Meatless Monday: 100 Years [Looking Back, Looking Forward] Introduction eatless Monday as most people know it troduced in 1917 to conserve rations for troops M today began in 2003 with the work of fighting overseas in and, later, World ad man Sid Lerner and Dr. Bob Lawrence, the War II. But the impacts of these initiatives went founding director of the Johns Hopkins Center far beyond rationing to mobilize communities, for a Livable Future. What began as a health-fo- expand education and promote public health. cused response to the problem of animal pro- Lessons from these early initiatives have striking duction and consumption has evolved today into similarities to public health issues today and may a movement addressing health, environment, serve to add context and wisdom as we navigate climate, human and with one the world around us. With the focus on reducing simple message, “Once a week, cut out .” at-home consumption of meat during the first But the idea of a meatless day was not totally and second World Wars, Meatless Tuesdays (later new in 2003; it harkened back to the United Meatless Mondays) was founded on principles States as it entered World War I 100 years ago. that remain relevant and effective today in the National meatless (and wheatless) days were in- modern effort to reduce meat consumption.

World War I

The first recorded meatless day actually Administration was tasked with reducing meat, pre-dated the United States World War I meat wheat and dairy consumption in American reduction efforts. In Great Britain, meatless homes in order to save these products for days were initiated in 1916, but by May 1917, American and Allied troops in the European they were abolished because eating meatless theater. Unlike strict rationing in many put too much strain on the bread supply. In the European countries, the Food Administration United States, the earliest newspaper mention chose to pursue voluntary reduction over of meatless days is on May 14, 1917, when mandatory restrictions and launched a food Mississippi Governor Theo C. Bilbo issued a consumption campaign that led to a 15 percent proclamation urging Mississippians to have one reduction in overall household food con- meatless and one wheatless day each week sumption between 1918 and 1919.3 At the throughout the war.1 Leader of the Wisconsin core of this campaign was a national Meatless State Council of Defense Magnus Swenson in- Tuesday and Wheatless Wednesday campaign stituted the first official, statewide Meatless announced by Hoover beginning October 30. Tuesday on September 18, 1917, in Wisconsin.2 Hoover was the right man for the job. Born in The history of a national meatless day 1874 to an Iowan Quaker community, Hoover begins with and the Food studied mining at Stanford University, where Administration, founded and funded by he met his wife Lou Henry, the only woman Congress in August 1917. Led by Hoover, the studying geology at the college at the time.

[1] An engineer, Hoover became writes, “John McE Bowman famous for his skillful orches- of the US Food Commission Lessons from tration of the movement of vast has reports from every hotel World War I amounts of food to association, restaurant organi- ▶▶ Voluntary reduction and other European countries zation, and many other public over mandatory for famine relief during the dining room bodies that they restrictions, including war. Raised and trained in will make Tuesday beefless for Meatless and Wheatless a time when a belief in the the period of the war.”6 The Days during WWI led to a 15% reduction in power of science was on the first national beefless Tuesday overall household food rise, Hoover, like many others in hotels and restaurants was consumption between of his time, believed that en- October 9, 1917, even before 1918 and 1919. gineering and other scientif- Hoover’s national Meatless ▶ The use of mass media ic disciplines could be used Tuesday announcement. ▶ and other forms to construct a better—even In January, 1918, a bill was of propaganda to perfect—society. This better introduced in the House that encourage meatless society would be more fair, days worked most would make meatless days more efficient and more scien- successfully on middle- in hotels and restaurants tific. Hoover’s role in the Food and upper-income meat mandatory by giving the Food Administration reflected his consumption. Administration the ability belief in the capacity of rational to enforce meatless days. It ▶▶ A large swathe of science to shape society. In participation in meatless is unclear whether the bill fact, the use of mass media and days came from worker was passed or whether the other forms of propaganda to associations, hospitals Food Administration actually encourage meatless days was and restaurants. enforced meatless days. But a form of social engineering ▶ As working class in , meatless ▶ that worked successfully on incomes rose during the days were so enforced that middle- and upper­‑class meat war thanks to industrial one newspaper article reports consumption at the time. jobs, working class the trial and punishment of 57 families were able, and A large swathe of participa- city restaurant owners for not willing, to increase their tion in meatless days came observing meatless Tuesdays. meat consumption, from worker associations. The owners found guilty which was very low to begin with. The Traveling Salesman were ordered to close their Association pledged over restaurants for one day: the ▶▶ Reducing meat and 600,000 salesmen to following meatless Tuesday.7 other sacrifices were observe one meatless day viewed as patriotic, At the beginning of the new per week. Similarly, the Food contributing to the year (1918), several events nation’s security. Administration Restaurant occurred that marked the end and Hotel Committee adopted of the government push for beefless Tuesdays and Fridays meatless days. In January, a across the nation.4 5 One article

[2] surplus of cattle caused by a lack of transpor- The success of the Meatless Tuesday campaign tation led Hoover to announce a hiatus from actually reducing meat consumption is debated. meatless days in the western states in order While many middle- and upper-income house- to consume the surplus.8 That same month, holds successfully decreased their meat con- Armour Packing and Company released a sumption by several pounds per person day, study asserting that meat consumption by the many lower-income households actually public had decreased by 25 percent. Meat pro- purchased more meat during the war. One dis- duction, however, increased dramatically, and gruntled journalist wrote. “Six days out of the Armour and other meat packing companies week are meatless days to the salaried man were doing more business than ever with Uncle here,”11 highlighting the already low meat con- Sam.9 In March of 1918, a poor crop harvest sumption of the working and lower classes. led farmers to feed immature corn to pigs, 57As working class incomes rose during the war fattening them beyond normal sizes. When all thanks to industrial jobs, working class families appears these fattened pigsIt came to market,that we combinedin the UnitedwereStates able,consumed and willing,before to increasethe war. their meat from 96 to 98 per cent of our total production of beef (Table 40), 12 with the increasedbut numberthat in ofthe pigsyears and cows1915 to 1918 consumption.we consumed a Levensteinless proportion writesof that, “He produced in the Midwest,the total thereproduction. was an oversupStill in- spite[Hoover]of that ascribedfact we ‘thesedid curiousconsume developments,’ more per capita in those years than in the prewar years, except 1911. ply of meat and anThis undersupplyis accounted of transportafor by the- muchwhichlarger causedproduction beef consumptionduring the to actually tion to take this meatthree toyears Alliedjust troops.past. Hoover rise over ‘pre-war normal’ to the ‘increasing apparently supplies relinquished While we were richer in beef we 13 declared a 30-daya restlarger fromproportion meatless daysin the last threeprosperityyears of thethe industrialwar. For classes.’”each A 1919 across the countryperson to consumein the surpluses,United States and duringbook1918, on1917, meat andconsumption1916 a total in theof war years pounds country, prewar they were not reinstated15.6 againwent duringout theof war.the10 showswhile thatthe pertotal capitafor consumptionthe of beef years was only 6.3 pounds. (Tables 41 and 42.)

TABLE 40.-BEEF—Per cent total consumption of total production.

Month. 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918

January------|------|------|------|------96.21 93.33 97.35. February------|------|------|------|------|------98.17 100.35 96.91 March------|------|------|------. 97.44 98.28 86.93. April------|------|------|------|------99.39 97.47 98.10. May------|------|------|------|------98.22 93.13 89.77 June------95.32 94.47 91.76 July------|------|------|------94.98 94.58 88.04 August.------|------|------|------|------97.10 94.58 92.02 September------|------|------|------|------94.96 93.15 94.62 October...... l...... l...... 90.66 89.35 91.41 November...... "------. 87.99 90.94 89. 86 December...... l...... l...... l...... 97.72 91.49 86.05

Total for year. . 96.31 97.70 98.2 101.00 94.93 95.32 93.92 91.87

TABLE 41.-BEEF—Per capita consumption (pounds).

1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 ------| --- January------|------6.47 6. 53. February------|------. ------5.§ 81tº 5.68 6.69 March------º; 5.49 5.68 April.------|------|------5. 10 5 55 7.05. av------|------'------5.91 6.42 5. 39 Ulhe------|------|------6. 56 6.80 5.54 ulv------!------5.09 5. 69 6.23 August.------|------6.66 6 09 6.37 September. ------|------|------|------6.63 6.47 7.59 October------7.38 7.28 7.70. November. ------|------7.38 6.91 7.31 ------6. 64 6.79. December...... l...... l...... - - 7.37

Total for year. . 80.98 75.32 73.SS 71. 55 73.29 76.29 75.49 78.87 :

TABLE 42.-BEEF—Per capita production (pounds).

1911 1912 1913[3] 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918

January------. 6.85 7.49 6.68 6. 14 €. 10 6.38 6.93 6.71 February...... 6 26 5. 65 5. 37 5.42 5. 12 5. 92 5.66 6.91 March------6. 60 6. 26 4.95 5.23 6 21 6.42 5.59 6.53 April... - - - 6. 10 5. S6 6.38 5. 34 5.91 5. 13 5. 69 7.18 ay. 7.42 6.31 6.31 5.28 6.17 6.02 6. 89 6.00 June. 7.34 5. 79 6.63 5. 37 6.66 6.88 7.20 6.03 July... 6. 56 5.46 6.48 5.24 6.28 5.36 6.01 7.08 August 7.79 6. 48 6.26 5.36 6.31 tj. 86 6.44 6.92 6. * September 7.37 6.52 6 81 56 6.80 6.98 6.94 8.02 8. ctober. 8.41 7.95 6.99 7. 13 7.42 14 8.15 8.43 8, Nor-ember 7.02 6.88 6.23 6.73 7.08 8.39 7. 69 13 7. 7. December... 6.38 6. 48 6.17 7.06 7.18 54 7.26 89

Total for year. - 84.10 77.13 75.26 70.86 77.24 80.02 80.36 85.87 30

TABLE 18.-HOGS–Consumption and export expressed in per cent of production. PER CENT TOTAL CONSUMPTION OF TOTAL PRODUCTION.

1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918

January------|------|------. 75.48 74.78 75.84 February. ------|------|--...... 73.33 81.04 74.84 March------|------|------89.63 86.82 62.89 April.------|------|------85.88 80.71 65.08 May....------|------|------85.88 80.68 68.21 June------|------|------84.73 69.66 96.77 July------|------|------88.19 87.97 72.97 August.------|------|------104.03 112.58 93.56 September...... l...... l...... 104.91 125.89 107.95 October------|------|------|------|------. 100.04 115.02 94.74 November...... l...... l...... l...... l...... 84.67 82.29 83. 14 December.------|------|------. 80.26 73.52 73.86

Total for year.. 89.29 89.41 89.64 91.60 87.18 86.35 85.32 78.64

PER CENT EXPORTS OF TOTAL PRODUCTION.

January...... 9.59 8.88 8.68 10.69 8. SS 10.05 17.35 8.54 February...... 10.39 11.36 12.97 9.62 10.85 14.77 14.10 9.79 March...... L. 9.39 13.95 13.61 9.25 16.66 12.82 22.06 26.96 ------10.77 12.05 10.57 S. 67 14.59 16.41 19.98 29.28 #.ay------10.75 || 10.90 8.85 8.47 10.37 15.98 || 16.22 31.24 June. ------. 9.54 7.97 8. 28 7.85 13.11 12.69 15.68 20.59 July------11.28 10.37 10.78 7.76 | 12.90 10.56 6.96 29.57 August...... 13.54 14.01 12.49 9.70 14.33 12.78 15.27 25.40 September...... 17.70 15.96 12.50 10.34 18.13 16.76 22.09 19.93 October...... 11.12 9.65 11.12 9.64 17.98 10.99 9.59 15.98 November...... 8. 14 7.98 9.72 8. 87 12.31 10.00 12.50 11.60 December...... 9.89 8. 12 11.90 9. 19 8.41 5.97 || 10.84 14.10 Total for year.. 10.71 10.59 10.37 8.75 12.88 12.74 14.86 19.49

TABLE 19.-PORK–Per capita production and consumption. PER CAPITA PRODUCTION.

1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 - -

January...... 8.40 11.72 10.98 9.71 12.03 13.10 11.17 10.4. February...... 8. 19 9.52 S. 55 7.84 10.97 || 10.85 8.44 11.1. March...... :::... 9.70 7:90 7.36 7.71 10.16 9.22 6.38 10.9 8.69 7.49 8.10 £13 | "...is 8.01 6.68 9.3 §::::::::::::::::ay------10.00 8.91 9.79 7.92 8.59 9. 12 7.59 8.5 June. ------10.7 S. 65 9.52 8.71 9. 26 8.69 6.35 |. 7.8 July------. 7.88 7.31 7.83 6.93 7.34 7. 11 6.31 8.1 August.------. 6.47 5. 89 6.81 5.65 6. 26 7. 13 4.50 6.3 September...... 6.42 5.19 6.04 5.80 5.49 6. 20 3.46 5.4 October...... 7.58 7.17 7. 13 7.68 6.26 8.47 5.41 7.8 November...... 10.03 8.73 8.39 8.37 8.67 11.07 7.61 10.[. December...... 10.37 10.09 10.91 12.40 13.08 12.88 9.42 13.7

Total for year... 104.52 98.57 101.41 95.85 105.89 111.85 83.32 109.7

PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION. - January.------|------!------. 9.89 | 8.36 7. February. ------|----...... …------|------7. 96 6.84 8. March------|------|------. ------8.27 6.41 6. April.------|------. ------6.88 5.39 6. May------|------|------|------i------7.83 6. 12 5. June. ------|------|...... !------|------!------7.36 4.43 7. July.------|------. !------|------6. 27 5.55 5. August.------|------7.42 5. 07 5. September------|------|------|------6.51 4.36 5. October------|------|------. 8.47 6.23 7. November------|------8.36 6. 27 8. December------|------|------. 10.30 6.93 10.

Total for year...] 93.27 88.06 90.81 87.75 92.28 95.52 71.96 86.

and pork actually rose between 1917 and 1918, and 200 pounds of meat per year of wealthy when Meatless days were in effect, although citizens16, the consumption of the hospital, beef consumption had dropped significant- at 78 pounds, per person year, is remarkably ly in 1917 and the years prior to the war.14 low. Not all wealthy citizens were doing their part, however. The Hotel Majestic in New York Interestingly, while poorer and working class Cities tried to go meatless for two weeks in households were eating more meat, meat late 1917 and customers were not happy. They consumption decreased in wealthier house- demanded more meat and simply paid more holds and institutions. One Minnesota hospital money for scarce items, rather than purchasing boasted that “the per capita consumption of the cheaper substitutes.17 The overall “success” meat since January 1 was a small fraction under of the meatless days most likely lies more in the one and one-half pounds a week and yet no prolific production of American farmers during one had complained of not getting enough.”15 the war that complemented the self-guided Compared to 1909 consumption of between 139 reduction of meat consumption of consumers.

[4] World War II

In World War II, President Wednesdays on September Lessons from Roosevelt revisited the 2, 1942.19 First Lady Eleanor World War II campaign of World War I’s Roosevelt joined in and ensured Meatless Tuesdays in order to that meatless days were ▶▶ The World War II meatless campaign save vital transportation for observed by the first family and was more scattered munitions, but these efforts White House events. Mayor and individual than the were less visible in the presence Fiorello LaGuardia of New York campaign in World War of formal rationing.18 Unlike City ordered two meatless I, but, in conjunction World War I, World War II’s days per week in the city with rationing, appears meatless days were aided with beginning January 22, 1945.20 to have been more rationing cards limiting the The Las Vegas Restaurant successful than World War I. amount of meat and other Owners Association announced staples each family could buy. their voluntary adoption ▶▶ Federal cafeterias Many families ate meatless of meatless Mondays and and restaurants were regardless of their patrio- Tuesdays on July 23, 1945.21 major adopters of tism because good quality meatless days during But at the end of the war and World War II. meat was hard to obtain in the post-war boom when due to intense rationing. rationing on meat was lifted, On Roosevelt’s suggestion, meat consumption rose from 52 federal cafeterias in approximately 90 pounds of Washington, DC, began beef per person annually to meatless and fishless 125 pounds annually in 1948.22

[5] The Post-War Era

Post-war life brought economic pendent and disparate groups Lessons from the prosperity to many Americans. to a single cause. Hotel and Post-War Era New agricultural innovations, restaurant owners, traveling increased corn and wheat pro- salesmen, lumberjacks, hospital ▶▶ Changes in food production and farming duction, and vastly improved and school administrators, practices brought transportation resulted in women, and more responded changes in the food a decrease in the cost of to the call for meat reduction system that set the meat, while rising dispos- (and other food conserva- stage for increased meat able incomes and a growing tion efforts). Further, as seen consumption, as well middle class clamored for in World War II, the meatless as processed and fast more. Meat consumption in the campaign was one of the first foods. post-WWII period increased government-run programs ▶▶ World War II had a steadily until its peak in 2002. that taught people what and large influence on food The post-war period also how to eat. Nutritional guide- production practices brought the supermarket and lines set out during the war that have lasting effects processed and fast foods to continued to affect American today on Americans’ health and waistline, American life, which in turn homes long after restrictions including intensive crop promoted meat consumption. on meat and wheat consump- production, fertilizers, tion were lifted. One example Even with this apparent reversal over supply of corn and is the free and reduced lunch new food technology. in the achievement of reducing program that, started in meat consumption, the success ▶▶ Government nutrition 1946 by President Truman in of meatless days goes beyond guidelines and food response to wartime calls for the actual meat consumption, programs aimed at a better-fed and more nutri- improving nutrition and lessons learned extend to tionally-strong population, still continue today. today. Meatless days managed continues to support millions to mobilize countless inde- of American children today.

[6] Meatless Monday Today

While the original Meatless Tuesdays sought to emissions globally.23 Animal agriculture alone reduce meat consumption to save meat for the accounts for 14.5% of all global greenhouse troops, modern Meatless Monday focuses on gas emissions.24 As the body of evidence has reducing overall meat consumption for individ- grown, the goal of the campaign has expanded ual health and the health of the planet. In 2003, to harness the actions of individuals, commu- recalling the meatless days of the World Wars, nities and institutions to address the health ad man Sid Lerner and Dr. Bob Lawrence, the of the planet by reducing the environmental founding director of the Johns Hopkins Center burden associated with meat production. for a Livable Future created “a public health High meat consumption in our modern diets campaign with a creative grassroots marketing can also be detrimental for one’s own health. strategy” to encourage people to reduce their One study on mortality estimated that if people meat consumption by 15 percent. This reduction substituted one serving of red meat each day was in accordance with a 2000 report by the for other foods including fish, poultry, nuts, Surgeon General and the American Heart low-fat dairy, and whole , their mortality Association, recommending that Americans risk decreased by 7 to 19 percent. 25 Those reduce their meat and saturated fat consumption who eat meat are at higher risk for heart by 15 percent. According to the Environmental disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes and obesity Protection Agency, in 2010 agriculture and and are 17 percent more likely to develop bowel forestry produced 24% of greenhouse gas cancer than those who eat less meat. 26

[7] Meatless Monday Then and Now The rationale, definitions and actions surround- Americans face today. Comparing modern day ing the call for meatless days have changed over Meatless Monday with wartime meatless days the last hundred years, as outlined in the table also highlights commonalities its relevance below; yet these differences provide important for today and beyond in several key areas. context for understanding the situation

Meatless Monday - Then and Now World War I and II Modern Meatless Monday Original rationale Save resources for troops Reduce saturated fat

Other reasons ▶▶ Nutrition education Benefits of -based diets on health, en- ▶▶ Educate about food systems vironment, climate and animal welfare ▶▶ Gardens The “ask” Go without meat for your country - patrio- ▶▶ Go without meat for your health tism (individual) ▶▶ Go without meat for the health of the planet (community) Meat defined Beef, pork (not including organ ), Red meat, poultry, +/- seafood poultry27 and fish were excluded Champions Individuals and organizations Individuals and organizations Communication ▶▶ Posters ▶▶ Social media ▶▶ Radio ▶▶ Web sites ▶▶ Newspapers ▶▶ Signs and posters

National Health, Global Health

In early Meatless Tuesday campaigns during 28 pounds annually in 1960 to 91 pounds in the First World War, the health of citizens was 2016. Access to food in poorer communities tied directly to the health of the nation. Citizens’ is often limited to processed foods and many health was important first to ensure their fighting people worldwide go hungry every day despite and farming abilities and second to ensure their adequate production. The health of Americans intellectual capacity for problem solving and is threatened by heart disease, cancer, type innovation. The main slogan for the campaign, 2 diabetes, and stroke due to overconsump- “Food will win the war,” highlights these notions. tion of meat, while health care systems are burdened by an extra cost of more the $1 A similar focus on food and national security trillion annual due to diet-related illnesses. exists in the modern Meatless Monday campaign. In the United States, 40 percent of all food While overproduction and overconsumption produced is wasted. Americans eat an average put Americans at greater risk of disease, un- of 1.5 times the protein they need each day and der-distribution and the lack of availability of consume 193 pounds of meat annually. While nutritious food globally raises the risk of refugee red meat consumption has decreased since crises, warfare, and more. The security of the 2008, poultry consumption has increased from world is dependent upon the adequate, sus-

[8] tainable, and fair distribu- such as the United States do tion of food over the coming not consume more than their Some cookbooks: decades. Ensuring that people fair share of resources by ▶▶ Foods That Will Win the in wealthier nations with higher reducing meat consumption War and How to Cook per capita meat consumption is imperative of the effort. Them by C. Houston Goudiss Meatless Monday in Schools and Kitchens ▶▶ War Economy in Food The push for the original cards. The wartime school by United States Food meatless days in World War I gardening curriculum was the Administration was accompanied by an influx first nationally promoted school ▶▶ Forty Four Ways to Win of pamphlets, books, and curriculum in US history. the War by Marshall classes that were intended to Field Company For the wartime efforts, recipes teach the modern housewife were developed and cooking Some instruction books: about nutrition in the family. guidance was provided through One such book, Foods that ▶▶ Everyday Food in women’s groups, magazines, Will Win the War and How to Wartime by Mary Swartz and extension educators. They Cook Them, explains, “Although Rose were “planned to solve the most persons believe that ▶ Food in Wartime by housekeeper’s problem” by ▶ protein can only be obtained Graham Lusk giving substitutes, showing from meat, it is found in many how to stretch smaller portions ▶▶ Food and the War; a other foods, such as milk… of meat, and giving suggested textbook for college dried peas, beans…lentils meal plans, all at a lower cost to classes by United States and nuts.” Educating readers Food Administration the family budget. Instruction about the many ways to get books were intended for home enough protein without eating economists, not housewives, meat was important because, and were intended to teach as the author writes, “As a readers the basics of food nation we eat and waste 80 tinuing concern among conservation in wartime. per cent more meat than we many Americans of getting require to maintain health… Modern Meatless Monday enough protein in their diets only a small quantity of meat also uses education to make through consumption of is necessary to supply suffi- consumers aware both of meat and animal products. cient protein for adult life.” the impact of their food and New nutrition education also of nutritional alternatives. appeared in schools where By working with school and children were recruited to workplace lunch providers, raise chickens, tend gardens, placing information tables at and get their community events, and more, Meatless members to sign food pledge Monday addresses the con-

[9] Meatless Mondays and Social Movements: Progressivism

Spanning from the 1850s to mid-1920s, become civilized middle class people. This belief Progressivism, a political ideology formed in led the upper classes to work to bring education response to immense social and economic to the masses through a variety of mechanisms changes, was one of the dominant ideologies including public education and land grant institu- when meatless days were first introduced during tions. These land grant institutions later became WWI. In fact, Herbert Hoover, the director of dispersal points for meatless and waste-saving the Food Administration whose referendum education for wartime food saving. Another led to the first national meatless day, was con- aspect of concern for the poor is evident in the sidered a well-known Progressive figure. Some rhetoric used to encourage food saving. Most of of the progressive ideologies that influenced those forgoing meat, wheat, and sugar were the the creation of meatless days remain relevant middle and upper classes, and many did so in the through WWII and into today including concern name of helping the “poor” Allies in Europe who for the poor and the redistribution resources. were reported to be suffering far more than they, privileged Americans, did. Land grant institutions A concern for the poor by the upper-income once again became knowledge originator points classes was nurtured in the closely packed for food saving and waste reducing techniques. cities of the late nineteenth and early twentieth Rationing focused on ensuring that the poor century. Progressives believed that, unlike social were able to afford food despite scarcity. The Darwinism theories that poverty was caused modern-day call to preserve the planet for the by genetically inherited tendencies towards better of everyone harkens back to those earlier laziness, debasement, and criminality, the poor campaigns and their Progressive progenitors. could be raised up through aid and education to

Meatless Monday and Social Movements:

The vegetarian diet has been a known lifestyle as a way to express penance for sins. Since the choice for thousands of years. Pythagoras, Romantic period of the 18th and early 19th the ancient Greek mathematician and philos- centuries, a heightened sense of love for animals opher, advocated for vegetarianism because and abhorrence of pain and death has strength- he believed that eating meat contaminated the ened the moral argument for vegetarianism soul. Ovid and Plutarch, born some 500 years in Western countries. Upton Sinclair’s 1906 later than Pythagoras, abhorred the killing of novel, The Jungle, further raised awareness of innocents and thus elected to eat all-vegeta- the problems in the meat packing and larger ble diets. The Hindus in India began to observe food production industry. Authors Mary and vegetarian diets even earlier than the Greeks. Percy Shelley and Alexander Pope and the poet By the time of the writing of the Vedas between Lord Byron were well known vegetarians. Percy 1500 and 1000 BCE, vegetarianism was taught Shelley even wrote the tract A Vindication of as a tenet of the faith. In more modern times, the Natural Diet arguing for a vegetarian diet. partial vegetarianism was popular in Catholicism

[10] In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Kellogg’s philosophy at the sanitarium revolved focus on vegetarianism gained popularity out around a critique of the contemporary American of a concern for the health of the diet of the diet. He believed that the high consumption contemporary elites. With meals rich in heavy of meat and dairy products was ruining the cream sauces, meats, alcohol, and sugar, an American stomach and creating all manner of epidemic of “indigestion” and other diet-re- health problems. From its inception, his sanitar- lated diseases and discomforts plagued the ium was one of the first American institutions to middle and upper classes. John Harvey Kellogg, be wholly vegetarian. Kellogg served his patients inventor of Kellogg Corn Flakes and forefather cornflakes, in order to clean their bowels and of the Kellogg empire, founded the Battle organs and even invented protein alternatives Creek Sanitarium in Battle Creek, Michigan, to like nutlose, a protein loaf made from nuts. address the health complaints of the wealthy. The modern-day call to sacrifice harkens The institute was graced with some of the most back to the morality frequently invoked famous American names of the time including in the past, often in connection with Sojourner Truth and Mary Todd Lincoln. religion, to justify vegetarianism.

Communicating the Meatless Monday Message: the mode and the messengers

The mode of delivering information and and text combined and viewed by many people, education has evolved drastically over the past while Twitter provides a way to spread slogans hundred years from early radio — first used as a even more efficiently than in earlier campaigns. mass communication tool by the government in During World War I, average citizens as well as World War I — and poster ads to the use of social local institutions and community groups were media sites like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter engaged in spreading the message about food today. Early meatless days faced the task of production, health and the call to sacrifice for spreading information to less-connected people the country. Today, Meatless Monday works across a wide expanse of land while the Modern in much the same way, relying on individuals, Meatless Monday campaign must work to distin- communities and institutions to voluntari- guish itself in an ear of “information overload.” ly share the relevance and feasibility of meat Despite their differences, the two campaigns reduction for health and the environment. spread messages in strikingly similar ways. Social media sites like Facebook and Instagram offer platforms similar to posters with images

[11] Homemakers as Messengers

Homemakers controlled the market purchases knowledge from home economists. Largely and thus, had a major impact on meat con- produced by women for women, homemak- sumption during the war. Advertising, ladies’ ing radio program were most popular from magazines, and other sources sought to the 1920s to the 1940s and thus influenced encourage women to reduce their family’s meat women most during World War II. Home econ- consumption by linking the effort to ideas of omists on the programs offered suggestions patriotism and health families. For housewives, for economizing and “Hooverizing” alongside the issue of reducing meat consumption was the same messages of patriotic housewif- posed as being a good mother and wife, pro- ery that simultaneously came from the gov- tecting their men at war and their families at ernment. “The patriotic housewife finds her home through healthy, economical eating. little domestic boat in uncharted waters.”28

One medium in particular held sway over house- “To the Women of the Universities wives and was utilized to influence their pur- and Colleges; the United States Food chasing and consumption habits. Because a Administration calls you to its service. large portion of women during the time lived on Our need is so great that we appeal to isolated homesteads away from other women, you to prepare yourselves and to enlist the invention of the radio brought a way for for the great work that must be done.”29 women to connect and learn from each other “Begin to-day to eat more corn meal and across long distances. Many women would hominy grits in place of wheat flour and listen to the radio as they worked, and the wheat breakfast foods” is the message the radios, responding to women’s interest, began United States Department of Agriculture is offering homemaking educational radio using sending out broadcast to housewives.”30

[12] Children as Messengers

As most advertisers know today, children are an “I have a little boy [with] a decided sweet ideal way to influence consumption behaviors tooth. He likes lots of sugar…His mother of parents. To that end, much of the meatless finally conceived the idea that he might effort was concentrated on schools so that save some sugar for a soldier. There is children would bring home these ideas to their something appealing and romantic about parents. For children, the issue of meatless a soldier and it struck his fancy…I wish days was posed as ‘doing their part’ for the that every child un 80 in the state of war effort and saving soldiers. They were Minnesota might do just the same thing.”31 educated in schools about conservation and “FOOD IS FUEL FOR FIGHTERS. Do asked to bring information to their mothers. not waste it. Save WHEAT, MEAT, They were also recruited to canvass neighbor- SUGARS AND FATS. Send more to hoods to get people to sign food pledge cards. our Soldiers, Sailors and Allies.”32

Farmers and other Men as Messengers

Men on the home front who were reminded of 1. Be intelligent; inform yourselves about food. their fellow men’s sacrifice and often felt guilty 2. Create more food if you can. for not being in the war were assured that they 3. Do not waste any. could do their part at home. Advertising targeted 4. Do not allow others to waste any. at men focused more on increasing produc- 5. Obey the food regulations, — they are tion than on reducing meat consumption. the careful and honest work of those who know what they are doing. “If you cannot get into the ranks, you can 6. By every legal means prevent yet fight with your fellows who have gone. their violation by others. Will you ? The battle-field is here. The 7. Help everyone who is trying to battle is now. The struggle for Democracy serve in the cause of food. is within you. It is as important for you to 8. Be aggressive agents of the Food Ad- do your duty at home as it is for the boys ministration wherever you go. What you to do theirs “over there.” It is as necessary are to be through life will be decided to provide food for our armies, and for by what you do lo-day in this crisis of the armies and families of the Allies, as human history. “ (Food and the War) it is to face the enemy. Therefore,

[13] Community Groups and Institutions as Messengers

Women’s committees and other groups of NYC Hotels and restaurants savings on women regularly met during World War I Meatless Tuesday, November 13: 193,545 for canning parties, gardening parties, and pounds, or 96.75 tons. more. Women’s informal friendships and Massachusetts hotels and restaurants familial networks were one of the primary October 1917 savings: 1,281,840 pounds modes of sharing knowledge and were often of meat.36 depended upon in order to teach gardening, canning, and other economizing techniques “The wholesale grocers early evidenced a to large portions of the population.33 Women’s willingness to help through reorganization of auxiliary committees translated recipes into their machinery and through inaugurating a other languages for Minnesota immigrants. campaign of education on the part of their salesmen with the retailers of the country. A.D. Wilson, Minnesota’s food administrator, did They undertook to urge upon retailers, and outreach to lumberjacks for food conservation through them upon consumers, measures and meatless days. Cooks went to conservation to save food and fuel, to push the sale of classes and most camps “observed meatless wholesome substitutes for wheat and other days and reduced the quantity of meat used…”34 commodities of which there is shortage, Hotels, institutions and grocery and to give information to and assist the vendors were also involved. retailers in the food conservation program in the matter of display of foods, saving “John McE Bowman of the US Food in delivery, and shortening of credit.”37 Commission has reports from every hotel association, restaurant organi- “Many of them [restaurants and hotels] have zation, and many other public dining been leaders in introducing the meatless room bodies that they will make Tuesday Tuesday and the wheatless Wednesday.”38 beefless for the period of the war.”35

[14] Food Pledge and Home Cards

Food pledge cards hung in households and then he will not bake beyond his needs. Cut offered, on one side, a reminder of the household the loaf on the table and only as required. managers’ commitment to conserve food; Use stale bread for toast and cooking. on the other side, the “home card” offered MEAT.—Use more poultry, rabbits, and es- guidance about how to uphold the pledge. pecially fish and sea food in place of beef, More than 11,024,329 pledges were signed. mutton, and pork. Do not use either beef, The Pledge mutton, or pork more than once daily, and “Food Administration, Washington, D. then serve smaller portions. Use all left-over C: I am glad to join you in the service of meat cold or in made dishes. Use soups more food conservation in our United States freely. Use beans; they have nearly the same and I hereby accept membership in food value as meat. the United States Food Administration, MILK.—Use all of the milk, waste no part pledging myself to carry out the direc- of it. The children must have whole milk; tions and advice of the Food Administrator therefore, use less cream. There is a great in the conduct of my household in so waste of food by not using all skim and sour far as my circumstances permit.” milk. Sour milk can be used in cooking and The Home Card to make cottage cheese. Use buttermilk and HOME CARD. UNITED STATES FOOD cheese freely. FATS (, lard, etc.).—Dairy ADMINISTRATION What you can do to help butter has food values vital to children. win this war. OUR PROBLEM is to feed our Therefore, use it on the table as usual, es- Allies this winter by sending them as much pecially for children. Use as little as possible food as we can of the most concentrated in cooking.’ Reduce the use of fried foods to nutritive value in the least shipping space. reduce the consumption of lard and other These foods are wheat, beef, pork, dairy fats. Use oils, as olive and cotton- products and sugar. OUR SOLUTION is to seed oil. Save daily one-third of an ounce of eat less of these and more of other foods of animal fat. Waste no soap; it contains fat and which we have an abundance, and to waste the glycerine necessary for explosives. You less of all foods. can make scrubbing soap at home, and, in some localities, you can sell your saved fats BREAD AND .—Have at least one to the soap maker, who will thus secure our wheatless meal a day. Use corn, oat, rye, needed glycerine. barley or mixed cereal rolls, muffins, and breads in place of white bread certainly for SUGAR.—Use less candy and sweet drinks. one meal and, if possible, for two. Eat less Use less sugar in tea and coffee. Use honey, cake and pastry. As to the white bread, if you maple syrup, and dark syrups for hot cakes buy from a baker, order it a day in advance; and waffles without butter or sugar. Do not

[15] frost or ice cakes. Do not stint the use of of the wheat and meat, and, at the same sugar in putting up and jams. They may time, are healthful. Use potatoes abundantly. be used in place of butter. Store potatoes and roots properly and they will keep. Use fruits generously. FUEL.—Coal AND FRUITS.—We have a su- comes from a distance, and our railway facili- perabundance of vegetables. Double the use ties are needed for war purposes. Burn fewer of vegetables. They take the place of part fires. If you can get wood, use it. Conclusion: Meatless Monday and Meaningful Impact Although Meatless Monday looks different than for their country by forgoing the pleasures of when the war-time concept of a meatless day meat. Modern Meatless Mondays asks citizens to first emerged, its prevailing impacts shape the make changes for the better of the planet and all movement today. Modern Meatless Monday people on it. Third, individuals and organizations advances objectives of wartime activists and (including restaurants, hospitals and work asso- broadens the relevance of Meatless Monday for ciations) took up the messages of early meatless modern consumers in several important ways. days. Modern Meatless Mondays are championed First, in addition to saving resources, meatless in similar ways by organizations and individuals days during the world wars were used to educate alike. Finally, early meatless days communicat- people about food systems and nutritional ed the movement through posters, newspapers, intake. They were a part of larger efforts that and radio. Modern Meatless Monday spreads included home and school gardens, wheat- messages through social media in formats not less days, and more. In the same way, modern unlike early meatless days. In all these ways — Meatless Monday works to teach about the education, altruism, coalition-building and com- benefits of a plant-based diets and perils of high munication — the modern movement bears a meat consumption. Second, wartime meatless great deal of resemblance to its predecessors. days asked Americans to express patriotism

[16] Appendix 1 Themes of Meatless Days - Then and Now

1. Meatless days sought to educate people ▶▶ World War Iwas the first time home about their food systems and nutritional economists were in federal positions. intake. They were a part of larger efforts ▶▶ World War I cookbooks and instruction that included home and school gardens, books were intended to educate wheatless days, and more. In the same housewives that meat is not the only way, modern Meatless Monday works to source of protein and offered suggestions teach about the benefits of a plant-based on how to cook nutritionally complete diets and perils of high meat eating. meals for a family without meat. ▶▶ School garden education was one of the ▶▶ In 1946 President Truman signed the first nationally promoted curriculums National School Lunch Act, ensuring in the country. President Wilson funded that people had proper nutrition for school gardening programs using engaging in war: “The Nutrition needs of public defense funds, recognizing a healthy human body must be kept at the national security importance of par for defense work” (WJ Enright 1943). gardening and food system education. ▶▶ Nutritional guidelines set out during ▶▶ Extension education in gardening and the war continued to effect American canning classes during World War I homes long after restrictions on meat parallels modern gardening and cooking and wheat consumption were lifted. education (Master Gardeners, Extension) that teaches the public how to prepare 2. Wartime meatless days asked Americans and consume healthy plant-based meals. to express patriotism for their country by forgoing the pleasures of meat. ▶▶ The public school system employed Modern Meatless Mondays asks citizens gardening education in World War I. globally to make changes for the better ▶▶ Victory gardens were used of the planet and all people on it. to educate the public. ▶▶ Women were targeted as ▶▶ Home economists simultaneously primary consumers. helped housewives to cope with food ▶▶ Students were targeted as influencing scarcity (or less meat and wheat) by factor on parents’ consumption habits. educating them about nutrition. ▶▶ Americans were urged to come together ▶▶ USDA used rations to conduct as a nation during a time of growing first research campaign on individualism in order to win the war. home consumption habits.

[17] ▶▶ Women were recruited to produce ▶▶ The movement to provide food aid industrial food and to bring about in World War I was “the first large reform in the home/kitchen. scale social networking enterprise of the twentieth century.” ▶▶ Women urged to “use their power patriotically.” ▶▶ Households were asked to sign food pledges. 3. Individuals and organizations took up the messages of early meatless days. Modern ▶▶ Women’s organizations formed divisions Meatless Mondays are championed in similar to share information among housewives. ways by organizations and individuals alike. ▶▶ The Committee on Public Information ▶▶ First Lady Edith Wilson grazed consisted of ad men, writers, and sheep on the White House lawn. artists dedicated to selling the idea of meatless and wheatless days. Ideals ▶▶ First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt planted of sacrifice were highlighted—the the first White House Victory garden. blood sacrifice of soldiers was linked to ▶▶ First Lady Michelle Obama had a White sacrifice of bread on the home front. House vegetable garden focused on ▶▶ Good Housekeeping and Ladies Home child nutrition and public schools. Journal articles were influential. ▶▶ Celebrity writers and chefs such as ▶▶ Five-Minute Men gave short and Tom Colicchio use speeches to large crowds about their influence to promote the movement. conservation, and educators during 4. Early meatless days communicated the World War II gave speeches in movement through posters, newspa- bomb shelters during air raids. pers, and radio. Modern Meatless Monday ▶▶ President Roosevelt gave speeches spreads messages through social media in such as his “Conservation as a National formats not unlike early meatless days. Duty” speech that urged Americans to ▶▶ World War I sees the first widespread use take up the cause as a patriotic duty. of propaganda posters by US government.

[18] Appendix 2 Wartime Meatless Days Timeline World War One World War Two April 1917: US enters World War I, increas- September 2, 1942: Fifty-two government caf- ing the demand for meat and other staples. eterias in Washington, DC, have meatless and fishless Wednesdays, as suggested by Roosevelt. August 1917: The US Food Administration is formed and funded by Congress. January 1943: Officials call for Herbert Hoover is elected as director. household meat consumption reduction from 137 to 91 pounds annually. September 14, 1917: State Senator Magnus Swenson introduces Meatless March 29, 1943: Government institutes Tuesdays in Wisconsin. rations on meat, fats, and cheese.

September 18, 1917: First Meatless January 22, 1945: Mayor LaGuardia orders Tuesday observed in Wisconsin. two meatless days per week in New York City.

October 4, 1917: Herbert Hoover July 23, 1945: Las Vegas Restaurant announces national Meatless Tuesdays. Association voluntarily announces meatless Mondays and Tuesdays. October 30, 1917: First Meatless Tuesday observed nationwide.

January 1918: Western states have meatless day hiatus to use surplus caused by transportation shortage.

April 1918: Hoover calls for 30-day stay from Meatless days to use surplus, not observed for the rest of the war.

[19] Endnotes 1. MEATLESS AND FLOURLESS DAY The 8. WEST TO REDUCE MEAT SURPLUS: Food Christian Science Monitor (1908-Current Administration Promises to Raise ... file); May 14, 1917; ProQuest Historical News- Special to The Christian Science Monitor papers: The Christian Science Monitor pg. 2 from its Western Bureau The Christian Science Monitor (1908-Current file); Jan 2. Pixley, R. B. (2010). Wisconsin in the 16, 1918; ProQuest Historical Newspa- World War: an account of the activities of pers: The Christian Science Monitor pg. 5 Wisconsin citizens during the great world war (1919). LaVergne, TN: Kessinger Pub. 9. 25 PER CENT SAVED BY MEATLESS DAYS: Armour Reports Plan Enabled It to Care for 3. Avey, T. (2013, August 16). Discover the Army Needs. (1877- History of Meatless Monday. PBS Food . 1922); Jan 24, 1918; ProQuest Historical 4. PATRIOT? SHUN MEAT TOMORROW: Newspapers: The Washington Post pg. 5 Hotels and Restaurants to Aid Govern- 10. Eighmey, R. K. (2010). Food will win the ment; Citizens May. Chicago Daily Tribune war: Minnesota crops, cooks, and con- (1872-1922); Oct 29, 1917; ProQuest His- servation during World War I. St. Paul, torical Newspapers: Chicago Tribune pg. 1 MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press. 5. “Beefless Tuesday” to Be Observed 11. Food-Saving “Twaddle” Useless As By Country’s Restaurant Keepers; ... Prices Soar, Asserts Writer FARRINGTON, The Washington Post (1877-1922); Aug CHARLES The Washington Post (1877- 2, 1917; ProQuest Historical Newspa- 1922); Jul 15, 1917; ProQuest Historical pers: The Washington Post pg. 2 Newspapers: The Washington Post pg. 23 6. BEEFLESS MENUS COMING.: Practically 12. Levenstein, Harvey A. Revolution at the Whole Country Will Adopt the Sug- the table: the transformation of the gestion. New York Times (1857-1922); American diet. Berkeley, Calif.: U of Oct 9, 1917; ProQuest Historical News- California Press, 2005. Print. papers: The New York Times pg. 11 13. Levenstein, Harvey A. Revolution 7. 57 RESTAURANT MEN MUST CLOSE at the table: the transformation of ONE DAY: Punished by Food Adminis- the American diet. Berkeley, Calif.: trator ... New York Times (1857-1922); U of California Press, 2005. Print Mar 10, 1918; ProQuest Historical News- papers: The New York Times pg. 10 14. CHASE, Stephen. Production of Meat in the United States and its distri- bution during the War. By Stephen Chase. Washington: n.p., 1919. Print.

15. Ibid 117

[20] 16. Horowitz, R. (2006). Putting meat 24. Gerber PJ, Steinfeld H, Henderson B, et on the American table: taste, tech- al. Tackling Climate Change through nology, transformation. : Livestock – A Global Assessment of Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Emissions and Mitigation Opportuni- ties. Rome: Food and Agriculture Orga- 17. FOOD-SAVING PLAN FAILS.: Majestic nization of the United Nations; 2013. Patrons Demand the More Expensive Dishes. New York Times (1857-1922); 25. Sun, Q. (2012). Red Meat Consump- Aug 16, 1917; ProQuest Historical News- tion and Mortality. Archives of Internal papers: The New York Times pg. 1 Medicine, 172(7), 555. doi:10.1001/ archinternmed.2011.2287 18. PRESIDENT TALKS OF MEATLESS DAYS TO SAVE SHIPPING: He Estimates One 26. Dunlop, C. (2015, October 26). Processed a ... Special to THE NEW YORK TIMES. meat and cancer – what you need to New York Times (1923-Current file); Aug know. Retrieved June 05, 2017, from 29, 1942; ProQuest Historical News- http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk. papers: The New York Times pg. 1 org/2015/10/26/processed-meat-and- cancer-what-you-need-to-know/ 19. Meatless Days Start Today in Federal Cafes . (1942, September 2). Chicago Daily Tribune . 27. Poultry was largely excluded due to high cost of chicken at the time. Most 20. Congressional record (12th ed., families could not afford chicken regularly Vol. 91). (1945). Washington: Gov- and thus it was a negligible figure. ernment printing Office. 28. Rose, Mary Swartz. Everyday Foods in 21. Hurt, R. D. (2008). The Great Plains War Time. Place of publication not iden- during World War II. Lincoln: Uni- tified, Project Gutenberg, 2015. versity of Nebraska Press. 29. Blunt, Katharine, et al. Food and the 22. Barclay, E. (2012, June 27). A Nation Of Meat war: a textbook for college classes. Eaters: See How It All Adds Up. Retrieved Houghton Mifflin Co., 1918. June 07, 2017, from http://www.npr.org/ sections/thesalt/2012/06/27/155527365/ 30. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Wheatless visualizing-a-nation-of-meat-eaters Meals, Food Thrift Series, Number 5, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washing- 23. Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions ton, D.C.. 1917. Stillwater Public Library, Data. (2017, April 13). Retrieved June reflections.mndigital.org/catalog/ 07, 2017, from https://www.epa. spl:3177 Accessed 12 Oct. 2017. gov/ghgemissions/global-green- house-gas-emissions-data#Reference 1 31. Eighmey, Rae Katherine. Food will win the war: Minnesota crops, cooks, and conser- vation during World War I. St. Paul, MN, Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2010.

[21] 32. Rose, Mary Swartz. Everyday Foods in War Time. Place of publication not iden- tified, Project Gutenberg, 2015.

33. Janik, Erika . “FOOD WILL WIN THE WAR: FOOD CONSERVATION IN WORLD WAR I WISCONSIN.” Wisconsin Magazine of History , vol. 98, no. 3, 2010.

34. Eighmey, Rae Katherine. Food will win the war: Minnesota crops, cooks, and conser- vation during World War I. St. Paul, MN, Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2010.

35. BEEFLESS MENUS COMING.: Practically the Whole Country Will Adopt the Sug- gestion. New York Times (1857-1922); Oct 9, 1917; ProQuest Historical News- papers: The New York Times pg. 11

36. Richard, V. H. (1974). Conservation and reg- ulation in the United States during the world war: an outline for a course of lectures to be given in higher educational institutions, prepared for the United States Food Admin- istration. Englewood, NJ: Jerome S. Ozer.)

37. ibid 71

38. ibid 71

[22]