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The Moho in Extensional Tectonic Settings: Insights from Thermo-Mechanical Models

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The Moho in Extensional Tectonic Settings: Insights from Thermo-Mechanical Models TECTO-125938; No of Pages 47 Tectonophysics xxx (2013) xxx–xxx Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Tectonophysics journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto Review Article The Moho in extensional tectonic settings: Insights from thermo-mechanical models Sierd Cloetingh a,⁎, Evgenii Burov b,c, Liviu Matenco a, Fred Beekman a, François Roure a,e, Peter A. Ziegler d,† a Netherlands Research Centre for Integrated Solid Earth Sciences, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Budapestlaan 4, 3584 CD Utrecht, The Netherlands b UPMC Univ Paris 06, ISTEP UMR 7193, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, F-75005 Paris, France c CNRS, ISTEP, UMR 7193, F-75005 Paris, France d Kirchweg 41, 4102 Binningen, Switzerland e IFPEN, 1-4 Avenue de Bois-Préau, 92852 Rueil-Malmaison Cedex, France article info abstract Article history: The lithospheric memory is key for the interplay of lithospheric stresses and rheological structure of the Received 22 November 2012 extending lithosphere and for its later tectonic reactivation. Other important factors are the temporal and Received in revised form 12 June 2013 spatial migration of extension and the interplay of rifting and surface processes. The mode of extension Accepted 13 June 2013 and the duration of the rifting phase required to lead to continental break-up are to a large extent controlled Available online xxxx by the interaction of the extending plate with slab dynamics. The finite strength of the lithosphere has an important effect on the formation of extensional basins. This applies both to the geometry of the basin shape Keywords: Lithosphere rheology as well as to the record of vertical motions during and after rifting. We demonstrate a strong connection between Lower crustal flow the bulk rheological properties of Europe's lithosphere and the evolution of some of Europe's main rifts and Moho imagery back-arc systems. The thermo-mechanical structure of the lithosphere has a major impact on continental Mode of rifting break-up and associated basin migration processes, with direct relationships between rift duration and extension Stress regimes velocities, thermal evolution, and the role of mantle plumes. Compressional reactivation has important conse- Lithospheric memory quences for post-rift inversion, borderland uplift, and denudation, as illustrated by poly-phase deformation of extensional back-arc basins in the Black Sea and the Pannonian Basin region. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................... 0 2. Constraints by deep seismic imaging, potential field data and mantle tomography on the architecture of the Moho, volcanic underplating and the occurrence of residual lithospheric slabs in rift basins, passive margins and intracontinental sags ....................... 0 2.1. Architecture of the Moho and lower crust in extensional settings, as revealed by deep seismic reflection profiles............ 0 2.2. Evidence for volcanic underplating from refraction data and inversion of potential field data ...................... 0 2.3. Long lasting subsidence of intracratonic sags induced by residual lithospheric slabs .......................... 0 2.4. Negative inversion of former thrust belts .............................................. 0 3. Rifting and extensional basin formation and its role in the evolution of the continental lithosphere ...................... 0 4. Extensional tectonics: concepts and global-scale observations ....................................... 0 4.1. Extensional basin systems ..................................................... 0 4.1.1. Thermal thinning and stretching of the lithosphere: concepts and models .......................... 0 4.1.2. Syn-rift subsidence and duration of rifting stage ...................................... 0 4.1.3. Post-rift subsidence .................................................... 0 4.1.4. Post-rift compressional reactivation of extensional basins .................................. 0 4.1.5. Finite strength of the lithosphere during extensional basin formation ............................ 0 4.1.6. Rift-shoulder development and architecture of basin fill................................... 0 5. Rheological stratification of the lithosphere and basin evolution ...................................... 0 5.1. Lithosphere strength and deformation mode ............................................ 0 5.2. Mechanical controls on the evolution of rifts: Europe's continental lithosphere ............................ 0 ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 30 2537314; fax: +31 30 2535030. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Cloetingh). † Deceased July 19th, 2013. 0040-1951/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2013.06.010 Please cite this article as: Cloetingh, S., et al., The Moho in extensional tectonic settings: Insights from thermo-mechanical models, Tectonophysics (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2013.06.010 2 S. Cloetingh et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2013) xxx–xxx 5.3. Lithospheric folding: an important mode of compressional reactivation of rifts ............................ 0 6. Models for continental breakup and rift basins ............................................... 0 6.1. Extensional basin migration: observations and thermo-mechanical models . ............................ 0 6.2. Fast rifting and plate separation .................................................. 0 6.3. Thermo-mechanical evolution and tectonic subsidence during slow extension . ............................ 0 6.4. Interplay of lower crustal flow and surface erosion in rifts ...................................... 0 6.5. Breakup processes: timing and mantle plumes ........................................... 0 6.6. The evolution of the Moho geometry during rifting ......................................... 0 6.7. Post-rift inversion, intraplate stresses, borderland uplift, and denudation . ............................ 0 7. Back-arc basin formation and evolution .................................................. 0 7.1. Black Sea ............................................................. 0 7.1.1. Rheology and back-arc rift basin formation ......................................... 0 7.1.2. Strength evolution and neotectonic reactivation at the basin margins during the post-rift phase ................ 0 7.2. Modes of basin (de)formation, lithospheric strength, and vertical motions in continental back-arc rifts ................. 0 7.2.1. Neogene development and evolution of the Pannonian Basin ................................ 0 7.2.2. Dynamic models of basin formation ............................................ 0 7.2.3. Stretching models and subsidence analysis ......................................... 0 7.2.4. Lithospheric strength in the Pannonian–Carpathian system ................................. 0 7.2.5. Deformation of the Pannonian–Carpathian system ..................................... 0 8. Conclusions ............................................................... 0 Acknowledgements .............................................................. 0 References .................................................................. 0 1. Introduction the thermo-mechanical aspects of extensional sedimentary basin de- velopment in the context of large-scale lithosphere models for the The Moho, originally defined as an acoustic contrast marking the underlying lithosphere and on tectonic controls on the post-rift evo- compositional boundary between the crust and the underlying mantle, lution of extensional basins. is also of crucial importance for the mechanical state of the lithosphere. We highlight the connection between the bulk rheological proper- Actually, the effect of the inherited crustal fabric and strength appear to ties of the lithosphere and the evolution of extensional basins and be of paramount influence on the nature of tectonic deformation in the find that the finite strength of the lithosphere plays an important plate interiors. A particularly important parameter for lithospheric role in their development. This applies both to the geometry of the strength is the ratio of the thickness-dependent crustal and lithospheric basin shape as well as to the record of vertical motions during and mantle strength (e.g. Burov, 2011)anditisexactlythisratiothatis after lithospheric extension. strongly affected by crustal thinning during the rifting process. In addi- Below we give a brief review of concepts for the rheological struc- tion, changes in thermal regime characteristic for rifting processes leave ture of continental lithosphere and discuss insight gained from global a strong imprint on the temporal and spatial variations in crustal and models of strength distribution, highlighting the impact rifting pro- lithospheric strength during and after the rifting phases. cesses have on the lithospheric strength distribution. This is followed The notion that rifting is a very important mechanism for sedimen- by a discussion of constraints on the duration of rifting based on case tary basin formation with key implications for the basin fill and thermal studies (e.g. Ziegler and Cloetingh, 2004), the effects of slow versus regime is of immediate importance for the assessment of the hydrocar- fast extension on lithospheric strength and crustal configuration bon habitat. This has boosted rifting studies in the context of global (van Wijk and Cloetingh, 2002; Van Wijk et al., 2004), and an analysis exploration for hydrocarbons. Deep seismic
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