundaries of sites 14RY328, 14RY329, and 14RY330 were established. Artifacts from the latter two sites are presented in Tables 2 and 3, above. Collected artifacts from shovel tests and auger tests at 14RY328 are presented in Table 4, below, and are considered in the analysis of the Phase III testing of the site that follows. Artifacts were recovered from auger and shovel tests 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 27, and 42. Artifacts were encountered in auger and shovel tests 27, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44, 48, and 50 but were not collected and thus are not included in the analysis.

Test Unit Excavations, Feature Descriptions, Radiocarbon Age Determinations

TEST UNIT 1 Test Unit 1 was excavated within a 13-m-wide depression on top of the landform on which the Elk Hill site lies. An auger test was excavated off transect to explore this large depression. The auger test revealed burned earth, debitage at depths of 50-80 cmbs and a Late Woodland period point between 60-70 cmbs, underlain by sterile subsoil. Investigators established a 1-x-2-m test unit oriented with the long axis north to south in the general proximity of the auger test described above.

The stratigraphy of this test unit indicates that it has been disturbed. It apparently had been excavated for unknown reasons twice before archeological testing, with one excavation being within the other. These excavations may explain the doughnut shaped depression on the top of the hill where Test Unit 1 is located. The first excavation, stratum D in Figure 5, is represented by dark fill with bits of nail and wire, as well as prehistoric artifacts. Most, if not all, historic- period artifacts originate from the dark fill of the first excavation. Initially it encompasses the entire excavation unit but, because its walls slope inward, by 50 cm below the surface its outline is visible in the unit floor, and the undisturbed soil is visible for the first time. The maximum depth of this intrusive excavation extends to sterile soil at about 70 cmbs. Therefore, it impedes upon a clear cultural layer described below. This cultural layer is likely the source of artifacts in the disturbed soil of the Test Unit 1.

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Table 4. Artifacts from 14RY328 Collected from the Surface and from Auger and Shovel Tests.

Auger/shovel Surface, Point Artifact Class Surface Total Test Provenience Count Weight Count Weight Count Weight Count Weight Chipped Stone 36 31.4 40 744.0 3 12.3 79 787.7 Tool, formal Arrow point 1 0.7 1 0.7 Arrow point fragment 1 0.5 1 0.5 Biface fragment 1 20.6 1 20.6 Core 2 59.1 2 59.1 Core/Biface fragment 1 102.9 1 102.9 Drill/reamer 1 7.4 1 7.4 Scraper 1 12.5 2 11.8 3 24.3 Tool, informal Modified Flake 1 1.1 8 57.9 9 59.0 Tested cobble 2 438.6 2 438.6 Debitage 34 29.6 24 45.0 58 74.6 Ceramic 17 21.3 3 11.2 20 32.5 Body Sherd 17 21.3 3 11.2 20 32.5 Daub/Burned Earth 1 22.9 3 49.9 4 72.8 Daub 1 5.3 1 5.3 Burned Earth 0 17.6 3 49.9 3 67.5 Historic 1 2.3 1 2.3 Nails and Wire 1 2.3 1 2.3 Rock 1 1.7 1 1.7 Grand Total 55 77.3 41 746.3 9 73.4 105 897.0

In the 20-30 cmbs level the more recent excavation fill became apparent throughout three- quarters of the excavation unit, getting smaller with increasing depth and disappearing between 50-60 cmbs in the unit. This disturbed area contained lighter sediment than the rest of the unit. Several pieces of wire were noted near the edges of the disturbance, within the fill of the earlier intrusive excavation. Because excavators had yet to realize the nature of the disturbances in the unit, fill from the disturbed area was excavated and screened separately from the surrounding intact deposits starting at the 40-50 cmbs level. Very few artifacts were recovered using this process. At the 50-60 cmbs level the disturbed area became more variable, comprised primarily of gray-brown sandy silt with light mottling, but also having areas of light brown and gray- brown sandy silt with charcoal and burned earth. The latter probably is prehistoric cultural fill brought into a more recent intrusive pit by a burrowing animal.

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Figure 5. Profile view of the east wall of Test Unit 1. A: 10Y/R 3/2; B: 10Y/R3/4; C: 10Y/R 4/3, high density of burned earth and charcoal, Feature 3; D: 10Y/R 2/1; E: 10Y/R 3/6. Stratum colors are RGB equivalents of Munsell colors.

At approximately 60 cmbs artifact-laden brown silt (Figure 5, C), presumably an intact cultural deposit, was encountered. It contained a high density of burned earth and charcoal and a moderate density of debitage, as well as some pottery. The first of the two non-archeological excavations still impedes into the unit floor throughout most of this level.

At the 60-70 cmbs level only the south side of the excavation unit was excavated because so much of the north half was disturbed (Figure 6, plan view). The amount of burned earth increased. Bone, pottery, daub, and small debitage also were present, especially between 66-68 cmbs (Figure 7). Continued excavation in the south half of the unit exposed a stratum of sandy silt (10YR 3/6, dark yellowish brown) that contained artifacts only between 70-72 cmbs and was sterile beneath. A few intrusive animal burrows contained displaced sediment and artifacts.

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Figure 6. Plan view of Test Unit 1 at 70 cmbs. Two separate instances of large-scale disturbance are evident; their boundaries at 10 cm levels between 30 cmbs and 70 cmbs are indicated.

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Figure 7. Plan view of Test Unit 1 at 70 cmbs showing Feature 3 as well as intrusive recent excavations. Bone, pottery, daub, and small debitage were evident in Feature 3, especially between 66-68 cmbs.

Feature 3 The stratum of dark, artifact rich silt generally between 55-75 cmbs (Figure 5, C) is Feature 3. The concentration of prehistoric cultural material in this stratum consists of burned earth, a projectile point (from an auger test), daub, pottery, debitage, and bone and suggests a house floor. To better understand Feature 3, investigators placed a series of 2-cm wide soil probes in the cardinal directions away from the test unit with the intent of finding the boundaries of the cultural stratum seen in the test unit. Probes to the north of the test unit produced the cultural stratum seen in the test unit as evidenced by charcoal, burned earth, pottery, and a chipped-stone tool fragment out to 7 m from the test unit at depths of 51 to 75 cmbs (Table 5). Probes east of the test unit found cultural material at depths of 57 to 80 cmbs out 6 m, and at depths of 60 to 77

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Table 5. Results of Soil Probes in Transects on Cardinal Directions from Test Unit 1. Distance in m Depth of cultural Distance in m Depth of cultural from TU 1 deposits in cm from TU 1 deposits in cm

North South

1 64-72 1 62-75

2 51-77, densest 65-70 2 65-75

3 52-75 3 72-77

4 60-69 3.5 60

5 62-73 4 -

6 68-74 West

7 52-75 2 59-73

62-92, large piece of 8 - 4 burned earth at 92

East 6 76-82

2 57-77 7 67-86

60-70, in dark 4 sediment and light 8 - subsoil

58-70, densest at 5 bottom

6 62, piece of charcoal

cmbs 3.5 meters to the south. Probes to the west produced the cultural stratum generally at 59 to 86 cmbs, though one probe 4 m west of the test unit produced a large piece of burned earth at 92 cmbs. As a result of probing, minimum dimensions of Feature 3 are 12.5 m north-south by 14 m east-west. The test unit and probes reveal that Feature 3 varies in depth from 51 to 92 cmbs but averages 62-74 cmbs. Because depths are measured from below the surface, and the surface elevation varies, it is likely that Feature 3 is a relatively thin—approximately 10 cm—cultural layer. A radiocarbon assay on charcoal provides an age determination of 820±70 (Table 6).

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TEST UNIT 2 Test Unit 2 was established to better sample the hilltop at 14RY328. The first level was 20 cm deep, the rest were arbitrary 10-cm levels. Excavators saw no artifacts from the first 10 cm of the initial 20 cm level. Artifacts recovered between 10 and 20 cmbs included debitage, pottery, a biface fragment, and a utilized flake. Artifact density increased to 40 cmbs, then began to decrease. At 50 cmbs Feature 1 became apparent in the center of the unit. It was roughly round, 50 cm N-S and 48 cm E-W. After excavating the 50 to 60 cmbs level, excavators continued excavating only the south half of the test unit in an effort to document the feature in profile. Excavation in the south half went to 90 cmbs.

Feature 1 Feature 1 is possibly a pit, approximately 50 cm in diameter. Its fill is as deep as 80 cmbs (see Figures 8 and 9) and consists of a dark, dense concentration of burned earth, as well as a concentration of a black organic material. These two different materials are separate but adjacent to each other and so treated as a single feature. At approximately 80 cmbs there is a concentration of burned earth, ash, and charcoal that also contained a relatively low density of flakes, daub, fire cracked rock and a side-notched triangular projectile point. The bottom of this feature lies just above a light sandy loess that is sterile subsoil like below Feature 3 in Test Unit 1. A flotation sample was taken from Feature 1, from between 60-90 cmbs. This sample yielded wood, bark (some of it not fully charred), and monocot stem, probably grass stem.

Investigators placed a series of probes in the cardinal directions away from the test unit in an attempt to define the boundaries of the cultural stratum seen in Test Unit 2 (Table 7). No cultural evidence was found in two probes at 1 m intervals south and west of Test Unit 2. Probes at 1 m intervals to the north of the test unit produced cultural material 2 m north of the test unit at depths of 64 to 79 cmbs. Probes 2, 3, 4, and 5 m to the east of the test unit produced cultural material generally at depths of 67 to 79 cmbs.

TEST UNIT 3 Test Unit 3 was established 20 m south of Test Unit 1. This test unit is characterized by a significant amount of secondary and tertiary flakes in the A horizon—from the surface to about 25 cmbs, though debitage is found deeper than this as well. Density of flakes is greatest in the 10 to 20 cmbs level. Potsherds, small bone fragments, a ceramic vessel handle (Figure 10), ash, and burned earth also were present, and all artifacts were more densely concentrated in the southeast corner of the test unit. For this reason the artifact concentration was designated as Feature 2. Excavation of the unit terminated at 70 cmbs.

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Table 6. Radiocarbon Ages and Calibrated Date Ranges.

Sample and Description 14 C age Delta 1 or 2 cal Relative Cal Relative Median lab code 13C sigma AD/BC prob- AD/BC prob- prob- range ability range ability ability

14RY328-20 Feature 3, TU 820± 70 -12.1 1 1158- 1 - - 1200 1, probable sigma 1274 ISGS 6654 house floor south half, 67 cmbs, from charcoal 2 1040- 0.163 1115- 0.837 sigma 1110 1285

14RY328-24 Feature 2, TU 580±70 -26.4 1 1304- 0.665 1384- 0.335 1356 3, shallow pit, sigma 1365 1415 ISGS 6656 south half 70- 80 cmbs, from charcoal 2 1284- 1 - - sigma 1438

Table 7. Results of Soil Probes in Transects on Cardinal Directions from Test Units. Distance in Depth of Distance in Depth of m from TU 2 cultural m from TU 2 cultural deposits in cm deposits in cm North East 1 64-79 2 75-79 2 74-75 3 69-71 3 - 4 67-72 South 5 62 1 - 6 - 2 -

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Figure 8. Profile view of the north wall of Test Unit 2 showing Feature 1.

Figure 9. Plan view of Test Unit 2, at 80 cmbs, showing Feature 1.

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Figure 10. Two views of a single ceramic vessel handle from Feature 2, Test Unit 3, at 58 cmbs.

Feature 2

Feature 2 appears to be a small pit excavated about 25 cm below the base of the A horizon with irregularly sloping sides and an irregular bottom (Figure 11, this report, and Hoard 2009a). It was excavated separately from the rest of the test unit from 40 cmbs to its termination at 62 cmbs. Its horizontal dimensions cannot be accurately determined because the entire feature was not excavated, but its maximum diameter probably is about a meter. Recovered artifacts consist of potsherds, small bone fragments, a small ceramic vessel handle, ash, and burned earth, debitage and a modified flake; charcoal was used for a radiocarbon assay, providing an age determination of 580±70 (Table 6).

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Figure 11 . Profile views of east and south walls of Test Unit 3, showing Feature 2.

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TEST UNIT 4 This unit location was chosen to sample the southeast edge of the hilltop. Flakes were most dense in the A horizon below 10 cmbs, and small amounts of burned earth and pottery also were present. Flake size and quantity decreased, generally, with depth into the B horizon which was present at approximately 30 cmbs, and burned earth and pottery were no longer present. At 50 to 60 cmbs the number and size of flakes increased. Only the north half of the unit was excavated to 70 cmbs to try to get to sterile sediment. This failed; artifacts were present in the 60 to 70 cmbs level. The unit was terminated at this point. No features were present, but excavation of this unit indicates that cultural deposits were distributed both broadly and deeply over the top of the landform.

TEST UNIT 5 Like Test Unit 4, Test Unit 5 was chosen to sample the southeast edge of the hilltop. Test Unit 5 produced large flakes and possible cores suggesting a primary lithic reduction area. Also present were sand-tempered plain pottery sherds, charcoal, burned earth, and a biface fragment. Artifacts were concentrated in the first 10-cmbs level, only three pieces of debitage were found in the 20- to-30-cmbs level at the contact of the A and B horizons. Excavations terminated at 30 cmbs.

TEST UNIT 6 Test Unit 6 produced a large number and variety of artifacts including debitage, daub, burned bone, mussel shell, a sandstone abrader, a scraper, utilized flakes, pottery, three projectile points, a point preform, two biface fragments, and a knife, primarily between the depths of 30 and 70 cmbs. Consult Appendix 2 for a full inventory of artifacts. Feature 4 was established at 70 cmbs based on artifact concentration, wetter, darker sediment, and a concentration of ash (Figure 12). Full unit excavation terminated at 80 cmbs, but a 35-x-35-cm area in the northeast corner of the test unit was excavated to 90 cmbs to investigate a concentration of ash in Feature 4. The grinding slab fragment, daub, side-notched projectile points and ceramic vessel fragments concentrated between 30-90 cmbs indicate a robust and surprisingly deeply buried Middle Ceramic component. Because artifacts were still being recovered at 90 cmbs, deeper deposits are possible.

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Figure 12. Profile view of north wall of Test Unit 6 showing the location of Feature 4.

Feature 4

Feature 4 is a concentration of artifacts, underlain by ash, predominantly in the southwestern corner of Test Unit 6. Never well-defined, it was first noted as an artifact concentration at depths of 60-70 cmbs. Artifacts were plotted on a plan view and a flotation sample was taken, but the feature was not delineated until 70 cmbs. At this level, the higher concentration of artifacts and moister, darker sediment suggested a feature boundary that extended from the northwest corner to the southeast corner of the unit, with the feature being on the west side of the line. There was a concentration of ash at 74 cmbs in the northwest corner of the unit. Because this was visible in the floor at 80 cmbs and because there was pressure to complete testing, a 35 cm-square area, focused on this ash concentration, was excavated to 90 cmbs. The ash concentration was taken as two flotation samples, one from 70-80 cmbs and the other from 80-90 cmbs. The flotation samples yielded wood, bark, monocot stem, maize, and seeds. Feature attributes are summarized in Table 8. Feature 4 may be a structure floor, but more excavation is needed to determine this.

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TEST UNIT 7 Test Unit 7 was established downhill and east of the hilltop, which shovel and auger tests demonstrated as being the area of the site with the highest artifact density. The purpose of the unit was to better define the eastern extent of the site. The unit was situated between two agricultural terraces, so it also was useful to assess the potential damage from terracing. Recovered artifacts consist of debitage and pottery throughout the six excavation levels. The excavation stopped at 60 cmbs at the contact with the characteristic light subsoil, although artifacts were recovered from the lowest level and may continue in the soil below. Test Unit 7 had an artifact density as high as Test Units 1 and 5 and higher than 8, suggesting that the site continues to the east.

TEST UNIT 8 Like Test Unit 7, Test Unit 8 is downslope south of the hilltop but north of the highest agricultural terrace. It was excavated to 40 cmbs. Artifacts—debitage and pottery—were most dense in the 20-30 cmbs level. Like Test Unit 7, this test unit indicates that there is a broad scatter of artifacts across much if not all of the landform on which 14RY328 lies.

TEST UNIT 9 This test unit was on the hilltop and was excavated to 60 cmbs. Artifact density was high at depths of 10-30 cmbs (Appendix 2) and declined significantly below that level. Artifacts were dominated by debitage and pottery but also include burned earth, bone, daub, a scraper, and two biface fragments. No features were observed.

Historic Artifacts Eleven historic artifacts were recovered from the investigations at 14RY328. All of the recovered items were ferrous: two fragments of common wire, two horseshoe nails, six wire nails, and one cut nail (Table 9). Only one of these items, a horseshoe nail, was recovered from the surface. All other historic artifacts were recovered from Test Unit 1. Seven of these were recovered from the 30-40 cmbs level of Test Unit 1 and all were recovered from between 20-60 cmbs. All of these artifacts were from disturbed areas, a result of two non-archeological excavations conducted at an unknown time before testing took place. Several field level forms note metal artifacts in disturbed areas, which extend below 70 cmbs in Test Unit 1.

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Table 8. Feature Summary. Feature Test Depth Description Unit cmbs

1 2 50-80 A possible pit, approximately 50 cm in diameter and ranging in depth from 50 to 80 cmbs containing concentrations of dark burned earth and a dark, burned organic material, overlying a concentration of burned earth, ash, charcoal, flakes, daub, fire-cracked rock, and a side-notched triangular projectile point. Two flotation samples were taken from feature fill at 60-80 and 80-90 cmbs; they produced wood, bark (some of it not fully charred), and monocot stem, probably grass stem.

2 3 40-62 A small, irregularly shaped pit at depths of 40 to 62 cmbs with its opening being approximately a meter wide. It contains pottery, small bone fragments, a small ceramic vessel handle, debitage, ash, and burned earth. A radiocarbon age determination of 580±70 is from charcoal from the feature.

3 1 Approxi- Possible house floor, or living surface, 12.5 m N-S by mately 14 m E-W characterized by large amounts of burned 62-74 earth and daub as well as bone, pottery, and late-stage debitage. A charcoal sample produced a radiocarbon age determination of 820±70 rcybp.

4 6 70-80 A concentration of artifacts and ash in the southwest corner of the test unit at depths of 70-90 cmbs, possibly a structure floor. A concentration of ash was taken as two flotation samples, one from 70-80 cmbs, and another from 80-90 cmbs. These produced wood, bark, monocot stem, maize, and seeds.

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Table 9. Historic Artifacts by Location and Depth. Artifact Location Depth cmbs Count Horseshoe nail General site Surface 1 Horseshoe nail Test Unit 1 30-40 cmbs 1 Wire Test Unit 1 40-50 cmbs 2 Nail, wire Test Unit 1 20-30 cmbs 1 Nail, wire Test Unit 1 30-40 cmbs 4 Nail, wire Test Unit 1 40-50 cmbs 1 Nail, wire Test Unit 1 50-60 cmbs 1

Pottery There were 238 ceramic artifacts recovered from the investigations at 14RY328. Four of these were rim sherds, one was a fragment of a loop handle, and the rest were body sherds.

RIM SHERDS Three rim sherds were from Test Unit 1: one grog-tempered rim came from the 20-30 cmbs level and two sand-tempered rims from the 50-60 cmbs level. Another sand-tempered rim sherd came from Test Unit 4, 10-20 cmbs. The location, depth, and temper information for the rim sherds is discussed in conjunction with the body sherds (Table 10). None of the rim sherds were decorated.

HANDLE A single handle from a small vessel was recovered from 58 cmbs in Feature 2, Test Unit 3 (Figure 10). It appears to have been partially wrapped around a dowel and, with the dowel still in place, affixed to the vessel wall between the shoulder and the rim. It is sand tempered and is not symmetrical or decorated. It is small: 27.0 mm vertically, 17.2 mm out from the vessel body, 15.8 mm wide, with an opening of 8 mm. As noted earlier, vessel handles were occasionally affixed to Smoky Hill phase vessels.

ALL SHERDS Rim and body sherds were recovered from six auger tests, all nine excavation units, and the surface of 14RY328 (Table 10). The majority (n=163, 68.5%) of the ceramics came from five test units: 1 (n=35, 14.7%), 2 (n=23, 9.7%), 3 (n=30, 12.6%), 6 (n=37, 15.5%), and 9 (n=33, 13.8%). The number of sherds that was recovered from the 10-cm level in each test unit remained consistently between 20 and 30 sherds except for two levels. The 10-20 cmbs level count was considerably higher than any other level with 59 sherds recovered. The majority of those 59 sherds (n=32, 54.2%) were recovered from Test Unit 9. The 40-50 cmbs levels had fewer sherds than any other levels (n=3, 0.5%).

Visible temper in the ceramic sherds consisted of sand, grit, grog, and shell, in that order of prevalence. Some sherds showed combinations of temper type. Some potential temper, such as

34 sand or grit, may have been present naturally in the clay. The majority of the ceramic sherds recovered from the excavations showed at least some sand temper, alone or in combination with other temper (n=171; 71.8%) and had smooth surface treatment (n=191; 80.3%). Grit was the second most predominate temper in the sherds (n = 50; 21.0%). The ceramic sherds recovered most resemble, in temper and surface treatment, those of the Central Plains tradition (1200-1400 CE) as described in Roper (2006a). Specifically, they are consistent with Wedel’s (1959:183- 185) description of the type Riley cord-roughened.

Nine sherds had some decoration present. Most of these consisted of one to three incised lines (Figure 13). Two body sherds had decorations that consisted of incised cross-hatching. They were recovered from Test Unit 1 at 66 cmbs and from Test Unit 5 from the 0-10 cmbs level (Figure 14a and b). One other sherd recovered from Test Unit 6 in the 70-80 cmbs level had a decorative panel of two vertical and seven opposed diagonal incised lines (Figure 14c).

Six sherds from 14RY328 were included in a group of ceramics from Central Plains’ sites sent to Richard Josephs for thin sectioning and further petrographic testing. Josephs (2010) noted that the raw material in all sherds were consistent with locally available clay sources and therefore supported local manufacture. However, Roper (personal communication 2012) stated that “…clays throughout the Kansas River basin, and the adjacent Missouri River valley, are pretty similar to one another chemically, texturally…” Thus, examination of the raw material does not tell us much about trade or movement of vessels. Appendix 3 presents data from Josephs’ analysis.

Ceramic sherds recovered from the investigations at 14RY328 were distributed quite equally both across the site and vertically within the excavation units. The sherds displayed a variety of temper type and surface treatment, all of which is consistent with ceramics of the Central Plains tradition.

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Table 10 . Ceramic Sherds Shown by Location and Depth. Location Depth Count Surface Surface 7 Transect 1, Auger Test 1 30 -40 cmbs 1 Transect 1, Auger Test 3 0-50 cmbs 1 Transect 1, Auger Test 4 0-25 cmbs 2 Transect 1, Auger Test 8 50 -80 cmbs 2 Transect 2, Auger Test 2 35 -40 cmbs 3 Transect 4, Auger Test 1 0-40 cmbs 8 Test Unit 1 10 -20 cmbs 2 20 -30 cmbs 2; 1 is a rim 40 -50 cmbs 1 50 -60 cmbs 13; 2 are rims 60 -70 cmbs 17 Test Unit 2 0-20 cmbs 3 20 -30 cmbs 1 30 -40 cmbs 1 40 -50 cmbs 1 50 -60 cmbs 2 70 -80 cmbs 15 Test Unit 3 10 -20 cmbs 18 20 -30 cmbs 11 58 cmbs 1 handle fragment Test Unit 4 10 -20 cmbs 6; 1 is a rim 20 -30 cmbs 8 Test Unit 5 0-10 cmbs 18 10 -20 cmbs 1 Test Unit 6 30 -40 cmbs 7 40 -50 cmbs 1 50 -60 cmbs 6 60 -70 cmbs 12 70 -80 cmbs 10 Wall scrape 1 Test Unit 7 20 -30 cmbs 5 30 -40 cmbs 1 Test Unit 8 20 -30 cmbs 1 30 -40 cmbs 16 Test Unit 9 0-10 cmbs 1 10 -20 cmbs 32

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Figure 13 . Sherds decorated with one to three incised lines: a and b) Test Unit 6, 50-60 cmbs; c) Transect 1 Auger Test 1; and d) Test Unit 5, 10-20 cmbs.

Figure 14 . Sherds with cross-hatched designs from: a) Test Unit 1, 66 cmbs; b) Test Unit 5, 0-10 cmbs; and c) sherd with opposed diagonal incised lines from Test Unit 6, 70-80 cmbs.

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Lithic Artifacts

INTRODUCTION This section describes the artifacts made of stone from the Elk Hill site. The goals of the analysis are to enumerate and describe the assemblage and make inferences about the strategies that the Elk Hill inhabitants used to select stone resources, either local or nonlocal, and make stone tools. We can then indirectly learn about their economy, mobility patterns, and how they fit with the patterns associated with the Smoky Hill phase.

Roper (2006b) summarizes the material remains of the Smoky Hill phase, including the stone artifacts. Chipped-stone artifacts typically consist of small triangular arrow points (notched and unnotched), bifacial knives of triangular, ovoid, and diamond-shaped beveled forms, drills, endscrapers, chipped-stone celts, unifacially retouched flakes, and multidirectional cores made on predominately local cherts. Different tool types might be preferentially made of nonlocal cherts. Groundstone artifacts include sandstone abraders, hand stones, grinding slabs, groundstone celts, hammerstones, pipes from different materials, and pigments.

METHODS Lithic artifacts were collected during excavation either as piece plots, as general surface artifacts, while screening excavated sediment through quarter-inch screens, and in three instances, from flotation samples. Artifacts were washed and catalogued according to typical lab methods. Tools and debitage were separated and described. A tool is defined in this report as any lithic artifact that has been modified beyond the flake stage, such as a scraper, biface, or arrow point, or has evidence that it was used to modify other material, such as a modified flake. Debitage is defined as unmodified flaking debris. Other attributes that were recorded include presence of heat treatment or cortex, and source material, when possible. Tools and debitage were identified with the naked eye or at low magnification. A few unusual pieces were sent to Jack Ray at the Center for Archaeological Research, Missouri State University, in Springfield, Missouri for expert advice.

Several sources are available to help identify Flint Hills lithic sources, but preference is for a well-organized comparative collection like the one at the Lithic Comparative Collection at the University of Kansas Museum of Anthropology (KUMA-LLC), which was visited by the author. Written references include Blasing (1984), Haury (1979, 1984), McLean (1998), and Ray (2007, 2010).

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CHIPPED STONE SOURCES

Chipped stone resources can be separated into three categories based on the distance traveled to the source: local, nonlocal (or extralocal), and exotic (Ray 2007). Local sources could be visited while exploiting other resources on a daily basis and are located within a day’s walk and return, approximately 10 km. Nonlocal resources are located between 10 and 100 km away and could be reached on multi-day trips. Exotic resources are located over 100 km away, so are rarely visited and/or instead obtained through trade.

Local High-Quality Permian Cherts The Elk Hill site is located close to an abundance of Permian-age chert outcrops. The closest outcrops are composed of Wreford chert in the Wreford limestone and Florence chert in the overlying Barnston limestone (Holen 1989, based on Jewett 1941). Florence chert can be subdivided into the Florence A (exotic), B, C, and D (possibly all local or nonlocal), based on certain fossil inclusions and color patterning. The differences are probably due to changes in the depositional conditions of the limestone’s parent material (Haury 1984), so different types outcrop in different parts of the Flint Hills.

Florence A is buff to yellow/gray with common inclusions of several fossil taxa, the most diagnostic of which are small, spiral, rice grain-sized fusulinids (whole ones are lacking in Wreford). Sometimes it has fingerprint or woodgrain-type patterns. Florence A can be found in southern Flint hills from southern Butler County and south (Blasing 1984), which is a minimum of 145 km south of Elk Hill. Florence A chert was intensively exploited in the Flint Hills and also traded out of the region during late prehistoric times into central Kansas, southwest Missouri, the Arkansas River Valley, and western Oklahoma (Brown 1996:649; Thomas and Ray 2002; Vehik 1988). Florence B is found primarily in central and northern Flint Hills and is light to dark bluish gray with echinoid spines and fragments of fusulinids, bryozoa, and crinoids. Haury (1984:72, 74) states that Florence A and B occur in nodular form but the nodules are packed so tightly that they tend to break along 90 degree planes. Florence C is light gray with highly fragmented fossil inclusions and can develop a caramel brown patina (Haury 1984). Florence D is a gray to buff fine-grained chert with darker bands of more translucent chert near the cortex, and is found mainly in the northern Flint Hills (Blasing 1984).

The author studied the chert comparative collection at KUMA-LCC to help solve some of the identification problems at 14RY328. One of the few samples in the KUMA-LCC collection identified as Florence C included a note stating that it might in fact represent a high-quality Wreford, indicating that even chert experts can have difficulty differentiating the local Permian cherts.

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Figure 15. The Elk Hill site in relation to four quarry sites mentioned in text. (Image removed to protect site location information) A sample of chert in the KUMA-LCC, labeled as Florence B (KU #632), was collected from (information removed to protect site location information), probably the quarry at 14RY5153, described by Root (2000) in his testing report on nearby 14RY115. This chert was mostly light gray, somewhat “chalky,” the fossils are little more than white ovals and circles, some with quartz crystal replacements. Near the cortex, however, the chert was banded, very fine-grained, and mottled with darker gray colors. Testing at 14RY6170 (McLean et al. 2013; McLean, Kansas archeological site form, 14RY6170, second revision), only about 0.2 miles to the west of 14RY5153, resulted in a closer look at the chert that is present on this landform and at that elevation (Figure 15). On the site form, McLean notes two varieties of chert at 14RY6170. The first was the surficial non-cultural chert, which was frost-cracked and resembled Wreford chert with dark gray mottles and abundant spicule fossils. The second type was a high-quality Wreford chert that “varies in color from off-white to dark gray, and contains a variety of microfossil

40 inclusions. Examples of typical microfossils observed at 20x magnification include spicules, fenestrate and branching bryozoan fragments, and brachiopods. Both broad mottling and banding were observed, although some specimens appeared to be homogeneous because the mottles were so faint, or so broadly dispersed. Banding was rare and restricted to the outer edges of nodules” (McLean, Kansas archeological site form, 14RY6170, second revision).

The Elk Hill chert strongly resembles the high-quality Wreford/Florence B/D described by McLean for 14RY6170, above. For the above reasons, almost all of the Permian chert from the Elk Hill site will be identified as “high-quality Permian,” a term used by McLean et al. (2013:40) and expanded here. The colors vary somewhat, varying from light brownish gray, light gray to dark gray, and some of it shows weathered yellowish brown patches. Some of it is heavily mottled but most of it looks homogenous or lightly mottled to the naked eye. Whole fossils are very rare in the Elk Hill chert, although a few were seen on the surface of the cortex. Observable fossils include (in descending order of abundance): bryozoan stem and fan fragments, echinoid spines, crinoid stem fragments, and semi-circular outlines that might be poorly preserved brachiopods or possibly fusulinid fragments. Some of the fossil voids have been replaced with sparkly quartz crystals. The cortex, if present, is chalky white or yellowish brown. The external surface of the cobbles can be pockmarked like the moon’s surface or studded with fossils. The chert adjacent to the cortex is often banded and somewhat translucent.

Exotic Stone Resources

Smoky Hill Silicified Chalk The lithic resource known as Smoky Hill silicified chalk, also known as Smoky Hill jasper, occurs in an Upper Cretaceous formation called the Niobrara Chalk Formation that outcrops in parts of southwest Nebraska and northwest Kansas. In Kansas, it “runs diagonally for a distance of 190 miles from Jewell County in north-central Kansas at the Nebraska line to Finney County in southwest Kansas” (Stein 2005:5). Smoky Hill silicified chalk is mainly light brown and yellow and the fragments have a chalky, nonlustrous surface. Only one artifact, a flake fragment, was identified as Smoky Hill (Test Unit 3, 30-40 cmbs).

Peoria Chert Peoria chert, sometimes known as Tahlequa, is a creamy white to light gray, sometimes lightly mottled chert with few inclusions. The parent material source has disappeared with time, making the specific origin somewhat controversial—although most likely Mississippian in age (summarized in Ray 2007). The source seems to be a very small area in extreme northeast Oklahoma where the chert was quarried intensively and was distributed in Oklahoma and neighboring portions of Kansas and Missouri, especially in late prehistoric times (Ray 2007). One small flake fragment from Elk Hill might be made from Peoria chert (Test Unit 4, 30-40 cmbs). Because it is so small, the identification is not certain and it might also be Burlington chert, another Mississippian chert (Jack Ray, personal communication, 2012).

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Burlington Chert Burlington chert is a fossiliferous (mostly crinoid stems), white, light gray, to dark gray chert that outcrops in the western, northern, and eastern Ozarks. The closest outcrops to the Elk Hill site would be in a broad line from southwest Missouri to Saline County, Missouri (Ray 2007). One biface thinning flake of Burlington chert was recovered from Shovel Test 4 on Transect 2.

Alibates or Day Creek Silicified Dolomite Alibates silicified dolomite has its primary source in the panhandle of Texas and is one of the most widely disseminated cherts in the midcontinent (Banks 1990:91). The appearance of the stone is fine-grained with rare fossils, and mottled and banded light red, gray, and white, sometimes giving it the pattern of sliced bacon. Alibates cobbles and pebbles are also found downstream of the source along the Canadian River. Day Creek chert is a lesser quality, but similar-looking material from an equivalent formation in western Oklahoma, southwest Kansas, and southeast Colorado. The small flake fragment from Elk Hill (Test Unit 6, 30-40 cmbs) could be Alibates, Day Creek, or some other look-alike material (Jack Ray, personal communication, 2012).

Description of Assemblage Chert Sources All but one of the 35 recovered formal tools were made from high quality Permian chert (Table 11). A drill/reamer found on the surface is a very dark-colored, possibly heat-treated Florence B chert, but could not be identified with certainty. Four items were identified as Wreford because of the abundance of echinoid spine fossils: two of the 74 modified/utilized flakes, one unmodified flake, and one tested cobble found on the surface. The balance of the modified/utilized flakes was identified as high quality Permian.

Almost all of the debitage was identified as high quality Permian. To reiterate, one flake was identified as Wreford (Test Unit 6, 20-30 cmbs), which is available locally. Four flakes were identified as exotic materials: one Burlington (Transect 2, ST4, 30-40 cmbs), one Smoky Hill (Test Unit 3, 30-40 cmbs), one Alibates/Day Creek/look-alike (Test Unit 6, 30-40 cmbs), and one possible Peoria or Burlington (Test Unit 4, 30-40 cmbs). The latter two specimens were quite small and hard to identify with certainty.

A subsample of 478 pieces of debitage that measured over 2 cm was closely examined (Table 12). One hundred ninety-seven of them exhibited cortex on their dorsal sides (primary and secondary flakes), indicating that a significant amount of raw material or partially shaped blanks was being brought to the site from a local quarry and worked.

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Table 11. Summary of Chipped Stone Resources. High Florence Wreford Alibates Burlington Peoria Smoky Total Quality B Hill Permian Tool 103 1 3 107 Tool, formal 33 1 34 Arrow point 5 5 Arrow point 3 3 fragment Arrow 1 1 preform Biface 5 5 fragment Core 10 10 Core/Biface 3 3 fragment Drill, possible 1 1 Drill/reamer 1 1 Knife- 2 2 unifacial Scraper 3 3

Tool, informal 69 2 71 Modified flake 69 2 71 Tested cobble 1 1 2

Debitage 2,389 1 1 1 1 1 2,394 Grand Total 2,492 1 4 1 1 1 1 2,501

Table 12. Subsample of Debitage Indicating the Flake Types. Flake Type Count Primary 26 Secondary 171 Tertiary 280 Natural 1 Total 478

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Thus, 99.8% of the chipped stone tools and debitage was identified as high quality Permian, which is probably high quality Wreford, Florence B, Florence D, or a mixture of all of these. Difficulty identifying the Permian chert available at local quarries was documented above, but it is clear that the chert, except for four flakes, was obtained locally.

CHIPPED STONE ARTIFACTS Lithic artifacts from Elk Hill can be divided into the two broad categories for purposes of presentation: chipped-stone artifacts made from chert and other knappable materials and everything else—sandstone, pipestone, limestone, etc.

Chipped-stone artifacts were recovered using a variety of methods. While defining the site boundaries using intensive Phase II methods— auger and shovel tests—2 tools and 34 debitage fragments were found. Three chipped-stone tools were piece-plotted with a handheld GPS when found on the surface in the cornfield adjacent to the project area. The distribution of artifacts west of the project area was documented to delineate the west boundary of the site. Fourteen additional tools, 2 tested cobbles, and 24 pieces of debitage were collected from the surface of the site in a general “surface” category (Table 13).

It should be noted that some of the chipped stone artifacts recovered from the surface and above 20 cmbs had rust stains, indicating that they had been hit with an iron plow. So, while the site might not have been plowed recently or often, it probably has been plowed at some time in the past.

In addition, debitage fragments were recovered from heavy fractions of two flotation samples. From Feature 1 in Test Unit 2, 60-80 cmbs, 44 debitage frags were recovered from the heavy fraction. One modified flake and 267 debitage fragments were recovered from the sample from Feature 4 in Test Unit 6, 70-80 cmbs along with 4.7 g of debitage from the heavy fraction from the 80-90 cmbs level, which remains uncounted. The items from the heavy fractions will not be included in the remainder of this chapter but the rest of the chipped-stone artifacts, regardless of how they were recovered, will be discussed as a single assemblage.

The balance of 2,382 chipped-stone artifacts was recovered during Phase III testing at the site and they were not evenly distributed (Table 14). The richest test unit is Test Unit 6, and the location of Feature 4. It is possible that Feature 4 is a structure floor, but more excavation is needed to determine this.

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Table 13. Summary of Chipped Stone Artifacts Outside of Test Units. Auger and Surface, Point Shovel Tests Surface Provenience Total Count Weight Count Weight Count Weight Count Weight Chipped Stone Tool, formal 1 0.7 6 202.5 3 12.3 10 215.5 Tool, informal 1 1.1 8 57.9 9 59 Tested cobble 2 438.6 2 438.6 Debitage 34 29.6 24 45 58 74.6 Grand Total 36 31.4 40 744 3 12.3 79 787.7

Table 14. Summary of Chipped-Stone Artifacts Found within Test Units and Features. Provenience Tool, Formal Tool, Informal Debitage Total Total Count Weight Count Weight Count Weight Count Weight Test Unit 1 2 38.8 8 22.0 155 117.5 165 178.3 Feature 3 1 21.8 10 8.1 11 29.9

Test Unit 2 3 11.4 111 92.4 114 103.8

Feature 1 1 0.6 5 17.9 9 8.1 16 28.1 Test Unit 3 2 22.0 6 29.1 473 181.3 481 232.4 Feature 2 1 7.4 18 6.2 19 13.6

Test Unit 4 319 175.9 319 175.9

Test Unit 5 3 91.3 4 12.5 82 130.4 89 234.2 Test Unit 6 9 71.6 12 167.1 478 319.2 499 557.9 Feature 4 4 153.3 9 65.8 273 440.2 286 659.3 Test Unit 7 3 26.0 93 42.4 96 68.4

Test Unit 8 1 29.8 1 11.1 31 32.9 33 73.8 Test Unit 9 2 11.8 8 37.0 245 250.1 255 298.9 Grand total 24 419.2 61 429.1 2,297 1,804.7 2,382 2,653.0

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Arrow Points Six whole or mostly whole arrow points were recovered. One Scallorn-like arrow point fragment (Figure 16a) made of heat-treated high quality Permian was found in Auger Test 8a on Transect 1, which is located in the north-central portion of the site, as it is defined. Scallorn points are diagnostic of Late Woodland occupations, so this point was either part of low-intensity use of the site during Early Ceramic times or it was curated by later inhabitants. Two side-notched triangular points, commonly known as Washita points (Figure 16b and c), were found and three unnotched triangular points, known as Fresno points (Figure 16, d-f), were found. One specimen has a graver burin-like tip created on the distal end (Figure 16d). In addition, one arrow point preform and three arrow point fragments were found (Figure 17b-e). All of these tools were made from flakes of high quality Permian chert. The arrow point preform on the left (Figure 17a) is from site 14RY329.

Washita and Fresno points are diagnostic of a Central Plains tradition Smoky Hill phase site (Roper 2006b). Ray (2010) argues that Washita and Fresno points, along with Harrel (two side notches with an additional basal notch) and Huffaker points (two side notches on each side), might represent variation within a single point type. These types of points—small, triangular, and variously side notched and bottom notched—are very common at Late Prehistoric sites from Minnesota to New Mexico. So while the distinctions are interesting, they may not indicate differences in chronology, behavior, or cultural identity. They might simply have been the best form for the function of an arrow point.

Bifaces, Cores, and Biface/Cores No whole biface larger than an arrow point was recovered from 14RY328. The few fragments represent later stage bifaces; most have fine flaking (Figure 18) and seem to typify the ovoid bifaces mentioned by Roper (2006b) and Blakeslee et al. (2012) that probably functioned as knives.

The biface/core category was created to classify the three artifacts that are thick bifaces that tend to have numerous step fractures. They seemed to have done double duty as large pounder/choppers and as a source for usable flakes (Figure 19). The worked edges exhibit various amounts of crushing. All of the biface knives and biface cores are made from high quality Permian chert.

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Figure 16. Complete and mostly complete arrow points: a) Scallorn, Transect 1, Auger Test 8a, 60-70 cmbs; b) Washita, Test Unit 2, 70-80 cmbs; c) Washita, Test Unit 6, 70-80 cmbs; d) Fresno with burin tip, Test Unit 3, 10-20 cmbs; e) Fresno, from site 14RY329; and f) Test Unit 6, 40-50 cmbs.

Figure 17 . Arrow point preforms and arrow point fragments: a) preform, surface piece plot from 14RY329; b) preform, Test Unit 6, 50-60 cmbs; c) arrow point tip, surface piece plot PC 27; d) arrow point tip, Test Unit 6, 70-80 cmbs; e) Fresno base, Test Unit 6, 70-80 cmbs; and f) small biface fragment, Test Unit 1, 40-50 cmbs.

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Figure 18. Biface fragments: a and b) Test Unit 9, 20-30 cmbs; c) Test Unit 5, 0-10 cmbs; and d) surface PC 0-9.

Figure 19. Artifacts classified as biface/cores: a) Test Unit 6, 70-80 cmbs; b) Surface PC 0-2; and c) Test Unit 6, 50-60 cmbs.

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Cores and Tested Material Ten objects were classified as cores with nine of them being “multidirectional,” meaning that the flakes were knocked off the edges from a variety of angles. They also have crushed edges and might represent smaller and more exhausted versions of the biface/cores. One core can be classified as “unidirectional” as the flakes/blades were all removed in the same direction from both ends. This core has cortex at each end, indicating that the source material was tabular or at least, had the appearance of tabular chert (Figure 20a). A modified blade found in Test Unit 8, 20-30 cmbs was struck off this core, which is from Test Unit 1, 50-60 cmbs, about 80 m away.

Two artifacts found on the surface have been classified as tested material. One is a natural flake that has been broken and another is a cobble with flakes removed. The former artifact is high quality Permian and the latter was identified as Wreford chert.

Unifacial knives A large unifacial knife manufactured from a blade was from Test Unit 6, 60-70 cmbs. It measures 119 mm long and 32 mm wide (Figure 21d). The flakes are regularly spaced along both long edges and the tip is bifacially worked and pointed. Cortex covers about one-third of the dorsal side. Smaller versions are also from Unit 6, 10-20 cmbs (in two pieces) and a unifacially modified flake from Unit 6, 70-80 cmbs. All are made from high quality Permian chert.

Over 300 unifacial flake and blade knives were found at the Great Bend aspect Lower Walnut focus (1350-1700 CE) Arkansas City site group in Cowley County, Kansas (Blakeslee et al. 2012). The authors note that this type of tool is rare at earlier sites and hypothesize that a new type of behavior, probably meat-oriented, is associated with this type of tool during this time period. Whatever the purpose, this tool looks like an effective slicer of meat. A cursory look though the modified and utilized flakes from the Central Plains tradition Smoky Hill phase (1100-1350 CE) Minneapolis site (14OT5) shows that quite a few of these large blade tools are present.

Scrapers Three tools described as formally produced scrapers all come from surface proveniences and all are made from high quality Permian chert. They are variously altered with steep unifacial retouch on their ends and/or sides (Figure 22). None of these retain any evidence that they had been produced as part of a blade-core industry described by Wilke et al. (2002). Since they are exhausted or nearly so, this evidence might be very hard to find. One Elk Hill scraper has a notch for use as a “spokeshave” and another has several sharp points that could be used for engraving. In addition, many informal scraping and notched tools are described below as modified flakes.

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Figure 20 . Cores: a) unidirectional core, Test Unit 1, 50-60 cmbs; multidirectional cores: b) Test Unit 5, 0-10 cmbs; and c) surface PC 0-8.

Figure 21. Unifacial knives: a) Test Unit 6, 70-80 cmbs; b and c) Test Unit 6, 10-20 cmbs; and d) Test Unit 6, 60-70 cmbs.

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Figure 22. Scrapers: a) surface find PC 0-7; b) surface piece plot 29; and c) and surface piece plot PC 29.

Table 15. Summary of Modified Flakes. Modified Flakes

Bifacial retouch 1 Bifacial retouch with notch 1 Denticulated 1 Notched 6 Notched (2) and two small gravers 1 Unifacial and bifacial retouch 1 Unifacial retouch 32 Unifacial retouch with notch 1 Unifacial retouch, almost a graver 1 Use wear present 29 Total 74

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Modified Flakes Modified flakes are informal or expedient tools made from flakes and blades removed from cores. A variety of types of retouch and use-wear was observed on the flakes (Table 15; Figure 23). They are not concentrated in any single location and seem to co-vary with the number of unmodified flakes, indicating that these expedient tools were made wherever flakes were present.

Thirty-five flakes had some kind of unifacial retouch and were probably used as scrapers. Several modified flakes had prepared notches there were probably used in a fashion consistent with a “spokeshave,” used to shape and smooth cylindrical object such as arrow shafts or bone tools (Figure 24).

Debitage The debitage was divided into three size grades >half inch, >quarter inch, and half inch category and many were much larger. Most of these very large flakes represent either primary or secondary decortication flakes. The majority of the debitage (68%) fell into the size grade between half inch and quarter inch. Eighteen percent of debitage fragments retains cortex (primary and secondary flakes), 22% are whole or largely whole with no cortex (tertiary flakes), 2.5% are biface thinning flakes, and 53% were broken flakes and shatter without cortex, and 4% are cube-shaped heat spalls.

It is evident that a wide range of chipped-stone tool manufacture was occurring at the site, ranging from primary reduction from cobbles, flake tool production from cores, and tool resharpening.

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Figure 23. Modified flakes: a) Test Unit 6, 60-70 cmbs; b) Surface piece plot PC 67- 2 from 14RY329; c) Surface piece plot PC 67-3 from 14RY329; d) Test Unit 6, 30-40 cmbs; and e) Test Unit 9, 0-10 cmbs.

Figure 24. Artifacts with notches. Clockwise from large artifact on left: a) Test Unit 6, 70-80 cmbs, b) Test Unit 5, 0-10 cmbs; c) Test Unit 6, 50-60 cmbs; d) Test Unit 3, 0-10 cmbs; e) surface find PC 0-17; f) surface find PC 0-12; g) Test Unit 2, 30-40 cmbs; and h) Test Unit 7, 10-20 cmbs. The most formal “spokeshave” is f.

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OTHER STONE ARTIFACTS Two small sandstone abrader fragments came from Test Units 1 (20-30 cmbs) and 6 (60-70 cmbs, Feature 4). The first is 2 cm long with a shallow groove on one side and the second is 3 cm long, 3-sided with a very shallow groove on one side. One sandstone grinding slab fragment was recovered from Feature 4 in Test Unit 6 (70-80 cmbs). It retains a very shallow basin and probably represents less than half of the original artifact, judging from the breakage pattern. There is an inscribed line across the artifact that probably represents trowel damage.

Feature 1 contained an elbow pipe blank made of an unidentified layered sedimentary rock (Figure 25), perhaps a kind of claystone that does not strongly resemble Kansas pipestone or catlinite. The pipe blank cracked along a fracture and shows a split along another fracture (Figure 26), which probably is why the artifact was not finished.

One reddened limestone cobble from Feature 4 is a heat-altered rock. It has the pink and powdery appearance of heated limestone. Two other small objects fall into the nonchert stone category and will be mentioned here. One small (<1 g) piece of possible pipestone was recovered in Test Unit 1, 20-30 cmbs.

Figure 25. Both sides of an elbow pipe blank from Feature 1, Test Unit 3, 70-80 cmbs.

Figure 26. Pipe blank, view from the top, showing split along the sedimentary layers.

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It has some scratches on its surface but does not look intentionally shaped. An even smaller piece of possible hematite was recovered from Test Unit 5, 0-10 cmbs. It does not look modified.

LOCAL COLLECTOR ’S COLLECTION During excavation, a local collector visited the site and brought his collection for examination. He could not provide the exact location of all of his collected artifacts, but they were from the general area. In his collection are the large bifaces and unexhausted scrapers that would have been necessary for butchering large animals and preparing hides (Figures 27 and 28) that were missing from the test excavations. He also had an assortment of miscellaneous artifacts (Figure 29).

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION Over 99% of the chipped stone from Elk Hill is high quality Permian, available locally at quarries such as 14RY6170 and 14RY5153. Small flakes of exotic material indicate that a few tools made from nonlocal materials were sharpened at the site, but left very little evidence of their use. The production of flakes and flake tools seems to have been quite important; while flakes and tools made from flakes are abundant, bifaces are rare. A shift from the production of bifaces to production of flakes and flake tools occurred in southwest Missouri during the shift from Late Woodland to Early Mississippian times, which coincides with the adoption of the bow and arrow (Ray 2010:58). A very similar process may be occurring on the Plains as well.

The sample of recovered stone artifacts indicates that the people at the Elk Hill site minimally were hunting using small triangular arrow points, scraping material (likely hides and plant materials), slicing soft materials (such as meat or plants), grinding material (such as corn or other seeds), creating flakes for flake tools, making and re-sharpening formal stone tools, and making at least one pipe. Most of the tools found during the excavations seem to have been broken or exhausted.

These tools represent a group of people involved in a subsistence economy consistent with the one described by Roper (2006b) for the Smoky Hill phase. It is a relatively diverse system possibly divided equally among the following: hunting of bison and other game, farming of maize and other plants, and gathering of wild plant resources.

The Budenbender site, 14PO4 (Johnson 1973), is located about 30 miles north of Elk Hill. Compared to Elk Hill, the stone tool assemblage is similar in type but not in number due to much more voluminous excavations at Budenbender. The proportion of tools to flakes is much higher probably because recovery methods during the 1950s excavation did not include screening. Small triangular arrow points, either notched or unnotched, were rather rare, but this might be related to the recovery methods. Bifaces and endscrapers, which occurred only in low numbers at Elk Hill, were recovered at a much higher rate. At both sites, however, flakes modified with steep scraping edges and spokeshave notches were quite common.

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Figure 27. Scrapers collected by a local artifact collector.

Figure 28. Bifaces and a battered stone collected by a local artifact collector.

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Figure 29. Other artifacts collected by local artifact collector from the general area.

Johnson states that most of the chert is the local Permian type. Sandstone and other groundstone artifacts are much more numerous at Budenbender but still are similar in type. Interestingly, two pipe fragments were found; a fragment of a finished pipe seems to be pipestone and the other small fragment is limestone.

The Minneapolis site is about 60 miles west of Elk Hill and has been the subject of several studies (Beck 1998; Fosha 1994; Wedel 1935; Wilke et al. 2002). The Minneapolis site consists of 24 small “mounds,” representing collapsed surface and subsurface houses, on a rise between Salt Creek and Solomon River in Ottawa County. Whether the entire group of houses was a contemporaneous village or a series of smaller occupations has been discussed (Beck 1998). Wedel (1935) excavated three of the houses and Witty (1971, 1974; also see Fosha 1994 and Logan and Ritterbush 1994) excavated two more. Sandstone grinding slabs, hand stones, and abraders again were common. The characteristic beveled, diamond-shaped knives were found as well small triangular points, notched and unnotched. Of particular interest are the scrapers, which are discussed in detail in Wilke et al. (2002). A cache of finished, but mostly unused scrapers was found in a subfloor pit in House 1; all are made from a local variety of Florence chert.

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Fauna There were 5.9 g of faunal material collected from the investigations at 14RY328 (Table 16). A single mussel shell fragment was recovered from the 80-90 cmbs level of Test Unit 2. The fragment was too small to identify what species it might have been. The majority of the faunal material consisted of burned and unburned bone fragments from vertebrate classes. All of the fragments were too small to identify either element or species.

One of the bone fragments recovered from the 60-70 cmbs level of Test Unit 1 had three small cut marks present indicating it may had been nicked during butchering. Table 16 shows that the recovered bone was divided fairly equally between being burned or unburned. Most of the bone that had been burned had been calcined and showed a whitish chalky texture. This indicates that it was either burned for longer periods of time or burned multiple times.

Such a small amount of bone was recovered from the investigations at Elk Hill that it is hard to draw many conclusions about it presence. The majority of the bone (3.5 g) was recovered from Test Unit 6. Most (4.7 g) was recovered from deeply buried depths of 60-90 cmbs.

Table 16 . Faunal Material Showing Location, Depth, and Condition. Artifact Weight (g) Condition Test Unit Depth Mussel shell .1 --- 2 80 -90 cmbs Bone 1.3 Cut marks 1 60 -70 cmbs Bone .1 --- 2 60 -80 cmbs Bone .6 --- 2 70 -80 cmbs Bone .2 Burned 6 30 -40 cmbs Bone .6 Burned 6 50 -60 cmbs

Bone .1 Burned 6 60 -70 cmbs Bone .1 Burned 6 70 -80 cmbs Bone 2.3 --- 6 80 -90 cmbs Bone .2 Burned 6 80 -90 cmbs Bone .3 Burned 9 10 -20 cmbs

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Charred Plant Remains Samples of charcoal were collected in at least two ways (Table 17). Some was hand-collected during excavation and some was recovered using flotation. The three flotation samples were floated with a modified SMAP-type flotation tank and the resulting charcoal was separated from the samples. The charcoal was examined using a Bausch and Lomb binocular dissecting microscope with magnification ranging from 10-70x. Not surprisingly, most of the hand- collected materials consisted of items large enough to see with the naked eye, namely wood, bark, and nutshell. The flotation samples yielded these items plus maize cupules, glume, and possible kernel, seeds, and some kind of monocot stem.

Wood was found in all of the 18 samples that contained identifiable plant remains. Bark is also quite common, being found in four of the samples. Two fragments of monocot stem could represent a species of grass. Black walnut shell or possible walnut shell was found in two of the samples. The material from Feature 3, (Test Unit 1, 68 cmbs), was badly preserved for some reason, so the identification of walnut shell in that sample is equivocal. The walnut shell from Feature 4 (Test Unit 6, 70-80 cmbs) is positively identified. Two maize cupules and a maize glume were found in the flotation sample from Feature 4, 80-90 cmbs, while a possible maize kernel was found in a sample from the same unit at 60-70 cmbs. Two seeds were found in samples from Feature 4. One seed (from the 70-80 cmbs sample) is the correct color and texture of a calcined hackberry ( Celtis ) seed but is not the correct size or shape. It better resembles a native poppy ( Argemone sp.) and the only one native to northern Kansas is A. polyanthemos . Photographs of that seed, available online at the PLANTS USDA website, show reticulations that are far too small to be the seed from Feature 4. Thus, at this time, the seed remains unidentified. A seed from the 80-90 cmbs sample is from smartweed ( Polygonum sp.), a weedy plant that commonly grows in disturbed and moist areas.

Remains of domesticated plants have previously been recovered from Smoky Hill phase sites although the recovery techniques have not been ideal. Maize, domesticated sunflower, and other cultigens have been recovered from other Central Plains tradition sites, indicating a mixed economy of farming, gathering, hunting, and fishing (Adair 2006). Maize has also been recovered from the Avoca site, an earlier Grasshopper Falls house site in Jackson County (Adair 1991).

The small amount of archaeobotanical information gleaned from the Elk Hill site indicates that the inhabitants minimally were farming maize, but were probably also growing some gourds, sunflower, and economic weedy annuals, such as chenopod. Wild plants, such as black walnut, are also in evidence and likely also would include hackberry, plum, and grape. Wood, bark, and grass stems could have been used for fuel and for construction.

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Table 17 . Summary of Charred Plant Remains.

Test Depth Feature Collection Identified Inclusions Unit cmbs Method

1 68 3 Hand Wood (badly preserved), possible walnut shell fragment

1 60-70 3 Hand Wood

2 1 Hand Wood and bark, not fully charred

2 40-50 Hand Wood

2 60-70 1 Hand Wood

2 60-80 1 Flotation Wood and bark

2 60-80 1 Flotation Wood, monocot stem

3 50-60 2 Hand Wood

6 40-50 Hand Wood

6 50-60 Hand Wood

6 60-70 Hand Wood, 1 possible maize kernel

6 60-70 Hand Wood

6 70-80 4 Flotation Wood and bark

6 70-80 4 Flotation Seed, calcined, with reticulations (2.7 x 1.9 mm; shaped like a teardrop)

6 70-80 4 Flotation Wood, walnut shell fragment

6 70-80 4 Flotation Wood

6 80-90 4 Flotation Wood

6 80-90 4 Flotation Wood, 2 maize cupules, 1 maize glume, 2 monocot stem, 1 Polygonum sp. seed

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Chapter 6. Discussion

Late Woodland Component Two components are represented at Elk Hill: a Late Woodland component and a Central Plains tradition Smoky Hill phase component. Evidence for the Late Woodland component is represented solely by a Scallorn arrow point. This point type has a very broad geographic range and does little to inform us about how 14RY328 fits in with the manifestations in the surrounding region that archeologists have carved out and described. Even the utility of the point as representing the Late Woodland is compromised by its depth and association with a dated Central Plains tradition component. No clear Late Woodland pottery was recovered; in fact, there are no other Late Woodland diagnostic artifacts other than the point.

As noted in the overview, there are few known Late Woodland components in the vicinity of Elk Hill. A September 2013 database search of sites in Riley and Geary counties found only 10 sites in Riley County with Late Woodland diagnostic artifacts and none in Geary County. Of the Riley County sites, seven had only diagnostic Scallorn points; three had Scallorn points and cord- marked pottery. One of the sites, 14RY35, is Fremont Point mound, a burial mound. This mound has 24 Scallorn points, but also has a drilled bear tooth, more typical of Middle Woodland practices, and side-notched and triangular points more typical of the Central Plains tradition. The Late Woodland and Central Plains tradition materials are almost certainly intrusive in a Middle Woodland mound. Still, the site shows a distinctive Late Woodland occupation in the region, and other burial mounds in the region may also be of Late Woodland construction or, more likely, built in the Middle Woodland period and have Late Woodland interments. Finally, it is possible that mounds are routinely recorded as Middle Woodland Schultz phase constructions with no other evidence of that period other than being mounds.

The test investigation at Elk Hill has done little to add to the meager Late Woodland evidence in the region. A fuller investigation might reveal components earlier than the Central Plains tradition, as the landform is in an excellent setting.

Central Plains Tradition Component Three Central Plains tradition Smoky Hills phase sites (14RY10, 14RY115, and 14RY5129) having artifact density and diversity that indicate more than temporary occupation are located within 15 km of Elk Hill. Roper (2012:48, also 2006a:109), discussing the Claussen site (14WB322) in neighboring Wabaunsee County, notes the low density of Central Plains tradition sites in this region. Roper considers the possibility that Claussen is a short term extraction site, so information about the distribution and nature of coeval residential sites is important in determining where sites like Claussen fit in.

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The evidence from Elk Hill indicates an occupation of several weeks or months, possibly longer. For convenience this will be described as a multi-season occupation. It is not possible using the recovered evidence to determine the length of occupation with any accuracy. For example, a substantial faunal assemblage has potential to indicate seasons of occupation based on the presence or absence of migratory species or species that hibernate, or by determining age at death of recovered endemic species. We can, however, differentiate between a temporary stay, such as a camp occupied only for a few days, and a multi-season occupation. This distinction is important in understanding the settlement and resource exploitation pattern of the site occupants. The evidence for a multi-season occupation at Elk Hill includes evidence of a house floor with daub, indicating the burning of a mud-covered structure. Test excavations were insufficient to determine if this is a Central Plains tradition earthlodge. No post molds, hearths, or intramural storage pits were located. But evidence in hand shows that at least one structure was built on the site and additional excavation of Feature 4 in Test Unit 6 also might be a structure floor.

Features 1 and 2 are likely storage pits. Like the construction of a dwelling, storage indicates a stay of some longevity—an intent to keep materials for an extended period. What was originally stored in features 1 and 2 is not apparent; they were used and then filled with garbage.

Remains of maize were recovered from Feature 4, an artifact and charcoal concentration. This is not necessarily evidence of gardening because the maize could have been brought from elsewhere. There are no clear agricultural tools recovered during the limited testing. However, the site’s setting above the floodplain of Sevenmile Creek would have been conducive for gardening. Like the construction of a substantial dwelling, gardening, if conducted at the site, is an indication of a commitment to a site for several seasons, minimally in the spring for planting and late summer or fall for harvesting.

The site produced a moderate density but wide variety of tools. Activities represented include cooking (ceramic vessels), stone tool manufacturing (flakes), hunting and possibly aggression or defense (projectile points), wooden tool manufacturing (abraders and informal spokeshaves), hide processing (scrapers), cutting (chipped stone bifacial and unifacial knives), and grinding of seeds or other materials (grinding slab fragment). Lacking is any evidence of heavy butchering and heavy wood processing which would be represented by large stone chopping tools. Still, the broad range of activities represented by functional tools categories represents not only many activities but also a diversity of the site population. Specifically, if men are primarily concerned with hunting and aggression or defense, and women with cooking, hide processing, and farming, then both sexes are represented at the site, possibly representing one or more families. This is consistent with a typical Central Plains tradition hamlet or one or two extended families (Roper 2006a:120).

The Flint Hills are aptly named. Permian-age chert is widely available in shelves of caprock on the eroded edges of slopes. Some sites, like the Dennis quarry, 14PO57, about 50 km northeast

62 of Elk Hill, show evidence of intensive quarrying activity on a flat ridgetop (Stein 2006:272- 274). Larson and Penny (1996:65, 70-71, 84, 89-90, 160-161) describe two quarries, 14RY5162, 1.5 km west of Elk Hill, and 14RY5175, described as a quarry and workshop, 4.3 km southwest of Elk Hill. These, or other unrecorded quarry sites nearby, would have been excellent and convenient sources of tool stone. Any exotics—and there are few, four out of 2,422 flakes— appearing in the Elk Hill assemblage would be obtained not out of necessity but from opportunity (encountered on a long-distance hunting trip, for example) or by trade. The overall lack of exotic material at the site suggests a population staying within a fairly confined area.

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Chapter 7. Summary and Conclusions

Test excavations at the Elk Hill site support the assertion that it is a multi-season Central Plains tradition occupation with a single artifact representing a Late Woodland component. The site’s artifact assemblage is consistent with the Smoky Hill phase. While phase constructs are, and should be, open to discussion, criticism, and re-evaluation, the artifact assemblage at Elk Hill is different enough from Nebraska and Steed-Kisker phase materials to the east to give the phase designation some utility. Accepting membership in the Smoky Hill phase, Elk Hill lies at the phase’s extreme southeastern edge. This has potential to be important when looking at Central Plains tradition social dynamics. Where and when did the Smoky Hill phase come into being, and how homogeneous—or not—is it within its boundaries? What is the nature of exchange and social relationships represented by exchange of goods within the Smoky Hill phase (Roper et al. 2007) and with people in other phase territories, or people not defined as being part of the Central Plains tradition, such as Pomona, Pratt, Bluff Creek, or other Middle Ceramic sites that do not fit in any of these categories (Brosowske and Bevitt 2006)? Test excavations at a site cannot be expected to address questions like these, but it does offer more information about population activities and their distribution in time and space.

The site was discovered and tested following the intent and procedures of the Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and associated regulations. The survey and testing was carried out under significant time pressure by staff of the Contract Archeology Program of the Kansas Historical Society, under contract with the Kansas Department of Transportation, who was carrying out cultural resources investigations for the Federal Highway Administration, the agency that is responsible for compliance with Section 106. This is worth mentioning because it highlights how many agencies and people are involved in conducting cultural resources studies such as this one. More importantly, it also points out that continued development is consuming archeological sites. While most sites documented during cultural resources compliance investigations are not eligible for listing the in National Register of Historic Places and thus are only recorded but not preserved, the process also occasionally protects a site or allows for information to be obtained before the site is destroyed.

For the Elk Hill site, the test excavations in this report resulted in a recommendation to the State Historic Preservation Officer of Kansas that the site be considered eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places. However, no formal Determination of Eligibility has been made as of the time of this report. If the site area was to be used for borrow—and that was KDOT’s intent—mitigation of the damage done by construction would have been required. The cost estimate for this work exceeded one million dollars, so KDOT decided not to take the site for borrow as a result. For now the site is preserved.

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Prolonged protection of the site is not ensured. Because it is on state land, the Kansas Antiquities Commission act offers some protection if the Kansas Department of Transportation wants to use the property for a project that is not an undertaking, as described in the regulations associated with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act, 36 CFR Part 800 and thus does not fall under Section 106. It would require a permit, and a permit would not be granted unless a responsible excavation strategy and research design was proposed. But KDOT is free to sell the property, and a private landowner can do what they want in terms of cultural resources, with the exception of human burials, on their own land. Finally, the site is on the edge of the town of Ogden, a western gateway community to the Fort Riley Military Reserve. Suburban development lies directly southwest of the site, and the site is in a very attractive setting for a housing development. In short, the site is at risk.

The Elk Hill site is important not only because it is a multi-seasonally occupied site on the southeastern edge of the Smoky Hill phase. It also has not been plowed or, if it has been plowed, the damage was short lived and minimal. Frank Norman’s report (2009) on prairie plant species on the site indicate that the site is in a relatively undisturbed state. Intact Smoky Hill phase sites are quite rare, and nearly all have been severely damaged or destroyed by development and agricultural practices (Latham 2006). Some protection is in order.

Recommendations to maintain the integrity of the site include continued ownership and protection of the property by KDOT. This, however, may not be economically feasible. If the property is to be sold, there are at least two preservation options. The first is to sell the property to an individual or institution dedicated to its preservation, such as The Archaeological Conservancy. Another option would be to transfer the land with an instrument on the deed that states that the site will be preserved by the new owner and all successive owners. This has never been done in Kansas, but this process is underway for another site.

The Elk Hill site has potential to expand our knowledge of the Central Plains tradition along the southeastern border of the Smoky Hill phase as it is currently understood. Our testing program has hinted at the nature of the site, extensive excavation would be required to truly understand the site and how it fits in with better known site in north central Kansas. Because such sites are rapidly disappearing, it is imperative that this one either be preserved or responsibly excavated and the results published.

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Szarka, Heather 2009 Archeological Survey Report on the OneOK Field Services OneOK Line 1616 Pipeline Riley County, Kansas. Report prepared by Briscoe/Szarka Consulting Services for OneOK Field Services Company, LLC. Manuscript on file, Kansas State Historic Preservation Office, Topeka.

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Tomasic, John, and Robert J. Hoard 2010 Archaeological Survey of Contractor Furnished Waste Area #1, #2, #3, #4, and #5, KDOT Project KA 0410-03, Riley County, Kansas. Submitted to the Kansas Department of Transportation. Manuscript on file, Kansas State Historic Preservation Office, Topeka.

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service 2013 The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 24 December 2013). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

United States Geological Survey 1982 7.5 minute Topographic Map, Keats Quadrangle. 1982 7.5 minute Topographic Map, Ogden Quadrangle.

Vehik, Susan C. 1988 Late Prehistoric Exchange on the Southern Plains and Its Periphery. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 13(1):41-68.

Waggoner, Tricia 2009 Archeological Survey of KDOT Project 18-81 KA-0410-01 Wetland Mitigation #1, Riley County, Kansas. Submitted to the Kansas Department of Transportation. Manuscript on file, Kansas State Historic Preservation Office, Topeka.

Wedel, Waldo R. 1935 Minneapolis 1: A Prehistoric Village Site in Ottawa County, Kansas. Nebraska History Magazine 15(3):210-237. 1959 An Introduction to Kansas Archeology . Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 174. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Wilke, Philip J., Gayle F. Carlson, and John D. Reynolds 2002 The Late Prehistoric Percussion-Blade Industry of the Central Plains. Central Plains Archeology 9(1):1-23.

Witty, Thomas A., Jr. 1971 The K.A.A. Summer Dig, 1971. Kansas Anthropological Association Newsletter 17(1- 2):25-26. 1974 K.A.A. Dig, 1973: The Minneapolis Site, One more Time. Kansas Anthropological Association Newsletter 19(5):1-5.

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Appendix 1. Inventory of Plant Species at 14RY328.

List of Plant Species Observed at Ogden Prairie Assessment

Scientific Name Common Name

Graminoids (grasses and sedges)

Andropogon gerardii Big bluestem grass Bouteloua curtipendula Side ‐oats grama Bouteloua hirsuta Hairy grama Bromus inermis * Smooth brome Bromus tectorum * Cheat grass Carex sp. Sedge Dichanthelium acuminatum Pointed dichanthelium Dichanthelium oligosanthes Scribner’s dichanthelium Koeleria macrantha Prairie June grass Panicum virgatum Switch grass Schizachyrium scoparium Little bluestem grass Sorghastrum nutans Indian grass Tridens flavus Purpletop

Wildflowers (including trees and shrubs) Achillea millefolium Western yarrow Ambrosia psilostachya Western ragweed Amorpha canescens Leadplant Antennaria neglecta Field pussy’s ‐toes Apocynum cannabinum Hemp dogbane Asclepias viridiflora Green milkweed Asclepias viridis Antelope horn milkweed Baptisia australis Blue wild ‐indigo Calylophus serrulatus Plains yellow evening ‐primrose Cirsium altissimum Tall thistle Conyza canadensis * Canadian horseweed Cornus drummondii Rough ‐leaved dogwood Dalea candida White prairie clover Desmodium illinoense Illinois tick ‐clover Dianthus armeria * Deptford pink Erigeron annuus Annual fleabane Euphorbia corollata Flowering spurge Gentiana purberulenta Downy gentian Helianthus annuus Annual sunflower Hieracium longipilum Longbeard hawkweed Juniperus virginiana Eastern red cedar

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Liatris punctata Western dotted gayfeather Linum sulcatum Grooved flax Melilotus sp. * Sweet clover Oxalis dillenii Slender yellow woodsorrel Penstemon sp. Beard tongue Plantago virginica Pale ‐seed plantain Polytaenia nuttallii Nuttall’s prairie parsley Potentilla recta * Sulfur cinquefoil Pseudognaphalium obtusifolium False ‐cudweed Psoralidium tenuiflorum Wild ‐alfalfa Rhus glabra Smooth sumac Rudbeckia hirta Black ‐eyed Susan Ruellia humilis Prairie petunia Salvia azurea Pitcher’s sage Mimosa quadrivalvis Cat ‐claw mimosa Solidago canadensis Canada goldenrod Solidago missouriensis Prairie goldenrod Solidago rigida Stiff goldenrod Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Buckbrush Sympyotrichum ericoides Heath aster Sympyotrichum pilosum Hairy aster Toxicodendron radicans Poison ivy Verbascum thapsus * Mullein Viola pedatifida Prairie violet Ulmus americana American elm Ulmus pumila * Siberian elm

*Non-native plant species.

Nomenclature follows that of Freeman, C.C. 2005. Keys to the Vascular Plants of Kansas. Unpublished. R.L. McGregor Herbarium, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.

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Appendix 2. Artifact Catalog

The artifact catalog is organized by provenience, then by the provenience code and specimen number. The Provenience Code (PC) is part of the system used by the Kansas Historical Society Contract Archeology Program to organize the catalog; it is akin to a log number, bag number, or catalog number. The specimen number identifies a specific artifact that was isolated from the rest and described separately. This information is provided in the event an outside researcher wants to examine a specific artifact.

Counts and weights (in grams) are provided. All level depths are cm below the surface.

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Appendix 2. Table 1. Artifacts from the Surface. PC Spec. No. Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 0 0 1 2.3 Historic Horseshoe Nail 0 2 1 102.9 Core/Biface frag Multidirectional 0 4 1 27.7 Core Multidirectional; Notched 0 5 1 5.9 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 0 6 1 7.4 Drill/reamer, poss. Blade with Unifacial Retouch 0 7 1 12.5 Scraper Endscraper w/ Notch 0 8 1 31.4 Core Multidirectional 0 9 1 20.6 Biface fragment One half 0 10 1 6.6 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 0 12 1 14.1 Modified Flake Notched 0 13 1 10.5 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 0 14 1 3.5 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 0 15 1 4.3 Modified Flake Bifacial Retouch 0 16 1 5.3 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 0 17 1 7.7 Modified Flake Notched 0 0 1 0.6 Debitage 0 0 1 14.5 Debitage 0 0 11 22.0 Debitage 0 1 1 402.1 Tested material Cobble 0 3 1 36.5 Tested material Natural Flake 0 11 1 1.4 Debitage 66 0 2 1.2 Debitage 66 0 8 5.3 Debitage Surface PP Data removed to 1 0.5 Arrow point fragment Tip protect site location information Surface PP 1 6.2 Scraper Endscraper

Surface PP 1 5.6 Scraper Endscraper & Sidescraper

Surface PP 1 8.3 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper

Surface PP 2 2.9 Body Sherd 1 Smooth, 1 Cordmarked, Sand Temper Surface PP 3 49.9 Burned Earth

Surface PP 4 2.9 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand & Shell Temper

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Appendix 2. Table 2. Artifacts from Auger Tests and Shovel Tests. Unit Level PC Spec. No. Ct. Wt. Artifact Description Transect 1 AT1 30-40 1 0 1 7.6 Body Sherd 3 Incised Lines, Sand Temper

Transect 1 AT3 0-50 2 0 1 0.7 Body Sherd Incised Lines Transect 1 AT3 0-50 2 0 8 6.2 Debitage Transect 1 AT4 0-25 3 0 1 1.7 Rock Transect 1 AT4 0-25 3 0 2 1.8 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper Transect 1 AT8 50-80 4 0 2 1.5 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper Transect 1 AT8 50-80 4 0 1 5.3 Daub Transect 1 AT8 50-80 4 0 0 17.6 Burned Earth Transect 1 AT8 50-80 4 1 1 0.7 Arrow point Corner Notched, Tip Missing, cf. Scallorn Transect 1 AT8 50-80 4 0 8 5.4 Debitage Transect 2 AT1 0 5 1 1 1.1 Modified Denticulated Flake Transect 2 AT2 35-40 6 0 3 1.4 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper Transect 2 AT4 30-40 7 0 2 1.0 Debitage Transect 2 AT4 30-40 7 0 1 0.6 Debitage Transect 4 AT2 0-40 8 0 8 8.3 Body Sherd Cordmarked, 6 Grit, 2 Grog Temper Transect 4 AT2 0-40 8 0 8 6.6 Debitage Transect 4 AT2 0-40 8 0 1 2.0 Debitage 3 10-20 80 0 1 0.1 Debitage 3 30-40 81 0 1 0.1 Debitage 4 20-30 82 0 4 7.6 Debitage

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Appendix 2. Table 3. Test Unit 1 Artifacts. Spec. Level PC No. Feature Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 0-10 35 0 0 3 8.5 Debitage 0-10 35 0 0 3 0.8 Burned Earth 10-20 36 0 0 1 0.6 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 10-20 36 0 0 1 1.1 Body Sherd Smooth, Grit Temper 10-20 36 1 0 1 9.1 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 10-20 36 0 0 24 27.1 Debitage 10-20 36 0 0 0 3.3 Daub 10-20 36 0 0 0 19.5 Burned Earth 10-20 36 0 0 7 18.7 Rock 20-30 9 0 0 1 0.7 Historic Nail-Wire-Common-Fragment 20-30 9 3 0 1 0.7 Rim Sherd Smooth Lip, Ext., Int., Grog Temper 20-30 9 0 0 1 2.0 Body Sherd Cordmarked, Grit Temper 20-30 9 2 0 1 6.1 Abrader Groove each side 20-30 9 1 0 1 0.6 Pipestone? Object No Convincing Modification 20-30 9 0 0 21 9.5 Debitage 20-30 9 0 0 11 19.7 Daub 20-30 9 0 0 0 55.5 Burned Earth 20-30 9 0 0 10 7.8 Rock 30-40 16 0 0 2 2 Historic Baling Wire 30-40 16 0 0 4 3.1 Historic Nail Fragment - Wire 30-40 16 0 0 1 3.1 Historic Horseshoe Nail 30-40 16 1 0 1 2.7 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 30-40 16 0 0 12 3.9 Debitage 30-40 16 2 0 1 6.8 Debitage 30-40 16 3 0 1 3.3 Debitage 30-40 16 4 0 3 2.4 Debitage 30-40 16 0 0 0 23.4 Burned Earth 30-40 16 0 0 5 15.3 Rock 40-50 10 0 0 1 1.3 Historic Nail, Wire, 2 1/2" 8d Common Body Sherd Smooth Ext., Int., Sand & Grog 40-50 10 0 0 1 3.1 Temper 40-50 10 1 0 1 1.3 Drill, possible Midsection Only 40-50 10 2 0 1 0.6 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 40-50 10 0 0 22 10.5 Debitage 40-50 10 0 0 0 25.5 Burned Earth 40-50 10 0 0 0 3.8 Daub 40-50 10 0 0 4 5.9 Rock

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Appendix 2. Table 4. Test Unit 1 Artifacts, continued. Spec. Level PC No. Feature Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 50-60 17 0 0 1 1 Historic Nail-Wire Common 50-60 17 0 0 1 0.5 Rim Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 50-60 17 0 0 1 0.1 Rim Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 50-60 17 0 0 4 18.4 Body Sherd Smooth, Grit Temper 50-60 17 0 0 7 15.6 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 50-60 17 4 0 1 37.5 Core Unidirectional 50-60 17 1 0 1 2.7 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 50-60 17 2 0 1 0.9 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 50-60 17 5 0 1 2.7 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 50-60 17 0 0 38 17.3 Debitage 50-60 17 3 0 1 4.2 Debitage 50-60 17 0 0 0 223 Burned Earth 50-60 17 0 0 13 45.2 Daub 50-60 17 0 0 2 1.1 Rock 60-70 18 0 0 4 24.4 Body Sherd 2 Cordmarked, 2 Smooth, Grog Temper 60-70 18 0 0 1 25.1 Body Sherd Cordmarked, Sand & Grog Temper 60-70 18 0 0 1 0.5 Debitage 60-70 18 0 0 28 23.5 Debitage 60-70 18 0 0 0 1.3 Bone Burned 60-70 18 0 0 0 43.9 Daub 60-70 18 0 0 0 389 Burned Earth 60-70 18 0 0 1 0.2 Charcoal Wood 60-70 18 0 0 4 19.9 Rock 60-70 18 1 0 1 2.0 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 60-70 18 2 0 1 1.3 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 66 21 0 3 9 28.8 Body Sherd May Refit 1-3; Smooth Ext., Int., Shell & Grog Temper 66 21 1 3 1 4.7 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 66 21 2 3 1 10.7 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 66 21 3 3 1 29.1 Body Sherd Cross Hatched Incised Lines, Sand Temper 67 19 0 3 0 0 Daub Daub 67 20 0 3 0 0 Bone Bone, Burned, in Soil Matrix 68 32 0 3 0 0 Charcoal Wood and Possible Walnut Shell, Badly Preserved 70-80 33 1 3 1 21.8 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 70-80 33 0 3 10 8.1 Debitage 70-80 33 0 3 2 0.3 Rock 70-80 33 0 3 0 13.3 Daub 70-80 33 0 3 0 62.7 Burned Earth 0 34 0 3 0 0 Charcoal Or Burned Wood?

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Appendix 2. Table 5. Test Unit 2 Artifacts. Spec. Level PC No. Feature Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 0-20 11 0 0 2 1.4 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 0-20 11 0 0 1 4.2 Body Sherd Cordmarked, Shell & Grit Temper 0-20 11 0 0 7 13.9 Debitage 0-20 11 0 0 2 1.3 Burned Earth 20-30 12 0 0 1 5.1 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 20-30 12 1 0 1 1.7 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch

20-30 12 0 0 28 25.8 Debitage 20-30 12 0 0 1 0.3 Debitage 20-30 12 2 0 1 0.8 Debitage 20-30 12 0 0 7 2.4 Burned Earth 30-40 13 0 0 15 18.4 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 30-40 13 1 0 1 4.4 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch with Notch 30-40 13 2 0 1 5.3 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 30-40 13 0 0 34 15.0 Debitage 30-40 13 0 0 1 5.9 Burned Earth 40-50 14 0 0 1 0.6 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 40-50 14 0 0 22 12.6 Debitage 40-50 14 0 0 1 4.6 Debitage 40-50 14 1 0 1 8.5 Debitage 40-50 14 0 0 2 5 Daub 40-50 14 0 0 10 17.8 Burned Earth 40-50 14 0 0 0 4.2 Charcoal Wood 40-50 14 0 0 3 1.1 Rock 50-60 15 0 0 2 3.5 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 50-60 23 1 1 1 7.7 Modified Flake Use Wear Present

50-60 15 0 0 1 0.2 Debitage 50-60 15 0 0 14 10.3 Debitage 50-60 15 1 0 1 0.4 Debitage 50-60 23 0 1 2 4.0 Debitage 50-60 23 0 1 0 50.2 Burned Earth 50-60 15 0 0 1 41.4 Daub 50-60 23 0 1 0 1.6 Charcoal Wood 50-60 23 0 1 0 0 Ash Sample, But Now Nonexistent 50-60 23 0 1 1 0.7 Rock 50-60 23 0 1 1 1.5 Natural

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Appendix 2. Table 6. Test Unit 2 Artifacts, continued.

Spec. Level PC No. Feature Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 60-80 26 0 1 1 1.1 Debitage From Heavy Fraction 60-80 26 0 1 43 2.4 Debitage From Heavy Fraction 60-80 26 0 1 19 0.1 Bone From Heavy Fraction 60-80 26 0 1 0 79.6 Burned Earth From Heavy Fraction 60-80 26 0 1 0 0.4 Charcoal Wood and Bark Wood, Monocot stem, Dark-colored 60-80 26 0 1 0 0 Charcoal Soil 60-80 26 0 1 1 0.1 Shell From Heavy Fraction 60-80 26 0 1 49 0.8 Rock From Heavy Fraction 70-80 24 1 1 1 194.9 Pipe Blank Elbow Pipe Blank 70-80 24 0 1 1 0.6 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 70-80 24 3 1 1 0.6 Arrow point Side Notched: Washita 70-80 24 2 1 1 2.3 Modified Flake Unifacial and Bifacial Retouch 70-80 24 3 1 2 4.7 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 70-80 24 0 1 5 3.0 Debitage 70-80 24 0 1 0 14.7 Daub 70-80 24 0 1 1 0.6 Bone 70-80 24 0 1 0 681.5 Burned Earth 70-80 24 0 1 0 12.3 Soil Sample With Soil 70-80 24 0 1 2 1.3 Rock 80-90 25 1 1 3.2 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 80-90 25 0 1 2 1.1 Debitage 80-90 25 0 1 0 0.1 Shell Mussel? 80-90 25 0 1 0 12.1 Burned Earth none 22 0 1 0 0 Charcoal Wood and Bark, Not Charred

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Appendix 2. Table 7. Test Unit 3 Artifacts. Spec. Level PC No. Feature Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 0-10 37 0 0 59 22.1 Debitage 0-10 37 0 0 1 1.8 Debitage 0-10 37 0 0 3 0.5 Rock 8-10 52 0 1 14.5 Modified Flake Notched 8-10 52 0 1 14.5 Modified Flake Bifacial Retouch with Notch 8-10 52 0 0 1 11.1 Debitage 10-20 38 0 0 12 14.3 Body Sherd Smooth, 1 Grog, 3 Grit, 8 Sand Temper 10-20 38 0 0 6 24.3 Body Sherd Cordmarked Ext., Sand Temper 10-20 38 1 0 1 2.1 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 10-20 38 2 0 1 2.1 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 10-20 38 3 0 1 1.5 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 10-20 38 6 0 1 1.3 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 10-20 38 0 0 176 69.8 Debitage 10-20 38 0 0 12 5.0 Debitage 10-20 38 4 0 1 1.6 Debitage 10-20 38 5 0 1 1.7 Debitage 10-20 38 0 0 7 2.7 Rock 16 46 1 0 1 1.1 Arrow Point Triangular: Fresno, with Burin Tip w/ Parallel Incised Lines, Unknown 20-30 53 0 0 1 6.7 Body Sherd Temper 20-30 53 0 0 10 11.9 Body Sherd Smooth, 3 Grit, 7 Sand Temper 20-30 53 2 0 1 20.9 Core Multidirectional 20-30 53 0 0 74 29.9 Debitage 20-30 53 0 0 8 1.7 Debitage 20-30 53 0 1 Debitage 20-30 53 0 0 2 0.6 Debitage 20-30 53 0 0 1 1 Rock 30-40 39 0 0 2 2.1 Debitage 30-40 39 0 0 59 17.0 Debitage 30-40 39 0 1 0.8 Debitage 40-50 40 1 0 1 7.6 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch, Almost a Graver 40-50 40 0 0 4 0.7 Debitage 40-50 40 0 0 54 14.1 Debitage 40-50 40 0 0 0 0 Charcoal 40-50 40 0 0 2 0.8 Rock 50-60 55 1 2 1 7.4 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 50-60 57 0 0 13 1.1 Debitage 50-60 57 0 0 2 0.1 Debitage 50-60 55 0 2 16 6.0 Debitage 50-60 55 0 2 2 0.2 Debitage 50-60 55 0 2 0 22.6 Charcoal Wood 58 65 0 0 2 5.5 Handle Smooth, Sand Temper 60-70 54 0 0 4 0.7 Debitage 60-70 56 0 2 1 0.1 Debitage

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Appendix 2. Table 8. Test Unit 4 Artifacts. Spec. Level PC No. Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 0-10 41 1 1 0.1 Debitage 10-20 42 1 1 1.2 Rim Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 10-20 42 0 5 3.1 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 10-20 42 0 39 23.4 Debitage 10-20 42 0 2 0.4 Debitage 10-20 42 0 2 0.9 Rock 20-30 43 0 8 16.5 Body Sherd Smooth, 2 Sand, 6 Grit Temper 20-30 43 0 133 87.0 Debitage 20-30 43 0 9 5.6 Debitage 20-30 43 0 3 1.8 Debitage 20-30 43 1 1 0.9 Debitage 20-30 43 0 4 1.2 Burned Earth 30-40 44 0 73 32.7 Debitage 30-40 44 0 15 7.3 Debitage 30-40 44 1 1 0.1 Debitage 30-40 44 2 1 0.2 Debitage 30-40 44 0 16 7.6 Rock 40-50 47 0 3 0.7 Debitage 40-50 47 0 8 3.4 Debitage 40-50 47 0 2 0.3 Debitage 40-50 47 0 3 2.4 Rock 50-60 48 0 2 1.7 Debitage 50-60 48 0 18 6.3 Debitage 50-60 48 0 4 1.3 Debitage 50-60 48 0 2 2 Rock 60-70 49 0 10 4.3 Debitage 60-70 49 0 1 3.6 Rock

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Appendix 2. Table 9. Test Unit 5 Artifacts. Spec. Level PC No. Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 0-10 45 0 15 25.2 Body Sherd 1 Cordmarked (Grit), 14 Smooth; 2 Indet., 3 Grit, 10 Sand Temper 0-10 45 0 1 2.9 Body Sherd Crosshatched Incised Lines, Sand Temper 0-10 45 0 2 2.4 Body Sherd 1 Cordmarked, 1 Smooth, Sand Temper 0-10 45 1 1 12.4 Biface fragment One half 0-10 45 2 1 41.6 Core Multidirectional 0-10 45 6 1 37.3 Core Multidirectional 0-10 45 0 1 0.2 Hematite, possible No Visible Modification 0-10 45 3 1 1.8 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 0-10 45 4 1 9.2 Modified Flake Notched (2) and Two Tiny Gravers 0-10 45 8 1 0.9 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 0-10 45 0 63 63.7 Debitage 0-10 45 0 3 29.5 Debitage 0-10 45 7 1 21.7 Debitage 0-10 45 0 10 3.9 Burned Earth 0-10 45 0 31 55.6 Rock 0-10 45 5 1 2.8 Natural 10-20 50 0 1 1.4 Body Sherd 2 Incised Lines, Sand Temper 10-20 50 1 1 0.6 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 10-20 50 0 12 14.8 Debitage 10-20 50 0 1 0.4 Burned Earth 10-20 50 0 12 12.2 Rock 20-30 51 0 3 0.7 Debitage

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Appendix 2. Table 10. Test Unit 6 Artifacts. Spec. Level PC No. Feature Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 0-10 68 0 0 3 0.4 Debitage 10-20 69 1&2 0 1 14.4 Knife-unifacial Unifacial Retouch 10-20 69 3 0 1 39.4 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 10-20 69 4 0 1 3.3 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 10-20 69 0 0 12 7.7 Debitage 10-20 69 0 0 1 1.7 Rock 20-30 70 0 0 18 13.4 Debitage 20-30 70 1 0 1 5.0 Debitage 20-30 70 0 0 0 10.1 Daub 20-30 70 0 0 0 1.6 Daub 30-40 71 0 0 7 6.2 Body Sherd 2 Cordmarked (1 Sand, 1 Grit); 3 Grit, 4 Sand Temper 30-40 71 2 0 1 7.9 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 30-40 71 3 0 1 3.4 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 30-40 71 4 0 1 1.7 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 30-40 71 0 0 41 9.2 Debitage 30-40 71 0 0 7 3.8 Debitage 30-40 71 1 0 1 16.0 Debitage 30-40 71 0 1 0.6 Debitage 30-40 71 0 0 3 0.2 Bone Burned Fragments 30-40 71 0 0 0 23.2 Burned Earth 30-40 71 0 0 0 33 Daub 30-40 71 0 0 0 12.4 Ash Sample 30-40 71 0 0 3 1.9 Rock 40-50 72 0 0 1 1.8 Body Sherd Cordmarked, Sand Temper 40-50 72 1 0 1 0.8 Arrow point Triangular: Fresno 40-50 72 0 0 68 19.4 Debitage 40-50 72 0 0 16 7.4 Debitage 40-50 72 0 0 0 58.8 Daub 40-50 72 0 0 0 31.5 Burned Earth 40-50 72 0 0 5 7.9 Burned Earth 40-50 72 0 0 0 0.1 Charcoal Wood 40-50 72 0 0 4 7.8 Rock 50-60 73 0 0 2 5.3 Body Sherd 1 Cordmarked, 1 has 3 Parallel Incised Lines 50-60 73 0 0 2 7.2 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 50-60 73 0 0 1 6.0 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand & Shell Temper 50-60 73 0 0 1 1.7 Body Sherd Smooth, 3 Incised Parallel Lines, Sand Temper 50-60 73 2 0 1 2.7 Arrow preform 50-60 73 4 0 1 8.8 Core/Biface frag Multidirectional 50-60 73 1 0 1 5.7 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 50-60 73 3 0 1 3.0 Modified Flake Notched 50-60 73 0 0 73 60.8 Debitage 50-60 73 0 0 13 4.5 Debitage 50-60 73 0 0 0 0.6 Bone Burned 50-60 73 0 0 0 67 Burned Earth 50-60 73 0 0 0 64.5 Daub 50-60 73 0 0 0 4.9 Charcoal Wood 50-60 73 0 0 0 3.5 Ash Possible 50-60 73 0 0 9 6 Rock

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Appendix 2. Table 11. Test Unit 6 Artifacts, continued. Level PC Spec. Feature Ct. Wt. Artifact Description No. 60-70 78 0 0 9 16.5 Body Sherd Smooth, 3 Grit, 6 Sand Temper 60-70 78 0 0 1 0.9 Body Sherd 2 diagonal Incised Lines, Sand Temper 60-70 78 0 0 2 5.0 Body Sherd Cordmarked, Sand Temper 60-70 79 1 0 1 33.3 Knife-unifacial Unifacial Blade Knife 60-70 78 4 0 1 2.3 Biface fragment 60-70 78 4 0 1 10.6 Abrader Groove each side 60-70 78 3 0 1 8.4 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 60-70 78 1 0 1 17.5 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 60-70 78 0 0 11 5.7 Debitage 60-70 78 0 0 109 60.0 Debitage 60-70 78 2 0 1 9.1 Debitage 60-70 78 0 0 0 0.6 Shell Mussel? 60-70 78 0 0 0 0 Charcoal Wood and 1 possible maize kernel fragment 60-70 78 0 0 0 0.1 Charcoal Wood 60-70 78 0 0 1 0.1 Bone Burned 60-70 78 0 0 0 47.9 Burned Earth 60-70 78 0 0 0 92.1 Daub 60-70 78 0 0 4 1.5 Rock 60-70 78 0 0 2 0.5 Rock 70-80 83 0 4 4 3.3 Body Sherd 1 Cordmarked, 3 Smooth, Sand Temper 70-80 83 7 4 1 0.7 Arrow point Side Notched: Washita 70-80 83 8 4 1 193.5 Grinding slab fragment 70-80 83 4 4 1 35.5 Core/Biface Multidirectional frag 70-80 83 5 4 1 34.8 Core Multidirectional 70-80 83 2 4 1 82.3 Core Multidirectional 70-80 83 3 4 1 18.0 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 70-80 83 6 4 1 4.6 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 70-80 83 1 4 1 19.0 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 70-80 83 9 4 1 6.6 Modified Flake From Heavy Fraction, Possible 70-80 83 9 4 1 6.6 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 70-80 83 10 4 1 3.9 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 70-80 83 0 4 128 258.5 Debitage 70-80 83 4 4 4 5.5 Debitage 70-80 83 0 4 252 36.1 Debitage From Heavy Fraction 70-80 83 0 4 1 0.1 Bone Burned 70-80 83 0 4 0 3.3 Burned Earth From Heavy Fraction 70-80 83 0 4 0 9.3 Burned Earth 70-80 83 0 4 0 7.5 Daub 70-80 83 0 4 2 0.9 Daub From Heavy Fraction From HF-calcined seed, possibly misshapen 70-80 83 0 4 1 0.1 Charcoal hackberry 70-80 83 0 4 0 0.4 Charcoal Wood, Walnut Shell 70-80 83 0 4 0 0.4 Charcoal Wood, Bark, Dark-colored Soil, Rock 70-80 83 0 4 0 0 Ash Sample 70-80 83 0 4 1 0.5 Rock 70-80 83 0 4 1 25.1 Rock 70-80 83 0 4 12 0.1 Rock From Heavy Fraction

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Appendix 2. Table 12. Test Unit 6 Artifacts, continued. Spec. Level PC No. Feature Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 2 Vertical & 7 Opposed Diagonal Lines, 70-80 84 0 0 1 24.4 Body Sherd Incised, Sand Temper 70-80 84 0 0 2 3.3 Body Sherd 1 Cordmarked, 1 Incised Line, Sand Temper 70-80 84 0 0 3 7.2 Body Sherd Smooth, 2 Sand, 1 Sand & Grit Temper Arrow Point 70-80 84 2 0 1 0.3 Fragment Triangular: Fresno, Tip Missing Arrow Point 70-80 84 10 0 1 0.2 Fragment Tip 70-80 84 1 0 1 8.8 Core Multidirectional 70-80 84 5 0 1 1.6 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 70-80 84 6 0 1 1.6 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 70-80 84 9 0 1 73.6 Modified Flake Notched 70-80 84 0 0 86 54.5 Debitage 70-80 84 3 0 1 11.3 Debitage 70-80 84 4 0 1 6.3 Debitage 70-80 84 7 0 1 4.4 Debitage 70-80 84 8 0 1 1.2 Debitage 70-80 84 0 0 0 0 Charcoal Wood, Daub, Soil 70-80 84 0 0 0 19.7 Burned Earth 70-80 84 0 0 0 29.5 Daub 80-90 74 1 4 1 6.7 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 80-90 74 2 4 1 2.1 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 80-90 74 3 4 1 3.1 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 80-90 74 4 4 1 1.8 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 80-90 74 0 4 15 1.0 Debitage 80-90 74 0 4 141 176.2 Debitage 80-90 74 0 4 4.7 Debitage From Heavy Fraction 80-90 74 0 4 0 2.2 Bone From Heavy Fraction, Identifiable? Mussel Shell 80-90 74 4 1 0.0 Fragment 80-90 74 0 4 0 17.4 Burned Earth From Heavy Fraction 80-90 74 0 4 4 1.4 Burned Earth 80-90 74 0 4 1 6.1 Daub 80-90 74 0 4 0 1.9 Daub From Heavy Fraction 80-90 74 0 4 4 97.3 FCR Crumbly 80-90 74 0 4 0 0.1 Charcoal Wood From Heavy Fraction: Wood, 2 cupules, 2 80-90 74 0 4 0 0.4 Charcoal monocot stem, Polygonum sp. Seed 80-90 74 0 4 0 0.1 Bone From Heavy Fraction 80-90 74 0 4 0 0.2 Bone From Heavy Fraction, Burned 80-90 74 0 4 1 0.5 Rock 80-90 74 0 4 0 0.3 Rock N Floor and Wall Scraping 85 0 0 16 18.9 Debitage " 85 0 0 1 2.1 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper " 85 0 0 2 5.9 Daub " 85 0 0 1 1.9 Burned Earth

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Appendix 2. Table 13. Test Units 7 and 8 Artifacts. Spec. Unit Level PC No. Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 7 0-10 58 0 8 6.9 Debitage 7 10-20 59 1 1 14.9 Modified Flake Notched 7 10-20 59 2 1 6.0 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 7 10-20 59 3 1 5.1 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 7 10-20 59 0 3 0.4 Debitage 7 10-20 59 0 37 9.0 Debitage 7 10-20 59 0 12 7.9 Debitage 7 10-20 59 0 3 0.7 Burned Earth 7 20-30 60 0 4 2.3 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 7 20-30 60 0 1 3.2 Body Sherd Cordmarked, Grit Temper 7 20-30 60 0 24 9.0 Debitage 7 20-30 60 0 2 3.9 Debitage 7 20-30 60 0 36 23.0 Debitage (not found during analysis) 7 20-30 60 0 0 0.1 Charcoal Burned Plant Stem 7 20-30 60 0 4 2.3 Burned Earth 7 20-30 60 0 10 16.4 Rock 7 30-40 61 0 1 1.3 Body Sherd Cordmarked, Sand Temper 7 30-40 61 0 5 1.2 Debitage 7 40-50 62 0 9 2.1 Debitage 7 40-50 62 0 2 3.1 Rock 7 50-60 75 0 5 9.9 Debitage 7 50-60 75 0 2 10.1 Rock 8 20-30 63 0 16 28.7 Body Sherd Cordmarked, Sand & Grit Temper 8 20-30 63 1 1 29.8 Core Multidirectional 8 20-30 63 2 1 11.1 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 8 20-30 63 0 19 21.6 Debitage 8 20-30 63 0 4 10.0 Debitage 8 20-30 63 0 1 0.1 Debitage 8 20-30 63 0 7 3.7 Burned Earth 8 20-30 63 0 1 1.1 Rock 8 20-30 63 0 4 10.8 Rock 8 30-40 64 0 1 0.7 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand & Grit Temper 8 30-40 64 0 7 1.2 Debitage

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Appendix 2. Table 14. Test Unit 9 Artifacts.

Spec. Level PC No. Ct. Wt. Artifact Description 0-10 76 0 3 5.6 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper

0-10 76 1&2 2 13.8 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch 0-10 76 0 12 13.6 Debitage 0-10 76 0 2 1.2 Debitage 0-10 76 0 1 0.1 Burned Earth 0-10 76 0 1 2.7 Rock 10-20 77 0 1 15.0 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper 10-20 77 0 4 5.3 Body Sherd Smooth, Grit Temper 10-20 77 0 25 54.9 Body Sherd Smooth, Sand Temper

10-20 77 1 1 1.6 Modified Flake Unifacial Retouch

10-20 77 2 1 6.0 Modified Flake Use Wear Present

10-20 77 3 1 5.1 Modified Flake Use Wear Present 10-20 77 0 14 22.8 Debitage 10-20 77 0 163 153.3 Debitage 10-20 77 0 1 0.3 Bone Burned Fragments 10-20 77 0 0 20 Burned Earth 10-20 77 0 5 4.5 Daub 10-20 77 0 3 3 Rock 10-20 77 0 10 19.1 Rock 20-30 86 2 1 7.2 Biface fragment One half 20-30 86 3 1 4.6 Biface fragment One half

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Appendix 3. Petrographic Analysis of Six Sherds from 14RY328 Site: 14RY328

ID No.: DCR-145 (#42)

Described by: R. L. Josephs

Microstructure: Planar (tabular) vughy (due to dissolution of shell temper grains)

Related Distribution Pattern:

(a)Temper – Single-spaced porphyric

(b)Natural Inclusions – Single-spaced porphyric

Aplastics:

(a)Temper – Description based solely on observed, rectilinear, void pseudomorphs: Strongly expressed (horizontal) orientation, poorly sorted, angular, coarse to very coarse sand-size, shell fragments. The temper abundance is common (15-30%).

(b)Natural Inclusions – Unoriented, well sorted, subangular to subrounded, fine to very fine sand-size, mono- and polymineralic grains that include quartz, undifferentiated feldspars, muscovite, and opaques

Micromass: Approximate even distribution of undifferentiated and crystallitic b-fabrics

Pedorelicts: Anorthic (Fe-Mn) nodules

Organic Material: None observed

Voids: Void pseudomorphs, planes, vughs, channels

Oxidation Rind: Present, grayish-orange (~3 mm-wide)

Temper: Leached shell

Comments

This section contains no intact shell temper fragments.

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Site: 14RY328 ID No.: DCR-146 (#43) Described by: R. L. Josephs

Microstructure: Planar (tabular) vughy (due to dissolution of shell temper grains)

Related Distribution Pattern:

(a)Temper – Grit: open to single-spaced porphyric; Shell: open to single-spaced porphyric

(b)Natural Inclusions – Double-spaced to single-spaced porphyric

Aplastics:

(a)Temper – Grit: Few (5-15%), unoriented, poorly sorted, medium, coarse, very coarse sand- size and granule-size grains composed of quartz, feldspars, micas, and calcite

Shell: Description based solely on observed, rectilinear, void pseudomorphs: Few (5-15%), thin (1 mm x 1/16 mm) with strongly expressed (horizontal) orientation, poorly sorted, angular, coarse to very coarse sand-size, shell fragments

(b)Natural Inclusions – Unoriented, well sorted, subangular to subrounded, very fine sand-size, mono- and polymineralic grains that include quartz, undifferentiated feldspars, muscovite, calcite, and opaques

Micromass: Approximate even distribution of undifferentiated and crystallitic b-fabrics.

Pedorelicts: Anorthic (Fe-Mn) nodules

Organic Material: None observed

Voids: Void pseudomorphs, planes, vughs, channels, chambers

Oxidation Rind: Absent

Temper: Composite (grit and leached shell)

Comments

This section contains no intact shell fragments. It displays good examples of porostriated b- fabrics surrounding many of the void pseudomorphs. This section contains noticeably fewer natural inclusions.

Site: 14RY328

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ID No.: DCR-147 (#44) Described by: R. L. Josephs

Microstructure: Complex (tabular vughy [void pseudomorphs] and vughy)

Related Distribution Pattern:

(a)Temper – Grit: open porphyric; Shell: double-spaced to single-spaced porphyric

(b)Natural Inclusions – Double-spaced to single-spaced porphyric

Aplastics:

(a)Temper – Grit: Very few (<5%), only four possible polyquartz grit temper grains observed

Shell: Description based solely on observed, rectilinear, void pseudomorphs: Few (5-15%) with strongly expressed (horizontal) orientation, poorly sorted, angular, coarse to very coarse sand- size, shell fragments

(b)Natural Inclusions – Unoriented, well sorted, subangular to subrounded, very fine sand-size, mono- and polymineralic grains that include quartz, undifferentiated feldspars, muscovite, and opaques

Micromass: Predominantly crystallitic b-fabrics

Pedorelicts: Anorthic (Fe-Mn) nodules

Organic Material: Acicular plant residue (needle, stem, root) in void

Voids: Void pseudomorphs, planes, vughs, channels, chambers

Oxidation Rind: Present, minor remnants (orange-brown to yellow-brown)

Temper: Composite (grit and leached shell)

Comments

This section contains only four possible grit temper grains and no intact shell fragments.

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Site: 14RY328 ID No.: DCR-148 (#45) Described by: R. L. Josephs

Microstructure: Massive with channel and chamber

Related Distribution Pattern:

(a)Temper – Open porphyric (grit, grog, and shell)

(b)Natural Inclusions – Double-spaced to single-spaced porphyric

Aplastics:

(a)Temper – Grit: Very few (<5%), poorly sorted, medium to very coarse sand-size polymineralic grains; Grog: Very Few (<5%) grog fragments; Leached Shell: Very few (<5%) leached shell fragments

(b)Natural Inclusions – Unoriented, well sorted, subangular to subrounded, very fine to fine sand-size, mono- and polymineralic grains that include quartz, undifferentiated feldspars, muscovite, and opaques

Micromass: Predominantly undifferentiated with mosaic speckled and strial b-fabrics in the oxidation rind

Pedorelicts: Anorthic (Fe-Mn) nodules

Organic Material: None observed

Voids: Void pseudomorphs, planes, vughs, channels, chambers

Oxidation Rind: Present, prominent (1-2 mm wide) brownish yellow

Temper: Composite (grit, grog, and leached shell)

Comments

This section evinces three forms of temper (grit, grog, and leached shell). None of the three tempering agents appears more prominent than any other. There is a noticeable presence of fine sand-size grains among the natural inclusions.

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Site: 14RY328 ID No.: DCR-149 (#46) Described by: R. L. Josephs

Microstructure: Planar (tabular) vughy (due to dissolution of shell temper grains)

Related Distribution Pattern:

(a)Temper – Open to single-spaced porphyric (based on void pseudomorphs)

(b)Natural Inclusions – Double-spaced to single-spaced porphyric

Aplastics:

(a)Temper – Description based solely on observed, rectilinar, void pseudomorphs: Few (5-15%) with strongly expressed (horizontal) orientation, moderately sorted, angular, coarse to very coarse sand-size, shell fragments.

(b)Natural Inclusions – Unoriented, well sorted, subangular to subrounded, very fine to fine sand-size, mono- and polymineralic grains that include quartz, undifferentiated feldspars, muscovite, and opaques

Micromass: Comingling of undifferentiated and crystallitic forms (mosaic speckled, porostriated, and strial b-fabrics)

Pedorelicts: Anorthic (Fe-Mn) nodules

Organic Material: None observed

Voids: Void pseudomorphs, planes, vughs

Oxidation Rind: Present, remnants, light yellow brown

Temper: Leached shell

Comments

No intact shell fragments are present in this section. No conclusive evidence of grit tempering was observed, contrary to the macroscopic description.

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Site: 14RY328 ID No.: DCR-150 (#47) Described by: R. L. Josephs

Microstructure: Massive with minor planes, vughs, and channels

Related Distribution Pattern:

(a)Temper – Double-spaced to single-spaced porphyric

(b)Natural Inclusions – Double-spaced to single-spaced porphyric

Aplastics:

(a)Temper – Few (5-15%), unoriented, moderately sorted, subangular to subrounded, coarse and very coarse sand-size and granule-size grog fragments

(b)Natural Inclusions – Unoriented, well sorted, subangular to subrounded, very fine sand-size, mono- and polymineralic grains that include quartz, undifferentiated feldspars, muscovite, and opaques

Micromass: The majority of this section is composed of crystallitic forms, particularly strial b- fabrics that accentuate parallel lineations within the sample.

Pedorelicts: Anorthic (Fe-Mn) nodules

Organic Material: None observed

Voids: Planes, vughs, channels

Oxidation Rind: Present, prominent (~2 mm wide), orange-/yellow-brown

Temper: Grog

Comments

This section contains numerous, distinct, horizontal lineations that may represent an engineering preference, a juxtaposition of clay types, used by the potter in the manufacture of the vessel. The temper appears to be grog fragments, the majority with opaque (black) undifferentiated b-fabrics, not grit as identified macroscopically.

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