Notes

Introduction 1. Reprinted from William Shakespeare: The Tempest edited by Stephen Orgel (Oxford World’s Classics, 1998) by permission of Oxford University Press. All references are to this edition © Oxford University Press 1987. 2. See, for instance, Peter Holland, English Shakespeares: Shakespeare on the Eng- lish Stage in the 1990s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); and Charles Marowitz, Recycling Shakespeare (London: Macmillan, 1991). 3. See Alan Sinfield, “Introduction: Reproductions, Interventions,” in Political Shakespeare: Essays in Cultural Materialism (1985), eds. Jonathan Dollimore & Alan Sinfield (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), p. 154. See also his “Making Space: Appropriation and Confrontation in Renais- sance British Plays,” in Graham Holderness, ed. & pref., The Shakespeare Myth (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), pp. 128–144. 4. I have, in several articles, outlined a methodology to make sense of all these Tempest-rewrites beyond a postcolonial reading and encouraged criss-cross- ings over linguistic boundaries (francophone studies being neatly separated from Anglophone studies) and over genre boundaries to consider literature and film. Since I wrote the first article on Canadian, Québécois, and Caribbean Tempests in 1985, a few articles were published but they invari- ably addressed issues in isolated fashion, i.e., dealing exclusively with either postcoloniality (Jolly 1986; Brydon 1989) or postmodernism (Donaldson 1988; Skura 1992); with a particular country (Canada: Laframboise 1991) or countries (the Caribbean: Wynter 1990). More recently, books have ap- proached a character and provided its “historiography” (the Vaughans’ Shakespeare’s Caliban, 1991; Harold Bloom’s Caliban, 1992; Theo D’Haen & Nadia Lie, eds., Constellation Caliban, 1997) or the history of the play’s production (Christine Dymkowski, The Tempest: Shakespeare in Produc- tion, 2000) or within the “Shakespeare Studies” paradigm (The Tempest and Its Travels, eds. Peter Hulme and Bill Sherman, 2000). Book chapters have also been devoted to The Tempest from, for example, a queer (Kate Chedgzoy, Shakespeare’s Queer Children, 1995), “performative” (Susan Ben- nett, Performing Nostalgia, 1996), or a women’s perspective (Julie Sanders, Novel Shakespeares, 2002). 270 Tempests after Shakespeare

5. Edward W. Said, “On Originality,” in The World, the Text, and the Critic (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), p. 135. My italics. 6. From writing, i.e., composing (“making sense”); righting, i.e., reforming (“set- ting right”); wright (ing), i.e., constructing with craft, as in the “playwright.” 7. See, for instance, Kenneth Muir’s The Sources of Shakespeare’s Plays (London: Methuen, 1977); and Geoffrey Bullough’s Narrative and Dramatic Sources to Shakespeare, vol. 8 (London & New York: Columbia University Press, 1975). The scholarly tracing of sources is also an ideological enterprise. To wit, Peter Hulme and Francis Barker’s questioning of Frank Kermode’s use of sources in the Arden edition such as the Bermuda Pamphlets, which he deemed not fun- damental to the play’s structure of ideas, when in fact such sources connect the play’s characters to the colonists aboard the Sea-Adventure off the coast of Bermuda in 1609. For a discussion of the Bermuda pamphlets and the influ- ence of the New World on The Tempest, see The Arden Shakespeare: The Tem- pest, ed. Frank Kermode (London: Routledge, 1954), pp. xxv-xxxiv; and Francis Barker & Peter Hulme, “Nymphs and Reapers Heavily Vanish: the Discursive Con-texts of The Tempest,” in Alternative Shakespeares, ed. John Drakakis (London & New York: Routledge, 1985), p. 199. 8. “A Sequel to Shakespeare’s Tempest,” in which Caliban, Antonio and Sebast- ian betray Prospero on the return voyage to Milan. This is done, in the Vaughans’ words, “in imitation of our immortal Shakespeare.” In Alden T. Vaughan & Virginia Vaughan, Shakespeare’s Caliban: A Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 101–102. 9. See my article, “Wreaders: On the Practice of ‘Rewriting’ at the End of the Twentieth Century,” Alizés/ Trade Winds 20 (2001), 191–205. 10. See Roland Barthes, “The Death of the Author,” “Musica Practica,” and “From Work to Text” in Image-Music-Text, trans. Stephen Heath (London: Fontana, 1977), pp. 142–164. 11. Fredric Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (London: Methuen 1981), p. 16; and André Lefevere, “‘Beyond Inter- pretation’, Or the Business of (Re)Writing,” Comparative Literature Studies 24:1 (1987), 19. 12. Said, p. 132 & p. 138. 13. Qtd in George D. Painter, Proust: The Late Years (Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 1965), p. 100. 14. Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 5 & p. 11. See also Paul de Man, Blindness and Insight (New York: Methuen, 1983), pp. 182–83; Frank Lentricchia, After the New Criticism (1980) (New York: Methuen, 1983), p. 283; and Thomas Docherty, After Theory: Post Modernism/Post Marxism (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 127. 15. The term is borrowed from Judie Newman, The Ballistic Bard: Postcolonial Fictions (London: Arnold, 1995), p. 21. 16. Pierre Macherey, Pour une théorie de la production littéraire (Paris: François Maspero, 1970), p. 267. The combined concepts of Lyotard’s métarécit or grand-narrative, of Genette’s “hypertextuality,” and of Bloom’s grand pre- Notes 271

cursor come close to Macherey’s notion. See Jean-François Lyotard, The Post- modern Condition (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), p. xxiii. Originally, La condition post-moderne (Paris: Ed. De Minuit, 1979); and Gérard Genette, Palimpsestes (Paris: Seuil, 1982), pp. 235–236. 17. Diana Brydon and Helen Tiffin, “‘The Thematic Ancestor’: Conrad, White and Atwood,” in Decolonizing Fictions (Sydney, Mundelstrup, West York- shire: Dangaroo Press, 1993), p. 89. See also Diana Brydon, “The White Inuit Speaks: Contamination as Literary Strategy,” Past the Last Post: Theo- rising Post-Colonialism and Post-Modernism, eds. Ian Adam & Helen Tiffin (Calgary: Calgary University Press, 1990), pp. 191–203. 18. Linda Hutcheon, A Theory of Parody: The Teaching of Twentieth-Century Art Forms (New York & London: Methuen; 1985), p. 32. 19. Mikhail Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, trans. C. Emerson & M. Holquist (Austin & London: University of Texas Press, 1981), p. 76. 20. John Fowles, The Ebony Tower (Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 1974), p. 18. 21. Hutcheon, Theory of Parody, p. 35 & pp. 69–83. On satire versus parody, see pp. 78–79. On pastiche, see, for instance, Linda Hutcheon, “The Politics of Parody,” in The Politics of Postmodernism (London & New York: Routledge, 1989), pp. 93–117, esp. pp. 94–98. 22. Jacques Derrida, Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, the Work of Mourn- ing, and the New International, trans. Peggy Kamuf; with an introduction by Bernd Magnus & Stephen Cullenberg (New York and London: Routledge, 1944), p. 4 & p. 10. Originally Spectres de Marx (Paris: Galilée, 1993). 23. Virginia Woolf, “The Mark on the Wall,” (1921) in A Haunted House and Other Stories (1944) (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), p. 46. 24. Hélène Cixous and Catherine Clément, “Sorties,” in The Newly Born Woman, trans. Betty Wing, intro. Sandra Gilbert (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986), p. 65. Originally published as La Jeune Née (Paris: Union générale d’éditions, 1975). 25. Adrienne Rich, “When We Dead Awaken: Writing as Re-vision” (1971), College English 35:1 (October 1972), 18–25; rpt in Adrienne Rich’s Poetry, ed. Barbara Charlesworth Gelpi & Albert Gelpi (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), pp. 90–98; and in Rich’s On Lies, Secrets, and Silence: Selected Prose 1966–1978 (London & New York: W. W. Norton, 1979), pp. 33–49. Rich’s poem “When We Dead Awaken,” was published in Diving into the Wreck: Poems 1971–1972 (New York & London: W.W. Norton, 1973), pp. 5–6. The title is lifted from Henrik Ibsen’s play When We Dead Awaken (Naar Vidde Vaagner) (1899). 26. Marianne Hirsch, The Mother/Daughter Plot: Narrative, Psychoanalysis, Fem- inism (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1989), p. 160. See also Rachel Blau du Plessis, Writing Beyond the Ending: Narrative Strategies of Twentieth-Century Women Writers (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- versity Press, 1985), p.4. 27. Liz Yorke, Impertinent Voices: Subversive Strategies in Contemporary Women’s Poetry (London & New York: Routledge, 1991), p. 1 & p. 15. My italics. See 272 Tempests after Shakespeare

also Liedeke Plate’s Ph.D. dissertation, Visions and Re-Visions: Female Au- thorship and the Act of Rewriting (Indiana University 1995). DAIN: DA9614560. 28. See Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, Helen Tiffin, The Empire Writes Back (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 97. 29. Jack J. Jorgens, Shakespeare on Film (Bloomington & London: Indiana Uni- versity Press, 1977), pp. 12–14. See also, e.g., Brian McFarlane, Novel to Film. An Introduction to the Theory of Adaptation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), p. 7; Geoffrey Wagner, The Novel and the Cinema (Rutherford, N.J.: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1975), pp. 222–231; William Luhr, Peter Lehman, Authorship and Narrative in the Cinema (New York: Putman, 1977), p. 192; Andrew J. Dudley, Concepts in Film Theory (New York & Ox- ford: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 98–104; and Eric Rentschler, Ger- man Film and Literature (London: Methuen, 1986), p. 3. 30. Frank Kermode, The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 8.

Part I 1. Russell Hoban, The Moment under the Moment (1992) (London: Picador in collaboration with Jonathan Cape, 1993), p. 83.

Chapter 1 1. Ernest Renan, Caliban: Suite de “La tempête” (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1878). All translations are my own. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 2. See, for instance, Koenraad Geldof, “Look Who’s Talking: Caliban in Shake- speare, Renan and Guéhenno,” in Constellation Caliban: Figurations of a Character, eds. Nadia Lie & Theo D’Haen (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997), pp. 81–112, p. 91. Translated by Ortwin de Graef. 3. See Ruby Cohn, Modern Shakespeare Offshoots (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976), p. 274. 4. Ernest Renan, Eau de Jouvence in Drames philosophiques (Paris: Calmann- Lévy, 1888), p. 247. 5. Edward W. Said, Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient (1978) (Lon- don: Penguin, 1995), p. 133 & p. 134. Said’s reference is to Renan’s L’avenir de la science. Pensées de 1848 (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1890). 6. Alden T. Vaughan & Virginia Mason Vaughan, Shakespeare’s Caliban: A Cul- tural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 145. 7. José Enrique Rodó, Ariel. Obras Completas (1900) (Montevideo: Institutio Nacional del Libro, 1977), p. 56. My own translation. 8. Maarten van Delden, “The Survival of the Prettiest: Transmutations of Dar- win in José Enrique Rodó’s Ariel,” Constellation Caliban, p. 153. See also Gordon Brotherston, “Arielismo and Anthropophagy: The Tempest in Latin Notes 273

America,” in Peter Hulme and William H. Sherman, “The Tempest” and Its Travels (London: Reaktion, 2000), pp. 212–219. 9. Rubén Dario in Los Raros (1896) writes: “Caliban se satura de whiskey” in Obras Completas (Madrid, 1950), vol. 2, p. 259. Qtd Karl-Heinz Stoll, “Cal- iban’s Caribbean Career,” Komparatistische Hefte, vol. 9 (1984), 7–21. Dario’s article “The Triumph of Caliban” denounced North Americans as “buffaloes with silver teeth”; “red-faced, heavy and gross... like animals in their hunt for the dollar.” In “El Triunfo de Caliban,” [1898] rpt in Escritos inéditos de Rubén Dario, ed. E. K. Mapes (New York: Instituto de las Espanas en los Es- tados Unidos, 1938), pp. 160–62. See also Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 147 10. Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 108. The “emancipated Negro” is from Renan, Cal- iban, p. 91. 11. Cohn, p. 280. 12. Quoted by Mel Gordon, “Percy MacKaye’s Masque of Caliban (1916),” The Drama Review, 20 (1976), p. 107 & p. 99. The information here is culled from this article, which also provides a useful history of American pageantry at the beginning of the twentieth century. 13. Koenraad Geldof, “Look Who’s Talking,” 103. 14. Jean Guéhenno, Caliban parle, suivi de Conversion à l’humain (1928) (Paris: Grasset, 1962), p. xiii, p. 107 & p. 66. All translations are my own. 15. Jean Guéhenno, Caliban et Prospero suivi d’autres essais (Paris: Gallimard, 1969), p. 27, p. 42, p. 51 and p. 67. 16. D. O. Mannoni, Prospero and Caliban: the Psychology of Colonization (1956) (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990). Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. First published as Psychologie de la colonisation (Paris: Seuil, 1950). The book came out of an earlier “Ebauche d’une psy- chologie coloniale” in the French periodical Psyché II (1947): 1229–42, 1453–79; III (1948), pp. 93–96 but these essays did not evoke the later Tem- pest signifiers. See also Maurice Bloch, “New Foreword” to the 1962 English edition of Prospero and Caliban, p. vi. It is “new” compared to Mason’s ear- lier foreword to the 1956 edition (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1956). All italics are mine unless otherwise indicated. 17. Jock McCulloch, Colonial Psychiatry and “the African Mind” (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 99. McCulloch puts “the African Mind” within quotation marks to distance himself from, e.g., J. C. Carothers’s The African Mind in Health and Disease: A Study in Ethnopsychi- atry (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1953) or his Mind of Man in Africa (London: Tom Stacey, 1972). It emerges from his study that, except for John F. Ritchie (a schoolmaster enamored of psychoanalysis) in his The African as Suckling and as Adult (1943), Mannoni is the only ethnopsychia- trist to examine African childhood experience. He also refers to Wulf Sachs, Black Anger (1947) (New York: Grove Press, 1969), published in the U.K. as Black Hamlet (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1947); and S. Biesheuvel, African In- telligence (Johannesburg: the South African Institute of Race Relations, 1993). 274 Tempests after Shakespeare

18. Marcel Mauss, Essai sur le don, forme archaïque de l’échange (1925); The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies, trans. Ian Cunnison, with an intro by E. E. Evans-Pritchard (London: Cohen & West, 1954), p. 1. 19. Qtd in Jacques T. Godbout (with Alain Caillé), L’Esprit du don (Paris: Ed. de la découverte, 1992), p. 154. 20. Mauss, p. 62. 21. Geoffrey Bennington & Jacques Derrida, Jacques Derrida (Paris: Seuil, 1991), p. 179. My italics. Also in Psyché. Inventions de l’autre (Paris: Galli- mard, 1987), p. 205; Eperons. Les styles de Nietzsche (Paris: Flammarion, 1978), pp. 98–99. Reflections on the gift also traverse Glas (Paris: Galilée, 1974), p. 94; and Mémoires: pour Paul de Man (Paris: Galilée, 1988), p. 141. 22. Marshall Sahlins, “On the Sociology of Primitive Exchange,” in Aafke E. Komter, ed., The Gift: An Interdisciplinary Perspective (Amsterdam: Amster- dam University Press, 1996), p. 29 and p. 31. Sahlins distinguishes between three types of reciprocity: “generalized reciprocity, the solidarity extreme” or even “weak reciprocity” or Malinowski’s “pure gift;” “balanced reciprocity, the midpoint” such as friendship compacts, marital transactions, and peace agreements; and “negative reciprocity,” i.e., “the attempt to get something for nothing with impunity” (i.e., “haggling,” “barter,” “gambling,” “chi- canery,” or “theft”) ranging “through various degrees of cunning, guile, stealth, and violence” (p.32). 23. In Barry Schwartz, “The Social Psychology of the Gift,” in Komter, p. 72. 24. The original Northwestern Amerindian potlatch, as studied by Franz Boas and Mauss, is the struggle to display wealth and munificence, to use the ex- pression by Helen Codere (1950); “la lutte pour la richesse,” qtd in God- bout, p. 49. 25. The notion of “gifts” is also present in other parts of The Tempest: the “rich garments” given by Gonzalo to Prospero for his voyage (1.2.164); the gifts of the goddesses to the young couple (4.1.60, 106); Prospero’s “rich gift” of his daughter to Ferdinand (4.1.8). Indeed, when Prospero offers Ferdinand Miranda’s hand, he claims he has “given [him] here a third of mine own life, / Or that for which I live” (4.1.3–4; my italics) and after congratulating Fer- dinand for withstanding all his “vexations,” which “were but my trials of thy love, and thou/ Has strangely stood the test . . .” (4.1.6–7), he then says: “then, as my gift, and thine own acquisition/ Worthily purchased, take my daughter . . .”(4.1.13–14; my italics). 26. Norman N. Holland, “Caliban’s Dream” in M. D. Faber, ed. The Design Within: Psychoanalytic Approaches to Shakespeare (New York: Science House, 1970), pp. 528–529. First published in Psychoanalytic Quarterly 37 (1968), 114–125. 27. See J. C. Carothers, The Psychology of Mau Mau (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1954), passim. 28. Frantz Fanon, Les damnés de la terre (Paris: François Maspéro, 1961); The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (New York: Grove Press, 1968), p. 35, p. 36 & p. 37. Notes 275

29. Friedrich Engels, Anti-Dühring (1878), Part II, Chapter III, “Theory of Vi- olence,” p. 199. Qtd in Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, pp. 63–64. 30. See, particularly, his Study of Organ Inferiority and its Psychical Compensation (1907) and The Neurotic Constitution (1912), trans. from the German in 1917. 31. Almost a decade after independence for most African nation-states, Harry Berger evoked “the signs of an ancient and familiar psychological perplex connected with excessive idealism and the longing for the golden age,” which come close to Mannoni’s “Prospero complex.” See Harry Berger Jr., “Miraculous Harp: A Reading of Shakespeare’s The Tempest,” Shakespeare Survey 5 (1968), 258. As Thomas Cartelli has argued, “Berger makes Shake- speare an active partner in his critical distinction, implicitly assigning prior- ity to Shakespeare’s critical acuity, whereas Mannoni appears to implicate Shakespeare in the psychology of his dramatic surrogate [i.e., Prospero].” In Thomas Cartelli, “Prospero in Africa: The Tempest as Colonialist Text and Pretext,” in Jean E. Howard and Marion F. O’Connor, eds., Shakespeare Re- produced: The Text in History and Ideology (New York & London: Methuen, 1987), p. 106. 32. B. J. F. Laubscher, Sex Custom and Psychopathology: A Study of South African Pagan Natives (London: George Routledge, 1937). 33. For more detail, see David Sundelson, “‘So Rare a Wonder’d Father’: Pros- pero’s Tempest,” in Representing Shakespeare: New Psychoanalytical Essays, eds. Murray M. Schwartz and Coppélia Kahn (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Uni- versity Press, 1980), p. 46. 34. McCulloch, p. 109. 35. This is amply documented by Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: Amer- ican Attitudes Toward the Negro 1550–1812 (1968) (Baltimore: Penguin/Pel- ican Books, 1969), esp. pp. 32–39. 36. William Smith, A New Voyage to Guinea (London, 1744), p. 146. Qtd in Jor- dan, p. 35. 37. Qtd in Douglas Tallack, Introduction to American Studies, second edition, eds. Malcolm Bradbury & Howard Temperley (London & New York: Long- man, 1989), p. 82. 38. Margaret J. Field, Search for Security: An Ethno-Psychiatric Study of Rural Ghana (1960) (New York: Norton, 1970), p. 36. 39. D. O. Mannoni, “The Decolonization of Myself,” Race 7 (1966), 327–335, trans. Joan Pinkham (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), pp. 39–43. Originally in Clefs pour l’imaginaire ou l’autre scène (Paris: Seuil, 1969), pp. 290–300, p. 293. 40. Philip Mason, Prospero’s Magic (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 86. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. On Mason, see Mar- tin Green, Dreams of Adventure, Deeds of Empire (New York: Basic Books, 1977), pp. 333–334. 41. D. G. James, The Dream of Prospero (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), p. 4. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. His earlier book is Scepti- cism and Poetry (1937). 276 Tempests after Shakespeare

42. The “farewell” theory is generally understood as Shakespeare’s farewell to the stage in the Epilogue to The Tempest or a farewell to “magic and the occult in Western Europe” (D. G. James, p. 66). The theory was initiated by Campbell and seems to belong to some remote critical trend of the 1900s. Northrop Frye, for example, admits “there is something in [the play] of Shakespeare’s farewell to his art.” In “Introduction to The Tempest,” Twentieth- Century In- terpretations of The Tempest, ed. Hallett Smith (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren- tice-Hall, 1969), p. 65. On “Prospero as Autobiography,” see Stephen Orgel, “Introduction,” to The Oxford Shakespeare: The Tempest, p. 10. 43. See John Salway, “Veritable Negroes and Circumcised Dogs: Racial Distur- bances in Shakespeare,” in Lesley Aers and Nigel Wheale, eds., Shakespeare in the Changing Curriculum (London & New York: Routledge, 1991), p. 112; and Homi K. Bhabha, “The Other Question,” Screen 24 (1983), 18–36. 44. Joan Kirkby, “The American Prospero,” Southern Review (Adelaide) 18 (1995), 101 & 103. 45. Cohn, p. 297. 46. Leonard Barnes, Caliban in Africa: An Impression of Colour-Madness (Lon- don: Victor Gollancz, 1930), p. 82, p.73 & p.76. 47. Charlotte H. Bruner, “The Meaning of Caliban in Black Literature Today,” Comparative Literary Studies 13 (1976), 240–53. 48. See Lewis Gann, The Struggle for Zimbabwe (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1981), p. 42. 49. Ndabaningi Sithole, African Nationalism (1959) (London: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1968), pp. 165–66. 50. Ngugi wa Thiong’o, A Grain of Wheat (London: Heinemann, 1967), p. 48. 51. Nkem Nwankwo, “Caliban to Miranda,” in O. R. Dathorne, ed., African Poetry for Schools and Colleges (London: Macmillan, 1969), pp. 44–45. 52. See Ngugi wa Thiong’o, “Towards a National Culture” and “The Writer and his Past” in his Homecoming: Essays on African and Caribbean Literature, Cul- ture and Politics (London: Heinemann, 1972), pp. 3–21, 39–46, pp. 8–9, 9–10. See also Kofi Awoonor, “Caliban Answers Prospero: The Dialogue Be- tween Western and African Literature,” Obsidian 7:2/3 (1981), 75–78. 53. Ngugi wa Thiong’o, “Literature in Schools” in Writers in Politics: Essays (London: Heinemann, 1981), p. 36. 54. Ngugi wa Thiong’o, Decolonising the Mind: the Politics of Language in African Literature (London: James Currey; Nairobi & Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann; Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House, 1986), p. 91. 55. Lemuel A. Johnson, Shakespeare in Africa (And Other Venues): Import and the Appropriation of Culture (Trenton, NJ & Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World Press, 1998), p. 7. Johnson is here quoting from Carol Sicherman, “Ngugi’s Colonial Education: ‘The Subversion... of the African Mind,’” African Studies Review 38: 3 (1996), 16. 56. In Oluwale Maja-Pearce, Who’s Afraid of Wole Soyinka? (Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 1991), p. 91. Qtd in Johnson, p. 7. Notes 277

57. “Juju,” qtd in Johnson, Shakespeare in Africa, p. 10; and “Calypso for Cal- iban” in Highlife for Caliban (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis Publishers, 1973), pp. 33–35. 58. Aimé Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism, trans. Joan Pinkham (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), p. 19 & p. 40. First published in French as “Discours sur le colonialisme” (1950) (Paris: Présence africaine, 1955), pp. 38–40 (particularly on Mannoni). 59. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Ch. Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967), p. 46. First published in French as Peau noire, masques blancs (Paris: Seuil, 1952), esp. “Du prétendu complexe de dépen- dance du colonisé.” His response is to Mannoni, p. 112. 60. Mannoni, pp. 90–91. See also Mannoni, “The Decolonization of Myself,” p. 291, where he acknowledges that his “interpretation of dreams” in Pros- pero and Caliban was rather poor. 61. Mannoni, p. 110 & p. 27. 62. Fanon opposed Mannoni in his identification of a “Prospero complex,” but his opposition is based on his confusion regarding Mannoni’s use of the Adlerian concept of “inferiority” with his own term “colonial inferiority” to refer to the colonizer’s racial denigration of the colonized. See also Tony Martin, “Rescuing Fanon from the Critics,” in Nigel C. Gibson, ed. Re- thinking Fanon: The Continuing Dialogue (New York: Humanity Books/Prometheus Books, 1999), pp. 83–102; and David Macey, Frantz Fanon: A Life (New York: Grove, 2001). 63. See Karl-Heinz Stoll, “Caliban’s Caribbean Career.” Although Stoll gives Frantz Fanon the full responsibility for being the first to equate Caliban with the colonized, Sidney Lee, in an earlier article, “Caliban’s Visits to England” (Cornhill Magazine, n.s. 34 [1913], pp. 333–345), had seen Caliban as “a full-length portrait of the aboriginal inhabitant of the New World” (333, 341, 343) but “lacking moral sense, moral control, and ratiocination.” This is further confirmed in his Life of William Shakespeare (rev. ed., New York: Macmillan, 1923): “Caliban was Shakespeare’s ultimate conception of the true quality of the aboriginal character” (426, 429). Qtd in Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 122. Admittedly, there might be a difference between “aborigi- nal” and “colonized,” but the Vaughans argue that Lee invites “an associa- tion between Shakespeare’s savage and colonized peoples” (p. xv). 64. Albert Memmi, Portrait du colonisé précédé du Portrait du colonisateur (Paris: Buchet Castel, 1957), p. 64 ; The Colonizer and the Colonized (Intro- duced by Jean-Paul Sartre, New Introduction by Liam O’Dowd), trans. Howard Greenfeld (London: Earthscan, 1990), pp. 85–100 (“The Colo- nizer Who Refuses”) and pp. 111–141 (“The Colonizer Who Accepts”). Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 65. According to Memmi, Nero not only usurped Britannicus’s throne but he also tried to ravish the love of Junie (p. 74). Memmi’s portrayal of Nero lacks nuance, for if Nero is a usurper, he is lured into usurpation by emotional blackmail from his possessive and scheming mother Agrippina. Her insanity 278 Tempests after Shakespeare

will lead him to put her to death, a deed that transforms him from the orig- inal benevolent leader he was to the monster of real brutality that biogra- phers favored. Memmi is, of course, alluding to the apocryphal story of the Roman historian Tacitus in Annals, XIII.I, where he portrays Nero as a cruel man who had his mother and wife (Octavia) and governors killed. Tacitus also inspired Racine, who, in his play Britannicus, portrayed Nero as a “mon- ster,” as he put it in his 1676 (second) preface. 66. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, pp. 200–250 (“Colonial Wars and Men- tal Disorders”). 67. See McCulloch, p. 118. 68. Césaire, “Discourse,” p. 12. 69. Jean-Paul Sartre, “Preface” to Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (Lon- don: Penguin Books, 1963), p. 22. 70. Qtd in Stephen J. Greenblatt, Learning to Curse: Essays in Early Modern Cul- ture (New York & London: Routledge, 1990), p. 17. See also his earlier ar- ticle, “Learning to Curse: Aspects of Linguistic Colonialism in the Sixteenth century,” in Fredi Chiapelli, ed., First Images of America: the Impact of the New World on the Old, 2 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), II, pp. 561–80, esp. pp. 568–75. See also Tzvetan Todorov, La con- quête de l’Amérique: La question de l’autre (Paris: Seuil, 1982); The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other, trans. Richard Howard (1982), (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), p. 221; and Hulme, Epigraph to Colonial En- counters. 71. George Lamming, The Pleasures of Exile (London: Michael Joseph, 1960), pp. 109–110, my italics. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 72. Fredric Jameson, The Prison-House of Language: A Critical Account of Struc- turalism and Russian Formalism (Princeton & London: Princeton University Press, 1972), p. 1. 73. Derek Walcott, “The Muse of History,” in O. Coombs, ed., Is Massa Day Dead?: Black Moods in the Caribbean (New York: Doubleday/Anchor Press, 1974), p. 112. 74. The Narrative and Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave Written by Himself (New York: Signet, 1968), p. 49. 75. Houston A. Baker, Jr., The Journey Back: Issues in Black Literature and Criticism (Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 36–37. 76. Derrida, Jacques Derrida, p. 179. 77. Mannoni, Prospero and Caliban, p. 173. My italics. 78. Janheinz Jahn, “Caliban and Prospero,” A History of Neo-African Literature: Writing in Two Continents (London & New York: Faber & Faber, 1968), p. 242. My emphasis. Originally Geschichte der Neoafrikanischen Literatur (Düsseldorf, 1966), pp. 219–224. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 79. John Pepper Clark, The Example of Shakespeare (Evanston, Ill. & London: Northwestern University Press, 1970), p. 1. His article on “The Legacy of Caliban” first appeared in Black Orpheus 2 (1968), 16–39. Notes 279

80. See “Introduction” to The Oxford Shakespeare: The Tempest, p.17: “Indeed, the passive Miranda was felt by commentators from Dryden and Theobald to the Cambridge editors and Kittredge to require an emended text: ‘Ab- horrèd slave... ’ was regularly, until well into this century, given to Pros- pero in editions of The Tempest; and even in modern productions, in an age when complexity and ambiguity are common measures of artistic value, the speech is often, still, not Miranda’s but Prospero’s.” 81. Taban lo Lyiong, “Uncle Tom’s Black Humour,” in Frantz Fanon’s Uneven Ribs: With Poems More and More (London: Heinemann, 1971), p. 41. Qtd in Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 265. 82. See Chantal Zabus, The African Palimpsest (Amsterdam & Atlanta: Rodopi, 1991) and “Relexification” in The Post-Colonial Reader, ed. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, Helen Tiffin (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 314–20. 83. See Chantal Zabus, “Language, Orality and Literature,” in New National and Post-Colonial Literatures, ed. Bruce King (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), pp. 29–44. The reference here is to Ngugi wa Thiong’o, Decolonising the Mind, p. 7. 84. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 84 & p. 156. 85. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 63. 86. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 31 & p. 44. 87. David Wallace, Do You Love Me Master? (1971) (Lusaka, Zambia: National Ed- ucational Company, 1977). See Rob Nixon, “Caribbean and African Appro- priations of The Tempest,” Critical Inquiry 13:3 (Spring 1987), 574, Note 28.

Chapter 2 1. Peter Hulme, “The Profit of Language : George Lamming and the Post- colonial Novel,” in Jonathan White, ed. Recasting the World (Baltimore & London : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), p. 123. 2. Qtd Emile Snyder, “Aimé Césaire: the Reclaiming of the Land,” Exile and Tradition: Studies in African and Caribbean Literature (New York: Dalhousie University Press, 1976), p. 42. 3. Qtd in L. S. Belhassen, “Un poète politique: Aimé Césaire,” Le Magazine lit- téraire 34 (Novembre 1969), 27–32. The play was published in 1968 in the 67th issue of Présence africaine to be then reprinted by Seuil in 1969. See also Judith G. Miller, “Césaire and Serreau, une sorte de symbiose,” Cahiers cé- sairiens (Spring 1974), 20–25. 4. Richard Miller, “A Translator’s Note,” to Aimé Césaire, A Tempest (1985), trans. Richard Miller (New York: Ubu Repertory Theater Publications, 1992), n.p. Originally, Une tempête (Paris: Seuil, 1969). Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 5. See Philip Crispin’s “Translating Césaire’s Une tempête” and Stephen Regan’s “Aimé Césaire’s Tempest: the Open University/BBC Video.” Both talks were given at Birkbeck College in London on 11 December 1999 within the framework of the “Toufann and Other Tempests” Conference. 280 Tempests after Shakespeare

6. For Schlegel, Ariel embodied Air whereas Caliban embodied Earth; for Thomas Mann, he is “the child of Air” in Doctor Faustus, trans. from the German by H. T. Lowe-Porter (New York: Vintage, 1971), p. 470. For a stage history of Ariel, see Christine Dymkowski, The Tempest: Shakespeare in Production (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). On the use of Ariel in Césaire and Edouard Glissant, see Michael Dash, “Ariel’s Dis- course: French Caribbean Writing After the Storm,” Journal of West Indian Literature 1:1 (October 1986), 49–58. 7. Derek Walcott, Pantomime in Remembrance and Pantomime: Two Plays (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 1980), p. 112. Walcott’s choice in his play of the more ambiguous Crusoe-Friday paradigm may be the result of his own hybrid provenance as opposed to Césaire’s more monolithic ancestry. 8. Roberto Fernandez Retamar, “Caliban: Notes Towards a Discussion of Cul- ture in Our America,” trans. Lynn Garofola, David A. McMurray, Roberto Marquez, The Massachusetts Review (Winter-Spring 1974), 21–22. It first ap- peared in a special issue of Casa de las Américas, “Sobre Cultura y Revolution en la América Latina” 12:68 (September-October, 1971), 124–151. It was later re-issued as a book: Caliban. Apuntes sobre la cultura en uestra América (Mexico: Diogenes, 1971; 2nd ed. 1974), pp. 7, 30f., 77. Note that Casa de las Américas is Retamar’s literary organization, journal, and cultural center. For more detail on this enterprise, including a study of its ideological role in the Cuban Revolution and the conservative responses the revolution brought forth, see Judith A. Weiss’s Casa de Las Américas: An Intellectual Review in the Cuban Revolution (Chapel Hill, N.C.: Estudios Hispanophila, 1977). 9. Eric Cheyffitz, The Poetics of Imperialism: Translation and Colonization from The Tempest to Tarzan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 43. My addition. 10. The passage from the essay “Of the Caniballes” (I.31) has first been pointed out by Capell in his edition of 1766 as a source for Gonzalo’s description of his ideal Commonwealth. On the etymology of Caliban, see Vaughan & Vaughan, pp. 28–42. 11. Louis E. Lomax, When the Word is Given... (Cleveland & New York: The World Publishing Company, 1963), pp. 30–31. In this all-out rejection, one is reminded of the rebel in Césaire’s “Et les chiens se taisaient” (1970): “Mon nom: offensé;/ mon prénom: humilié;/ mon état: révolté;/ mon âge: l’âge de la pierre.” Earlier on, the acquisition of a new name was part of Césaire’s prophecy. After cursing his master, the persona of the poem lapses into the misty prophecy, where “bathe” “ma gueule/ ma révolte/ mon nom.” In “Et les chiens se taisaient” in Les Armes miraculeuses (Paris: Gallimard, 1970), p. 133 & p. 36. 12. Susan Bennett, Performing Nostalgia: Shifting Shakespeare and the Contempo- rary Past (London : Routledge, 1996), p. 137; Cohn, p. 308. 13. Paule Marshall, “Brazil” in Soul Clap Hands and Sing, with an introduction by Darwin T. Turner (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1988), p. 134. Notes 281

14. Jan Kott, Shakespeare Our Contemporary (1967), trans. Boleslaw Taborski, Preface Peter Brook (London: Routledge, 1988), p. 310. 15. Mazisi Kunene, “Introduction” to Césaire’s Return to My Native Land (Har- mondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 16. Originally Cahier d’un retour au pays natal (Paris: Présence africaine, 1968). 16. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 99. 17. Marta E. Sanchez, “Caliban: the New Latin-American Protagonist of The Tem- pest,” Diacritics 6 (Spring 1976), 54–61, 54. See also Nadia Lee, “Countering Caliban: Fernandez Retamar and the Postcolonial Debate,” trans. Liesbeth Heyvaert, in Nadia Lie & Theo D’Haen, eds., Constellation Caliban: Figura- tions of a Character (Amsterdam & Atlanta: Rodopi, 1997), pp. 245–270. 18. Retamar, p. 100. 19. Retamar, p. 9. My addition. 20. Retamar, p. 24. 21. In Jorge I. Dominguez, “Responses to Occupations by the United States: Caliban’s Dilemma,” Pacific Historical Review 48 (1979), 592, 602 & 605. 22. See Rob Conkie, “Otra Tempestad: Textual Fidelity Castrated, Intertextual Revolution,” a paper given at the “Toufann and Other Tempests” Conference at Birkbeck College in London on 11 December 1999. 23. Philip Mason, Prospero’s Magic (London : Oxford University Press, 1962), pp. 88–89. 24. First published in South (London) (January 1983); rpt in Decolonising the African Mind (Lagos: Pero Press, 1987), pp. 2–3. 25. Compare with Renan’s text: “La très-sainte inquisition, pour l’intégrité de la foi et la poursuite de la perversité hérétique, agissant par délégation spéciale du Saint-siège apostolique, informée des erreurs que tu professes, insinues et sèmes méchamment contre Dieu, la création, l’incarnation, la résurrection de la chair et autres dogmes fondamentaux de la foi chrétienne, te réclame et t’appelle à son tribunal, auquel tu n’as échappé perfidement jusqu’ici que grâce à une puissance temporelle, ou plutôt à une tyrannie que Dieu t’a ôtée. Tes erreurs sont les plus graves qu’un chrétien puisse commettre; elles vont même jusqu’à l’infidélité; erreurs de physique et de métaphysique, de morale et de foi... la très-sainte inquisition veut bien surseoir à te poursuivre de ce chef, te requérant, quant aux autres, de me suivre pour être constitué pris- onnier dans les prisons du Saint-Office, afin qu’il soit procédé contre toi par rigoureux examen.” (pp. 79–82) 26. Cohn, pp. 30–31. 27. Retamar, p. 18. 28. Mannoni, p. 108; Memmi, p. 64. 29. Memmi, p. 45. 30. See, for example, Margaret Croyden, “Peter Brook’s Tempest,” The Drama Review 3 (1968–69), 125–128. 31. Frank Kermode, ed., William Shakespeare: The Tempest in The Arden Edi- tion of Shakespeare (London: Methuen, 1975), p. 69. Footnote to act 2, scene 2, line 184. 282 Tempests after Shakespeare

32. Qtd in Belhassen, Interview, p. 32. 33. Robert Adams, Shakespeare. The Four Romances (New York: W.W. Norton Company, 1989), p. 154. See also S. Belhassen, “Aimé Césaire’s A Tempest,” in Lee Baxandall, ed., Radical Perspectives in the Arts (Harmondsworth: Pel- ican, 1972), p. 177 & p. 174. 34. See Henry Louis Gates, Jr., “The Blackness of Blackness: A Critique of the Sign and the Signifying Monkey,” Black Literature and Literary Theory, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (New York: Methuen, 1984), passim. 35. See Luisah Teish, Jambalaya: the Natural Woman’s Books of Personal Charms and Practical Rituals (San Francisco: Harper, 1985), p. 112. 36. Sue-Ellen Case, “Toward a Butch-Femme Aesthetic,” in Making a Spectacle: Feminist Essays on Contemporary Women’s Theater (Ann Arbor: The Univer- sity of Michigan Press, 1989), p. 287. 37. Qtd in Belhassen, Interview, p. 131. 38. Leslie A. Fielder, The Stranger in Shakespeare (New York: Stein & Day, 1972), p. 242. 39. Maryse Condé, “Order, Disorder, Freedom, and the West Indian Writer,” Yale French Studies: Post/Colonial Conditions: Exiles, Migrations, and No- madisms 2: 83 (1993), eds. Françoise Lionnet & Ronnie Scharfman (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993), p. 125 & p. 124. 40. José David Saldivar, Dialectics of Our America: Genealogy, Cultural Critique and Literary History (Durham & London: Duke University Press, 1991), p. 123. 41. Saldivar, p. 144. See also Carl Gutiérrez-Jones’s review essay—“Caliban’s America”—American Quarterly 45:1 (March 1993), 164. See also Do the Americas Have a Common Literature?, ed. Gustavo Perez Firmat (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1990). 42. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, “Wings of a Dove” from “The Spades” in Rights of Passage (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 42. 43. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, “Caliban” from “Limbo” in Islands (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 35. 44. Peter Stallybrass & Allan White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (London: Methuen, 1986), p. 8. 45. Brathwaite, “Limbo” in Islands, p. 38. 46. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, The Arrivants: A New World Trilogy (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 271 (Glossary). 47. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, “The Making of the Drum” from “Libation” in Masks (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 7. 48. A. James Arnold, “Caliban, Culture and Nation-Building in the Caribbean,” in Constellation Caliban, 236. About the identical tripartite in “Caliban” and “Return to the Native Land,” see also Arnold’s Modernism and Negritude. The Poetry and Poetics of Aimé Césaire (Cambridge, Mass. & London: Har- vard University Press, 1981), p. 65. 49. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, “Timehri,” in Coombs, Is Massa Day Dead?, pp. 28–44. 50. Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 278. Notes 283

51. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, “Caliban, Ariel and Unprospero in the Conflict of Creolisation: a Study of the Slave Revolt in Jamaica in 1831–32,” in Com- parative Perspectives on Slavery in New World Plantation Societies, eds. Vera Rubin and Arthur Tuden (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1977), pp. 41–62, p. 9 & p. 44. It follows Brathwaite’s argument in his Sus- sex Ph. D. dissertation, “The Development of Creole Society in Jamaica 1770–1820,” which was published in 1971. 52. Brathwaite, “Caliban, Ariel, and Unprospero,” p. 58. 53. Lamming, Pleasures, pp. 118, 125, 151. 54. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, X/Self (London: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 116. 55. Brathwaite, “Rebellion” in Islands, p. 64. 56. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 118. 57. Wilson Harris, “A Talk on the Subjective Imagination,” in Explorations (Mundelstrup: Dangaroo, 1981), pp. 57–67. 58. Walcott, “The Muse of History,” p. 118. 59. Brathwaite,” Arrival” in Masks, p. 74; “Islands and Exiles” in Rights of Pas- sage, p. 54; and “Beginning” in Islands, p. 113. 60. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, History of the Voice: the Development of Nation Language in Anglophone Caribbean Poetry (London & Port of Spain: New Beacon Books, 1984; rpt. 1995), p. 13. Also rpt in E. K. Brathwaite, Roots (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), pp. 259–304; subtitled “An Electronic Lecture.” This talk was first delivered at Harvard University in late August 1979. 61. Brathwaite, “Caliban, Ariel, and Unprospero,” p. 44. 62. Edouard Glissant, Le Discours antillais (Paris: Seuil, 1981), p. 182; and Jean Bernabé, Patrick Chamoiseau, Raphaël Confiant, Eloge de la Créolité (Paris: Gallimard, 1989), p. 13. 63. Brathwaite, History of the Voice, p. 17. On the politics of “noise,” see Carolyn Cooper, Noises in the Blood: Orality, Gender and the “Vulgar” Body of Ja- maican Popular Culture (Warwick University Caribbean Studies: Macmillan Caribbean, 1993). Note that Cooper derives her title from Vic Reid’s “noise in the blood” in Nanny Town. 64. “Dub” (from “to double”) or “performance-poetry” originated in Jamaica and emerged out of reggae culture. Many dub poets are professed Rastafarians. Yet, the term “dub poetry” was coined by the least affiliated with Rastafari and the most distrustful of the “Haile Selassie thing,” Linton Kwesi Johnson, a.k.a. LKJ, to describe the musical talk-over of the reggae DJs or “toasters” or MCs of the 1970s, which led to North American rap. Dub poets include Miss Lou, Mutabaruka, Oku Onuora, Mikey Smith, Jean Binta Breeze, and the Trinidadian sister to dub, Brother Resistance’s “rapso” as well as the in- ternational dub movement based mainly in Kingston, London (e.g., Ben- jamin Zephaniah) and Toronto (e.g., Lillian Allen), not to mention Canadian Red Indians. See Christian Habekost, Verbal Riddim: the Politics and Aesthet- ics of African-Caribbean Dub Poetry (Amsterdam & Atlanta: Rodopi, 1993), 284 Tempests after Shakespeare

pp. 15–89. The difference between “sound-poetry” and Brathwaite’s poetry in “nation language” is that he dispenses with musical instruments although he has likened his idiosyncratic use of English to the “blues.” Performance, to Brathwaite, lies in the enunciation and one could see his texts as “scripts for performance.” See Stewart Brown, “‘Writin in Light’: Orality-Thru-Typogra- phy, Kamau Brathwaite’s Sycorax Video Style,” in The Pressures of the Text: Orality, Texts and the Telling of Tales, ed. Stewart Brown (Birmingham: Cen- tre of West African Studies, 1995—African Studies #4), pp. 125–136, p.134. 65. See F. G. Cassidy and Robert B. Lepage, eds. Dictionary of Jamaican English (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967) (2nd ed., 1980). 66. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, “Hex” in Mother Poem (Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1977) p. 47. 67. Brathwaite, “Nametracks” in Mother Poem, p. 62, p. 121. 68. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, Folk Culture of the Slaves in Jamaica (London: New Beacon Books, 1970), p. 39. See also Brathwaite’s definition of nam in “Caliban, Ariel, Unprospero,” p. 44. 69. Brathwaite, Roots, pp. 236–237. 70. Janheinz Jahn, Muntu: the New African Culture (London: Faber, 1961), p. 214. 71. Marcel Griaule, Conversations with Ogotommêli (1965) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 26, pp. 138–139. 72. Brathwaite, Mother Poem, p. 64, p. 121. 73. W. H. Auden, “In Praise of Limestone” in Collected Poems, ed. Edward Mendelson (London: Faber & Faber, 1976), p. 414. 74. Among the Caribbean writers who have explored the paradox of “stone” as a symbol for the Caribbean predicament, Louis James mentions Wilson Harris (in Tumatumari), E. M. Roach (in Flowering Rock) and George Lam- ming (in “The Black Rock of Africa” [African Forum114 (1966), 32–35]. In Louis James, “The Poet as Seer: Kamau Brathwaite,” in Caribbean Literature in English (London & New York: Longman, 1999), pp. 185–191. 75. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, “An Alternative View of Caribbean History,” in The Colonial Encounter. Language (Power Above Power 7) (University of Mysore: Center for Commonwealth Literature and Research, 1984), pp. 44–45. 76. Brathwaite, “An Alternative View,” p. 44. 77. Arnold, p. 240. 78. Sue Thomas, “Sexual Politics in Edward Brathwaite’s Mother Poem,” Ku- napipi 9:1 (1987), 36. 79. Brathwaite, X/Self, p. 113. See also his Ancestors: A Reinvention of “Mother Poem,” “Sun Poem,” and “X/Self” (New York : New Directions, 2001). 80. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, Middle Passages (Newcastle upon Tyne: Blood- axe Books, 1992), p. 83. See Stewart Brown, p. 131. More generally on Jazz, see Edward Kamau Brathwaite, “Jazz and the West Indian Novel,” Bim 44 (1967), 276–277; and Louis James, “Brathwaite and Jazz” in The Art of Kamau Brathwaite, ed. Stewart Brown (Wales: Poetry Wales Press, 1995), pp. 66–74. Notes 285

81. Qtd in Elaine Savory, “Returning to Sycorax/Prospero’s Response: Kamau Brathwaite’s Word Journey,” in Stewart Brown, ed., The Art of Kamau Brath- waite, p. 212. 82. Edward Kamau Brathwaite, “Caribbean Culture: Two Paradigms” in Jürgen Martini, ed. Missile and Capsule (Bremen: University of Bremen, 1983), 9–54. 83. Stewart Brown interviewed Edward Kamau Brathwaite in Kyk-over-al 40 (1989), 84–93. Qtd in Brown, “Writin in Light,” p. 126. 84. I owe this insight to Stewart Brown who in turn borrowed the term “typo- graphic foregrounding” from the linguist Willie van Peer, “Typographic Foregrounding,” in Language and Literature 2:1 (1993), 49–59. 85. Quoted on the back cover of Dream Stories (Trinidad: Longman Caribbean Writers, 1994). 86. See, e.g., Anne Walmsley, “Her Stem Singing: Kamau Brathwaite’s Zea-Mex- ican Diary,” World Literature Today 68 (1994), 747. 87. See The Zea Mexican Diary: 7 Sept. 1926–7 Sept 1986 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993); Barabajan Poems (New York: Savacau North, 1994). 88. Savory, p. 224. 89. Brathwaite, Middle Passages, p. 77. 90. Brathwaite, “An Alternative View,” p. 45. 91. George Kent, “A Conversation with George Lamming,” Black World 22 (March 1973), 4–14, 88–97, 91. 92. In Derek Walcott, “The Figure of Crusoe” (1965) in Robert D. Hamner, ed. & compl., Critical Perspectives on Derek Walcott (Washington: Three Conti- nents Press, 1993), pp. 33–40, p. 36. For the differences between Lamming and Walcott, who uses the Crusoe-Friday rather than the Prospero-Caliban paradigm, see Patrick Taylor, “The Liberation of Narrative,” in The Narra- tive of Liberation: Perspectives on Afro-Caribbean Literature, Popular Culture and Politics (Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 183–227; and Louis James, “From Crusoe to Omeros: Derek Walcott,” in Caribbean Literature in English (London & New York: Longman, 1999), pp. 179–184. 93. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 13. 94. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 98 & p. 97. 95. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 50, p. 211, p. 50, p. 24. 96. Lamming, Pleasures, qtd p. 47. 97. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 46 & p. 117. 98. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 13. 99. Anne Skura, “Discourse and the Individual: The Case of Colonialism in The Tempest,” Shakespeare Quarterly 40 (1989), 42–69, 50. 100. See Helen Tiffin, “Rites of Resistance: Counterdiscourse and West Indian Autobiography,” Journal of West Indian Literature 3:1 (January 1989), 28–46, 31. 101. Sandra Pouchet Paquet, “Foreword” to The Pleasures of Exile by George Lamming (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984), p. xv. 286 Tempests after Shakespeare

102. Paquet, p. xviii. 103. George E. Kent, “A Conversation with George Lamming,” Black World 22:5 (March 1973), 89. 104. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 115. 105. Catharine R. Stimpson, “Shakespeare and the Soil of Rape,” (1980), rpt in Where the Meanings Are (New York & London: Methuen, 1988), p. 77 & p. 82. 106. George Lamming, In the Castle of My Skin (London: Michael Joseph, 1953), p. 172. 107. George Lamming, Water with Berries (London: Longman, 1971), p. 76. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. All italics are mine unless otherwise indicated. 108. Incidentally, the play-within-the novel, i.e., A Summer’s Error in Albion, in which Derek ends up playing, reeks of a blend between A Midsummer Night’s Dream, A Comedy of Errors, and Dryden’s opera Albion and Albanius (1685). This pastiche enhances his fall from grace. 109. Tom Stoppard, Night and Day (New York: Grove Press, 1979), p. 142. 110. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 102. 111. Clark, p. 103. 112. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 105. My italics. 113. Helen Tiffin, “The Tyranny of History: George Lamming’s Natives of My Person and Water with Berries,” Ariel 10 (1979), 37–52, 46. 114. Ania Loomba, Gender, Race, Renaissance Drama (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), p. 148. 115. Salway, p. 121. 116. Lamming, Pleasures, pp. 9–10. 117. George Lamming, “The West Indian People,” New World Quarterly 2:2 (1966), 63–74, 64–65. Qtd in Paquet, p. xiii. 118. Hulme, “Profit of Language,” p. 135. 119. Patrick Taylor, p. 209. See also Derek Walcott, Dream on Monkey Mountain (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1970); and Houston A. Baker, Jr., “Conjure and the Space of Black Women’s Creativity,” in Workings of the Spirit (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), esp. p. 74. Nair calls Lamming’s “ceremony of the Souls” “an emancipatory project” in Supriya Nair, Caliban’s Curse: George Lamming and the Revisioning of History (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), p. 117. 120. Luisah Teish, “Women’s Spirituality: A Household Set” in Barbara Smith, ed., Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology (New York: Kitchen Table Press/ Women of Color Press, 1983), p. 342. Teish is here referring to Zora Neale Hurston, Mules and Men (1935); preface Franz Boas, intro. Robert E. Hemenway (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1963), p. 193. 121. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 15. 122. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 102. 123. Laura E. Donaldson, “The Miranda Complex: Colonialism and the Ques- tion of Feminist Reading,” Diacritics 18:3 (1988), 65–77, 70. Rpt in some- Notes 287

what different form in Laura E. Donaldson, Decolonizing Feminisms (Lon- don: Routledge, 1993), pp. 13–32. 124. Stephen Orgel, “Shakespeare and the Cannibals” in Cannibals, Witches and Divorce: Estranging the Renaissance, ed. Marjorie Garber (Baltimore & Lon- don: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), p. 55. 125. The phrase “geographies of pain” is lifted from Françoise Lionnet, “Geo- graphies of Pain: Captive Bodies and Violent Acts in Myriam Warner- Vieyra, Gayl Jones, and Bessie Head,” in Postcolonial Representations: Women, Literature, Identity (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1995), pp. 101–129. Originally published in Callaloo 16 (1993), 132–152. See Elaine Scarry’s excellent chapter “The Structure of Torture: the Con- version of Real Pain into the Fiction of Power,” The Body in Pain: the Mak- ing and the Unmaking of the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 27–59. 126. Kenneth W. Harrow, Thresholds of Change: The Emergence of a Tradition (London: Heinemann & James Currey, 1994), p. 184. The reference is to Yambo Ouologuem, Bound to Violence (London: Heinemann, 1971). 127. See Stephen Orgel, “Prospero’s Wife,” in Margaret W. Ferguson, Maureen Quilligan, & Nancy J. Vickers, eds., Rewriting the Renaissance: The Discourses of Sexual Difference in Early Modern Europe (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1986), pp. 50–64. Also in Representations 8 (Fall 1984), 1–13. Peter Hulme has extended Orgel’s conjectures, which apply to The Tempest, to Water with Berries in “Profit of Language,” p. 128. 128. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 116. 129. Lorrie Jerrell Leininger, “The Miranda Trap: Sexism and Racism in Shake- speare’s The Tempest,” in The Woman’s Part: Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare, ed. Carolyn Ruth Swift Lence, Gayle Greene, & Carol Thomas Neely (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1980), p. 289. 130. Brathwaite, “Folkway,” Rights of Passage, p. 29. 131. David Marriott, “Bordering On: the Black Penis,” Textual Practice 10:1 (1996), 19. 132. Qtd in Angela Davis, Women, Race and Class (London: Women’s Press, 1982), p. 197. 133. Qtd in Kent, p. 91. 134. Hulme, “Profit of Language,” p. 134. 135. Jenny Sharpe, “The Unspeakable Limits of Rape: Colonial Violence and Counter-Insurgency,” Genders 10 (Spring 1991), 42 & 25. 136. On the larger issue of rape, see, for example, Elizabeth Hardwick, Seduction and Betrayal (New York: Vintage, 1975); Jane Gallop, The Daughter’s Seduc- tion (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982); Ellen Rooney, “Criticism and the Subject of Sexual Violence,” Modern Language Notes (Dec. 1983), 98:5, 1269–1278; Lynn A. Higgins & Brenda R. Silver, Rape and Representation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); and Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (London: Secker & Warburg, 1975; rpt Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977). 288 Tempests after Shakespeare

137. George Lamming, The Emigrants (London: Michael Joseph, 1954), p. 52. For useful synopses of Lamming’s novels, see Margaret Paul Joseph, “The Tormented Spirit: George Lamming and the Tragic Sense of Life” in Caliban in Exile: the Outsider in Caribbean Fiction (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 51–83. On Water with Berries specifically, see Sandra Pouchet Paquet, The Novels of George Lamming (London: Heinemann, 1982), pp. 83–100. 138. David Dabydeen, “Introduction” to Slave Song (Oxford & Mundelstrup: Dangaroo Press, 1984), p. 10. 139. David Dabydeen, Coolie Odyssey (Coventry & London: Hansib & Danga- roo, 1988), p. 31. 140. Wolfgang Binder, “David Dabydeen,” Journal of West Indian Literature 3:2 (September 1989), 78–79, 78 & 79. 141. For Gordimer’s account of this theme in South African fiction, see “The Novel and the Nation in South Africa,” in African Writers on African Writ- ing, ed. G. D. Killam (London: Heinemann, 1973), pp. 33–52. Qtd in Susan M. Greenstein, “Miranda’s Story: Nadine Gordimer and the Litera- ture of Empire,” Novel: A Forum on Fiction 18:3 (Spring 1985), 233. See also Jane Wilkinson, “Daughters and Fathers, Masters and Slaves: Hegelian Tem- pests from South Africa” in her illuminating Remembering “The Tempest” (Rome: Bulzoni Editore, 1999), 77–98. Wilkinson reads J. M. Coetzee’s Foe (1986) in Tempest-terms, whereas, to me, Coetzee uses the Crusoe-Friday paradigm, which he complicates with Susan Barton’s “feminist” discourse. 142. David Dabydeen, Disappearance (London: Martin Secker & Warburg, 1993), p. 76. 143. Ramabai Espinet, “An Ageable Woman,” Nuclear Seasons (Toronto: Sister Vision Press, 1991), p. 81. 144. Margery Fee, “Resistance and Complicity in David Dabydeen’s The In- tended,” Ariel 24: 1 (1993), 110.

Chapter 3 1. Diana Brydon, “Re-Writing The Tempest,” World Literature Written in Eng- lish 23:1 (1984), p. 85, 87. 2. The motives for the foundation of a penal colony at Sydney Cove in 1788 are hotly debated. The debate has assessed various claims for the foundation of the colony, from metropolitan penal needs to various imperial agendas from protecting trade, to extending power and influence, to obtaining naval stores, and tried to theorize how Botany Bay was transformed from a penal colony to a civil society. See Alan Frost, Convicts and Empire: A Naval Ques- tion 1776–1811 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980); David MacKay, “Far-Flung Empire: A Neglected Imperial Outpost at Botany Bay 1788–1801,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 9:2 (1980), 125–145; Alan Frost, “Botany Bay: An Imperial Venture of the 1780s,” Eng- lish Historical Review 100 (1985), 309–330 ; W. Nichol, “Ideology and the Notes 289

Convict System in New South Wales, 1788–1820,” Historical Studies 22 (1986), 1–20 ; Robert J. King, “‘Ports of Shelter, and Refreshment... ’: Botany Bay and Norfolk Island in British Naval Strategy, 1786–1808,” His- torical Studies 22 (1986), 199–213; Robert J. King, “Terra Australis: Terra Nullius Aut Terra Aboriginum?,” Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society 72 (1986), 75–91; Portia Robinson, The Women of Botany Bay: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Women in the Origins of Australian Society (North Ryde, Australia: Macquarie Library, 1988); Alan Frost, “Historians Handling Documents, Transgressions and Transportable Offenses,” Aus- tralian Historical Studies 25 (1992), 192–219. Many thanks go to Markman Ellis for providing this bibliography. 3. Qtd in Jim Davidson, “Interview with David Malouf,” Meanjin 39:3 (1980), 334. 4. David Malouf, “Afterword” to An Imaginary Life (Sydney: Picador, 1978), p. 153. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 5. André Dommergues, “Traditions and Dream in David Malouf’s An Imagi- nary Life,” Commonwealth Essays and Studies: Myth in the New Literatures in English 10:1 (Autumn 1987), 62. Malouf’s interest in Ovid may be traced back to the Latin syllabus of Brisbane Grammar School during the years of his attendance. 6. “Duo crimina, carmen et error” in Ovid, Tristia. Epistulae ex Ponto. II. 207; trans. Arthur Leslie Wheeler (London: Heinemann; New York: G. P. Put- nam’s Sons, 1924), p. 71. See also John C. Thibault in The Mystery of Ovid’s Exile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964). 7. Martin Leer, “At the Edge: Geography and the Imagination in the Work of David Malouf,” Australian Literary Studies 12:1 (May 1985), 4. 8. Unlike Itard, the French psychiatrist Pinel in 1700 diagnosed the boy as a congenital idiot. For cases of wolf-boys in, e.g., India, see the story of Amala and Kamala in the diaries of J. A. L. Singh and R. M. Zingg, Wolf Children and Feral Man (New York, 1942) and Lucien Malson, Wolf Children (Lon- don: NLB, 1972); trans. Les Enfants sauvages (Paris: Union générale d’édi- tions, 1964). Dommergues refers to Linnaeus’s cases of homo ferus ranging from tetrapus (quadrupedal), mutus (dumb) and hirsitus (hairy), a pattern that Malouf seems to follow (e.g., p. 48, 75). 9. Trinculo had earlier associated Caliban with a “dead Indian” (2.2.32). In many respects, Caliban is between polarities; he is between “the European (Jacobean) concept of the ‘salvage’ or ‘wild’ man, on the one hand, and the newer Caribbean or American concept of the sun-worshipping ‘cannibal’ on the other.” In Terence Hawkes, “Swisser-Swatter: Making a Man of English Letters,” Alternative Shakespeares, ed. John Drakakis (London & New York: Routledge, 1988), p. 28. 10. Julie Copeland, “Interview with David Malouf,” Australian Literary Studies 10:4 (October 1992), 435. 11. Stephen W. Hawking, A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes (Toronto & New York: Bantam Books, 1988), p. 29. 290 Tempests after Shakespeare

12. See Michel Fabre, “Roots and Imaginations: An Interview with David Mal- ouf,” Commonwealth Essays and Studies 4 (Paris: SEPC, 1980), 62. 13. David Malouf, Bicycle and Other Poems (St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1970), pp. 29–30. 14. Ovid, Tristia, p. 255. 15. Qtd in Jim Davidson, Sideways from the Page: The Meanjin Interviews (Mel- bourne: Fontana/Collins, 1983), p. 274. 16. Qtd in Jim Davidson, “Three Talks: David Malouf, Les Murray and David Rowbothan,” Australian Literary Studies 11:3 (1984), 316–325. 17. Qtd in Avis G. McDonald, “Beyond Language: David Malouf’s ‘An Imagi- nary Life’,” Ariel 19:1 (January 1988), 48. This is echoed in Laurie Hergen- ham’s reading of the novel as a “symbolic fable of the inherent power to transcend ourselves, if we have the imagination for it” in “Discoveries and Transformations: Aspects of David Malouf’s Work,” Australian Literary Studies 11:3 (1984), 335. See also Harry Heseltine, “An Imaginary Life—the Dimensions of Self,” Australian Literary Studies 14:1 (May 1989), 26–40; and Geneviève Laigle, “‘Entering the Dimensions of My Self’... Malouf’s An Imaginary Life,” Commonwealth 16:2 (Spring 1993), 70–78. 18. Roslyn Jolly, “Transformations of Caliban into Ariel: Imagination and Lan- guage in David Malouf, Margaret Atwood and Seamus Heaney,” World Lit- erature Written in English 26:2 (1986), 295–330, 297 & 298. See also Amanda Nettelbeck, “‘The Mapping of the World’: Discourses of Power in David Malouf’s Fly Away Peter,” Kunapipi 2:3 (1989), 96. 19. Jolly, p. 304. 20. Jolly, p. 298. 21. Qtd in Terence Hawkes, ed., Coleridge on Shakespeare (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), p. 224 & p. 236. 22. On the recent tendency toward “placelessness,” see Graham Huggan, Terri- torial Disputes: Maps and Mapping Strategies in Contemporary Canadian and Australian Fiction (Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of Toronto Press, 1994), p. 57. 23. Leer, p. 3 & p. 15. 24. Gareth Griffiths, “Being There, Being There: Postmodernism and Postcolo- nialism: Kosinsky and Malouf,” Ariel 20 :4 (October 1989), 132–148, 140. Rpt in Ian Adam & Helen Tiffin, Past the Last Post: Theorizing Post-Colo- nialism and Post-Modernism (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1990), pp. 153–166. See also, the definition of “abrogation” as a first step in “re- placing” language in postcolonial writing in The Empire Writes Back, p. 38. 25. David Malouf, Blood Relations (Sydney: Currency, 1988), p. 81. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 26. Helen Gilbert, “The Boomerang Effect: Canonical Counter-discourse and David Malouf’s Blood Relations as an Oppositional Reworking of The Tem- pest,” World Literature Written in English 31:2 (1991), 52. Note that Gilbert lifted that phrase from Aimé Césaire’s “Discourse on Colonialism.” 27. Gilbert, p. 61. Notes 291

28. See Jack Davis, Kullark/The Dreamers (Sydney: Currency Press, 1983), p. xvii. For more detail, see Christopher P. Balme, “The Aboriginal Theatre of Jack Davis,” in Crisis and Creativity in the New Literatures in English, eds. Geoffrey V. Davis and Hena Maes-Jelinek (Amsterdam & Atlanta: Rodopi, 1990), p. 404. 29. Helen Peters, “Lewis Baumander Directs The Tempest (1987, 1989): Towards Canadian Postmodernism,” Canadian Theatre Review 76 (Fall 1993), 15. 30. Gilbert, p. 53. 31. Brydon, “Re-Writing The Tempest,” p. 86. 32. Randolph Stow, Visitants (1979) (London: Picador, 1981). Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 33. Pierre Vallières, Nègres blancs d’Amérique (Montréal: Parti Pris, 1968); trans. White Niggers of America (Toronto : McClelland & Stewart, 1971). 34. John Banville, Ghosts (London: Minerva Paperback, 1993). 35. Pierre Seguin, Caliban (Montreal: L’arbre HMH, 1977), p. 15, p. 18 & p. 40. All translations are my own and page numbers are indicated in the text. 36. Max Dorsinville, Caliban Without Prospero: Essay on Québec and Black Liter- ature (Montreal: Press Porcépic, 1974), p. 59 & p. 14. 37. Dorsinville, p. 231. 38. Dorsinville, p. 14. 39. Brathwaite, “Beginning,” Islands, p. 113. 40. Dorsinville, p.10. 41. The body of literature produced in the late 1970s certainly confirms that statement and belies some of the premises I put forward in my article, “A Calibanic Tempest in Anglophone and Francophone New World Writing,” Canadian Literature 104 (Spring 1985), 35–50. 42. Diana Brydon, “Sister Letters: Miranda’s Tempest in Canada” in Marianne Novy, ed., Cross-Cultural Performances: Differences in Women’s Revisions of Shakespeare (Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 165–184, p. 167. 43. Kate Chedgzoy, Shakespeare’s Queer Children: Sexual Politics and Contempo- rary Culture (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1995), p. 97. My addition.

Part II 1. Qtd in Craig Owens, “The Discourse of Others: Feminists and Postmod- ernism” in Postmodern Culture, ed. Hal Foster; rpt. (London & Sydney: Pluto Press, 1985), pp. 57–81. Published earlier in Hal Foster, The Anti-Aes- thetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture (Washington: Bay Press, 1983). The original phrase is from Michèle Montrelay, “Recherches sur la féminité,” Critique 278 (July 1970), trans. Parveen Adams, “Inquiry into Femininity” M/F 1 (1978); rpt in Semiotext(e) 10 (1981). 2. For a thorough investigation of second-wave feminism and postfeminism, see Ann Brooks, “What is Postfeminism ?” in Postfeminisms: Feminism, Cultural 292 Tempests after Shakespeare

Theory and Cultural Forms (1997) (London & New York: Routledge, 1998), pp. 1–10. 3. See Hazel Carby, “White Woman Listen! Black Feminism and the Bound- aries of Sisterhood” in The Empire Strikes Back: Race and Racism in ‘70s Britain (London: Hutchinson, 1982), p. 217; and Michèle Barrett, “Com- ment on a Paper by Christina Delphy,” in C. Nelson & L. Grossberg, eds. Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988). 4. Mary Jacobus, Evelyn Fox Keller, & Sally Shuttleworth, Body Politics: Women and the Discourses of Science (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 2. 5. Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (London: Virago Press, 1977), p. 57. 6. In Sara Suleri, “Woman Skin Deep” in The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, eds. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, Helen Tiffin (London & New York: Rout- ledge, 1995), p. 273.

Chapter 4 1. See Marianne Novy, “Demythologizing Shakespeare,” Women’s Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, special issue ed. Gayle Greene and Carolyn Ruth Swift 9:1 (1981), 25. 2. Malcolm Bowie, Lacan (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1991), pp. 108–109. The reference is here to Jacques Lacan, Ecrits (Paris: Seuil, 1966), p. 577; and to Alan Sheridan, trans., Ecrits. A Selection (Norton: Tavi- stock Publications, 1977), p. 217. 3. P. Waugh, ed. Postmodernism. A Reader (New York: Edward Arnold/Hodder & Stoughton, 1992), pp. 180–190. See also her earlier Feminine Fictions: Re- visiting the Postmodern (London: Routledge, 1989). 4. Lauren Rabinovitz, “Issues of Feminist Aesthetics: Judy Chicago and Joyce Wieland,” Women’s Art Journal 1:2 (1980–81), 38. 5. Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter in The Complete Novels and Selected Tales, ed. Norman Holmes Pearson (New York: Random House, 1937), pp. 139–140. 6. Joan Kirkby, “The American Prospero,” Southern Review (Adelaide) 18 (1995), 100. 7. Charles G. D. Roberts, The Heart of the Ancient Wood (1900) (Toronto: Mc- Clelland & Stewart, 1974), p. 275. 8. Roberts may have had in mind such medieval tales as Valentine and Orson, in which one of the twin brothers is raised as a prince in the city, the other suckled by a she-bear. See Marina Warner in her book From the Beast to the Blonde (London: Chatto & Windus, 1994), p. 301. 9. Rich, Of Woman Born, p. 242. 10. I owe this term to Leslie Fiedler, Stranger in Shakespeare, p. 244. 11. Marjorie Pickthall, “Miranda’s Tomb,” University Magazine 16:4 (December 1917), 508. Notes 293

12. Robertson Davies, Tempest-Tost (Toronto: Macmillan, 1951), p. 182. Here- after page numbers are indicated in the text. 13. Vladimir Nabokov, Strong Opinions (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973), p.75. 14. Hutcheon, Theory of Parody, pp. 76–77. 15. Cohn, p. 299. 16. Shakespeare Wallah. Dir. James Ivory. Prod. Ismail Merchant. With Shashi Kapoor, Felicity Kendal, Madhur Jaffrey. Merchant Ivory Productions, 1965. For a discussion of Shakespeare Wallah, see Ania Loomba, “Shake- spearian Transformations,” in John J. Joughin, ed., Shakespeare and National Culture (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1997), pp. 126–128. 17. Thomas Cartelli, “After the Tempest: Shakespeare, Postcoloniality, and Michelle Cliff’s New, New World Miranda,” Contemporary Literature 36:1 (Spring 1995), 82–83. 18. Jyotsna Singh, “Different Shakespeares: The Bard in Colonial/Postcolonial India,” Theatre Journal 41 (1989), 456. See also Ania Loomba, Gender, Race, Renaissance Drama, esp. 28–31, for a discussion of the demise of Shake- speareana, the acting troupe on which fictional Buckingham Company is modeled; and Gauri Viswanathan, Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989). 19. Audrey Thomas’s review of The Diviners shows that, beyond the reviewing process, Canadian women writers’ rewriting of canonical texts is to be placed within a female creative continuum from Alice Munro and Sheila Watson to Marian Engel and Margaret Atwood. In Audrey Thomas, “A Broken Wand?” Canadian Literature 62 (Autumn 1974), 89–91. 20. Audrey Thomas, Prospero on the Island in “Munchmeyer” and “Prospero on the Island” (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1971), p. 132. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 21. See Arnold E. Davidson, “Reading Between the Texts in Audrey Thomas’s Munchmeyer and Prospero on the Island,” American Review of Canadian Stud- ies 15:4 (1985), 424. I stand corrected, on the whole, by Davidson in his witty critique of my earlier assessment of Thomas’s work in C. Zabus, “A Calibanic Tempest in Anglophone and Francophone New World Writing” in Canadian Literature 104 (Spring 1985), 35–45. 22. Georgiana Colville, “Mirrormania: Audrey Thomas’s Munchmeyer and Pros- pero on the Island,” Recherches anglaises et nord-américaines 20 (1987) (Spe- cial Issue: “Espaces de la nouvelle canadienne anglophone”), 151. 23. George Bowering, “Songs and Wisdom: An Interview with Audrey Thomas,” Open Letter 4:3 (Spring 1979), 14. 24. Margaret Laurence, The Diviners (1974) (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 270. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 25. See the Introduction to The New Peoples: Being and Becoming Métis in North America, eds. Jacqueline Peterson and Jennifer S. H. Brown (Winnipeg: Uni- versity of Manitoba Press, 1985), p. 5. 294 Tempests after Shakespeare

26. Fiona Sparrow, “‘This Place is some kind of a garden’: Clearings in the Bush in the Works of Susanna Moodie, Catharine Parr Traill, Margaret Atwood and Margaret Laurence,” Journal of Commonwealth Literature 25:1 (1990), 36. 27. Qtd in Rosemary Sullivan, “An Interview with Margaret Laurence,” in A Place to Stand On: Essays by and About Margaret Laurence, ed. George Wood- cock (Edmonton: NeWest, 1983), p. 67. 28. Barbara Godard, “Caliban’s Revolt: the Discourse of the (M)Other,” in Colin Nicholson, ed. Critical Approaches to the Fiction of Margaret Laurence (London: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 208–227, p. 208. Godard traces the allu- sions not only to King Lear (e.g., Diviners, p. 227) but to Hamlet (e.g., Di- viners, 3 & 326) as well, which casts Pique as Ophelia, Brooke as King Lear, Christie as “the Shakespearian wise fool speaking with a forked tongue” (e.g., Diviners, 7) and Catharine Parr Traill as “an Ariel... she summons as the ghostly spirit of the place.” See also Wayne Fraser, The Dominion of Women: The Personal and Political in Canadian Women’s Literature (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1991). 29. See Henry Louis Gates, Jr., “Color Me Zora: Alice Walker’s (Re)Writing of the Speakerly Text,” in The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism (New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 242. 30. See, for instance, Elaine Showalter, “Piecing and Writing,” The Poetics of Gender, ed. Nancy K. Miller (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), pp. 222–247. 31. See Margaret Washington Creel’s discussion of Gullah “medicine special- ists,” in her “A Peculiar People”: Slave Religion and Community Culture Among the Gullahs (New York: New York University Press, 1988), pp. 56–58. 32. John Michael Coetzee, Foe (London: Penguin, 1986), pp. 88–89. My italics. 33. Rudolph Bader, “The Mirage of the Scepter’d Isle: An Imagological Ap- praisal,” Ariel 19:1 (January 1988), 35. 34. See Willy Malley, “‘This Scepter’d Isle’: Shakespeare and the British Prob- lem,” in National Culture, pp. 83–108. 35. See on the language issue, Michel Fabre’s “Words and the World: The Di- viners as an Exploration of the Book of Life,” in A Place to Stand On, pp. 247–269. 36. I owe this expression to George Steiner, Extraterritorial (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), p. 14. 37. Coral Ann Howells, “In Search of Lost Mothers: Margaret Laurence’s The Diviners and Elizabeth Jolly’s Miss Peabody’s Inheritance,” Ariel 19:1 (January 1988), 64. 38. See Marian Engel, No Clouds of Glory (New York: Harcourt Brace and World, 1968), p. 8; reissued as Sarah Bastard’s Notebook (1974). 39. See Jacques T. Godbout (with Alain Caillé), L’esprit du don (Paris: Editions de la découverte, 1992), p. 69. 40. For a useful synthesis of Cixous on the gift, see Toril Moi, Sexual/Textual Pol- itics: Feminist Literary Theory (London & New York: Methuen, 1985), pp. Notes 295

110–113. Cixous elaborates on these concepts in Newly Born Woman, p. 147; and in “Le Sexe ou la tête?” Les cahiers du GRIF 13 (1976), 5–15; trans. Annette Kuhn, “Castration or Decapitation?” Signs 7:1 (1981), 41–55. 41. Margaret Laurence, “Man of Our People (Gabriel Dumont)” (1976) in A Place to Stand On, pp. 270–276; and in Margaret Laurence-Al Purdy, a Friendship in Letters (Toronto: McClelland & Steward, 1993), p. 317. See also Marie Vautier, “Postmodern Myth, Post-European History and the Fig- ure of the Amerindian,” Canadian Literature 141 (1994), 15–23. 42. Qtd in Coral Ann Howells, “Disruptive Geographies: or, Mapping the Re- gion of Woman in Contemporary Canadian Women’s Writing in English,” Journal of Commonwealth Literature 31:1 (1996), 118–119. 43. Gayle Greene, “Margaret Laurence’s Diviners and Shakespeare’s Tempest: The Uses of the Past,” in Marianne Novy, ed., Women’s Re-Visions of Shakespeare: On Responses of Dickinson, Woolf, Rich, H.D., George Eliot, and Others (Ur- bana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1990), p. 165. See also Gayle Greene, “Women on Trial in Shakespeare and Webster,” in The Elizabethan Woman 30 (1982), 10–11. 44. Mary Anne Ferguson, “The Female Novel of Development and the Myth of Psyche,” in The Voyage In: Fictions of Female Development, ed. Elizabeth Abel, Marianne Hirsch, and Elizabeth Langland (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1983), p. 228. 45. Catharine Parr Traill, The Canadian Settler’s Guide (1854) (Toronto: Mc- Clelland and Stewart, 1969), p. 56. 46. John Milton, Paradise Lost, Book IV, line 143 and Book IX, line 2111. 47. Leslie A. Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American (1968) (London: Pal- adin, 1972), pp. 84–109. 48. See Baumander, p. 14. 49. Howard Felperin, The Uses of Canon: Elizabethan Literature and Contempo- rary Theory (Oxford: Clarendon, 1990), p.175. 50. Brydon, “Sister letters,” p. 169. 51. In an interview with Suniti Namjoshi, which I conducted at the University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K. on 23 July 1999 on the occasion of the “Women & the Millennium: Gender, Culture and Globalisation” Conference. 52. Suniti Namjoshi, “Snapshots of Caliban” in From the Bedside Book of Night- mares (Fredericton, Canada: Fiddlehead, 1984); rpt in Because of India: Se- lected Poems and Fables (London: Only Women Press, 1989), p. 21 (Introduction). Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 53. Cyclone in Pakistan (Calcutta: Writers Workshop, 1971); also in Because of India, pp. 21–22. 54. Sally Munt, “Introduction” to New Lesbian Criticism: Literary and Cultural Readings, ed. Sally Munt (New York & London: Harvester/Wheatsheaf, 1992), p. xii. See also Laura Doan, The Lesbian Postmodern (New York: Co- lumbia University Press, 1994). 55. Betsy Warland, ed., InVersions: Writings by Dykes, Queers, and Lesbians (Van- couver: Press Gang Publishers, 1991), p. 49. 296 Tempests after Shakespeare

56. Suniti Namjoshi, “And She Wrote Her Poems” in The Jackass and the Lady (Calcutta: Writers Workshop, 1980). In Because of India, p. 27. 57. Zabus, Warwick Interview. 58. In Munt, p. 4. 59. Gillian Hanscombe and Suniti Namjoshi, “‘Who Wrongs you, Sappho,’— Developing Lesbian Sensibility in the Writing of Lyric Poetry,” in Jane Aaron and Sylvia Walby, eds. Out of the Margins: Women’s Studies in the Nineties (London: Falmer Press, 1991). Qtd in Chedgzoy, p. 116. 60. W. H. Auden, “The Sea and the Mirror” (1945) in Collected Poems, ed. Ed- ward Mendelson (London: Faber & Faber, 1976), pp. 225–226, p. 227, & p. 206. 61. Chedgzoy, p. 116. In her brilliant analysis of “Snapshots,” Chedgzoy dwells on its “numerous undecidabilities” (p. 117). 62. Brydon, “Sister Letters,” p. 179. 63. Zabus, Warwick Interview. 64. John Dryden & William Davenant, The Tempest or the Enchanted Island: A Comedy (1667) in H. T. Swedenberg & M. E. Novak, eds. The Works of John Dryden (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970). Prospero’s ques- tion—“Miranda! Where’s your sister?”—opens scene 2 of act 1 and refers to Dorinda. In the play, Sycorax is Caliban’s sister. 65. Loomba, p. 153. 66. Sylvia Wynter, “Beyond Miranda’s Meanings: Un/Silencing the ‘Demonic Ground’ of Caliban’s ‘Woman’,” in Out of the Kumbla: Caribbean Women and Literature, eds. Carole Boyce Davies and Elaine Savory Fido (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World, 1990), p. 360. 67. Cartelli, “After the Tempest,” p. 98. 68. Zabus, Warwick Interview. 69. Lisa Laframboise, “‘Maiden and Monster’: the Female Caliban in Canadian Tempests,” World Literature Written in English 31:2 (1991), 47 & 48. 70. Sarah Murphy, The Measure of Miranda (Edmonton: NeWest Press, 1987), p. 9. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 71. Coral Ann Howells, “Free-Dom, Telling, Dignidad: Margaret Laurence, ‘A Gourdful of Glory,’ Margaret Atwood, The Handmaid’s Tale, Sarah Murphy, The Measure of Miranda” in Commonwealth Essays and Studies: Liberty-Lib- erté/Libertés 12:1 (Autumn 1989), 44. 72. Hutcheon, Poetics of Postmodernism, p. 93; Thomas Docherty, After Theory, p. 64. 73. Susan Sontag, The Benefactor (1963) (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1983), p. 182. 74. Roland Barthes, La chambre claire: Note sur la photographie (coll. Les Cahiers du cinéma; Paris: Gallimard, 1980), p. 29, p. 138 & pp. 144–145. My own translation. 75. (Wil)Liam Kennedy, Susan Sontag: Mind as Passion (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1995), p. 88. 76. Scarry, p. 19 & p. 22; Lionnet, p. 110. Notes 297

77. Joseph Conrad, The Secret Agent: A Simple Tale (London: Penguin, 1963), p. 191. 78. Docherty, p. 64. 79. Conrad, The Secret Agent, p. 66. 80. Constance Beresford-Howe’s Prospero’s Daughter and Elizabeth Brewster’s poem “Prospero in the Twenty-First Century.” Miranda in Beresford-Howe’s work is the most demure of Prospero’s two daughters, who cannot seem to be able to find a suitable husband. Yet, as Brydon argues, she writes herself “an unscripted exit from the scene devised for her by her manipulative writer-father” (“Sister Letters,” 168). Brewster’s Miranda clearly dominates: “The native boy is civilized/ Miranda’s favorite servant,/ Walks two steps be- hind her always,/ glowering/ at her enemies.” Brewster’s poem also has the merit of projecting “Prospero in the Twenty-First Century.” In Elizabeth Brewster, Entertaining Angels (Toronto: Oberon, 1988). 81. Lorrie Jerrell Leininger, “The Miranda Trap: Sexism and Racism in Shake- speare’s The Tempest,” in The Woman’s Part: Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare, eds. Carolyn Ruth Swift Lenz, Gayle Greene, Carol Thomas Neely (Chicago: University Press of Illinois, 1980), p. 291. 82. Norman Brown, Life Against Death (New York: Random House, 1959), p. 266.

Chapter 5 1. Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (London: Virago Press, 1977), p. 225. 2. See Elaine Showalter, “Toward a Feminist Poetics,” in The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature, Theory (New York: Pantheon, 1985), p. 135. 3. Gilbert Yeoh, “From Caliban to Sycorax: Revisions of The Tempest in Ja- maica Kincaid’s Annie John,” World Literature Written in English 33:2 & 34:1 (1993–94), 109. 4. B. de Las Casas, Historia de las Indias, 3 Vols. (1951); trans. History of the In- dies (New York: Harper & Row, 1971); and Apologia (Madrid: Nacional, 1975); trans. In Defense of the Indians (Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1974), passim. 5. Jamaica Kincaid, Annie John (1983) (New York: Plume/Penguin, 1985), p. 120. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 6. Yeoh, p. 105. 7. Jean Rhys, Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) (London & Toronto: Hodder & Stoughton, 1989), p. 155. 8. George Lamming, Water with Berries (London: Longman, 1971), p. 70. 9. Rosemary Manangoly George, The Politics of Home, Postcolonial Relocations and Twentieth-Century Fiction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 192. 10. Oliver Senior, “Colonial Girls School,” in Talking Trees (Kingston: Calabash, 1985), p. 26. 298 Tempests after Shakespeare

11. Maryse Condé, “Unlikely Stories. Children’s Invented Worlds in Caribbean Women’s Fiction,” Commonwealth Essays and Studies 15:1 (1992), 73. See also Evelyn O’Callaghan, Woman Version: Theoretical Approaches to West In- dian Fiction by Women (Hong Kong: The Macmillan Press, 1993). 12. Luce Irigaray, “And the One doesn’t Stir without the Other,” Signs 7:1 (Autumn 1981), 67; trans. Hélène Vivienne Wenzel. Originally Et l’une ne bouge pas sans l’autre (Paris: Minuit, 1979). See also her Corps-à-corps avec la mère (Montreal: Les éditions de la pleine lune, 1981); and Michèle Montrelay, “Mère et fille” in L’Ombre et le nom: sur la féminité (Paris: Minuit, 1977), pp. 153–154. 13. Jamaica Kincaid, “My Mother,” At the Bottom of the River (London: Vintage, 1984), pp. 53–54. My italics. 14. Jamaica Kincaid, The Autobiography of My Mother (London: Vintage, 1996), p. 3 15. Myra Glazer Schotz, “The Great Unwritten Story: Mothers and Daughters in Shakespeare,” in Cathy N. Davidson and E. M. Brouer, eds. The Lost Tra- dition: Mothers and Daughters in Literature (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1980), p. 226. 16. Elizabeth Cullingford, Gender and History in Yeats’s Love Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 54. 17. Judith Williamson, “Woman is an Island: Femininity and Colonization,” in Tania Modleski, ed. Studies in Entertainment: Critical Approaches to Mass Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), p. 113. 18. Diana Brydon, “No (Wo)Man is an Island: Rewriting Cross-Cultural En- counters within the Canadian Context,” Kunapipi 15:2 (1993), 50. 19. Aritha Van Herk, “Mapping as Metaphor: the Cartographer’s Revision,” A Frozen Tongue (Sydney: Dangaroo Press, 1992), pp. 54–68, p. 55 & p. 63. She argues she feels more kinship with Alice Munro, who, in Lives of Girls and Women, maps the country of the interior or even George Bowering who, in Burning Water (1980), re-maps the mapper, than with Philip Grove, Rudy Wiebe, and Robert Kroetsch, who show that “men map the territory of place, history, and event.” See Frederick Philip Grove, Fruits of the Earth (Toronto: J.M. Dent, 1933); Rudy Wiebe, The Temptations of Big Bear (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1973); Robert Kroetsch, Badlands (Toronto: New Press, 1975), p. 4; Alice Munro, Lives of Girls and Women (New York: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1971). 20. Marianne Hirsch, The Mother/Daughter Plot: Narrative, Psychoanalysis, Femi- nism (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1989), p. 163. 21. Michelle Cliff, No Telephone to Heaven (1987) (New York: Plume/Penguin, 1996), p. 115. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. This pas- sage is originally from Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre (1847) (London: Penguin Classics, 1985), p. 346. 22. Michelle Cliff, “Clare Savage as a Crossroads Character,” Caribbean Women Writers, ed. Selwyn R. Cudjoe (Wellesley, Mass: Calaloux Publications, 1990), pp. 263–68, p. 264. 23. Thomas Cartelli, “After the Tempest,” p. 191. Notes 299

24. Meryl F. Schwartz, “An Interview with Michelle Cliff,” Contemporary Liter- ature 34 (1993), 595. 25. Margaret Kent Boss, “CLIFF, Michelle,” in Eugene Benson & L.W. Conolly, eds., Encyclopedia of Postcolonial Literatures in English (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 255. Typical examples of the tragic mulatta are to be found in Nella Larsen’s Quicksand (1928) and Passing (1929). 26. Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, p. 35. 27. Nella Larsen, Passing in An Intimation of Things Distant: The Collected Fic- tion of Nella Larsen, ed. Charles Larson, foreword by Marita Golden (New York: Anchor Books, 1992), pp. 163–276. See Michelle Cliff’s poem “Pass- ing,” qtd in Claiming an Identity They Taught Me to Despise (Watertown, Mass.: Persephone Press, 1980), p. 6. Rpt in The Land of Look Behind (Ithaca, NY: Firebrand Books, 1985). 28. Judith Butler, “Passing, Queering: Nella Larsen’s Psychoanalytic Challenge” in her Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex” (New York & London: Routledge, 1993), p. 172. 29. Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, “ A Dialogue of Self and Soul: Plain Jane’s Progress,” in The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven & London: Yale Uni- versity Press, 1979), p. 348 & p. 360. 30. Jean Rhys, Wide Sargasso Sea, p. 52. See also Michelle Cliff, The Land of Look Behind, p. 41. 31. Hélène Cixous, “The Laugh of the Medusa,” Signs (Summer 1976) rpt in New French Feminisms, eds. Elaine Marks & Isabelle de Courtivron (Brighton: Har- vester, 1980), p. 254. Also in Newly Born Woman, p. 155. Cixous opposes the “homogenous conception of bisexuality [which] is designed to cater for the male fear of the Other (woman) in so far as it allows him to fantasize away the ineluctable signs of sexual difference.” See also Moi, pp. 108–109. 32. In Warren M. Billings, ed. The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975), pp. 216–219. 33. Paul Brown, “‘This thing of darkness I acknowledge mine’: The Tempest and the Discourse of Colonialism,” in Political Shakespeare: New Essays in Cultural Materialism, eds. Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1992), p.54 & p. 62. See Deborah Willis’s response to Brown in her “Shakespeare’s Tempest and the Discourse of Colo- nialism,” Studies in English Literature 1500–1900 29:2 (Spring 1989), 277–291, 285. See also Carmen Birkle, “Colonial Mother and Postcolonial Daughter: Pocahontas and Clare Savage in Michelle Cliff’s No Telephone to Heaven,” in Postcolonialism and Autobiography, eds. Alfred Hornung & Ern- stpeter Ruhe (Textxet: Studies in Comparative Literature), 19, eds. C. C. Bar- foot and Theo D’Haen (Rodopi: Amsterdam & Atlanta, 1998), pp. 61–77. 34. Qtd in Schwartz, p. 601. Elsewhere, Cliff argues for an “inclusive” feminism that “should concern itself with the liberation of all people.” Qtd in Pamela Kester-Shelton, ed., Feminist Writing (Detroit: St. James Press, 1996), p.111. 300 Tempests after Shakespeare

35. Qtd in Schwartz, p. 601. 36. This is culled from Jan Rogozinski, A Brief History of the Caribbean (Lon- don: Meridian Books, 1992), pp. 272–275. 37. Qtd in Schwartz, p. 596. 38. Qtd in Schwartz, p. 601. 39. Chedgzoy, p. 96. 40. Charles Kean’s costume book, Folger Shakespeare Library; Folger Art Vol- ume d 49, dated 1853. Qtd in Virginia Mason Vaughan, “‘Something Rich and Strange’: Caliban’s Theatrical Metamorphoses,” Shakespeare Quarterly 36:4 (1985), 398. 41. Susan Stanford Friedman, “Exile in the American Grain: H. D.’s Diaspora” in Mary Lynn Broe and Angela Ingram, eds. Women’s Writing in Exile (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), p. 89. 42. Cliff, “Clare Savage,” p. 267. 43. Qtd in Schwartz, p. 601. 44. See Barbara Harlow, Resistance Literature (New York & London: Methuen, 1987), pp. 74–116. 45. See Alexander Pope, The Rape of the Lock, Canto III, line 151: “Fate urged the sheers, and cut the Sylph [Ariel] in twain.” In Poems of Alexander Pope (1940), ed. Geoffrey Tillotson (London: Methuen & New Haven: Yale Uni- versity Press, 1972). 46. Qtd in Schwartz, pp. 606–607. 47. Marina Warner, “Between the Colonist and the Creole: Family Bonds, Fam- ily Boundaries,” in Shirley Chew and Anna Rutherford, eds. Unbecoming Daughters of the Empire (Hebben Bridge: Dangaroo, 1993), pp. 199–204, p. 201. Marina Warner had earlier revealed that “as a person who is not Caribbean, who’s white, privileged, middle class, etc, that I didn’t have a right to enter this terrain of postcolonial exploration, but it seemed to me, in relation to The Tempest, . . . I did have a right simply because it’s a body of story that is held in common.” In Nicolas Tredell, “Marina Warner in Conversation” (London, 19 March 1992), Poetry Nation Review (July/Au- gust 1992), 37. 48. Qtd in Tredell, p. 37. 49. Donaldson, p. 68. 50. Alice Fox, “Virginia Woolf at Work: the Elizabethan Voyage Out,” Bulletin of Research for the Humanities 4:1 (Spring 1981), 77. In The Voyage Out, Woolf also employs a lot of allusions to The Tempest. See, for instance, Ariel’s song recited by Mr. Grice (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1948), p. 54. 51. The phrase is from Czeslaw Milosz in the epigraph to The Lost Father (Lon- don: Picador, 1988). 52. Marina Warner, Indigo: or Mapping the Waters (London: Simon & Schuster, 1992), p. 255. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 53. Qtd in Tredell, p. 35. 54. The expression “that dangerous supplement” is the title to a chapter from Jacques Derrida’s Of Grammatology, trans. with an introduction by Gayatri Notes 301

Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976). Originally De la grammatologie (Paris: Minuit, 1967). 55. Chantal Zabus, “Spinning a Yarn with Marina Warner,” Post-colonial Women’s Writing in Kunapipi 16:1 (Aarhus: Dangaroo Press, 1994), 528. 56. The island, the only piece of land that is considered female, brings some nu- ance to the feminist dictum that “solid ground is masculine, the sea femi- nine,” as Mary Ellman argues in Thinking about Women (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968), p. 74. 57. In Marina Warner’s letter to Anna Rutherford on 29 January 1993, quoted here by courtesy of Anna Rutherford & Marina Warner. 58. Marina Warner, From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales and Their Tellers (London: Chatto & Windus, 1994), p. 259. 59. Warner, From the Beast to the Blonde, pp. 259–260. My italics. See also Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales (New York: Knopf, 1976); and Ellen Cronan Rose, “Through the Look- ing Glass: When Women Tell Fairy Tales,” in Elizabeth Abel, Marianne Hirsch & Elizabeth Langland, eds. The Voyage In, pp. 209–227. The Yale lesbian poet Olga Broumas sees the hood in “Little Red Riding Hood” as both “the ‘man- tle of blood’ which the infant wears as she emerges from the birth canal and the hood of her clitoris” (p. 221). Before her, Anne Sexton, in her poem “Red Riding Hood,” had compared “the red cape” to Red Riding Hood’s “Linus blanket” “besides/ it was red, as red as the Swiss flag, yet it was red, as red as chicken blood.” In Transformations (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 76. 60. H. B. Paul, trans., “The Little Mermaid,” in Hans Andersen’s Fairy Tales (London & New York: Frederick Warne, n.d.), pp. 77–78. 61. Marina Warner in a letter to Anna Rutherford, quoted by permission of the author. 62. Kate Chopin, The Awakening (1899) (London: Women’s Press, 1978), p. 190. 63. Werewere Liking, Elle sera de jaspe et de corail (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1983), trans. Marjolijn de Jager, It Shall be of Jasper and Coral (Charlottesville & London: University of Virginia, 2000). 64. See Ruth Berman, “Mermaids,” in Mythical and Fabulous Creatures. A Source Book and Research Guide, ed. Malcolm South (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), p. 133. 65. Donaldson, p. 68. 66. Wynter, pp. 361–362. 67. Qtd in Tredell, p. 36. 68. Trinh Minh-ha, “Grandma’s Story” in Woman, Native, Other: Writing Post- coloniality and Feminism (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1989), p. 127. 69. Ann Thompson, “‘Miranda, Where’s Your Sister?’: Reading Shakespeare’s The Tempest” in Susan Sellers, Linda Hutcheon, Paul Perron, eds., Feminist Criti- cism: Theory and Practice (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), p. 50. 70. Minh-Ha, pp. 127–128. 302 Tempests after Shakespeare

71. On Ariel as a “hyphen,” see Marina Warner’s unpublished typescript, “Siren, Hyphen; or the Maid Beguiled,” and Tobias Döring, “Woman, Foundling, Hyphen: the Figure of Ariel in Marina Warner’s Indigo,” Alizés/Trade Winds 20 (July 2001), 9–26. 72. Peggy Kamuf, ed., A Derrida Reader: Between the Blinds (New York & Lon- don: Harvester Wheatsheaf/Columbia University Press, 1991), p. 33. 73. Orgel, “Prospero’s Wife,” p. 63. 74. Julia Gasper, “The Gynocratic Threat in The Tempest,” MS. Many thanks to Marina Warner for bringing this piece of unpublished material to my atten- tion. See also Marina Warner’s “‘The Foul Witch’ and her ‘Freckled Whelp’: Circean Mutations in the New World,” in “The Tempest” and Its Travels, eds. Hulme and Sherman, pp. 97–113. 75. Julio Caro Bajora, The World of the Witches (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), p. 18. See also Samantha Giles, Witchcraft and Misogyny (Not- tingham: Pauper’s Press, 1997), p. 5. 76. Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 70. 77. Orgel, Cannibals, p. 56. 78. Loomba, p. 152. 79. See Anne Righter (Barton), ed., The Tempest (London: Penguin, 1968), p. 148, note to 1.2.266–67. In Tales from Shakespeare by Charles and Mary Lamb (London: Everyman, 1990), the Lambs, however, do not identify Sycorax as the savior of Algiers (see p. 9). 80. Abena P. A. Busia, “Silencing Sycorax: On African Colonial Discourse and the Unvoiced Female,” Cultural Critique 14 (1989–90), 84–85 & 101. This article does for the African woman what Spivak did for the “disappearance” of Indian women in British legal history in Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, “Can the Subaltern Speak?” in Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, ed. Cary Nelson & Lawrence Grossberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), pp. 271–313. See also her “Three Women’s Texts and a Critique of Imperialism,” in “Race,” Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), pp. 262–280. 81. Helen Tiffin, “Rites of Resistance: Counter-Discourse and West-Indian Biography,” in Journal of West Indian Literature 3:1 (January 1989), 29. See also Stephen Slemon, “Post-colonial Allegory and the Transformation of History,” The Journal of Commonwealth Literature 23:1 (1988), 161; and Eileen Williams-Wanquet, “L’histoire remise en cause: Indigo de Ma- rina Warner,” Etudes britanniques contemporaines 18 (June 2000), 89–105. 82. Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other, trans. Richard Howard (1982) (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), pp. 24–47. 83. Kincaid, Annie John, p. 78. 84. Joseph Williams, Psychic Phenomena of Jamaica (New York: The Dial Press, 1984), p. 64 & p. 96. See also Ivor Morrish, Obeah, Christ and Rastaman (London: James Clark & Co, 1982), p. 23. 85. “Hag” entry; 1552 HULOET in The Compact Oxford English Dictionary. Notes 303

86. See Shari Thurer, The Myths of Motherhood (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), p. 155. Elspeth Whitney confirms, in the context of European witch- hunts, that “the witch was seen as inverting not only the natural order, but specif- ically the image of the “good woman.” In Elspeth Whitney, “ International Trends: The Witch ‘she’/the Historian ‘He’: Gender and the Historiography of the European Witch-Hunts,” Journal of Women’s History 7: 3 (Fall 1995), 77. 87. Maryse Condé, I Tituba, Black Witch of Salem (New York: Ballantine Books, 1994); trans. R. Philcox, Moi, Tituba, Sorcière... Noire de Salem (Paris: Mercure de France, 1986). For her possible origins, see Elaine G. Breslaw, Tituba, Reluctant Witch of Salem: Devilish Indians and Puritan Beliefs (New York: New York University Press, 1997), pp.12–13. 88. Carol Karlsen, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman (London: W.W. Norton, 1987), p. xi. See also Barbara Rosen, Witchcraft (Stratford-Upon-Avon: Ed- ward Arnold Ltd, 1969), p. 8. 89. See Greenblatt, “Learning How to Curse,” p. 21. 90. Keri Hulme, The Bone People (London: Pan Books/Picador, 1985), p. 51. See Coetzee, Foe, p. 121. 91. This was suggested to me by Marina Warner in Antwerp on 27 September 1993. 92. See Joan Dayan, “History, Disavowal and Poetic Language in the Caribbean” (MS.); originally delivered at the Woodrow Wilson Center, Smithsonian In- stitute, Washington, D.C. on 5 March 1987. Rpt in Reading World Litera- ture: Theory, History, Practice, ed. Sarah Lawall (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994). 93. Qtd in Cheyffitz, p. 41. 94. Derek Walcott, Another Life (1973) (New York: Three Continents Press, 1982), p. 69. 95. Erich Neumann, The Great Mother: An Analysis of the Archetype (New York: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 170. As Neumann is a follower of Jung, see also C. G. Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious 9:1 in Collected Works of C. G. Jung (New York: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 82. See also Noel Cobb, Prospero’s Island. The Secret Alchemy at the Heart of “The Tempest” (London: Coventure, 1984), p. 66. 96. Rich, Of Woman Born, p. 235. 97. Qtd in Hirsch, pp. 133–134. 98. One can suggest a continuum between Miranda and Sycorax through the Medea story from Ovid’s Metamorphoses, which Shakespeare had in mind in Prospero’s “Ye elves” speech (5.1.33–57). Medea, who falls in love with Jason, gradually turns into an infanticidal sorceress. On the Medea story, see Lillian Corti, The Myth of Medea and the Murder of Children (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998). Along similar lines, the two versions of the “Widow Dido” story illustrate the duality of the Miranda-Sycorax paradigm. The older, historical tradition, invoked by Gonzalo, in response to Adrian’s “Tunis was never graced before with such a paragon to their queen” (2.1.73–74), indeed heralds Widow Dido as an exemplary ruler and a model of heroic chastity, devoted to the memory of her murdered husband. The 304 Tempests after Shakespeare

later, Virgilian account is of a fallen woman desperately in love with the shipwrecked Aeneas and conscious of her sin. In other words, the virgin and the whore rolled in one. 99. On Arawak tools, see Basil Reid, “Arawak Archeology in Jamaica: New Ap- proaches, New Perspectives,” Caribbean Quarterly 38:2 & 3 (September 1992), 15–19. 100. Julia Kristeva, Pouvoirs de l’horreur: essai sur l’abjection (Paris: Seuil, 1980), trans. Léon Roudiez, Powers of Horror (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), passim. 101. See Cohn, p. 295. 102. Marianne Hester, Lewd Women and Wicked Witches: A Study of the Dynamics of Male Domination (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 199 & p. 196. 103. Warner, From the Beast to the Blonde, p. 44. My italics. 104. Qtd in Frank Kermode, ed. The Arden Shakespeare: The Tempest in The Arden Shakespeare, p. iv. My addition. 105. Condé, I, Tituba, p. 40. 106. See George Lang, “In Every Clime: Literary Notes Around the Discovery of Srana-Tongo Creole,” Dutch Crossing 44 (Summer 1991), 60–76; and Bar- bara Bush, Slave Women in Caribbean Society 1650–1838 (London: James Currey, 1990), p. 15. 107. Zabus, “Spinning a Yarn,” p. 552. 108. Jordan, p. 163; and George Lang, “Voyageur Discourse and the Absence of a Fur Trade Pidgin,” Canadian Literature 131 (Winter 1991), 58. 109. James A. Arnold, “The Gendering of Créolité,” in Maryse Condé & Cot- tenet-Hage, eds., Penser la créolité (Paris: Karthala, 1995), p. 37.

Chapter 6 1. Peter Hulme, “Including America,” Ariel 26:1 (January 1995), 118, 120 & 118–119. Hulme cites the example of East Timor in thrall to Indonesia. Originally proclaimed Indonesia’s 27th Province by President Suharto in July 1976, East Timor, formerly a three-century Portuguese colony, became divided over the next twenty years over the issue of integration into Indone- sia, itself a state that gained its independence from Dutch rule in 1945. The Timorese have now gained their independence. 2. C. Richard King, “Dislocating Postcoloniality, Relocating American Em- pire,” in C. Richard King, ed., Post-Colonial America (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2000), p. 15. 3. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, The Empire Writes Back: The- ory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures (London: Vintage, 1992), p. 2. 4. Qtd in Helen C. Rountree, Pocahontas’s People: The Powhatan Indians of Vir- ginia Through Four Centuries (Norman & London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), p. 18. Rountree argues that Powhatan had inherited six chief- doms (Powhatan, Arrohateck, Appamattuck, Pamunkey, Mattaponi, and Chiskiack). Notes 305

5. Marina Warner, Indigo: or Mapping the Waters (London: Vintage, 1992), p. 302. 6. Morton Luce, “Introduction,” to The Tempest (London, 1938), pp. xxxii and xxxv. Qtd in Peter Hulme, Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean, 1492–1797 (London: Methuen, 1986), p. 107. 7. Leslie A. Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American (London: Paladin, 1968), p. 168. My addition. 8. Todorov, The Conquest of America, pp. 131–132. 9. Philip Young, Three Bags Full. Essays in American Fiction (New York: Har- court Brace Jovanovich, 1972), p. 176. 10. Hulme, Colonial Encounters, p. 138. 11. Qtd in Philip Young, p. 182. 12. Rountree, p. 39. 13. I comment on the mock-execution, as discussed by H. C. Porter and P. Hulme, as well as the rescue-operation, in light of the theory of the gift in “Two Colonial Encounters and the Philosophy of the Gift,” in Colonies, Missions, Cultures, ed. Gherard Stilz (Tuebingen: Stauffenberg Verlag, 2002), pp. 123–134. Powhatan’s belief after the mock-rescue is that the English had become his subjects. This finds an ironic counterpart in the Coronation of Powhatan who, while “neither knowing the majesty nor meaning of a crown, nor bending of the knee,” was read by the English as “a full acknowledgement of duty and submission” to James I and the sceptered isle. In Captain John Smith, Works, ed. Arber, Philip L. Barbour, ed., The Jamestown Voyages under the First Charter 1606–1609, Hakluyt, 1969, 2 vols, p. 206. Also in H. C. Porter, The Inconstant Savage: England and the North American Indian 1500–1600 (London: Duckworth, 1979), pp. 280–309. 14. Rountree, p. 39. 15. See Rayna Greene, “The Pocahontas Perplex: The Image of Indian Women in American Culture,” Massachusetts Review 16 (Autumn 1975), 698–715. 16. Philip Young, p. 117. 17. Rountree, p. 59. 18. Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American, pp. 170–171. 19. Rountree, p. 61 & p. 19. 20. Hulme, Colonial Encounters, p. 142, and Philip Young, p. 177. 21. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 99. 22. Todorov, The Conquest of America, pp. 131–132. 23. Marina Warner, “Le secret: les femmes et le savoir clandestin en littérature,” in C. Zabus, ed. Le Secret: Motif et moteur de la littérature, with a foreword by Jacques Derrida (Louvain-la-Neuve: Recueil des Travaux, 1999), p. 329. Originally a paper given in English at Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: “The Se- cret: Women and Unofficial Knowledge in Literature.” 24. Jean-Baptiste Labat, Voyage aux Isles. Chronique aventureuse des Caraïbes 1693–1705 in Michel Le Bris, ed. (Paris: Editions Phébus, 1993). 25. Zabus, “Spinning a Yarn,” p. 521. 306 Tempests after Shakespeare

26. Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American, p. 75. My addition. 27. Hulme, Colonial Encounters, p. 137. 28. In Brian MacHale, Postmodernist Fiction (New York: Methuen, 1987), p. 91. 29. Stephen Slemon, “Post-Colonial Allegory,” p. 158. 30. Hulme, Colonial Encounters, p. 145. 31. Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American, p. 70. 32. Philip Young, p. 178. 33. Philip Young, p. 177. 34. See Smith’s description of the “masque” in A Map of Virginia (1612) in Works, ed. Arber, pp. 123–24. Qtd in Hulme, Colonial Encounters, p. 144, note 21. See also “Copy of John Rolfe’s Letter to Sir Thomas Dale regarding His Marriage to Pocahontas,” in Philip Barbour, Pocahontas and her World, Appendix III, pp. 247–52; and in Ralph Hamor, A True Discourse of the Pre- sent State of Virginia [1615] (Richmond: Virginia State Library, 1957), pp. 61–68. Also in Rountree, p. 59. 35. Frances Mossiker, Pocahontas: the Life and the Legend (London, 1977), pp. 84, 109–14. 36. Pocahontas featured discreetly in English letters, with an obscure refer- ence to her in Ben Jonson’s Staple of News on to Unca Eliza Winkfield’s The Female American (1767), in which the Pocahontas-Smith story is pre- dictably rebaptized the Unca-Winkfield story, and John Davis’s slightly pornographic account of a naked Pocahontas with a fully dressed Smith in his Travels of Four Years and a Half in the United States of America (1798). Needless to say, the Pocahontas story featured more prominently in American drama with a series of firsts: James Nelson Barker’s play The Indian Princess; or, la belle Sauvage (1808) and Robert Dale Owen’s play Pocahontas (1837). 37. Mary Loeffelholz, “Miranda in the New World: The Tempest and Charlotte Barnes’s The Forest Princess,” in Marianne Novy, ed., Women’s Re-Visions of Shakespeare, p. 71. 38. Loving V. Virginia, 338 U.S. [1967]. Qtd in Loeffelholz, p. 59. Note 7. 39. Qtd in Philip Young, pp. 193–194. 40. Brom Weber, ed., The Complete Poems and Selected Letters and Prose of Hart Crane (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp. 70–71. 41. Brom Weber, ed., “A Letter to Otto H. Khan,” ibid., p. 248 & p. 251. Also qtd in Fielder, The Return of the Vanishing American, p. 64 (although much less extensively). 42. Elaine Showalter, Sister’s Choice: Tradition and Change in American Women’s Writing (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 27. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 43. Nixon, p. 577. 44. See Robert Elliott Fox, The Mirrors of Caliban: The Fiction of LeRoi Jones, Ishmael Reed, and Samuel R. Delany, Ph.D. dissertation, SUNY at Buffalo, 1976. Mentioned by Henry Louis Gates, Jr., The Signifying Monkey (New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988). Notes 307

45. Elaine Showalter, “Miranda and Cassandra: the Discourse of the Feminist Intellectual,” in Florence Howe, ed. Tradition and the Talents of Women (Ur- bana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1991), pp. 311–328, p. 311. 46. Chedgzoy, p. 108. 47. Hilda Doolittle, By Avon River, p. 6 & p. 11. Qtd in Chedgzoy, p. 109. 48. Margaret Fuller, Woman in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Greely & McElrath, 1845), p. 345. 49. Douglas, p. 287. 50. The Letters of Margaret Fuller, ed. Robert N. Hudspeth (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), iii.199 n.4. Qtd in Showalter, Sister’s Choice, p. 25; and Fuller, p. 262. 51. Orgel, “Prospero’s Wife,” p. 8. 52. Showalter, “Miranda and Cassandra,” p. 344. 53. Qtd in Douglas, p. 266. 54. Kirkby, p. 91. 55. Ralph Waldo Emerson, qtd in Marie Urbanski, “Margaret Fuller’s ‘Woman in the Nineteenth-Century’: The Feminist Manifesto,” in Rhoda B. Nathan, ed., Nineteenth-Century Woman Writers of the English-Speaking World (New York: Greenwood, 1986), p. 207. Emerson’s words have been described as “spermatic” by David Leverenz, “The Politics of Emerson’s Man-Making Words,” PMLA 101 (January 1986), 34. Qtd Sister’s Choice, p. 31 & “Mi- randa and Cassandra,” p. 317. 56. Qtd in Douglas, pp. 281–282. 57. Margaret Fuller, “The Great Lawsuit: Man versus Men: Woman versus Women,” first published in The Dial 4 (July 1843), 1–47, revised the fol- lowing year into Woman in the Nineteenth Century. Qtd in Loeffelholz, p. 71. 58. Christopher P. Wilson, “Tempests and Teapots: Harriet Beecher Stowe’s The Minister’s Wooing,” New England Quarterly 58 (1985), 566–567. The page references in the quotation are to The Minister’s Wooing (Hartford: Stowe- Day Foundation, 1978). See also Forrest Wilson, Crusader in Crinoline: The Life of Harriet Beecher Stowe (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1941), esp. p. 362 about Stowe’s psychological identification with Shakespeare. 59. Marx, pp. 63–64. 60. See Joan Givner, Katherine Anne Porter: A Life (New York: Simon & Schus- ter, 1982), p. 170. See also Enrique Hank Lopez, Conversations with Kather- ine Anne Porter (Boston: Little Brown, 1981), p. 203; and Janis P. Stout, “Miranda’s Guarded Speech: Porter and the Problem of Truth-Telling,” Philological Quarterly 66 (1987), 259–78. 61. Jane De Mouy, Katherine Anne Porter’s Women: The Eye of Her Fiction (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979), p. 143. See also, more generally, Robert Penn Warren, ed., Katherine Anne Porter: A Collection of Critical Es- says (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979). 62. Miranda indeed appears by name in four of the seven short stories that make up “The Old Order” stories and in the two short novels “Old Mortality” and “Pale Horse, Pale Rider.” Showalter argues that throughout the stories Miranda 308 Tempests after Shakespeare

comes of age. It is true that she develops from “a quick, flighty little girl” in “The Witness” (pp. 355–358) to an intensely emotional individual who is ter- rified in “The Fig Tree” (pp. 367–78). Except for the name “Miranda,” these stories are not in any way connected with The Tempest. In the first of the two short novels where Miranda is named, “Old Mortality” (pp. 171–227), Mi- randa is the eight-year-old niece, along with Maria, of the gorgeous, petulant Scarlet O’Hara–like Aunt Amy. Although this story is about coming of age, this Miranda, a potential female American voter, is not connected to The Tempest by any stretch of the imagination. This is also the case with the other short novel “Pale Horse, Pale Rider” (pp. 281–332), which is set during the First World War. 63. Givner, p. 170. 64. From the introductory notes to “New Poems,” a reading prepared for the BBC Third Program but never broadcast. Qtd in Charles Newman, ed., The Art of Sylvia Plath: A Symposium (London: Faber & Faber, 1970), p. 65. Plath wrote that “in the daughter the two strains marry and paralyse each other—she has to act out the awful little allegory once over before she is free of it.” Alvarez, Plath’s editor and friend, commented that “the allegory in question was... also a fantasy of containing in herself her own dead father, like a woman possessed by a demon.” As we know, “the awful little allegory” will end up in three suicide attempts, the last one being fatal. In A. Alvarez, “Sylvia Plath: A Memoir,” in Paul Alexander, ed. Ariel Ascending: Writings About Sylvia Plath (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), pp. 185–213, p. 211. 65. Newman, p. 267. 66. Qtd in Newman, p. 60. 67. Ted Hughes, “Sylvia Plath and Her Journals,” in Alexander, p. 153. Note that Alexander’s biography of Sylvia Plath is entitled Rough Magic (New York: Penguin Viking, 1991), after Prospero’s abjuration speech. See also Sylvia Plath, “Aerialist,” Cambridge Review 90: 2187 (February 7, 1969), 245. 68. This is obvious in her revision of the Hermione-Perdita reunion at the close of The Winter’s Tale, or in the sisterly bond in “Sibling Mysteries” in The Dream of a Common Language (1978), which serves as the basis for lesbian sexuality. Peter Erickson has noted that in her later poems “gone is the Cordelia- and Miranda-like solicitousness and suffusion in ‘After Dark’.” Rich will however return to her father and his Jewish origins—the reverse of Plath’s parenthood, with a Nazi father and a Jewish mother—in a later col- lection Sources: “Rich’s recovery of her Jewish identity leads in Sources to a more modulated and sympathetic view of her father.” Peter Erickson, “Adri- enne Rich’s Re-Vision of Shakespeare,” in Novy, pp. 188–189. 69. Gloria T. Hull, “Afro-American Poets: A Bio-Critical Survey,” in Shakespeare’s Sisters: Feminist Essays on Women Poets, ed. Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), pp. 165–82, p. 165. 70. Gasper, p. 2. 71. See Robert Briffault, The Mothers (New York: Johnson Reprint, 1969), pp.433–435. Notes 309

72. Rich, Of Woman Born, p. 60. 73. Minh-Ha, p. 129. 74. Virginia Woolf, Orlando: A Biography (1928) (London: Penguin, 1993), p. 17. More largely, Woolf also saw the Elizabethan age as a zenith and James’s reign as “the Great Frost.” 75. Gloria Naylor, Mama Day (London: Vintage, 1988), p. 89. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 76. Valerie Traub, “Rainbow of Darkness: Deconstructing Shakespeare in the Work of Gloria Naylor and Zora Neale Hurston,” in Novy, p. 155. 77. Peter Erickson traces the changing status of Shakespeare from a child’s hu- morously innocent query “Shakespeare’s black?” in The Women Of Brewster Place (New York: Viking Press, 1982, p. 127), Naylor’s first novel, to the more pressing issue of “why black folks ain’t produced a Shakespeare” in Lin- den Hills (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1985), p. 282. “Shakespeare’s Changing Status in the Novels of Gloria Naylor” in Rewriting Shakespeare. Rewriting Ourselves (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 124–145. 78. Baker, p. 193. 79. Particularly 3.4.92. On the echoes from Hamlet, see James Robert Saunders, “The Ornamentation of Old Ideas,” in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., ed., Gloria Naylor. Critical Perspectives Past and Present (New York: Amistad, 1993), p. 258. Rpt. from The Hollins Critic 27 (April 1990), 1–11. For parallels with The Taming of the Shrew, see Bharati Mukkerjee, “Mama Day,” The New York Times Book Review 21 February 1988. 80. See Lindsey Tucker, “Recovering the Conjure Woman,” African American Review 28:2 (1994), 180. From an Africanist point of view, Tucker’s argu- ment about tracing the Gullah heritage to Ba-Kongo, i.e., Congolese-An- golan, customs seems problematic, as she then links these customs with Esu, the trickster of Yoruba belief, in a very inaccurate conflation of Central African and West African (i.e., Nigerian) belief systems. 81. Annis Pratt, B. White, A. Loewenstein, & M. Wyer, Archetypal Patterns in Women’s Fiction (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981), p. 11. 82. Rosemary Jackson, Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion (London & New York: Methuen, 1981), p. 46. 83. Warner, Indigo, p. 129. 84. Rich, Of Woman Born, p. 97. 85. On the ancient art of healing, see Kathleen M. Puhr, “Healers in Gloria Naylor’s Fiction,” Twentieth-Century Literature: A Scholarly and Critical Jour- nal 40:4 (Winter 1994), 518–27; and Marjorie Pryse and Hortense J. Spillers, eds., Conjuring: Black Women, Fiction and Literary Tradition (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985). 86. See Houston Baker, Jr. and Charlotte Pierce-Baker, “Patches: Quilts and Community in Alice Walker’s ‘Everyday Use,’” The Southern Review 21:3 (July 1985), 706. See also Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose (1983) (London: The Women’s Press, 1984), p. 234. 310 Tempests after Shakespeare

87. Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts’ Advice to Women (1978) (New York: Anchor Books, 1989), p. 39. See also their Witches, Midwives and Nurses: A History of Women Healers (New York: The Feminist Press, 1973). 88. Margaret Washington Creel calls “conjurers” “diviners” in “A Peculiar Peo- ple”: Slave Religion and Community-Culture Among the Gullahs (New York: New York University Press, 1988), pp. 56–58. On conjuring, see also Harry Middelton Hyatt, Hoodoo, Conjuration Witchcraft, Rootwork: Beliefs Accepted by Many Negroes and White Persons These Being Orally Recorded among Blacks and Whites (Cambridge: Western Publication Company, 1978). 89. Helen Fidldyment Levy has argued that “together, Sapphira, Cocoa, and Mama Day form a sort of woman’s trinity with mother, daughter and spirit.” In “Lead on with Light,” Fiction of the Home Place (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1992), p. 220. For a portrayal of Sapphira as a God-woman, see James Roberts Saunders, The Wayward Preacher in the Literature of African American Women (London: McFarland, 1995) and Virginia Fowler, Gloria Naylor in Search of Sanctuary (Boston: Twayne, 1993). 90. Condé, I, Tituba, p. 101. 91. Erickson, p. 141. 92. Warner, Indigo, p. 97.

Part III 1. The phrase is from Daniel T. O’Hara, “The Return to Ethics: A Report from the Front,” Boundary 24: 2 (1997), 147–148. 2. Linda Hutcheon, A Poetics of Postmodernism. History, Theory, Fiction (Lon- don: Routledge, 1988), p. 171; and Linda Hutcheon, The Politics of Post- modernism (London & New York: Routledge, 1989), p. 3. 3. Douglas, p. 6. 4. See Edwin Fussell, Frontier: American Literature and the American West (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), p. 166, and Patrick Cheney, “Poe’s Use of The Tempest and the Bible in ‘The Masque of the Red Death,’” English Language Notes 3:4 (March/June 1983), 31–39. 5. Joan Kirkby, “The American Prospero,” Southern Review (Adelaide) 18 (1995), p. 91. 6. K.M. Abenheimer, “Shakespeare’s Tempest—A Psychological Analysis,” The Psychoanalytic Review 33 (1946), 399–415. The reference is here to Carl Gustav Jung’s “The Relation of the Ego to the Unconscious” in Two Essays on Analytical Psychology (London, 1928).

Chapter 7 1. Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden. Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964), p. 72. 2. Ronald Takaki, “The Tempest in the Wilderness: The Racialization of Savagery,” The Journal of American History 79:3 (December 1992), 892–912, 892. Notes 311

3. Darko Suvin, Metamorphoses of Science Fiction: On the Poetics and History of a Literary Genre (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1979), pp. 4–5. 4. Kwame Anthony Appiah, “The Postcolonial and the Postmodern,” The Post- Colonial Studies Reader, eds. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, Helen Tiffin (Lon- don & New York: Routledge, 1995). See also his “Is the Post- in Postmodernism the Post- in Post-Colonial?” Critical Inquiry 17 (Winter 1991), 336–357. 5. Its success has to be set against the first silent film versions of The Tempest (roughly from 1905 to the beginning of the Second World War), a situation that is remedied with the development of talking pictures and the BBC/Time-Life television production. See Robert Hamilton Ball, Shake- speare on Silent Film: A Strange Eventful History (London: Allen & Unwin, 1968). A complete list of Tempest-productions is to be found in Luke Mc- Kernan & Olwen Terris’s editing of Walking Shadows: Shakespeare in the Na- tional Film and Television Archive (1994) since it lists 21 entries: The Four Feathers (GB 1939–Zoltan Corda); The Yellow Canary (GB 1943–Herbert Wilcox); A Lady Surrenders (GB 1944–Leslie Arliss); Yellow Sky (USA 1948–William A. Wellman); Forbidden Planet (USA 1956); The Tempest (GB 1956–Ian Atkins/Robert Atkins); Michael Hordern (GB 1968–Helen Standage); Age of Consent (Australia 1969–Michael Powell); The Tempest (GB 1969–Nicholas Young/David Snasdell); The Tempest or Sketches for the Tempest (GB 1974/9–George Dunning); Your National Theatre (GB 1976–Derek Bailey); The Tempest (Trailer) (GB 1979); The Tempest (GB 1979–Derek Jarman); The Tempest (GB/USA 1980–BBC Television Shake- speare–John Gorrie); The Tempest (GB 1983–Shakespeare Lives–Mary Mc- Murray); The Knot Garden (GB 1985–Derek Bailey/David Freeman); (Sir Peter Hall Directs Shakespeare’s Last Plays) (GB 1988–Chris Hunt); Peter Greenaway’s Prospero’s Books; Peter Greenaway: Anatomy of a Film-Maker (GB 1991–David Thompson); Late Show Special (GB 1992–BBC); Stormen (TV 1998). Some remakes of earlier films are loosely connected to The Tempest; to wit, the Western Yellow Sky (1948) remade as The Jackals (1967). 6. The Krel can be compared to the intellectual but passive Metalunians who happen to be, as is unusual in sci-fi, friendly aliens in This Island Earth (1955; dir. Joseph Newman; 86 min), itself based on The Alien Machine (1947; dir. Raymond F. Jones), a full-blooded opera complete with inter- planetary warfare and bug-eyed monsters. I have used the orthography of the collective “Krel” as in the film’s credits except when quoting from critics like Telotte, who use the alternative spelling of “Krell.” 7. Fred McLeod Wilcox, dir. Forbidden Planet (1956) (MGM), 98 min. Dr. Morbius is played by Walter Pidgeon; Altaira by Anne Francis; and Com- mander Adams by Leslie Nielsen. All excerpts are indicated within quotation marks in the text. 8. J. P. Telotte, “Science Fiction in Double Focus: Forbidden Planet,” Film Crit- icism 13:3 (Spring 1989), 34. 9. George E. Slusser & Eric S. Rabkin, eds., Shadows of the Magic Lamp: Fan- tasy and Science Fiction in Film (Carbondale & Edwardsville: Southern Illi- nois University Press, 1985), pp. 68–69. 312 Tempests after Shakespeare

10. Suvin, p. 99. 11. In Stella Bruzzi, “Space Looks,” Sight and Sound (September 1995), 10–11. 12. Peter Biskind, Seeing is Believing: How Hollywood Taught Us to Stop Worrying and Love the Fifties (London: Pluto Press, 1984), p. 106. Already the first robot films, dating as early as 1907, such as The Mechanical Statue and the In- genious Servant and its sequel Work Made Easy could be construed as adver- tising new technology for housewives. See also Nels Anderson, The Urban Community (New York: Holt Dryden, 1959), p. 241, and C. White, Women’s Magazines 1963–1968 (London: Michael Joseph, 1970), p. 73 (“I shop there- fore I am” is Barbara Kruger’s slogan for Cosmopolitan and Goodhousekeeping). 13. Phil Hardy, ed., Science Fiction: The Aurum Film Encyclopedia (London: Aurum Press, 1984), entry on Forbidden Planet, p. 170. Forbidden Planet may indeed have been mounted as a “juvenile offspring,” which is presum- ably why Wilcox, whose first film was Lassie Come Home (1943), was as- signed to direct it. Robby was so successful that producer Nicholas Nayfack quit MGM, set up his own company, Pan Productions, and persuaded Cyril Hume to fashion a screenplay from Edmund Cooper’s short story “The In- visible Boy.” The film (90 min. 1957. Herman Hoffman) featured Robby the Robot in a central role. 14. Trip to Melonia (1989); trans. from Resan Till Melonia; script by Per Ahlin, co-produced with Pennfilm Studio, Swedish Film Institute, Sandrews, Filmhuset, Norsk Films, Swedish TV2, Skrivstugan, Laskonsten. 15. Telotte is here referring to Maximillian E. Novak in Defoe and the Nature of Man (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 115. 16. See Tim Youngs, “Cruising Against the Id,” Constellation Caliban: Figura- tions of a Character, eds. Nadia Lee & Theo d’Haen (Amsterdam & Atlanta: Rodopi, 1997), p. 225. 17. In “Simulacra and Simulations,” Jean Baudrillard: Selected Writings, ed. Mark Poster (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1988), p. 166. 18. Leslie A. Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American (London: Paladin, 1968), pp. 41–42; and Stephen J. Greenblatt, Learning to Curse: Essays in Early Modern Culture (New York & London: Routledge, 1990), p. 22. From Leslie Fiedler to the Vaughans, the construction of Caliban as a Red Man certainly gets support. Moreover, as G. Wilson Knight has argued, in his identification with animal and elemental life and his extra-sensory perceptions, Caliban comes close to the Indians’ superlative visionary experiences, “atmospheric voices, songs and music, and, above all... Dreams,” which they reportedly honored. In G. Wilson Knight, “Caliban as a Red Man,” in Harold Bloom, ed., Caliban (New York, Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 1992), pp. 179–191, p. 187. Wilson Knight links Caliban’s “celestial liquor” (2.2.112) to the European whisky, which the Indians called “fire-water” and Prospero’s “sorcery” to gunpowder and European technology, in general. 19. Mark Rose, Alien Encounters. Anatomy of Science Fiction (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 177–178. Notes 313

20. Jean-Jacques Hamm, “Caliban, Friday and their Masters,” in Robinson Cru- soe: Myths and Metamorphoses, eds. L. Spaas & B. Stimson (London: Macmil- lan Press, 1996), p. 116. 21. Sigmund Freud, “Dissection of the Personality” in New Introductory Lectures; trans. from Vorlesungen Zur Einfuhrung in die Psychanalyse (1933); The Com- plete Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, trans. and ed. James Strachey (London: Allen & Unwin, 1971). 22. D.O. Mannoni, Prospero and Caliban: The Psychology of Colonization (1956) (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990), p. 21. My emphasis. 23. Pat Kane, “The Good, the Bad and the Ugly,” The Sunday Times 8 May 1994, Section 10 (Culture), 9. 24. Biskind, p. 108. 25. Sigmund Freud, “The Ego and the Id” in A. Richards, ed., On Metapsychol- ogy. The Theory of Psychoanalysis (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1991), pp. 363–364; and Carl Gustav Jung, “The Relation of the Ego to the Un- conscious,” in Two Essays on Analytical Psychology (1943 & 1945) (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1953); trans. R. F. C. Hull in The Collected Works of G. C. Jung, eds. Sir Herbert Read et al, Vol. 7. See also Edmund Bergler, The Superego: Unconscious Conscience. The Key to the Theory and Therapy of Neurosis (New York: Gruwe & Stratton, 1952), p. 118. 26. Sigmund Freud, “Civilization and Its Discontents,” in Civilization, Society and Religion, ed. A. Dickson (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991), pp. 286–87. 27. Margaret Tarratt, “ Monsters from the Id,” Films and Filming (Dec. 1970), 17: 3, 39. See also Carlos Clarens, Horror Movies: An Illustrated Survey (New York: Secker & Warburg), n.d. The Id-monster owes its material existence to the then top Disney animator, Joshua Meador, to whom we also owe the scenes of Robby the Robot short-circuiting and the piece of fruit disinte- grating in the activated disposal unit. 28. Kenneth S. Rothwell and Annabelle Melzer, Shakespeare on Screen: An Inter- national Filmography and Videography (New York: Neal Schuman, 1990), p. 284. Qtd in Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 203. 29. Pete Boss, “Altair IV Revisited: Forbidden Planet (1956),” Movie (Winter 1990), 64. 30. Qtd in Terry Staples, “What if... ?” National Film Theatre Notes, Novem- ber 1985. The genesis of the Id-monster emanated from a collective will to move away from the usual type of sci-fi film “that depends upon everybody being frightened by a BEM, a jokey term used by SF writers, standing for ‘bug-eyed monster.’” Science fiction’s BEMS and menaces from Outer Space right down to the supremely unscientific appellative “the thing” all emanate, to Suvin, from the xenobiological paradigm set by H. G. Wells (Suvin, p. 229). 31. Krishan Kumar, Utopia and Anti-Utopian Modern Times (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987), p. 404. 314 Tempests after Shakespeare

32. For instance, Pete Boss has remarked that “Altaira is presented as being out- side the codes which conventionally define a woman’s role and sexuality within patriarchy” (60–61) whereas Benjamin Shapiro, while conceding Alta’s unawareness of the dangerous sexual power she wields over man and beast, ascribes the ensuing troubles to her “as a naive, but powerful, locus of sexuality.” See Benjamin Shapiro, “Universal Truths: Cultural Myths and Generic Adaptation in 1950s Science Fiction Films,” Journal of Popular Film and Television (Fall 1990), 109. 33. Slusser & Rabkin, p. 23. 34. Tarratt, p. 39. 35. Patrick Lucanio, Them or Us: Archetypal Interpretations of Fifties Alien Invasion Films (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1987), p. 89. 36. Maureen Duffy, The Erotic World of Faery (London: Cardinal, 1989), p. 351. Tarratt also comments that in such films as Christian Nyby’s The Thing from Another World (1951) and Nathan Juran’s 20 Million Miles to Earth (1957), “the women are almost asexual figures of Arthurian romance, offering them- selves to the knight once he has slain the beast.” 37. Slusser & Rabkin, p. 42. 38. Ado Kyrov, “Science and Fiction” in Focus on the Science-Fiction Film, ed. William Johnson (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972), p. 93. 39. Peter Hitchcock makes an interesting distinction between “the gaze (domi- nant)” and “ the look (solidarity)” and suggests that “gaze” connotes “eyes that gaze at me in dominance” vs. “look,” which can be deciphered as “a re- sponse in the sense of ‘looking back,’ of challenge.” Qtd in “The Eye and the Other,” in O. Nnaemeka, ed., The Politics of (M)Othering: Womanhood, Identity, and Resistance in African Literature (London & New York: Rout- ledge, 1997), pp. 70–71. 40. Laura Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” Screen 16:3 (1975); rpt in Bill Nichols, ed. Movies and Methods II: An Anthology (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 305–315, p. 309. See also her own “Afterthoughts on ‘Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema’ Inspired by Duel in the Sun,” Framework 15–17 (1981), 12–15. Toril Moi speaking of Luce Irigaray in her Sexual/Textual Politics (1985) reminds the reader that “Freud’s own texts, particularly ‘The Uncanny,’ theorize the gaze as a phal- lic activity linked to the anal desire for sadistic mastery of the object” (134). Teresa de Lauretis explores “imaging” as “the discontinuous process of per- ceiving-representing-meaning” in the second chapter of her Alice Doesn’t (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1984), pp. 37–69. 41. Alta is also a child-woman before her time since the short-skirted, ever so thin model Twiggy appeared in the late sixties. She also augurs the cult-film Barbarella (1968), in which a scantly dressed Jane Fonda plays the part of the queen of the Galaxy, a space-age zero-gravity adventuress in the year 40,000. Although in her discovery of sex through her meeting with ex- traterrestrials, she recalls Alta in her meeting with terrestrials, Barbarella’s mission is to save the world from mad scientist Durand. More likely, Alta is Notes 315

the epitome of the good daughter and blonde model embodied by the Fifties actress Sandra Dee, who made her film debut as the famous teenage star in Until They Sail (1957), followed by sugary soap operas and beach movies. Alta is Sandra Dee–in-space. In a movie like Grease (R. Tigwood & A. Carr, Paramount Pictures, 1978), Sandra Dee is played by actress Olivia Newton John (Sandy) and is directly referred to in the song (by Stockard Chan- ning)—“Look at me I’m Sandra Dee.” In the scene in Forbidden Planet, Alta’s message, when wearing the skimpy dress, is “Look at me, I’m Alta,” (altered me). 42. Aldous Huxley, “Preface” to Brave New World (London: Chatto & Windus, 1972), p. 10. 43. Tarratt, p. 42. 44. Jane Caputi, The Age of Sex Crime (Bowling Green: State University Popular Press, 1987), p. 179. 45. Susan Sontag, “The Imagination of Disaster,” in Mark Rose, ed., Science Fic- tion: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1976), pp. 116–131, p. 119. Originally from Against Interpretation by Susan Sontag (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 1966), pp. 209–25. 46. Bruzzi, p. 11. 47. Marvin Minsky, The Society of Mind (London: Heinemann, 1987), passim. As Alan Garnham argues, “there remains, also, the possibility of machines that are both more intelligent than us and more autonomous than present- day computers. They might act in ways that we can neither understand nor control.” In Artificial Intelligence: An Introduction (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1988), pp. 233–234. However, Forbidden Planet shares with its immediate predecessor This Island Earth (1955; dir. Joseph Newman), the premise that “man’s prowess with atomic power can be used beneficially.” In Hardy, Science Fiction, p. 154. 48. Phyllis Gotlieb, O Master Caliban! (New York: Harper & Row; Toronto: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1976), p. 6. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 49. Bryan Loughrey and Neil Taylor, “Ferdinand and Miranda at Chess,” Shake- speare Survey 35 (1982), 115. See also Robert Adams, Shakespeare: the Four Romances (New York: W.W. Norton, 1989), p. 142. Note that in Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner (1982), the game of chess between an invincible scien- tist, in his bedroom at the top of Tyrell Building, and his own creature ends with the creature checking the King. See Nigel Wheale, “Recognizing a ‘Human-Think’: Cyborgs, Robots, and Replicants in P. K. Dick’s Do An- droids Dream of Electric Sheep? and R. Scott’s Blade Runner,” in The Post- modern Arts, ed. Nigel Wheale (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 204–222. 50. Brydon, “Re-Writing The Tempest,” p. 83. 51. René Barjavel, La tempête (Paris: Denoël, 1985), p. 13. All translations from the French are my own. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 52. Paul Voermans, And Disregards the Rest (London: Victor Gollancz, 1992), p. 7 & p. 9. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 316 Tempests after Shakespeare

53. Brian McHale, “Science Fiction,” in International Postmodernism: Theory and Literary Practice, eds. Hans Bertens & Douwe Fokkema (Amsterdam/Philadel- phia: John Benjamins, 1997), pp. 235–239, p. 237; and his “POSTcyber- MODERNpunkISM,” in Storming the Reality Studio, ed. Larry McCaffery (Durham & London: Duke University Press, 1991), pp. 308–23. To wit, the special issue (16:2–3) of Mississippi Review (1988), “The Cyberpunk Contro- versy,” ed. Larry McCaffery; the special issue on “Science Fiction and Post- modernism” (18:3) of Science Fiction Studies (1991); and Larry McCaffery, ed., Storming the Reality Studio: A Casebook of Cyberpunk and Postmodern Science Fiction (Durham & London: Duke University Press, 1991). 54. This is reported by Elaine Showalter, Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Culture (London: Picador, 1997), p. 3. 55. See, for example, John E. Mack, Abduction: Human Encounters with Aliens (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994); C. D. B. Bryan, Close Encounters of the Fourth Kind: Alien Abduction, UFOs, and the Conference at MIT (New York: Knopf, 1995); and Leith Thompson, Angels and Aliens: UFOs and the Mythic Imagination (New York: Random House, 1991). All three books are discussed in Showalter, Hystories, pp. 189–201. 56. See Rosemary Jackson, p. 3. I use the term “fantasy” as a human attribute and as an element of the fantastic genre. This is the position of Jacqueline Held (L’imaginaire au pouvoir [Paris: Editions ouvrières, 1971]) and Todorov as opposed to Jackson and Rabkin, who consider fantasy as a genre and the fantastic, respectively as a literary mode or a whole of structural properties.

Chapter 8 1. Pete Boss, “Altair IV Revisited: Forbidden Planet (1956),” Movie (Winter 1990), p. 64. 2. Jackson defines fantasy as “a literature of desire” (p. 3). 3. The phrase is from Teresa de Lauretis, Alice Doesn’t (Bloomington & Indi- anapolis : Indiana University Press, 1984), p. 58. 4. Rachel Ingalls, Mrs. Caliban and Other Stories (1982) (London & Boston: Faber & Faber, 1993), p. 13. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 5. Tzvetan Todorov, The Fantastic (Cleveland, Ohio/London: The Press of Case Western Reserve University, 1973), p. 25; and Jackson, p. 32. Incidentally, the Uncanny is the English translation of Freud’s 1919 essay Das Unheimliche. 6. Todorov, Fantastic, p. 25. 7. Jackson, p. 49. 8. Homi K. Bhabha, “Of Mimicry and Man: the Ambivalence of Colonial Dis- course,” October (1984), 125–133. 9. Andrew Tudor, Monsters and Mad Scientists. A Cultural History of the Horror Movie (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), pp. 115–116. 10. In Brian Ash, ed., The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (New York: Har- mony Books, 1977), p. 91. Illustration by van Dongen. The Amphibian Man (1928) is by the Russian Alexander Belyaev. Eric Frank Russell is better Notes 317

known for Sinister Barrier (1967); Men, Martians and Machines (1985); With a Strange Device (1989); Deep Space (1989); and Great Explosion (1996). 11. The Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954). Dir. Jack Arnold; prod. William Alland; Script Harry Essex, Arthur Ross. For more detail, see David Wingrove, ed., Science Fiction: Film Source Book, foreword by Brian W. Ald- iss (London: Longman, 1985), pp. 59–60. See also L. Wright, Yesterday’s To- morrows; The Golden Age of SF Movie Posters (Dallas: Taylor Company, 1993), esp. p. 136 & p. 140. It Came from Beneath the Sea (Clover 1955–77 min.), dir. Robert Gordon; prod. Charles H. Schneer; script George Wor- thington Yates; special effects by Ray Harryhousen, who had done the ani- mation for The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953). The film stars an animated octopus, which wrathfully invades San Francisco and is finally de- stroyed by an atomic torpedo. See Hardy, Science Fiction, pp. 152–154. 12. M. Bragg, “The Hulk’s Gal,” Punch 282:7368 (February 3, 1982), 201. The Vaughans also argue that Larry is a monster and “simultaneously a fetus; both are figments of the heroine’s starved libido” (Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 3). 13. Jackson, p. 19. 14. Reuben Brower, “The Tempest,” in Leonard Fellows Dean, ed., Shakespeare: Modern Essays in Criticism (London: Oxford University Press, 1957), p. 466. 15. David Cowart, “Fantasy and Reality in Mrs. Caliban,” Critique, 30:2 (Win- ter 1989), 77–83, 83. See also Lee Upton, “Mourning Monsters: Deception and Transformation in Rachel Ingalls’ Fiction,” Critique: Studies in Contem- porary Fiction 33:1 (Fall 1991), 53–61. Cowart’s reference is to Anne Sexton, Transformations (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 94. For an analysis, see Caroline King Barnard Hall, Anne Sexton (Boston: Twayne, 1989), pp. 106–108. 16. I Married a Monster from Outer Space (1958), dir. and prod. Gene Fowler Jr; script Louis Vittes. In Hardy, Science Fiction, p. 181. 17. For a critique of Markby, see Pat Kane, p. 9. 18. Jackson, p. 100. 19. The Creature Walks Among Us (1956); dir. John Sherwood; prod. William Al- land; script Arthur Ross. See Hardy, Science Fiction, p. 156. 20. William C. McCall, “A Note on Mrs. Caliban” in Notes on Contemporary Lit- erature 18 (May 1988), 6. 21. Theo D’Haen, “The Tempest, Now and Twenty Years After,” in Constellation Caliban: Figurations of a Character, eds. Nadia Lie & Theo D’Haen (Ams- terdam & Atlanta: Rodopi, 1997), p. 324. 22. Russell Hoban, “Some Episodes in the History of Miranda and Caliban: An Entertainment in Two Acts with Music by Helen Roe,” in The Moment under the Moment (1992) (London: Picador in collaboration with Jonathan Cape, 1993), p. 83. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. The text can be compared to Robert Coover’s “Pricksongs and Descants”(1971), which, incidentally, also makes use of The Tempest. Coover uses the “des- cant,” i.e., “a form of music in which there is a cantus firmus, a basic line, 318 Tempests after Shakespeare

and variations that the other voices play against.” In Richard Andersen, Robert Coover (Boston: Twayne, 1981), p. 83. 23. Cartelli, “Prospero in Africa,” p. 112. 24. Tad Williams, Caliban’s Hour (London: Legend Books, 1994), p. 7. Here- after page numbers are indicated in the text. 25. Katherine Collen King, “Go to Hell, Sycorax,” English Language Notes 27:4 (June 1990), 1–3, 1. See Stephen Orgel, ed. The Oxford Shakespeare: The Tempest, p. 19, note 1. 26. Stephen Orgel, “Introduction” to The Oxford Shakespeare: The Tempest, p. 15. 27. Suleri, p. 273. 28. Wynter, p. 259.

Chapter 9 1. John Fowles, The Aristos (London: Pan Books, 1964), p. 56. See Roy Mack Hill, “Power and Hazard: John Fowles’s Theory of Play,” Journal of Modern Literature 8:2 (1980–81), 213; and Ellen McDaniel, “Games and Godgames in The Magus and The French Lieutenant’s Woman,” Modern Fiction Studies 31:1 (Spring 1985), 31–42. 2. Fowles, Aristos, p. 42. 3. Peter Conradi, John Fowles (London & New York: Methuen, 1982), p. 27. 4. John Fowles, The Collector (1963) (London: Pan Books, 1986), p. 39. Here- after page numbers are indicated in the text. 5. Conradi, p. 32. 6. Fowles, Aristos, p. 158. 7. Antonia S. Byatt, Possession: A Romance (London: Vintage, 1990), p. 231. 8. Conradi, p. 36. 9. See Ann Thompson, “‘Miranda, Where’s Your Sister?’: Reading Shake- speare’s The Tempest,” in Susan Sellers, ed. & Introd., Linda Hutcheon, ed., Paul Perron, ed., Feminist Criticism: Theory and Practice (Toronto: Univer- sity of Toronto Press, 1991), p. 49. 10. Bryan Loughrey & Neil Taylor, “Ferdinand and Miranda at Chess,” Shake- speare Survey 35 (1982), p. 117. 11. See, for instance, Andreas Huyssen, After the Great Divide: Modernism, Mass Culture, Postmodernism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986); and Fredric Jameson, “Postmodernism, or The Cultural Logic of Late Capital- ism,” New Left Review 146 (July-August 1984), 53–94, esp. 54–55; and his “Postmodernism and Consumer Society,” in Postmodernism and Its Discon- tents: Theories, Practices, ed. Ann E. Kaplan (London & New York: Verso, 1988), esp. p. 14. Both Jameson and Huyssen argue that postmodernism is characterized by the collapse of hierarchical distinctions between high and low art, between “official” high culture and popular or mass culture. 12. Fowles, The Aristos, p. 178. 13. John Fowles, The Magus: A Revised Version (1977) (London: Picador, 1988), p. 458. The first version was published in England by Jonathan Cape in Notes 319

1966. I will however only use the “Revised Version.” Hereafter page num- bers are indicated in the text. 14. Robert Scholes, Fabulation and Metafiction (Urbana, Chicago & London: University of Illinois Press, 1979), p. 39. 15. Fowles, Aristos, pp. 9–10. 16. Many Shakespeare scholars hold such a position. See, for instance, Kenneth Pickering, “The Tempest” by William Shakespeare (London: Macmillan, 1986), p. 69. 17. Iris Murdoch, The Sea, the Sea (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978), p. 39 & p. 186; p. 240; p. 104 & p. 450. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 18. Scholes, p. 40. See also The Magus, where Nicholas is diagnosed as having regressed “into the infantile state of frustrated self-gratification” (p. 510). 19. John Fowles, The French Lieutenant’s Woman (London: Jonathan Cape, 1969), p. 467. 20. Fowles, The Magus, p. 404. 21. For more detail, see Inga-Stina Ewbank, “The Tempest and After,” Shake- speare Survey 43 (1991), 110. 22. Isak Dinesen (Karen Blixen), “Tempests” in Anecdotes of Destiny (1958) (London: Penguin, 1986), p. 74. 23. Dinesen, “Tempests,” p. 108. 24. In An Unofficial Rose (1962), Miranda attempts to practice magic by the seashore and, on two occasions, exclaims “O brave New World,” while her cousin is directly compared to Caliban, and her father and his mistress are set free “like Prospero and Ariel” by the witch-like Emma; and in A Fairly Honourable Defeat (1970), Ariel’s song “Full fathom five” is quoted. See Robert Hoskins, “Iris Murdoch’s Midsummer Nightmare,” Twentieth-Cen- tury Literature 18 (July 1972), 191–198. 25. Deborah Johnson, Iris Murdoch in Key Women Writers, ed. Sue Roe (Bloom- ington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1987), p. 61. Hannah in The Unicorn (1963) is also incarcerated. 26. Jackson, p. 96. 27. A discussion of Buddhism in The Sea, the Sea is to be found in Elizabeth Dipple, Iris Murdoch: Work for the Spirit (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 277–305. See also Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, Dreams, Il- lusion and Other Realities (Delhi: Motilal Barnasidass, 1987), p. 296 (for a definition of “Maya”) and Richard C. Kane, Iris Murdoch, Muriel Spark, and John Fowles: Didactic Demons in Modern Fiction (Rutherford, New Jer- sey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1988). More generally, see The Tibetan Book of the Dead, ed. W. Y. Evans-Wentz (London: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1960). 28. Gary Shapiro, ed., “Introduction” to After the Future: Postmodern Times and Places (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990), p. xvii. 29. Iris Murdoch, “The Sublime and the Beautiful Revisited,” Yale Review 49 (1959), 254. 320 Tempests after Shakespeare

30. Harry Mullisch, Last Call, trans. from Hoogste Tijd (1985) by Adrienne Dixon (London: Penguin, 1987), p. 22. Hereafter page numbers are indi- cated in the text. 31. Qtd in Simon Shepherd, “Shakespeare’s Private Drawer: Shakespeare and Homosexuality” in The Shakespeare Myth, ed. Graham Holderness (Man- chester: Manchester University Press, 1988), pp. 96–117, p. 96. “Hom- intern,” as used by W. H. Auden in the 1964 edition of the Sonnets, is modeled after the “Comintern” or Communist International. See also Jonathan Dollimore, “Shakespeare Understudies, the Sodomite, the Prosti- tute, the Transvestite and their Critics,” in Dollimore & Sinfield, eds., Polit- ical Shakespeare, pp. 129–153. 32. Qtd in Jackie Stacey, “Promoting Normality: Section 28 and the Regulation of Sexuality,” Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, eds. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: Harper, 1992), p. 285 (my italics). See Philip Osment, “Finding Room on the Agenda for Love: A History of Gay Sweatshop,” in Gay Sweatshop (London: Methuen Drama, 1989), p. xii. 33. Derek Jarman, Queer Edward II (London: British Film Institute, 1991). 34. Philip Osment, “This Island’s Mine,” in Gay Sweatshop: Four Plays and a Company, intro. & ed. Philip Osment (London: Methuen Drama, 1989), p. 86. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. For a critical interro- gation of the ramifications of cultural representations of gay men and AIDS in the United States in the 1980s, see David Román, “Performing All Our Lives: AIDS, Performance, Community.” In Critical Theory and Perfor- mance, eds. Janelle G. Reinelt & Joseph R. Roach (Ann Arbor: the Univer- sity of Michigan Press, 1992), pp. 208–221. 35. Butler, Bodies, p. 233. 36. Stacey, p. 289. 37. The phrase is from Nicholson Baker, “Lost Youth,” London Review of Books, 9 June 1994, p. 6. See also Monique Wittig’s concept of the “straight mind” in The Straight Mind and Other Essays (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester, 1992), p. 28. 38. Susan Sontag, AIDS and Its Metaphors (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990), p. 51. 39. Ian Lucas, Impertinent Decorum (London: Cassell, 1994), p. 115. 40. For more detail, see Barbara Hodgdon, “The Prosper-ing of the American Mind, or Culture in the Ma(s)king,” Essays in Theatre 9:2 (May 1991), 114. 41. See Susan Bennett, “Rehearsing The Tempest, Directing the Post-Colonial Body: Disjunctive Identity in Philip Osment’s This Island’s Mine,” Essays in Theatre/Etudes théâtrales 15:1 (November 1996), 36. See also her Performing Nostalgia, pp. 148–149; and her Theatre Audiences: A Theory of Production and Reception (2nd ed.) (London: Routledge, 1997), esp. “Spectatorship Across Culture,” pp. 166–204. 42. Qtd in Roy Grundmann, “History and the Gay Viewfinder: An interview with Derek Jarman,” Cineaste 18:4, 24. 43. Butler, Bodies, p. 233. Notes 321

44. “Britain Scraps Caribbean Islands’ Anti-gay Laws,” The Guardian Weekly 164: 3, January 11–17, 2001. 45. Stephen Slemon, “Modernism’s Last Post,” in Ian Adam & Helen Tiffin, eds., Past the Last Post (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1990), p. 3. 46. Nisha and Michael Walling, Toufann: A Mauritian Fantasy (London: Border Crossings, 1999), Translator’s Note, p. 4. Originally Dev Virahsawmy, Toufann: Enn Fantazi Antrwa Ak (pou William Shakespeare ak Françoise Lionnet) (Mauri- tius: La Sentinelle/Boukié Banané, 1991), MS. Hereafter page numbers are in- dicated in the text. 47. See Roshmi Mooneeram, “Prospero’s Island Revisited. Dev Virahsawmy’s Toufann,” Kunapipi 21:1 (1999), 19. Mooneeram speaks of the “lovely cou- ple” as engaged in “an alternative relationship.” More generally, see also Sawkat M. Toorawa, “Strange Bedfellows? Mauritian Writers and Shake- speare, “ Wasafiri 30 (Autumn 1999), 27–31. 48. Alan Sinfield, “Diaspora and Hybridity : Queer Identities and the Ethnicity Model,” Textual Practice 10:2 (1996), 271–293, 280 & 281. See Michael Warner, ed., Fear of a Queer Planet (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1993), p. xvii.

Chapter 10 1. Susan Bennett, “Rehearsing The Tempest, Directing the Post-Colonial Body: Disjunctive Identity in Philip Osment’s This Island’s Mine,” Essays in Theatre/Etudes théâtrales 15:1 (November 1996), 42. 2. Bennett, pp. 41–42, my italics. 3. John Collick, Shakespeare, Cinema and Society (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), pp. 102–103. John Collick has argued that Jarman’s version of The Tempest is part of the same artistic tradition as the Shakespeare films of Orson Welles, most notably Othello (1955). But Welles’s Shakespearean oeuvre has little in common with Jarman’s Tempest or any of his other Shakespeare movies, except that both directors can be seen to embody independent movie-making on the periphery of mainstream film production. 4. Martin Sutton, “‘I like to create the unreal... ’: Interview with Derek Jar- man,” Time Out 2.5.1980, 33. 5. Interview with Toyah Willcox in Notebook (containing early treatment notes) by Derek Jarman, British Film Institute Archives, Item # 24, p. 19 & pp. 8–9. The Notebook bears on The Tempest (1979) produced by Guy Ford and Mordecai Schreiber; adapted for the screen by Derek Jarman. For an ex- tensive survey of cuts and changes, see Walter Coppedge, “Derek Jarman’s The Tempest,” in Creative Screenwriting 5:2 (1998), 12–15. 6. Notebook, Item # 22, p. 2. 7. On the interrelation between postmodernism and cyberpunk, see Veronica Hollinger, “Cybernetic Deconstructions: Cyberpunk and Postmodernism,” Mosaic 23:2 (Spring 1990), 29–43. 322 Tempests after Shakespeare

8. See Jacqueline Latham, “The Tempest and King James’s ‘Daemonologie,’” Shakespeare Survey 28 (1975), 117–23; and Frances A. Yates, “Prospero and Some Contemporaries,” in D. J. Palmer, ed., Shakespeare: The Tempest: A Casebook (London: Macmillan, 1968), pp. 175–183. On John Dee, see also Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 82. Jarman describes John Dee’s Monas Hieroglyph- ica as symbolizing both “the unity of spirit and matter” in Dancing Ledge (London: Quartet Books, 1984), p. 88. 9. Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 210. 10. Collick, p. 99. 11. See A. Lynne Magnusson, “Interruption in The Tempest,” Shakespeare Quar- terly 37:1 (Spring 1986), 52–66. 12. Sutton, p. 33. 13. In David Suchet, “Caliban in The Tempest,” in Philip Brockbank, ed., Play- ers of Shakespeare (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 171 & p. 179. 14. P. Barker, “The Bard Weathers the Storm,” Evening News 8/5/1980; and P. French, “Such Camp as Dreams are made On,” The Observer 4/5/1980. See also Derek Jarman, Dancing Ledge, p. 202. 15. See Paul Brown, p. 58. On class-consciousness in Renaissance England, see Christopher Hill, “The Many-Headed Monster in Late Tudor and Early Stuart Political Thinking” in From the Renaissance to the Counter-Reforma- tion. Essays in Honor of Garrett Mattingly, ed., Charles H. Carter (New York, 1965), pp. 296–324. 16. See, for example, David Robinson, “A Tempest Full of Magic and Surprises,” The Times Friday 2/5/1980. 17. Notebook, Item # 14; Film treatment, dated 1978, p. 4. For a commentary on this scene, see also David Hirst, The Tempest: Text and Performance (Lon- don: Macmillan, 1984), p. 55. 18. Bennett, Performing Nostalgia, p. 142. 19. The exact proportions, meticulously measured by Marvin Spevack, are Pros- pero 29.309 percent, Caliban 8.393 percent, Stephano 8.137 percent, and Ariel 7.888 percent; “each of the other characters has less than 7.5% of the text’s words.” In Marvin Spevack, A Complete and Systematic Concordance to the Works of Shakespeare, 9 vols. (Hildesheim, Germany: Georg Olms, 1968–80), Vol. I, pp. 36–62. The other characters’ percentages, according to Spevack, are Gonzalo 7.221, Miranda 6.242, Antonio 6.167, Ferdinand 6.098, and Trinculo 5.088. Qtd in Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 7 & note 10. 20. Hutcheon, Poetics of Postmodernism, p. 42. 21. “Heterosoc” is “heterosexual society” in Derek Jarman, At Your Own Risk. A Saint’s Testament (London: Vintage, 1993). 22. For an account of the canonization, see Lucas, pp. 170–176 ; and At Your Own Risk, p. 117. 23. Most notably, Sonnets 27, 29, 30, 43, 53, 55, 56, 57, 61, 90, 94, 104, 126, 148. “In The Angelic Conversation, he wanted to restore the feminine ele- ment sometimes lacking in gay films, and so made a beautifully poetic film Notes 323

conjuring up the romantic feelings between two young men on a summer afternoon. It was even accused of ‘coming close to a homosexual version of heterosexual kitsh’—an unfair comment more appropriate for Sebastiane.” In Jonathan Hacker and David Price, Take 10. Contemporary British Direc- tors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 236. 24. See Shepherd, p. 96; and Vaughan & Vaughan, pp. 177–221. See also Carl Miller, Stages of Desire: Gay Theatre’s Hidden History (London: Cassell, 1996), pp. 125–136 (on Antonio). 25. See Stephen Orgel, Impersonations: The Performance of Gender in Shake- speare’s England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp.102–104; and Marjorie Garber, Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing and Cul- tural Anxiety (London: Routledge, 1992), esp. p. 32. 26. Wayne R. Dynes, “Camp,” in Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, ed. Wayne R. Dynes (New York: Garland, 1990), p. 189. For a history of the development of gay camp, see Michael Bronski, Culture Clash: the Making of Gay Sensi- bility (Boston: South End Press, 1984). 27. For more detail, see Sue-Ellen Case, “Toward a Butch-Femme Aesthetic,” in Making a Spectacle: Feminist Essays on Contemporary Women’s Theatre (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1989), pp. 282–299. On drag- queens and interesting etymological speculations on “drag,” see Judy Grahn, Another Mother Tongue: Gay Words, Gay Worlds (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984), pp. 95–96. Grahn sees the modern drag queen “like the king’s jester without the king, some theatrical combination of the Fool, the Hanged Man, and the Empress all rolled into one and without a true territory.” Grahn sees the very word “drag” as a throwback to slang for “coach” or “cart,” used in early European festivities. In its most historic sense, being “in drag” is a reference to cross-dressing during New Year’s processions when the Fool’s King, a female queen god, or the goat-king Puck was pulled in a cart. 28. Susan Sontag, “Notes on ‘Camp’” (1964) in Against Interpretation, p. 275. 29. Philip Core, Camp: The Lie That Tells the Truth (London: Plexus, 1984), p. 9. 30. Martyn Auty, “The Tempest,” Monthly Film Bulletin 47:555 (April 1980), 78–79. 31. Butler, Bodies, pp. 235–236. 32. Kate Davy, “Fe/male Impersonation: The Discourse of Camp,” Critical The- ory and Performance, eds. Janelle G. Reinelt and Joseph R. Roach (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1992), p. 245. See also Peter Ack- royd, Transvestism and Drag: the History of an Obsession (London: Thames & Hudson, 1979). 33. Vaughan & Vaughan, p. 6. 34. For an account of the OutRage! demonstrations outside Bow Street Police stations in London (infamous for its connections with the trial of Oscar Wilde), see “A Row of Pink Tents” in Lucas, pp. 111–113. 35. Honey Glass, “Queer,” Sight and Sound 10 (1997), 38. 36. Notebook # 13. Kate Chedgzoy deems that “this celebratory recuperation of the black woman could be questioned as a tokenistic confirmation of the 324 Tempests after Shakespeare

mythicized status of black women in Shakespeare’s play, Jarman’s film and the cultures which produced both.” In Chedgzoy, p. 204. 37. Collick, p. 106. 38. Hodgdon, p. 105. 39. Fowles, The Magus, p. 99. 40. Paul Mazursky and Leon Capetanos, A Screenplay: Tempest (New York: Per- forming Arts Journal Publications, 1982), p. 9. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. 41. Suvin, p. 97. 42. F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby (1926) (London: Penguin, 1950), p. 171. 43. Raymond Carney, American Dreaming: The Films of John Cassavettes and The American Experience (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), p. 3. See also Raymond Carney, The Films of John Cassavettes: Prag- matism, Modernism and the Movies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 44. Carney, p. 303. 45. Colin MacCabe, “A Post-National European Cinema: A Consideration of Derek Jarman’s The Tempest and Edward II” in Duncan Petrie, ed., Screening Europe: Image and Identity in Contemporary European Cinema (London: British Film Institute, 1992), p. 9. 46. Jonathan Romney, “Prospero’s Books: Contract Terminated,” Sight and Sound 1:5 (September 1991), 44–45, 45. This feature-film is in the cycle of Greenaway’s more complex endeavors; he claims that by chance he has al- ternated since The Draughtsman’s Contract (1982) between more straightfor- ward narratives and experimental productions. Prospero’s Books thus appropriately follows on Greenaway’s most straightforward narrative to date, The Cook, the Thief, His Wife and Her Lover (1989). See Michel Ciment, “Une conflagration de l’art: Entretien avec Peter Greenaway,” Positif 368 (October 1991), 38. 47. Hacker & Price, p. 233. 48. The word “canvas” has been used advisedly by Graham Fuller in Interview 21:11 (November 1991), 70. Oscar Moore called this canvas “an illuminated manuscript” in his review of Prospero’s Books in Screen International 821 (23 August 1991). 49. See Peter Greenaway, “Notes de travail pour Les livres de Prospero,” Positif 363 (May 199), 29–33. 50. Cheyffitz, p. 170. 51. For more detail, see Mariacristina Cavecchi, “Peter Greenaway’s Prospero’s Books: A Tempest Between Word and Image,” Literature/Film Quarterly 25: 2 (1997), 85. 52. Peter Greenaway, Prospero’s Books: A Film of Shakespeare’s The Tempest (London: Chatto & Windus, 1991), p. 49. Peter Greenaway, dir. Prospero’s Books (G.B./ NETH./ FRANCE/ ITALY, 1991), Allarts/Camera One/Cinéa/Penta. 53. Timothy Murray, “You Are How You Read: Baroque Chao-errancy in Greenaway and Deleuze,” Iris 23 (Spring 1997), 87–107, 105. Notes 325

54. Marlene Rodgers, “Prospero’s Books—Word and Spectacle: An Interview with Peter Greenaway,” Film Quarterly 45:2 (Winter 1991–1992), 16. Greenaway’s fascination with water can be observed in, for example, the short subject Making a Splash (1984), Twenty-Six Bathrooms (1985), and Drowning by Numbers (1988). See also Alain Masson, “This Insubstantial Pageant,” Positif 368 (October 1991), 37. For a close study of animate paint- ing in Prospero’s Books, see Laura Denham, The Films of Peter Greenaway (London: Minerva, 1993). 55. Ciment, p. 44. 56. See Margaret Croyden, pp. 125–128. 57. Peter Greenaway, Watching Water (Milano: Electa, 1993), p. 84. 58. Eustace Tillyard, Shakespeare’s Last plays (London: The Athlone Press, 1938), p. 149. 59. Qtd in Adam Barker, “A Tale of Two Magicians,” Sight and Sound 1:1 (May 1991), 26–30. 60. Murray, p. 90. 61. Morris Beja, Film and Literature: An Introduction (London: Longman, 1979), p. 44. 62. Lia M. Hotchkiss has examined, using Lacan’s mirror stage and the Der- ridean notion of mourning, “cinema’s alleged displacement of theater and al- ternately cinema’s status as theater’s heir.” In “The Incorporation of Word as Image in Prospero’s Books,” in Post/Script: Essays in Film and the Humanities 17 :2 (Winter/Spring 1988), 8–26. 63. Romney, p. 45. 64. Maurice Yacowar, “Negotiating Culture: Greenaway’s Tempest,” Queen’s Quarterly 99:3 (Fall 1992), 694. See also Claus Schatz-Jacobsen, “‘Knowing I Lov’d My Books’: Shakespeare, Greenaway, and the Prosperous Dialectics of Word and Image,” Screen Shakespeare, ed. Michael Skovmand (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1994), pp. 132–148; and Mariacristina Cavecchi and Nicoletta Vallorani, “Prospero’s Offshoots: From the Library to the Screen, “ Shakespeare Bulletin 15: 4 (Fall 1997), 35–37. 65. Michel Foucault, “What Is an Author ?” (1979), trans. Josue V. Harari in Textual Strategies: Perspectives in Post-Structuralist Criticism, rpt in The Fou- cault Reader, ed. Paul Rabinow (New York: Pantheon, 1984), pp. 101–120, p.108 & p. 119. 66. The phrase is from Nathan Watchel, The Vision of the Vanquished: The Span- ish Exploration of Peru through Indian Eyes (1971) (New York: Harper and Row, 1977). pp. 14–15. 67. See Peter Holland, “The Shapeliness of The Tempest,” Essays in Criticism 45:3 (1995), 214. 68. Qtd in Rodgers, p.16. 69. See Christian Metz, “The Cinematic Apparatus—an interview with Christian Metz,” Discourse I, p. 14. Qtd in Robert Lapsley & Michael Westlake, Film Theory: An Introduction (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), p.85. 326 Tempests after Shakespeare

70. Qtd in H. A. Rodman, “Anatomy of a Wizard,” American Film 10 (1991), 38. 71. John Gielgud, An Actor and His Time (85th Birthday Recollections in col- laboration with John Miller and John Powell (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1989), p. 202. Henry James was one of the first twentieth-century critics to equate Prospero with Shakespeare in his 1907 introduction to The Tempest. In Cohn, p. 287. On this issue, see, among others, Allardyce Nicoll, Film and Theatre (New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1972) and Catherine Belsey, “Shakespeare and Film: A Question of Perspective,” Liter- ary/Film Quarterly 11:3 (1982), 152. See also Peter Conrad, “From a Vigor- ous Prospero, a Farewell Without Tears,” New York Times 17 (Nov. 1991), 18 and David Gritten, “A Prospero for the Ages,” Los Angeles Times 27 (Nov. 1991), 1. 72. Magnusson, p. 45. 73. Ciment, p. 39. 74. See Bernard Bénoliel, “Peter Greenaway. L’illusion comique,” La Revue du Cinéma 475 (1991), 62–69. For a history of Prospero as Shakespeare’s self- representation, see Michael Dobson, “‘Remember/ First to Possess His Books’: The Appropriation of The Tempest, 1700–1800,” Shakespeare Survey, ed. Stanley Wells, 43 (1991), 99–107. 75. Rountree, p. 20. 76. Qtd in Grundmann, p. 27. 77. Denham, p. 41. Denham is here referring to Frederic Jameson, “Postmod- ernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism,” pp. 64–65. 78. Hutcheon, Poetics of Postmodernism, p. 93. 79. Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence, p. 31. 80. Qtd in Tredell, p. 37.

Conclusion 1. Edmund Wilson, Patriotic Gore (1962) (Oxford & New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1966), p. xi. My italics. 2. Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (1976) (Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 15. Hereafter page numbers are indicated in the text. Index

Abenheimer, K. M., 178 Arthurian romance, 181, 189 Aboriginals, 199, 200 Atwood, Margaret, 5, 107, 114 Abraham, W. E., 16 Auden, W. H., 61, 119, 263 Adam, 181, 189, 192 Adler, Alfred, 22 Baker, Houston, 37, 164 AIDS, 236,237 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 5, 110 Aliens, 182, 183, 185, 186, 201–203, Banquet scene, 5, 12, 197 208–209 Banville, John, 96 Alleles, 267 Barjavel, René, 13, 179, 198–200, 203 See also Dawkins Barnes, Leonard, 29 Ancestor, thematic Barthes, Roland, 4, 124 See Macherey Baudrillard, Jean, 185, 235 Andersen, Hans Christian, 143 Baumander, Lewis, 91, 246 Anima, 178, 186 Bellow, Saul, 178 See also Jung Benjamin, Walter, 185 Anthropophagia, 118, 234 Bennett, Susan, 47, 239, 243, 247 Anti-Semitism, 118, 234 Bhabha, Homi K., 207 Anxiety of influence Biesheuvel, S., 16 See Bloom Blixen, Karen (a.k.a. Isak Dinesen), Appiah, Kwame Anthony, 182 169, 228 Apocalypse, 198–199, 201, 203, 204, Bloom, Harold, 3, 4, 6, 7, 263 261 Brathwaite (Edward), Kamau, 10, 54, Ariel, 212, 218, 229, 249 55–64 as an accommodationist, 47 Brave New World, 6, 177, 205 as an androgyne, 137–140 Brontë, Charlotte as an Arawak, 150–151 See Jane Eyre Arielismo, 14 Brook, Peter, 51, 70, 228, 259 Ariel-Caliban debate, 12, 45–50 Brown, Steward, 62 Ariel’s hag-iography, 147–154 Browning, Robert, 12, 197 as a cyborg, 241–242 Brydon, Diana, 101, 121, 132, 196 as a Mulatto, 49 Arnold, A. James, 61–62 Caliban Artificial Intelligence, 198 as an amphibian, 206, 214 328 Tempests after Shakespeare

as a cannibal, 207, 212, 217, 218 Crane, Hart, 163–164 as a lesbian, 118–121 Crusoe, 1, 5, 21, 64, 184, 217, 225, as a necessary idea, 9, 13, 29, 178, 267 212 See also Defoe, Friday as Id Cyberpunk, 203, 245 See Freud as a Mautitian batar, 241–242 Dabydeen, David, 10, 76–80 as a metempiricist, 45, 198, 219 Daly, Mary, 6 as a Sambo figure, 14 Damas, Léon, 43 Caliban complex, 16–20 Dario, Ruben, 11, 50, 178 See also Mannoni Darwin, Charles, 14, 207, 267 Calibanic genealogy, 11, 13, 55, Davies, Robertson, 100, 109–111, 126, 100, 174, 266 228 Caliban-turned-Prospero, 13, 177, Dawkins, Richard, 265–268 220, 221, 222–225, 228, 266 Defoe, Daniel, 4–5, 21, 64, 114 Rise of, 43–80 Delany, Samuel, 195 Camp, 244, 249–250, 251, 257, 258 Derrida, Jacques, 5–6, 18, 38, 152 Carothers, J. C., 16, 20 See also hauntology Cartelli, Thomas, 110, 121, 214 Dextrality, 234, 240, 242, 248, Cassavettes, John, 254–255 261 Césaire, Aimé, 9, 10, 11, 13, 21, 29, Compare sinistrality 32–33, 35, 43–55, 57, 64, 219 Doolittle, Hilda Compare Fanon, Renan, Mannoni, See HD Memmi, Sithole Dorsinville, Max, 99–100 Chedgzoy, Kate, 101, 138, 247 Drag, 238, 244, 249 Chess game, 195–197, 221, 224, 226, Dystopia, 142, 182, 194, 196, 227, 230 205–212 Chinweizu, 49 Compare Utopia Chopin, Kate, 125, 144 Cixous, Hélène, 6, 167 Ecodisasters, 198–204, 201, 203, 228 Clark, John Pepper, 39–40, 68 Eliot, George, 125, 143 Clèment, Catherine, 6 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 166 Cliff, Michelle, 55, 63, 70, 121, 127, Engel, Marian, 107 132–140, 144, 171 Engels, Friederich, 21 Coetzee, J. M., 114, 219 ESP, 197 Cohn, Ruby, 47 Espinet, Ramabai, 79 Conjure (a.k.a. cunjah) women, 6, Ethnopsychiatry, 15–29, 266 171–176, 212 Extraterrestrials, 208–212 Condé, Maryse, 54, 150, 154, 175 Conner, Charlotte Barnes, 162–163 Fairy-tale, 142–147, 203 Conrad, Joseph, 1, 5, 125, 145 Fanon, Frantz, 9, 11, 32–35, 134, 248 Cortazar, Julio, 141 Fantasy, 204, 205–220, 240, 266 Cortez, Hernan, 160 Compare science fiction Creole Farewell theory See language See Prospero’s Epilogue Index 329

Faustus, 181, 188 Hirsch, Marianne, 6 Ferdinand, 200, 213, 226–227 Hoban, Russell, 9, 212–214 Fiedler, Leslie, 54, 156, 185 Holland, Norman, 19 Forster, E. M., 75, 267 Hollywood, 244 Foucault, Michel, 261 Homosexuality, 202, 232, 234, 241, Fowles, John, 13, 178, 213, 221, 231, 248, 254, 258, 266 241, 246, 251 Hulme, Peter, 36, 70–71, 154, 155, 162 Frankenstein, 210, 220 Hutcheon, Linda, 5, 110, 124, 263 Freud, Sigmund, 22, 186, 213, 247, See also parody 248 Hurston, Zora Neale, 71 Electra Complex, 188–191 Huxley, Aldous, 191 Freudian sublimation, 4 See also Brave New World Id, 177, 183, 185–188, 193, 196, 201, 206 Imitation, 3, 217, 226, 265 See also Caliban as Id Incremental literature, 3, 12 Inversion, 6 Ingalls, Rachel, 179, 205–212, 214 Scopophilia (Schaulust), 190, 205 Irigaray, Luce, 130 Superego, 183, 186, 214 Irony, 5, 211 Friday, 5, 21, 184, 216 See also Crusoe, Defoe Jackson, Rosemary, 206–208 Fuller, Margaret, 165–166, 169 Jahn, Janheinz, 36, 39–40, 47, 60, 96, 100 Garvey, Marcus, 55 James, C. L. R., 58 Genet, Jean, 53, 239 James, D. G., 9, 26, 27–28, 30, 44 Gerontocracy, 198 James, Henry, 178 Gift, philosophy of, 16–20, 38, Jameson, Fredric, 4, 36 115–116, 219 Jane Eyre, 1, 129, 132, 133–134, 145, Gilbert, Helen, 91–92 267 Gonzalo, 18, 46, 47, 147, 200, 208, Jarman, Derek, 178, 235, 238, 241, 227, 260 244–251, 255, 256, 258, 260, Gotlieb, Phyllis, 179, 194–197, 205 263 Greenaway, Peter, 141, 178, 207, 245, Jhabvala, Ruth Prawer, 110 251, 256–264 Jekyll (Dr.), 187, 188 Greenblatt, Stephen, 36, 185 Jewishness, 234, 237 Groussac, Paul, 11, 14 Johnson, Lemuel, 32 Guéhenno, Jean, 9, 11, 15, 39, 43 Jung, Carl G., 151, 219 Compare Renan, Mannoni See also anima Gynocracy, 170–176 Kenyatta, Jomo, 46 Hamlet, 6, 219 Kermode, Frank, 7 Harris, Wilson, 61 Kincaid, Jamaica, 127, 128–132 Hauntology, 6, 126, 177, 205 Kikuyu, 20, 46 See also Derrida Kubrick, Stanley, 184, 196, 210 HD, 139, 165 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 106, 178 Lacan, Jacques, 26 330 Tempests after Shakespeare

Lamb, Charles, 148 Medusa, 135, 192 Language Memmi, Albert, 9, 11, 22, 34–35, 51 Aboriginal, 91 Metempiricism, 45, 198, 219 Creole, 54, 59, 241 See also Caliban as a metempiricist Gift of, 219 Middle Passage, 56, 66 Joual, 100 Miller, Jonathan, 239 Prison-house of, 64 Milton, John, 189 Relexification, 86–87 Miranda, 105, 210, 215, 218 Lamming, George, 36–38, 39, 41, 43, As a Barbie doll, 191 46, 47, 51, 55, 57, 63, 64–76, As a member of the Few, 222–225 78, 79, 81, 100, 129, 160, Miranda-trap, 126–220 182, 183, 215, 219, 224 Miranda and Pocahontas, 127, Larsen, Nella, 132, 134 133–137, 139, 154, 156–164 Laubscher, B. J. F., 24, 69, 247 Nuptials, 250 Laurence, Margaret, 100, 106, 108, Rape of, 68–72 111, 112–118, 126 Miscegenation, 164 Lesbianism, 6, 118–121, 137, 237, 240 Misreading, 4 Linsday, Vachel, 163 Monster-movies, 208, 211, 220 Loomba, Ania, 120 Montaigne, 46, 197 Moodie, Susanna, 117 Macherey, Pierre, 4, 6, 267 Morris, Desmond, 187 See also (thematic) ancestor Muhammad, Elijah, 47 MacKaye, Percy, 11, 14 Mulisch, Harry, 177, 178, 221, 222, Malinche, 160–161 228, 229, 231–235, 237 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 18 Multiple Personality Disorder, 198, Malouf, Dominique Octave, 9, 11, 201, 203 15–26, 30, 32, 33, 36, 49, 57, Mulvey, Laura, 190 112, 139, 178, 186 Murdoch, Iris, 178, 221, 226, On Caliban’s Speech 229–231, 234, 244 (1.2.332–344), 16, 20 Murphy, Sarah, 100, 106, 121–126, The Caliban Complex, 16–22 128, 138 The Prospero Complex, 22–23, 26, 40, 41, 141, 178 Nabokov, Vladimir, 178 The Malagasy Uprise of 1947, 16, Naipaul, V. S., 141 17, 20–22 Namjoshi, Suniti, 95, 106, 117, Marshall, Paule, 129 118–121, 123, 137 Marx, Leo, 28, 167, 175, 181 Naylor, Gloria, 63, 128, 170–176 Mason, Philip, 9, 26–27, 49 Ngugi, James Mau Mau, 20 See wa Thiong’o, Ngugi See also Kenyatta, Kikuyu Nixon, Rob, 101, 164 Mauss, Marcel, 17 See also gift Obeah, 149, 174 Mazursky, Paul, 178, 244, 251–256 Osment, Philip, 222, 235–241, 243 McCulloch, Jock, 16, 24 Othello, 67, 68, 69 Medea, 143 Ouologuem, Yambo, 73 Index 331

Parody, 3, 5, 263 Rich, Adrienne, 6, 104, 127, 131, 169 Pastiche, 3, 5, 263 Ritchie, John F., 69, 247 Pickthall, Marjorie, 108–109 Roberts, G. D., 106–109, 121, 168, Plath, Sylvia, 165, 168–169, 228 190 Porter, Katherine Ann, 165, 167–168 Robots, 183–185, 194–197 Positivism, 13, 222 Rodo, Jose Enrique, 9, 11, 48–49, 123 Potlatch, 17, 19 See also gift Sachs, Wulf, 16 Prospero Said, Edward, 3, 13 American Prospero, 28, 176, 178 Scarry, Elaine, 124 as father-image, 20 Science fiction, 7, 181, 182–204, 189, as Gielgud, 228, 256–263 198–204, 207, 245 as homophobic, 235–241 Compare fantasy as homoerotic, 244–251 Seguin, Pierre, 95–101 as a Magus, 226–228 Senghor, Léopold Sédar, 43 as Ovid, 82–89 Sequel, 3, 12, 206 as postmodern Western man, 1, Showalter, Elaine, 165–170, 203 177 Singh, Jyotsna, 110 as a Puritan, 194 Sinistrality, 234, 235–241, 242, 246, as scientist, 12, 191–194, 261 194–197 Compare dextrality Deprivelaging of, 11–40 Sithole, Ndagaramgba, 9, 11, 30–35 in mid-life crisis, 252–256 Sontag, Susan, 124, 237, 249 Prospero-Caliban dialectics, Stephano/Trinculo, 28, 30, 194, 207, 50–52, 266 211, 214, 216, 240, 246, 249, Prospero complex, 178 258 Prospero and John Dee, 245 Stonewall, 240 Prospero’s Epilogue (farewell Stoppard, Tom, 68 speech), 191, 202, 222, 230, Stow, Randolph, 92–95, 200 232, 262 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 165, 167 Prospero’s wife, 73, 74, 183, 259 Suchet, David, 246 Punk, 244 Suvin, Darko, 181 Pynchon, Thomas, 203 Sycorax as Black Peril, 23–26 Queerness Orientalist Sycorax, 247–248 See homosexuality Sci-fi Sycorax, 195–197, 215–219 Sycorax Video Style, 60–64 Rape, 24, 67, 68–72, 99, 223 Sycorax’s hag-iography, 147–154 Renan, Ernest, 9, 11–14, 43, 49, 50, 65, 177, 197, 222 Takaki, Ronald, 181 Retamar, Roberto Fernandez, 15, Telekinesis, 197, 201 48–49, 56, 123 Thomas, Audrey, 106, 111–112, 126 Revision(ism), 3, 6, 7 Thoreau, Henry David, 166 Rewriting, 1–7, 265–268 Tiffin, Helen, 5 Rhys, Jean, 130, 135, 145, 175 Todorov, Tzvetan, 36, 160, 206 332 Tempests after Shakespeare

Transsexualism, 233 Warner, Marina, 63, 65, 80, 127, 131, Transvestism, 249 136, 140–154, 171, 176, 216, 263 UFO, 93, 200, 202, 203 White, John, 263 Utopia, 182, 205, 227 White, Patrick, 5 Compare dystopia Wilcox, Fred McLeod, 108, 177, 179, 181, 182–194, 201 Vallières, Pierre, 95 Williams, Tad, 65, 179, 214–220 Van Herk, Aritha, 132 Woolf, Virginia, 6, 199 Virahsawmy, Dev, 222, 240–242, 245 Wynter, Sylvia, 220 Voermans, Paul, 46, 49, 93, 179, Wreader, 4, 265 200–204, 228 Writing back, 3, 6 Writing beyond the ending, 4, 12 Wa Thiong’o, Ngugi, 9, 11, 30–31 Walcott, Derek, 37, 45, 58, 64 Yorke, Liz, 6 Waldron, Francis Godolphin, 3 Wallace, David, 41 Zimmerman, Bonnie, 119