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Preventing mobile phone use while driving: Appreciating the equivocal nature of identity, safety and legality in an uncertain world Leanne Savigar Degree for which the thesis has been submitted: Doctor of Philosophy March 2019 Word Count: 99,228 Keele University Abstract Mobile phone use while driving is a major concern for, but is also performed by, many drivers on UK roads (RAC, 2017b), with 40% of drivers admitting to using a mobile phone illegally (Ibid). This thesis presents a mixed-methods exploration of mobile phone use while driving, with a focus on one particular educational approach to tackling the problem. Whilst the educational course in question appeared to have considerable benefits upon a range of attitudes and behaviours, many aspects of social life were found to compete with that, as well as with other attempts to tackle mobile phone use while driving. The speed of technological as well as social change necessitates that individuals ‘keep up’ with the pace of life (Rosa, 2013), however, a law that prohibits mobile phone use while driving was found to prevent many forms of acceleration in this way; it inhibits the use of a mobile phone as a communication device, a form of identity-presentation, and even a tool of work. Furthermore, the malleable and changing nature of risk surrounding the behaviour and who can be considered ‘expert’ (Beck, 1992: 29), was found to create difficulties for individuals in understanding those actions that are ‘risky’ and not. Consequently, individuals often failed to recognise the risk of their own actions but did recognise the risk of others’, somewhat influencing perceptions of fairness in interactions with the police. Despite this, an offer of education as an alternative to prosecution was shown to have the ability to enhance perceptions of fairness of police work in various ways. The thesis concludes that mobile phone use while driving is an action symptomatic of postmodernity; concerned with time, productivity, connectivity, identity and uncertainty. These should be considered in any innovation dedicated to creating safer roads and research project attempting to explore the issue. ii Acknowledgements This research was jointly funded by the Office of the Police and Crime Commissioner for Staffordshire and Keele University and I would firstly like to take this opportunity to thank them for making the research possible. Special thanks must be made to the project supervisors, Dr Helen Wells and Dr Clare Griffiths, who have devoted much time and energy to supporting me throughout the duration of the PhD, ensuring that this final thesis report was possible. Not only were they able to support the academic process, but they also encouraged me and maintained my motivation during difficult times. They are inspirational in their knowledge, work and as individuals. Helen has a wealth of knowledge in the subject area and it has been an honour to work alongside her. Similarly, I must thank my family, who have supported me throughout the entire process, helping out wherever possible and being extremely patient as the project took over all aspects of life. Thank you for doing everything possible to support me financially, physically and emotionally. I am forever grateful. Finally, but most importantly, to Ann Morris, who believed both in the research project and in me as a person. You devoted your own time and effort to guiding me and ensuring that the project continued despite various obstacles that were put in our way. I only wish you were able to read this final thesis report and see how far your dedicated help and caring nature has allowed me to come. iii Table of contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii List of tables viii List of figures ix List of appendices x Part 1 – Background to the thesis 1 Chapter 1 – Introduction to the thesis 1 1.1 – Introduction to the problem 1 1.2 – Background to the problem 2 1.3 – The problem in context 5 1.4 – Exploring the problem within this thesis 8 1.5 – Chapter outline 10 Chapter 2 – Methodology 14 2.1 – Introduction 14 2.2 – Project funders 15 2.3 – Research aims 15 2.4 – Mixed methods approach to understanding mobile phone use while 17 driving 2.5 – Longitudinal questionnaires 20 2.5.1 – Questionnaire development 20 2.5.2 – Questionnaire procedure 22 2.6 – Interviews 25 2.6.1 – Course attendee interviews 25 2.6.2 – Police officer interviews 27 2.6.3 – Crash Course presenter interviews 29 2.7 – Observations 30 2.8 – Data analysis 32 2.9 – Issues in data collection 34 2.9.1 – Participant access 34 2.9.2 – Longitudinal attrition 35 2.9.3 – Attempted remedies 38 iv 2.10 - Summary 39 Part 2 – Attempts to tackle mobile phone use while driving 41 Chapter 3 – Why is handheld mobile phone use while driving illegal? 43 3.1 – Introduction 43 3.2 – The development of legislation 43 3.3 – Technological developments and the law 47 3.4 – Questioning the safety of legality 52 3.5 – Summary 55 Chapter 4 – The law enforcement context of mobile phone use while driving 56 4.1 – Introduction 56 4.2 – The theory of deterrence 56 4.3 – Deterring traffic offences 59 4.4 – Traffic penalties as deterrence 62 4.5 – Law enforcement in the context of mobile phone use while driving 66 4.6 – Summary 70 Chapter 5 – The educational context of mobile phone use while driving 72 5.1 – Introduction 72 5.2 – Types and styles of road user education 72 5.3 – Education as general deterrent 77 5.4 – Education as specific deterrent 80 5.5 – Education for the offence of using a mobile phone while driving 84 5.6 - Summary 88 Chapter 6 – Combining education and enforcement – the case of Crash Course 90 6.1 – Introduction 90 6.2 – Background to Crash Course 90 6.3 – Driver attitudes – the influence of Crash Course 93 6.3.1 – General crash risk attitudes 93 6.3.2 – Distinguishing between general risk and personal safety 100 6.4 – Driver behaviour – the influence of Crash Course 106 6.4.1 – Handheld mobile phone use behaviour change 106 6.4.2 – Hands-free mobile phone use behaviour change 110 6.5 – ‘Real life’ education 113 v 6.5.1 – Personal stories 113 6.5.2 – Monitoring emotion 119 6.6 – Summary 123 Conclusion to part two 126 Part 3 – Mobile phone use while driving in postmodernity 129 Chapter 7 – The social and cultural context of acceleration and uncertainty 131 7.1 – Introduction 131 7.2 – Technological development and economic productivity 131 7.3 – Swift social and identity change 134 7.4 – The harried nature of life 137 7.5 – Acceleration of deceleration 140 7.6 – Summary 143 Chapter 8 – Mobile phone use while driving in response to acceleration and uncertainty 144 8.1 – Introduction 144 8.2 – Acceleration and deceleration on the roads 145 8.3 – Effective time management 147 8.4 – Employer satisfaction 156 8.5 – Social conformity 163 8.6 – Identity malleability 167 8.7 – Perceived personal control 175 8.8 – Summary 180 Chapter 9 – The legal context of risk, safety and equivocality 182 9.1 – Introduction 182 9.2 – The uncertain nature of risk 183 9.3 – Risk in ‘reality’ 185 9.4 – Risk on the roads 189 9.5 – To be safe or to be legal? 194 9.6 – Summary 197 Chapter 10 – Mobile phone use while driving within the legal context of risk 198 10.1 – Introduction 198 10.2 – Manufacturing risk on the road 199 10.2.1 – Ignorance to manufactured risk 199 vi 10.2.2 – Finding (some) manufactured risk 204 10.3 – Political responses to risky phone use 208 10.4 – Policing risk on the roads 213 10.5 – Expertise in the safe use of mobile phones whilst driving 221 10.6 – Summary 232 Chapter 11 – Fairness and legitimacy in a policing context 234 11.1 – Introduction 234 11.2 – Why comply? 234 11.3 – The success (or otherwise) of instrumental and normative compliance 238 11.4 – Encouraging normative compliance 239 11.5 – Compliance with traffic law 243 11.6 – Summary 248 Chapter 12 – Fairness in the policing of mobile phone use while driving 250 12.1 – Introduction 250 12.2 – How procedurally just is policing of the roads? 250 12.3 – Defining procedural justice on the roads 255 12.4 – Legal, institutional and individual legitimacy 263 12.5 – Fairness in outcomes 273 12.6 – Procedures of outcomes 280 12.7 – Summary 288 Conclusion to part three 290 Chapter 13 – Thesis conclusion 295 13.1 – Introduction 295 13.2 – The problem of postmodernity 295 13.3 – The uncertainty of safety and legality 298 13.4 – Struggles and strategies to elicit compliance with an uncertain law 300 13.5 – Theoretical and research implications 304 13.6 – Policy implications 306 References 311 Appendices 360 vii List of tables Table 2.1 – Data collection methods 19 Table 6.1 – Pre, post and follow-up agreement that certain behaviours increased the risk of a driver being involved in a crash 95 Table 10.1 – Mean scores for attitudes regarding whether “handheld/hands- free mobile phone use increases the risk of a driver being involved in a crash” 206 at pre-course, post-course and follow-up Table 12.1 – Mean procedural justice scores at pre-course for offender and employee perceptions of the police

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