Louis Armstrong

Louis Armstrong (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971),[1] nicknamed Satchmo[2] or Pops, was an American jazz trumpeter, composer and singer who became one of the pivotal and most influential figures in jazz music. His ca- reer spanned from the 1920s to the 1960s, covering many different eras of jazz. Coming to prominence in the 1920s as an “inventive” trumpet and cornet player, Armstrong was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from col- lective improvisation to solo performance. With his in- stantly recognizable gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer, demonstrating great dexterity as an improviser, bending the lyrics and melody of a song for expressive purposes. He was also skilled at scat singing. Renowned for his charismatic stage presence and voice almost as much as for his trumpet-playing, Armstrong’s influence extends well beyond jazz music, and by the end of his career in the 1960s, he was widely regarded as a profound influence on popular music in general. Armstrong was one of the first truly popular African- American entertainers to “cross over”, whose skin color was secondary to his music in an America that was ex- tremely racially divided. He rarely publicly politicized his race, often to the dismay of fellow African-Americans, Handcolored etching Louis Armstrong (2002) by Adi Holzer but took a well-publicized stand for desegregation dur- ing the Little Rock Crisis. His artistry and personality allowed him socially acceptable access to the upper ech- elons of American society which were highly restricted in the care of his grandmother, Josephine Armstrong, and for black men of his era. at times, his Uncle Isaac. At five, he moved back to live with his mother and her relatives, and only saw his father in parades. He attended the Fisk School for Boys, where he most 1 Early life likely had early exposure to music. He brought in some money as a paperboy and also by finding discarded food Armstrong often stated that he was born on July 4, and selling it to restaurants, but it was not enough to keep 1900,[3][4] a date that has been noted in many biographies. his mother from prostitution. He hung out in dance halls Although he died in 1971, it was not until the mid-1980s close to home, where he observed everything from licen- that his true birth date of August 4, 1901 was discov- tious dancing to the quadrille. For extra money he also ered by researcher Tad Jones through the examination of hauled coal to Storyville, and listened to the bands play- baptismal records.[5] ing in the brothels and dance halls, especially Pete Lala’s, Armstrong was born into a poor family in New Orleans, where Joe “King” Oliver performed as well as other fa- Louisiana, and was the grandson of slaves. He spent his mous musicians who would drop in to jam. youth in poverty, in a rough neighborhood known as “the After dropping out of the Fisk School at age eleven, Arm- Battlefield”, which was part of the Storyville legal pros- strong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for titution district. His father, William Armstrong (1881– money. He also started to get into trouble. Cornet player 1922), abandoned the family when Louis was an infant Bunk Johnson said he taught Armstrong (then 11) to play and took up with another woman. His mother, Mary by ear at Dago Tony’s Tonk in New Orleans,[6] although in “Mayann” Albert (1886–1927), then left Louis and his his later years Armstrong gave the credit to Oliver. Arm- younger sister, Beatrice Armstrong Collins (1903–1987), strong hardly looked back at his youth as the worst of

1 2 2 CAREER

times but drew inspiration from it instead: “Every time I got his first dance hall job at Henry Ponce’s where Black close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right Benny became his protector and guide. He hauled coal in the heart of good old New Orleans... It has given me by day and played his cornet at night. [7] something to live for.” He played in the city’s frequent brass band parades and He also worked for a Lithuanian-Jewish immigrant fam- listened to older musicians every chance he got, learning ily, the Karnofskys, who had a junk hauling business and from Bunk Johnson, Buddy Petit, Kid Ory, and above all, gave him odd jobs. They took him in and treated him like Joe “King” Oliver, who acted as a mentor and father fig- family; knowing he lived without a father, they fed and ure to the young musician. Later, he played in brass bands nurtured him.[8] He later wrote a memoir of his relation- and riverboats of New Orleans, and began traveling with ship with the Karnofskys titled, Louis Armstrong + the the well-regarded band of Fate Marable, which toured on Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907. In a steamboat up and down the Mississippi River. He de- it he describes his discovery that this family was also sub- scribed his time with Marable as “going to the Univer- ject to discrimination by “other white folks” nationalities sity,” since it gave him a much wider experience working who felt that they were better than the Jewish race... “I with written arrangements. was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly In 1919, Joe Oliver decided to go north and resigned his treatment that the White Folks were handing the poor [9] position in Kid Ory’s band; Armstrong replaced him. He Jewish family whom I worked for.” Armstrong wore also became second trumpet for the Tuxedo Brass Band, a Star of David pendant for the rest of his life and wrote a society band.[14] about what he learned from them: “how to live—real life and determination.”[10] The influence of Karnofsky is re- membered in New Orleans by the Karnofsky Project, a non-profit organization dedicated to accepting donated 2 Career musical instruments to “put them into the hands of an ea- ger child who could not otherwise take part in a wonderful learning experience.”[11]

Armstrong with his first trumpet instructor, Peter Davis, in 1965

Armstrong developed his cornet playing skills by play- Label for gramophone record,"Heebie Jeebies" by Louis Arm- ing in the band of the New Orleans Home for Colored strong and his Hot Five Waifs, where he had been sent multiple times for general delinquency, most notably for firing his stepfather’s pistol into the air at a New Year’s Eve celebration, but it was only an empty shot, as police records confirm. Profes- 2.1 1920s sor Peter Davis (who frequently appeared at the home at the request of its administrator, Captain Joseph Jones)[12] Through all his riverboat experience Armstrong’s musi- instilled discipline in and provided musical training to cianship began to mature and expand. At twenty, he could the otherwise self-taught Armstrong. Eventually, Davis read music and started to be featured in extended trum- made Armstrong the band leader. The home band played pet solos, one of the first jazz men to do this, injecting around New Orleans and the thirteen-year-old Louis be- his own personality and style into his solo turns. He had gan to draw attention by his cornet playing, starting him learned how to create a unique sound and also started us- on a musical career.[13] At fourteen he was released from ing singing and patter in his performances.[15] In 1922, the home, living again with his father and new step- Armstrong joined the exodus to Chicago, where he had mother, Gertrude, and then back with his mother and been invited by his mentor, Joe “King” Oliver, to join his thus back to the streets and their temptations. Armstrong Creole Jazz Band and where he could make a sufficient 2.1 1920s 3

"Mack The Knife" “Muggles"(1938 reissue pressing)

bels (jazz records were starting to boom across the coun- try), including taking some solos and breaks, while play- ing second cornet in Oliver’s band in 1923. At this time, he met Hoagy Carmichael (with whom he would collabo- rate later) who was introduced by friend Bix Beiderbecke, who now had his own Chicago band. Armstrong enjoyed working with Oliver, but Louis’ sec- ond wife, pianist Lil Hardin Armstrong, urged him to seek more prominent billing and develop his newer style away from the influence of Oliver. Armstrong took the advice of his wife and left Oliver’s band. For a year Arm- strong played in Fletcher Henderson's band in New York on many recordings. After playing in New York, Arm- strong returned to Chicago, playing in large orchestras; there he created his most important early recordings.[17] Lil had her husband play classical music in church con- "Skokiaan" certs to broaden his skill and improve his solo play and she prodded him into wearing more stylish attire to make him look sharp and to better offset his growing girth. Lil’s in- income so that he no longer needed to supplement his mu- fluence eventually undermined Armstrong’s relationship sic with day labor jobs. It was a boom time in Chicago with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and ad- and though race relations were poor, the city was teem- ditional moneys that Oliver held back from Armstrong ing with jobs available also for black people, who were and other band members. Armstrong and Oliver parted making good wages in factories and had plenty to spend amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong received on entertainment. an invitation to go to New York City to play with the Oliver’s band was among the most influential jazz bands Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, the top African-American in Chicago in the early 1920s, at a time when Chicago band of the time. Armstrong switched to the trumpet to was the center of the jazz universe. Armstrong lived lux- blend in better with the other musicians in his section. His uriously in Chicago, in his own apartment with his own influence upon Henderson’s tenor sax soloist, Coleman private bath (his first). Excited as he was to be in Chicago, Hawkins, can be judged by listening to the records made he began his career-long pastime of writing nostalgic let- by the band during this period. ters to friends in New Orleans. As Armstrong’s repu- Armstrong quickly adapted to the more tightly controlled tation grew, he was challenged to “cutting contests” by style of Henderson, playing trumpet and even experi- hornmen trying to displace the new phenomenon, who menting with the trombone. The other members quickly could blow two hundred high Cs in a row.[16] Armstrong took up Armstrong’s emotional, expressive pulse. Soon made his first recordings on the Gennett and Okeh la- his act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans 4 2 CAREER

characters, especially preachers.[18] The Henderson Or- the Hot Five recording "Heebie Jeebies" in 1926. The chestra was playing in prominent venues for white-only recording was so popular that the group became the most patrons, including the famed Roseland Ballroom, featur- famous jazz band in the United States, even though they ing the arrangements of Don Redman. Duke Ellington's had not performed live to any great extent. Young musi- orchestra would go to Roseland to catch Armstrong’s per- cians across the country, black or white, were turned on formances and young horn men around town tried in vain by Armstrong’s new type of jazz.[22] to outplay him, splitting their lips in their attempts. During this time, Armstrong made many recordings on the side, arranged by an old friend from New Orleans, pi- anist Clarence Williams; these included small jazz band sides with the Williams Blue Five (some of the most memorable pairing Armstrong with one of Armstrong’s few rivals in fiery technique and ideas, Sidney Bechet) and a series of accompaniments with blues singers, including Bessie Smith, Ma Rainey, and Alberta Hunter. Armstrong returned to Chicago in 1925 due mostly to the urging of his wife, who wanted to pump up Armstrong’s career and income. He was content in New York but later would concede that she was right and that the Henderson Orchestra was limiting his artistic growth. In publicity, With Jack Teagarden (left) and Barney Bigard (right), Armstrong much to his chagrin, she billed him as “the World’s Great- plays the trumpet in Helsinki, Finland, October 1949 est Trumpet Player”. At first, he was actually a mem- ber of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and working for After separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at his wife.[19] He began recording under his own name for the Sunset Café for Al Capone's associate Joe Glaser in Okeh with his famous Hot Five and Hot Seven groups, the Carroll Dickerson Orchestra, with Earl Hines on pi- producing hits such as "Potato Head Blues", "Muggles", ano, which was soon renamed Louis Armstrong and his (a reference to marijuana, for which Armstrong had a Stompers,[23] though Hines was the music director and lifelong fondness), and "West End Blues", the music of Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong be- which set the standard and the agenda for jazz for many came fast friends and successful collaborators.[24] years to come. Armstrong returned to New York, in 1929, where he The group included Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds played in the pit orchestra of the successful musical Hot (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), wife Lil on piano, and Chocolate, an all-black revue written by Andy Razaf and usually no drummer. Armstrong’s band leading style was pianist/composer Fats Waller. He also made a cameo ap- easygoing, as St. Cyr noted, “One felt so relaxed working pearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his with him, and he was very broad-minded ... always did rendition of "Ain't Misbehavin'", his version of the song his best to feature each individual.”[20] Among the most becoming his biggest selling record to date.[25] notable of the Hot Five and Seven records were “Cor- net Chop Suey,” “Struttin' With Some Barbecue,” “Hotter Than that” and “Potato Head Blues,”, all featuring highly 2.2 1930s creative solos by Armstrong. His recordings soon after with pianist Earl “Fatha” Hines (most famously their 1928 Armstrong started to work at Connie’s Inn in Harlem, “Weatherbird” duet) and Armstrong’s trumpet introduc- chief rival to the Cotton Club, a venue for elaborately tion to and solo in “West End Blues” remain some of the staged floor shows,[26] and a front for gangster Dutch most famous and influential improvisations in jazz his- Schultz. Armstrong also had considerable success with tory. Armstrong was now free to develop his personal vocal recordings, including versions of famous songs style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effer- composed by his old friend Hoagy Carmichael. His vescent jive, such as “whip that thing, Miss Lil” and “Mr. 1930s recordings took full advantage of the new RCA Johnny Dodds, Aw, do that clarinet, boy!"[21] ribbon microphone, introduced in 1931, which imparted a characteristic warmth to vocals and immediately be- Armstrong also played with Erskine Tate's Little Sym- came an intrinsic part of the 'crooning' sound of artists phony, which played mostly at the Vendome Theatre. like Bing Crosby. Armstrong’s famous interpretation of They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, in- Carmichael’s "Stardust" became one of the most success- cluding jazz versions of classical music, such as “Madame ful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Arm- Butterfly”, which gave Armstrong experience with longer strong’s unique vocal sound and style and his innovative forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. approach to singing songs that had already become stan- He began to scat sing (improvised vocal jazz using non- dards. sensical words) and was among the first to record it, on Armstrong’s radical re-working of Sidney Arodin and 2.3 1940s 5

Carmichael’s "Lazy River" (recorded in 1931) encapsu- portunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in Los An- lated many features of his groundbreaking approach to geles with Lionel Hampton on drums. The band drew the melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trum- Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish night pet solo, then the main melody is introduced by sobbing life, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong’s growling younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other interjections at the end of each bar: “Yeah! ..."Uh-huh” celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong ..."Sure” ... “Way down, way down.” In the first verse, he appeared in his first movie, Ex-Flame and was also con- ignores the notated melody entirely and sings as if play- victed of marijuana possession but received a suspended ing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a sentence.[28] He returned to Chicago in late 1931 and single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In played in bands more in the Guy Lombardo vein and he the second stanza he breaks into an almost fully impro- recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he vised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage get out of town,[29] Armstrong visited New Orleans, had of Armstrong "scat singing". a hero’s welcome and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team known as “Armstrong’s Secret Nine” and had a cigar named after him.[30] But soon he was on the road again and after a tour across the country shad- owed by the mob, Armstrong decided to go to Europe to escape. After returning to the United States, he undertook sev- eral exhausting tours. His agent Johnny Collins’ erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Fi- nally, he hired Joe Glaser as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer, who began to straighten out his legal mess, his mob troubles, and his debts. Arm- strong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, which were aggravated by his unorthodox play- ing style. As a result, he branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. He appeared in movies again, including Crosby’s 1936 hit Pennies from Heaven. In 1937, Armstrong substituted for Rudy Vallee on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored, national broadcast.[31]

Louis Armstrong in 1953

As with his trumpet playing, Armstrong’s vocal innova- tions served as a foundation stone for the art of jazz vocal 2.3 1940s interpretation. The uniquely gritty coloration of his voice became a musical archetype that was much imitated and After spending many years on the road, Armstrong set- endlessly impersonated. His scat singing style was en- tled permanently in Queens, New York in 1943 in con- riched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. tentment with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling ca- to the vicissitudes of Tin Pan Alley and the gangster- dences on sides such as “Lazy River” exerted a huge in- ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, fluence on younger white singers such as Bing Crosby. he continued to develop his playing. He recorded Hoagy The Great Depression of the early 1930s was especially Carmichael’s Rockin' Chair for Okeh Records. hard on the jazz scene. The Cotton Club closed in During the subsequent thirty years, Armstrong played 1936 after a long downward spiral, and many musicians more than three hundred gigs a year. Bookings for big stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated. Bix bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in pub- Beiderbecke died and Fletcher Henderson’s band broke lic tastes: ballrooms closed, and there was competition up. King Oliver made a few records but otherwise strug- from television and from other types of music becoming gled. Sidney Bechet became a tailor and Kid Ory re- [27] more popular than big band music. It became impossible turned to New Orleans and raised chickens. under such circumstances to support and finance a 16- Armstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new op- piece touring band. 6 3 PERSONAL LIFE

2.4 1950s-1970s

With the publishers’ permission, Armstrong recorded the first American version of "C'est si bon" on June 26, 1950, in New York, with English lyrics by Jerry Seelen. When it was released, the disc garnered worldwide sales. In the 1960s, he toured Ghana and Nigeria, performing with Victor Olaiya during the Nigerian Civil war.[32][33] In 1964, he recorded his biggest-selling record, "Hello, Dolly!", a song by Jerry Herman, originally sung by Carol Channing. Armstrong’s version remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, longer than any other record produced that year, and went to No. 1 making him, at 62 years, 9 months and 5 days, the oldest person ever to accomplish that feat. In the process, he dislodged the Beatles from the No. 1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs.[34] Armstrong kept up his busy tour schedule until a few years before his death in 1971. He also toured Africa, Eu- rope, and Asia under the sponsorship of the US State De- partment with great success, earning the nickname “Am- bassador Satch” and inspiring Dave Brubeck to compose his jazz musical The Real Ambassadors.[35] Louis Armstrong in 1953 3 Personal life

3.1 Pronunciation of name

2.3.1 The All Stars The Louis Armstrong House Museum website states:

Judging from home recorded tapes now in During the 1940s, a widespread revival of interest in the our Museum Collections, Louis pronounced traditional jazz of the 1920s made it possible for Arm- his own name as “Lewis.” On his 1964 record strong to consider a return to the small-group musical “Hello, Dolly,” he sings, “This is Lewis, Dolly” style of his youth. Following a highly successful small- but in 1933 he made a record called “Laughin’ group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, Louie.” Many broadcast announcers, fans, and 1947, featuring Armstrong with trombonist/singer Jack acquaintances called him “Louie” and in a Teagarden, Armstrong’s manager, Joe Glaser dissolved videotaped interview from 1983 Lucille Arm- the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947 and es- strong calls her late husband “Louie” as well. tablished a six-piece traditional jazz small group featur- Musicians and close friends usually called him [36] ing Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, Earl Hines and “Pops.” other top swing and Dixieland musicians, most of them ex-big band leaders. The new group was announced at In a memoir written for Robert Goffin between 1943 and the opening of Billy Berg’s Supper Club. 1944, Armstrong states, “All white folks call me Louie,” suggesting that he himself did not.[37] That said, Arm- This group was called Louis Armstrong and his All Stars strong was registered as “Lewie” for the 1920 U.S. Cen- and included at various times Earl “Fatha” Hines, Barney sus. On various live records he’s called “Louie” on stage, Bigard, Edmond Hall, Jack Teagarden, Trummy Young, such as on the 1952 “Can Anyone Explain?" from the Arvell Shaw, Billy Kyle, Marty Napoleon, Big Sid Catlett, live album In Scandinavia vol.1. It should also be noted Cozy Cole, Tyree Glenn, Barrett Deems, Joe Darens- that “Lewie” is the French pronunciation of “Louis” and bourg, Eddie Shu and percussionist Danny Barcelona. is commonly used in Louisiana. During this period, Armstrong made many recordings and appeared in over thirty films. He was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of Time magazine, on 3.2 Family February 21, 1949. In 1948, he participated in the Nice Jazz Festival, where Suzy Delair sang "C'est si bon", by On March 19, 1918, at the age of 16, Louis married Daisy Henri Betti and André Hornez, for the first time in public. Parker, a prostitute from Gretna, Louisiana.[38] They 3.4 Nicknames 7 adopted a 3-year-old boy, Clarence Armstrong, whose alienated him from members of the black community mother, Louis’ cousin Flora, died soon after giving birth. who looked to him to use his prominence with white Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled (the result of America to become more of an outspoken figure during a head injury at an early age) and Louis would spend the the Civil Rights Era of U.S. history. rest of his life taking care of him.[39] Louis’ marriage to Parker failed quickly and they separated in 1923. 3.4 Nicknames

Armstrong with Lucille Wilson (c. 1960s)

On February 4, 1924, Louis married Lil Hardin Arm- strong, who was Oliver’s pianist and had also divorced her first spouse only a few years earlier. His second wife was instrumental in developing his career, but in the late Autograph of Armstrong on the muretto of Alassio 1920s Hardin and Louis grew apart. They separated in 1931 and divorced in 1938, after which Louis married The nicknames Satchmo and Satch are short for longtime girlfriend Alpha Smith.[40] His marriage to his Satchelmouth. Like many things in Armstrong’s life, third wife lasted four years, and they divorced in 1942. which was filled with colorful stories both real and imag- Louis then married Lucille Wilson, a singer at the Cotton ined, many of his own telling, the nickname has many Club, to whom he was married until his death in 1971.[41] possible origins. Armstrong’s marriages never produced any offspring, The most common tale that biographers tell is the story though he loved children.[42] However, in December of Armstrong as a young boy dancing for pennies in the 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his streets of New Orleans, who would scoop up the coins daughter, from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and off of the streets and stick them into his mouth to avoid Lucille “Sweets” Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club.[43] having the bigger children steal them from him. Some- In a 1955 letter to his manager, Joe Glaser, Armstrong one dubbed him “satchel mouth” for his mouth acting as affirmed his belief that Preston’s newborn baby was his a satchel. Another tale is that because of his large mouth, daughter, and ordered Glaser to pay a monthly allowance he was nicknamed “satchel mouth” which became short- of $400 to mother and child.[44] ened to Satchmo. Early on he was also known as Dipper, short for Dipper- mouth, a reference to the piece Dippermouth Blues.[45] 3.3 Personality and something of a riff on his unusual embouchure. Armstrong was noted for his colorful and charismatic per- The nickname Pops came from Armstrong’s own ten- sonality. His autobiography vexed some biographers and dency to forget people’s names and simply call them historians, as he had a habit of telling tales, particularly “pops” instead. The nickname was soon turned on Arm- of his early childhood, when he was less scrutinized, and strong himself. It was used as the title of a 2010 biogra- his embellishments of his history often lack consistency. phy of Armstrong by Terry Teachout. In addition to an entertainer, Armstrong was a leading personality of the day. He was beloved by an American 3.5 Race public that gave even the greatest African American per- formers little access beyond their public celebrity, and he Armstrong was largely accepted into white society, both was able to live a private life of access and privilege af- on stage and off, a privilege reserved for very few African- forded to few other African Americans during that era. American public figures, and usually those of either ex- He generally remained politically neutral, which at times ceptional talent or fair skin tone. As his fame grew, so 8 3 PERSONAL LIFE

Star of David in honor of the Karnofsky family, who took him in as a child and lent him the money to buy his first cornet. Louis Armstrong was, in fact, baptized as a Catholic at the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans,[51] and he met popes Pius XII and Paul VI, though there is no evidence that he considered himself Catholic. Armstrong seems to have been tolerant towards various religions, but also found humor in them.

3.7 Personal habits Armstrong’s autograph from the 1960s Armstrong was concerned with his health. He used did his access to the finer things in life usually denied to laxatives to control his weight, a practice he advocated a black man, even a famous one. His renown was such both to acquaintances and in the diet plans he published that he dined in reputable restaurants and stayed in hotels under the title Lose Weight the Satchmo Way. Arm- usually exclusively for whites.[46] It was a power and priv- strong’s laxative of preference in his younger days was ilege that he enjoyed, although he was very careful not to Pluto Water, but he then became an enthusiastic convert flaunt it with fellow performers of color, and privately, he when he discovered the herbal remedy Swiss Kriss. He shared what access that he could with friends and fellow would extol its virtues to anyone who would listen and musicians. pass out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the British Royal Family. (Armstrong also That still did not prevent members of the African- appeared in humorous, albeit risqué, cards that he had American community, particularly in the late 1950s to printed to send out to friends; the cards bore a picture of the early 1970s, from calling him an Uncle Tom, a black- him sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole— on-black racial epithet for someone who kowtowed to with the slogan “Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya!'")[52] white society at the expense of their own racial iden- The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as tity. Billie Holiday countered, however, “Of course Pops ads for Swiss Kriss.[53] In a live recording of "Baby, It’s [47] toms, but he toms from the heart.” He was criticized Cold Outside" with Velma Middleton, he changes the for accepting the title of “King of The Zulus" for Mardi lyric from “Put another record on while I pour” to “Take Gras in 1949. In the New Orleans African-American some Swiss Kriss while I pour.”[54] community it is an honored role as the head of lead- ing black Carnival Krewe, but bewildering or offensive The concern with his health and weight was balanced by to outsiders with their traditional costume of grass-skirts his love of food, reflected in such songs as “Cheesecake”, [55] and blackface makeup satirizing southern white attitudes. “Cornet Chop Suey,” though “Struttin’ with Some Bar- becue” was written about a fine-looking companion, not Some musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front about food.[56] He kept a strong connection throughout of segregated audiences, and for not taking a strong his life to the cooking of New Orleans, always signing his [48] enough stand in the civil rights movement. The few letters, "Red beans and ricely yours...”[57] exceptions made it more effective when he did speak out. Armstrong’s criticism of President Eisenhower, call- ing him “two-faced” and “gutless” because of his in- 3.8 Writings action during the conflict over school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957 made national news. As a Armstrong’s gregariousness extended to writing. On protest, Armstrong canceled a planned tour of the Soviet the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes Union on behalf of the State Department saying “The of his life with correspondents around the world. He way they're treating my people in the South, the govern- avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at ment can go to hell” and that he could not represent his hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, child- government abroad when it was in conflict with its own [49] hood memories, his heavy “medicinal” marijuana use— people. and even his bowel movements, which he gleefully The FBI kept a file on Armstrong, for his outspokenness described.[58] He had a fondness for lewd jokes and dirty about integration.[50] limericks as well.

3.6 Religion 3.9 Social organizations

When asked about his religion, Armstrong would answer Louis Armstrong was not, as is often claimed, a that he was raised a Baptist, always wore a Star of David, Freemason. Although he is usually listed as being a mem- and was friends with the Pope.[51] Armstrong wore the ber of Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall) in New 4.2 Vocal popularity 9

York, no such lodge has ever existed. Armstrong states ings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the in his autobiography, however, that he was a member of road with him in a trunk during his later career. He en- the Knights of Pythias, which is not a Masonic group.[59] joyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, he had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse 4 Music and record along with his older recordings or the radio.[60]

4.1 Horn playing and early jazz 4.2 Vocal popularity

As his music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it with the first recording on which he scatted, "Heebie Jeebies". At a recording session for Okeh Records, when the sheet music supposedly fell on the floor and the music began before he could pick up the pages, Armstrong simply started singing nonsense sylla- bles while Okeh president E.A. Fearn, who was at the ses- sion, kept telling him to continue. Armstrong did, think- ing the track would be discarded, but that was the version that was pressed to disc, sold, and became an unexpected hit. Although the story was thought to be apocryphal, Armstrong himself confirmed it in at least one interview as well as in his memoirs.[61] On a later recording, Arm- strong also sang out “I done forgot the words” in the mid- Selmer trumpet, given as a gift by King George V of the United dle of recording “I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas.” Kingdom to Louis Armstrong in 1933 Such records were hits and scat singing became a ma- In his early years, Armstrong was best known for his vir- jor part of his performances. Long before this, however, tuosity with the cornet and trumpet. The most lauded Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shorten- recordings on which Armstrong plays trumpet include ing and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, the Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions, as well as those of using his voice as creatively as his trumpet. the Red Onion Jazz Babies. Armstrong’s improvisations, while unconventionally sophisticated for that era, were also subtle and highly melodic. 4.3 Composing Prior to Armstrong, most collective ensemble playing in Armstrong was a gifted composer wrote more than fifty jazz, along with its occasional solos, simply varied the songs, which in a number of cases have become jazz stan- melodies of the songs. Armstrong was virtually the first dards (e.g., “Gully Low Blues,” “Potato Head Blues,” and to create significant variations based on the chord har- “Swing That Music”). monies of the songs instead of merely on the melodies. This opened a rich field for creation and improvisation, and significantly changed the music into a soloist’s art 4.4 Colleagues and followers form. During his long career he played and sang with some of Often, Armstrong re-composed pop-tunes he played, the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the simply with variations that made them more compelling time; among them were Bing Crosby, Duke Ellington, to jazz listeners of the era. At the same time, how- Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Jimmie Rodgers, Bessie ever, his oeuvre includes many original melodies, creative Smith and perhaps most famously Ella Fitzgerald. His in- leaps, and relaxed or driving rhythms. Armstrong’s play- fluence upon Crosby is particularly important with regard ing technique, honed by constant practice, extended the to the subsequent development of popular music: Crosby range, tone and capabilities of the trumpet. In his records, admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the of his early recordings, notably “Just One More Chance” jazz soloist, taking what had been essentially a collective (1931). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz describes folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous Crosby’s debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it possibilities for individual expression. does not acknowledge Armstrong by name: Armstrong was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself. Armstrong was Crosby... was important in introducing into an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of record- the mainstream of popular singing an Afro- 10 4 MUSIC

American concept of song as a lyrical ex- In 1964 his recording of the song “Hello Dolly” went to tension of speech... His techniques—easing number one. An album of the same title was quickly the weight of the breath on the vocal cords, created around the song, and also shot to number one passing into a head voice at a low regis- (knocking The Beatles off the top of the chart). The al- ter, using forward production to aid distinct bum sold very well for the rest of the year, quickly going enunciation, singing on consonants (a practice “Gold” (500,000). His performance of “Hello Dolly” won of black singers), and making discreet use of for best male pop vocal performance at the 1964 Grammy appoggiaturas, mordents, and slurs to empha- Awards. size the text—were emulated by nearly all later popular singers. 4.5 Hits and later career Armstrong recorded two albums with Ella Fitzgerald: Armstrong had nineteen “Top Ten” records[62] includ- Ella and Louis, and Ella and Louis Again for Verve ing "Stardust", "What a Wonderful World", "When The Records, with the sessions featuring the backing musi- Saints Go Marching In", "Dream a Little Dream of Me", cianship of the Oscar Peterson Trio and drummers Buddy "Ain't Misbehavin'", "You Rascal You", and "Stompin' Rich (on the first album), and Louie Bellson (on the sec- at the Savoy". "We Have All the Time in the World" was ond). Norman Granz then had the vision for Ella and featured on the soundtrack of the James Bond film On Her Louis to record Porgy and Bess which is the most famous Majesty’s Secret Service, and enjoyed renewed popularity and critically acclaimed version of the Gerswhin brothers’ in the UK in 1994 when it featured on a Guinness advert. masterpiece. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released. His recordings for Columbia Records, Louis Armstrong In 1964, Armstrong knocked The Beatles off the top of Plays W.C. Handy (1954) and Satch Plays Fats (all Fats the Billboard Hot 100 chart with "Hello, Dolly!", which Waller tunes) (1955) were both being considered master- gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest pieces, as well as moderately well selling. In 1961 the All artist to have a number one song. His 1964 song “Bout Stars participated in two albums - “The Great Summit” Time” was later featured in the film Bewitched. and “The Great Reunion” (now together as a single disc) with Duke Ellington. The albums feature many of Elling- Armstrong performed in Italy at the 1968 Sanremo Mu- ton’s most famous compositions (as well as two exclusive sic Festival where he sang “Mi Va di Cantare”[63] along- cuts) with Duke sitting in on piano. His participation in side his friend, the Eritrean-born Italian singer Lara Saint Dave Brubeck's high-concept jazz musical The Real Am- Paul.[64] In February 1968, he also appeared with Lara bassadors (1963) was critically acclaimed, and features Saint Paul on the Italian RAI television channel where he “Summer Song,” one of Armstrong’s most popular vocal performed “Grassa e Bella,” a track he sang in Italian for efforts. the Italian market and C.D.I. label.[65] In 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the United Kingdom with "What a Wonderful World", which topped the British charts for a month; however, the single did not chart at all in America. The song gained greater currency in the popular consciousness when it was used in the 1987 movie Good Morning, Vietnam, its subsequent re-release topping many charts around the world. Arm- strong even appeared on the October 28, 1970, Johnny Cash Show, where he sang Nat King Cole's hit "Rambling Rose" and joined Cash to re-create his performance back- ing Jimmie Rodgers on "Blue Yodel No. 9".

4.6 Stylistic range

Armstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of Guy Lombardo, to Latin Ameri- can folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Arm- strong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an early influence. Some of his solos from the Louis Armstrong in 1966 1950s, such as the hard rocking version of "St. Louis 11

Blues" from the WC Handy album, show that the influ- ence went in both directions.

5 Literature, radio, films and TV

Armstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a band leader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader cum narrator in the 1956 musical, High Society, in which he sang the title song and performed a duet with Bing Crosby on "Now You Has Jazz". In 1947, he played himself in the movie New Orleans opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the Storyville district and the ensuing ex- odus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago.[66] In the 1959 film, The Five Pennies (the story of the cor- netist Red Nichols), Armstrong played himself as well as singing and playing several classic numbers. With Danny Kaye Armstrong performed a duet of “When the Saints Go Marching In” during which Kaye impersonated Arm- strong. Armstrong also had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in The Glenn Miller Story in which Glenn (played by Stewart) jammed with Armstrong and a few other noted musicians of the time. He was the first African American to host a nationally broadcast radio show in the 1930s. In 1969, Armstrong Armstrong played a bandleader in the television production “The had a cameo role in the film version of Hello, Dolly! as Lord Don't Play Favorites” on Producers’ Showcase in 1956 the bandleader, Louis, to which he sang the title song with actress Barbra Streisand. His solo recording of "Hello, Dolly!" is one of his most recognizable performances. tion, prompting the protagonist to fall in love with an ill- [68] He was heard on such radio programs as The Story of advised woman. Swing (1937) and This Is Jazz (1947), and he also made Terry Teachout wrote a one-man play about Armstrong countless television appearances, especially in the 1950s called Satchmo at the Waldorf that was premiered in and 1960s, including appearances on The Tonight Show 2011 in Orlando, Fla., and has since been produced by Starring Johnny Carson. Shakespeare & Company, Long Wharf Theater, and the Argentine writer Julio Cortázar, a self-described Arm- Wilma Theater. The production ran off Broadway in strong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong 2014. concert at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fic- tional creatures called Cronopios that are the subject of a 6 Death number of Cortázar’s short stories. Cortázar once called Armstrong himself “Grandísimo Cronopio” (The Great Cronopio). Against his doctor’s advice, Armstrong played a two- week engagement In March 1971 at the Waldorf- Armstrong appears as a minor fictionalized character in Astoria's Empire Room, at the end of which he was hos- Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory Series. When he pitalized for a heart attack.[69] He was released from the and his band escape from a Nazi-like Confederacy, they hospital in May, and died of a heart attack in his sleep on enhance the insipid mainstream music of the North. A July 6, 1971, a month before his 70th birthday.[70] He was young Armstrong also appears as a minor fictionalized residing in Corona, Queens, New York City, at the time character in Patrick Neate's 2001 novel Twelve Bar Blues, of his death.[71] He was interred in Flushing Cemetery, part of which is set in New Orleans, and which was a win- Flushing, in Queens, New York City.[72] His honorary ner at that year’s Whitbread Book Awards. pallbearers included Bing Crosby, Ella Fitzgerald, Dizzy There is a pivotal scene in Stardust Memories (1980) Gillespie, Pearl Bailey, Count Basie, Harry James, Frank in which Woody Allen is overwhelmed by a recording Sinatra, Ed Sullivan, Earl Wilson, Alan King, Johnny of Armstrong’s "Stardust" and experiences a nostalgic Carson and David Frost.[73] Peggy Lee sang The Lord’s epiphany.[67] The combination of the music and the per- Prayer at the services while Al Hibbler sang "Nobody fect moment is the catalyst for much of the film’s ac- Knows the Trouble I've Seen" and Fred Robbins, a long- 12 8 LEGACY

time friend, gave the eulogy.[74]

7 Awards and honors

7.1 Grammy Awards

Armstrong was posthumously awarded the Grammy Life- time Achievement Award in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy’s National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic signif- icance to the field of recording.[75]

7.2 Grammy Hall of Fame

Recordings of Armstrong were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old, and that have “qualitative or historical Louis Armstrong and Grace Kelly on the set of High Society, significance.”[76][77] 1956

7.3 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed Armstrong’s West End Blues on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and in the 1930s according to Gary Giddins and others.[80] Roll.[78] Billie Holiday and Frank Sinatra are just two singers who were greatly indebted to him. Holiday said that she al- 7.4 Inductions and honors ways wanted Bessie Smith's 'big' sound and Armstrong’s feeling in her singing. Even special musicians like Duke In 1995, the U.S. Post Office issued a Louis Armstrong Ellington have praised Armstrong through strong testi- 32 cents commemorative postage stamp. monials. Duke Ellington said, “If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong.” In 1950, Bing Crosby, the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, “He is the beginning and the end of music in Amer- 8 Legacy ica.”

The influence of Armstrong on the development of jazz In the summer of 2001, in commemoration of the cen- is virtually immeasurable. Yet, his irrepressible person- tennial of Armstrong’s birth, New Orleans’s main air- ality both as a performer, and as a public figure later in port was renamed Louis Armstrong New Orleans Inter- his career, was so strong that to some it sometimes over- national Airport. shadowed his contributions as a musician and singer. In 2002, the Louis Armstrong’s Hot Five and Hot As a virtuoso trumpet player, Armstrong had a Seven recordings (1925–1928) were preserved in the unique tone and an extraordinary talent for melodic United States National Recording Registry, a registry improvisation. Through his playing, the trumpet emerged of recordings selected yearly by the National Record- ing Preservation Board for preservation in the National as a solo instrument in jazz and is used widely today. [81] Additionally, jazz itself was transformed from a collec- Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. tively improvised folk music to a soloist’s serious art form The US Open tennis tournament’s former main stadium largely through his influence. He was a masterful accom- was named Louis Armstrong Stadium in honor of Arm- panist and ensemble player in addition to his extraordi- strong who had lived a few blocks from the site.[82] nary skills as a soloist. With his innovations, he raised Today, there are many bands worldwide dedicated to pre- the bar musically for all who came after him. serving and honoring the music and style of Satchmo, in- Though Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of cluding the Louis Armstrong Society located in New Or- scat singing, Ethel Waters precedes his scatting on record leans, Louisiana. 9.4 List of songs recorded 13

8.1 Home turned National Historic Land- • The Great Summit: The Master Takes (2001) mark • Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington: The Great Summit/Complete Sessions (2000) — in- The house where Armstrong lived for almost 28 years was cludes additional CD of alternate takes declared a National Historic Landmark in 1977 and is now a museum. The Louis Armstrong House Museum, • The Legendary Berlin Concert (Jazzpoint Records, at 34-56 107th Street (between 34th and 37th Avenues) in 2000) — 22 March 1965 concert with Billy Kyle, Corona, Queens, presents concerts and educational pro- Tyree Glenn, Eddie Shu, Arvell Shaw and Danny grams, operates as a historic house museum and makes Barcelona materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research. The museum is operated by the City University of New York’s 9.4 List of songs recorded Queens College, following the dictates of Lucille Arm- strong’s will. The museum opened to the public on Octo- Chronology of the recordings of Armstrong’s songs: ber 15, 2003. A new visitors center is planned.[83]

10 See also 9 Discography • Louis Armstrong albums on Wikipedia 9.1 Singles • Louis Armstrong songs on Wikipedia

9.2 Original albums • There Must Be Somebody Else

These LPs and EPs were released during Armstrong’s lifetime and contained original studio and/or live record- ings. The year and label information is for the first vinyl 11 Notes release, unless otherwise noted. Additional information such as number of tracks is given only when necessary [1] Armstrong said he was not sure exactly when he was born, to distinguish between different releases under the same but celebrated his birthday on July 4. He usually gave title. In most cases, the number of CD releases listed is the year as 1900 when speaking in public (although he limited, with preference given to the label that originally used 1901 on his Social Security and other papers filed released the album. with the government). Using Roman Catholic Church documents from when his grandmother took him to be baptized, New Orleans music researcher Tad Jones estab- lished Armstrong’s actual date of birth as August 4, 1901. 9.3 Posthumous releases With various other pieces of collaborative evidence, this date is now accepted by Armstrong scholars. See also This list is incomplete; you can help by age fabrication. Armstrong had no middle name, but a expanding it. 1949 Time magazine profile gave him the middle name of Daniel. The census and baptismal records confirms he had no middle name. These LPs and CDs were released after Armstrong’s 1971 [2] For “satchel-mouth.” death. [3] Teachout, Terry, Pops, a life of Louis Armstrong,” • Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions Houghton Mifflin, 2009, page 25. ISBN 978-0-15- 101089-9 • Hot Fives & Sevens (JSP, 1998) [4] The TIME 100. Louis Armstrong. TIME, Stanley Crouch, • The Complete Hot Five & Hot Seven Recordings June 8, 1998. “For many years it was thought that Arm- (Columbia/Legacy) strong was born in New Orleans on July 4, 1900, a per- • fect day for the man who wrote the musical Declaration Struttin' (Drive Archive, 1996) — 8 February 1947 of Independence for Americans of this century. But the concert with Edmond Hall’s All-Stars estimable writer Gary Giddins discovered the birth cer- • tificate that proves Armstrong was born Aug. 4, 1901.” The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Retrieved January 8, 2009. Verve (1997) — repackaging of Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, and Porgy and Bess [5] When is Louis Armstrong’s birthday? The Official Site of the Louis Armstrong House & Archives. • rereleases of Together For The First Time and The Great Reunion [6] Current Biography 1944, pp. 15–17. 14 11 NOTES

[7] Bergreen, Laurence (1997). Louis Armstrong: An Ex- [29] Louis Armstrong in the 30s: A Tribute to the Life and travagant Life. New York: Broadway Books. p. 6. ISBN Music of Armstrong in the 30s. Retrieved May 5, 2015. 0-553-06768-0. [30] Bergreen, 1997, p. 344. [8] Karnow, Stanley (February 21, 2001). “My Debt to Cousin Louis’s Cornet”. The New York Times. Retrieved [31] Bergreen, 1997, p. 385. January 10, 2007. [32] Robin D. G. Kelley (2012). Africa Speaks, America An- [9] Armstrong, Louis; Brothers, Thomas (2001). Louis Arm- swers: Modern Jazz in Revolutionary Times The Nathan I. strong, In His Own Words: Selected Writings. New York: Huggins lectures. Harvard University Press. p. 72. ISBN Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 019514046X. Re- 9780674065246. trieved Jan 24, 2014. I had a long time admiration for the [33] Jet. Johnson Publishing Company. December 30, 1971. Jewish People. Especially with their long time of courage, p. 61. taking so much abuse for so long. I was only seven years old, but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the [34] Hale, James (editor of Jazzhouse.org), Danny Barcelona White Folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I (1929–2007), Drums, Armstrong All-Star, The Last Post, worked for. It dawned on me, how drastically. Even 'my 2007. Retrieved July 4, 2007. race,', the Negroes, the way that I saw it, they were hav- ing a little better Break than the Jewish people, with jobs a [35] Penny M. Von Eschen. Satchmo Blows up the World: Jazz plenty around. Of course, we can understand all the situa- Ambassadors Play the Cold War. (Cambridge, MA: Har- tions and handicaps that was going on, but to me we were vard University Press, 2004; ISBN 0674015010), 79–91. better off than the Jewish people. [36] “Louis Armstrong House Museum - FAQ”. louisarm- [10] Teachout, Terry. “Satchmo and the Jews” Commentary stronghouse.org. magazine, 1 November 2009. [37] Armstrong, Louis; Brothers, Thomas (2001). Louis Arm- [11] “The Karnofsky Project”. strong, In His Own Words: Selected Writings. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 109. ISBN 019514046X. [12] Current Biography 1944 p. 16. Retrieved Dec 8, 2014.

[13] Bergreen, 1997, p. 78. [38] Collier, James Lincoln (1983). Louis Armstrong: An American Genius. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 81. [14] Bergreen, 1997, p. 142. ISBN 978-0195033779.

[15] Bergreen, 1997, p. 170. [39] Giddins, Gary (16–22 April 2003). “Satchuated”. Village Voice. Retrieved 17 October 2007. [16] Bergreen, 1997, p. 199. [40] “Lillian Hardin Armstrong”. RedHotJazz.com. Retrieved [17] Stephen Leacock (1920-08-18). “Britannica.com”. Bri- 16 January 2015. tannica.com. Retrieved 2015-08-18. [41] “Biography of Louis Daniel Armstrong”. LouisArm- [18] Bergreen, 1997, p. 247. strongFoundation.org. Louis Armstrong Educational [19] Bergreen, 1997, p. 260. Foundation. Retrieved 16 January 2015.

[20] Bergreen, 1997, p. 274. [42] “Louis Armstrong: FAQ”. Louis Armstrong House Mu- seum. Retrieved December 18, 2012. [21] Bergreen, 1997, p. 264. [43] Goddard, Jacqui (December 15, 2012). “Louis Arm- [22] Bergreen, 1997, p. 267. strong’s secret daughter revealed, 42 years after his death”. The Daily Telegraph. [23] Collier, James Lincoln (1985). Louis Armstrong. Pan Books. pp. 160–162. ISBN 0-330-28607-2. [44] Armstrong, Louis; Brothers, Thomas (2001). Louis Arm- strong, In His Own Words: Selected Writings. New [24] Nairn: Earl “Fatha” Hines: - see External Links/Video York: Oxford University Press. pp. 158–163. ISBN clips below. 019514046X. Retrieved 7 December 2014.

[25] “Louis Armstrong & his Orchestra”. Redhotjazz.com. [45] Armstrong, 1954, pp. 27-28 Retrieved August 17, 2009. [46] The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones, Vol. 3, Disk 7, [26] Morgenstern, Dan. “Louis Armstrong and the develop- Mystery of the Blues Special Features, Louis Armstrong: ment & diffusion of Jazz”, Louis Armstrong a Cultural Ambassador of Jazz (DVD). Lucasfilm, Ltd. Event occurs Legacy, Marc H Miller e.d., Queens Museum of Art in at 17:30. association with University of Washington Press, 1994 pg110 [47] 100 Most Influential People of All Times. Books.google.com. January 1, 2007. ISBN 978-1- [27] Bergreen, 1997, p. 320. 60501-124-0. Retrieved October 2, 2011.

[28] Collier (1985), p221-2 [48] Collier (1985), p. 317-320 15

[49] “Louis Armstrong, Barring Soviet Tour, Denounces [71] Krebs, Albin. “Louis Armstrong, Jazz Trumpeter and Eisenhower and Gov. Faubus”. New York Times. Singer, Dies”, The New York Times, July 7, 1971. Ac- September 19, 1957. Retrieved August 30, 2007. See cessed October 1, 2009. “Louis Armstrong, the cele- also, from September 23, 2007, *David Margolick, The brated jazz trumpeter and singer, died in his sleep yes- Day Louis Armstrong Made Noise. terday morning at his home in the Corona section of Queens.” [50] Bergreen, 1997, p. 472. [72] Louis Armstrong at Find a Grave [51] Gabbard, Krin (2001). Louis and The Good Book (CD booklet). Louis Armstrong. New York City: Verve [73] Collier, James Lincoln (1985). Louis Armstrong. Pan. p. Records. p. 1. 333. ISBN 0-330-28607-2.

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[55] Satchmo.net. 'Red Beans and Ricely yours, Louis Arm- [77] “The Recording Academy” (PDF). Retrieved August 17, strong.' 2009. [78] “Experience The Music: One Hit Wonders and The Songs [56] Jive Dictionary, by Cab Calloway:"Barbecue (n.) – the That Shaped Rock and Roll”. Rockhall.com. Retrieved girl friend, a beauty.” Retrieved February 10, 2009. May 7, 2011. [57] Elie p. 327. [79] “Hollywood Walk of Fame”. Walkoffame.com. February [58] Bergreen, 1997, p. 4. 8, 1960. Retrieved October 2, 2011.

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[135] Willems p.73 [173] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. 17

[174] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. 12 Further reading

[175] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • Armstrong, Louis, Satchmo: My Life in New Or- leans. originally 1954 ISBN 0-306-80276-7 [176] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • Armstrong, Louis and Thomas Brothers, Armstrong, [177] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. in His Own Words: Selected Writings. 1999 ISBN 0- 19-514046-X [178] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • Bergreen, Laurence, Louis Armstrong: An Extrava- [179] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. gant Life. 1997 ISBN 0-553-06768-0 • [180] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. Brothers, Thomas, Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans. 2006 ISBN 0-393-06109-4 [181] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • Cogswell, Michael, Armstrong: The Offstage Story. 2003 ISBN 1-888054-81-6 [182] Ella Fitzgerald: An Annotated Discography; Including a Complete Discography ... By J. Wilfred Johnson, p.67 • Elie, Lolis Eric, A Letter from New Orleans. Orig- inally printed in Gourmet. Reprinted in Best Food [183] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. Writing 2006, Edited by Holly Hughes, ISBN 1- 56924-287-9 [184] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • Jones, Max, “LOUIS: The Louis Armstrong Story [185] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. 1900 - 1971” (with John Chilton) New York City (new preface by Dan Morgenstern) : Da Capo Press [186] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. 1988 ISBN 978-0306803246

[187] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • Jones, Max and Chilton, John, Louis Armstrong Story. 1988 ISBN 0-306-80324-0 [188] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • Meckna, Michael, Satchmo: The Louis Armstrong [189] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. Encyclopedia.2004 ISBN 0-313-30137-9 • [190] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. Storb, Ilse, “Louis Armstrong: The Definitive Biog- raphy”. 1999 ISBN 0-8204-3103-6

[191] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • Teachout, Terry, Pops - A life of Louis Armstrong. 2009; ISBN 978-0-15-101089-9 [192] Louis Armstrong: The Life, Music, and Screen Career; by Scott Allen Nollen, p.142 • Willems, Jos, All of Me, Scarecrow Press, 2006

[193] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net.

[194] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. 13 External links

[195] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • Louis Armstrong by Nat Hentoff • [196] “Jimmie Rodgers & Louis Armstrong: Blue Yodel #9”. Obituary, NY Times Jazz.com. Retrieved 2012-04-09. • Quotes and tributes

[197] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • Discography

[198] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • Filmography @ imdb.com • [199] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. The Louis Armstrong Society Jazz Band • Louis Armstrong: A Life in Music – slideshow by [200] What a Wonderful World: The Magic of Louis Arm- Life magazine strong’s Later Years; by Ricky Riccardi, p.51 • Seeing Black jazz critic on the Uncle Tom question [201] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. • the official website of the Louis Armstrong House & [202] “The Louis Armstrong Discography”. michaelminn.net. Archives 18 13 EXTERNAL LINKS

• “Louis Armstrong Transcription Project – john p ATV Television, 1975. Many refs to Louis Arm- birchall” strong. Original 16mm film, plus out-takes of addi- tional tunes, archived in British Film Institute Li- • Louis Armstrong at pbskids.org brary at bfi.org.uk; also at http://www.itvstudios. com; DVD copies with the “Jean Gray Hargrove • Louis Armstrong at Find A Grave Music Library” (which holds The Earl Hines Col- • David Margolick, The Day Louis Armstrong Made lection/Archive), University of California, Berkeley, Noise California; also at University of Chicago “Hogan Jazz Archive”, Tulane University New Orleans and • Smithsonian Louis Armstrong: A Cultural Legacy at the Louis Armstrong House Museum Libraries: see also www.jazzonfilm.com/documentaries. • Louis Armstrong at NPR Music • New Orleans Jazz Great Louis Armstrong’s Jewish • Louis Armstrong in Athens, Blog of the Digital Li- Connection brary of Georgia • “If We Never Meet Again” on YouTube • Louis Armstrong: discography and early recordings (RealPlayer format) on the Red Hot Jazz website.

• Milestone Louis Armstrong recordings at Three Per- fect Minutes

• Louis Armstrong’s autobiography online book

• “Satchmo – My Life in New Orleans(1954)" free download • “Satchmo – My Life in New Orleans” another website

• Louis Armstrong collected news and commentary at The New York Times

• Works by or about Louis Armstrong in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

• Louis Armstrong discography at Discogs

13.1 Video clips

• “Now You Has Jazz” on YouTube

• “Blueberry Hill” on YouTube

• “Stompin' At The Savoy” on YouTube Germany, 1959

• “Tiger Rag” on YouTube

• “C'est si bon” on YouTube 1962

• “Dream a Little Dream” on YouTube photo slide show

• “Louis Armstrong and Frank Sinatra – The Birth of The Blues” on YouTube – The Edsel Show

• “What a Wonderful World” on YouTube

• Nairn, Charlie, (1975): Earl “Fatha” Hines: . 1hr documentary, with much about Louis Armstrong, filmed at Blues Alley jazz club, Washington DC. Produced and directed by Charlie Nairn for UK 19

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text

• Louis Armstrong Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong?oldid=705448061 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kpjas, Eloquence, Mav, Robert Merkel, Zundark, The Anome, Tarquin, Danny, Jazzoctopus, XJaM, Christian List, Deb, Ortolan88, William Avery, Ben- Zin~enwiki, Hannes Hirzel, Stevertigo, Nevilley, Infrogmation, Vudujava, Oliver Pereira, Wapcaplet, CORNELIUSSEON, Ixfd64, Bcrow- ell, Dcljr, Paul A, Penmachine, Minesweeper, Tregoweth, Ahoerstemeier, Ron Davis, TUF-KAT, SeanO, LouI, Tristanb, Evercat, BRG, JASpencer, Mulad, TheSeez, RodC, Bemoeial, Harris7, Viajero, David Latapie, Pladask, WhisperToMe, Wik, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Morwen, Jgm, K1Bond007, Raul654, Oaktree b, Eugene van der Pijll, D8uv, Bearcat, Gonk, Ke4roh, Dale Arnett, Sander123, Mori- ori, Fredrik, Chris 73, Jredmond, Scriptwriter, Jmabel, Mayooranathan, Mirv, Texture, Andrew Levine, Bkell, Hadal, Ruakh, Lupo, Diberri, David Gerard, Dave6, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Alan W, Drunkasian, Mintleaf~enwiki, Levin, Lupin, Obli, Everyk- ing, Rick Block, Mboverload, Matt Crypto, Bobblewik, Jrdioko, Hans555, Alanl, Wmahan, Chowbok, Utcursch, SoWhy, Formeruser-81, Quadell, Spatch, Antandrus, MisfitToys, Piotrus, Lesgles, Mattk, Jossi, HistoryBA, Dunks58, Phil Sandifer, Rdsmith4, Ganymead, Bod- notbod, Cornischong, Eranb, Kaisersanders, Sam, Pitchka, Mschlindwein, TronTonian, Ukexpat, Dcandeto, Canterbury Tail, Grstain, Mike Rosoft, D6, Freakofnurture, Monkeyman, Ma'ame Michu, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Vague Rant, Ex caelo, Wikiacc, Joshtek, Dmr2, Bender235, ESkog, Spinal83, Flapdragon, A purple wikiuser, Kaisershatner, Dpotter, CanisRufus, Worldtraveller, Susvolans, Eu- rekaLott, Migozared, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Dralwik, Stesmo, Smalljim, Viriditas, Elipongo, Nk, Darwinek, Raja99, Troels Nybo~enwiki, MPerel, Sam Korn, Glaucus, HasharBot~enwiki, Echobeats, Ifny, Zachlipton, Tlaresch, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Qwe, Mo0, Philip Cross, Ricky81682, Lord Pistachio, Sade, AzaToth, RoySmith, Mailer diablo, YDZ, Theokratie, Malo, Snowolf, Mbimmler, Wtmitchell, Bbsrock, Andrew Norman, SidP, Monkee13, Super-Magician, Helixblue, ProhibitOnions, Msclguru, RubenSchade, Sumergocognito, Computerjoe, BDD, Yurivict, Richard Weil, RyanGerbil10, Plattopus, Fdewaele, Michael Gäbler, Stemonitis, Gmaxwell, Iriefrank, Angr, Boothy443, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), CCooke, Danreitz, Woohookitty, CWH, StradivariusTV, Jpers36, Jacobolus, John Cardinal, Commander Keane, MONGO, GeorgeOrr, Grika, Cbustapeck, Terence, Toiletduck, GregorB, SDC, Dmitry Gerasimov~enwiki, Prashanthns, Silver- wood, Palica, Graham87, WBardwin, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Kbdank71, Ted Wilkes, FreplySpang, Jclemens, Reisio, Men- daliv, Edison, Sjakkalle, Mayumashu, Koavf, Rogerd, Jake Wartenberg, Kinu, Brighat, Vary, Salix alba, Tawker, CQJ, ElKevbo, Lairor, Nigosh, FuriousFreddy, Titoxd, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, SchuminWeb, RobertG, Nicholas Tam, Nihiltres, Nivix, Celestianpower, RexNL, Gurch, TeaDrinker, Terrx, Gareth E. 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