I SPY: Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems

I spy Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource

This document is part of a larger publication “I Spy – Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and AboutEducational I SPY Resource” (ISBN 978-0-646-53795-5) produced under the © Department of Primary Industries andI Resources spy South This manual was compiled by: AustraliaI SPY (PIRSA)National forms and part the Invertebrate Departmentof the invertebrate of Agriculture Pest Initiativeidentification and (NIPI)Judy Bellati and , isSouth subject Australian to theResearch disclaimers and Food training(DAFWA)and package Westerncopyright developed Australia. of the for broadacrefull version crops from in the whichDevelopment it was Institute extracted. (SARDI); The remaining Insectssouthernsections and of western and Southern the grain full belt version regions Australian ofof Australia.this publication, Peter Broadacre Mangano as ,well Department Farming as updates of Agriculture and Systems other and Food Copyright protects this publication. Except for purposes Western Australia (DAFWA); I SPY haslegal been information, developed under thecan National be found Invertebrate at: http://www.grdc.com.au/i-spy-manual permittedPest Initiative by theIdentification Copyright (NIPI), a project Act 1968 funded (Commonwealth), through Manual the Grains andPaul Umina Education, CESAR, The University Resource of Melbourne; and no partResearch of this publication and Development (including Corporation images, photos (GRDC). and Ken Henry, South Australian Research and Development tables) may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any Institute (SARDI). form Ior SPY by highlightsany means, the electronic importance or otherwise, of insect identificationwithout the priorand writtenincludes permission key characteristics of Department used for of identificationPrimary Editing and graphic design provided by: IndustriesAboutof important South I SPY Australia insect (PIRSA)and otherand Departmentarthropod ofgroups Angela Lush, lush logic and Agriculture(collectively and Food referred Western to as Australia invertebrates). (DAFWA). Kaylee Maitland, Lavaworks. I SPY forms part of the invertebrate identification ISBN:trainingThe 978-0-646-53795-5 packagefirst three developed sections for of broadacre I SPY provide crops in a the general Section six provides information on monitoring, southernintroduction and western and cover grain basic belt insect regions taxonomy, of Australia. external sampling techniques and economic thresholds. A crop I SPYanatomy, has been developedkey insect orders under theand National identification Invertebrate keys. monitoring record sheet is also provided, with checklists Pest Initiative (NIPI), a project funded through the Grains of insect species by crop type and stage. Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource 2012 Research and Development Corporation (GRDC). © Section four provides detailed information of key invertebrates that are likely to be found in broadacre Finally, I SPY concludes with a section from Plant Health I SPYcrops. highlights Each theinvertebrate importance group of insect (or identificationrelevant species) Australia (PHA) on the significance of biosecurity and and isincludes covered, key characteristicswith a detailed used description for identification of their surveillance, and our obligation to safeguard our industry 2010 of important insect and other arthropod groups © key characteristics, lifecycle, damage and specific for market access. (collectivelymanagement referred options to as invertebrates). that can be employed. This section also covers key biosecurity insect threats, with The anfirst emphasis three sectionson the ofdiagnostic I SPY provide characters a general used to Section six provides information on monitoring, introductiondifferentiate and covermajor basicbiosecurity insect peststaxonomy, from establishedexternal or sampling techniques and economic thresholds. A crop The development of this edition of I SPY has beenSouthern possible and western regions anatomy,native key pests. insect ordersThe anddevelopment identification of this keys. edition of I SPYmonitoring has been possible record sheetdue to is the also financial provided, with checklists due to the financialsupport supportof from: insect from: species by crop type and stage. Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource SectionIntegrated four providespest management detailed information (IPM) is ofdiscussed key invertebratesin section that five. are likelyI SPY to is be notfound designed in broadacre as an all Finally, I SPY concludes with a section from Plant Health crops.encompassing Each invertebrate IPM document group (or butrelevant rather species) as a base Australia (PHA) on the significance of biosecurity and is covered,level manual with thata detailedintroduces description the main components,of their surveillance, and our obligation to safeguard our industry key techniquescharacteristics, and toolslifecycle, of andamage IPM program. and specific It outlines for market access. managementmanagement options options that that can canbe beemployed. implemented This to sectionassist also you covers to reduce key biosecurity your reliance insect on threats,broad-spectrum with an emphasischemicals onfor thepest diagnosticcontrol in charactersyour cropping used system.to differentiateInsecticide major modes biosecurity of action andpests their from impacts established on natural or Southern and western regions nativeenemies pests. are listed, and an IPM decision-making flow chart is presented. Department of Integrated pest management (IPM) is discussed Agriculture and Food in section five. I SPY is not designed as an all encompassing IPM document but rather as a base Southern Australia includes the southern and western grain level manual that introduces the main components, growing regions. techniques and tools of an IPM program. It outlines © Notification of any errors or omissions are welcome through [email protected], 2010 Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian management options that can be implemented to ii assist you to reduce your [email protected] on broad-spectrum or [email protected] SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION chemicals for pest control in your cropping system. cover.indd 3 Insecticide modes of action and their impacts on natural 5/08/2010 1:55:23 PM

cover.indd 2 5/08/2010 1:55:22 PM

cover.indd 3 5/08/2010 1:55:23 PM SECTION 4 Common Pest, Beneficial and Exotic Species

Moths & Butterflies ...... 2 Armyworms ...... 4 Cutworms ...... 7 Budworms ...... 11 Legend Diamondback moth ...... 13 Lucerne seed web moth ...... 15 Crop type Beetles ...... 17. Cockchafers ...... 19 Cereals True wireworms ...... 22 False wireworms ...... 24 Canola (& Brassicas) Weevils ...... 26 Ladybird beetles ...... 2. 9 Pulses & legumes Carabid beetles (or Ground beetles) ...... 31 Pasture Bugs ...... 33 Figure 4.1 An example of an aphid lifecycle (Aphis sp.) ...... 35 Figure 4.2 Persistent versus non-persistent transmission of viruses ...... 36 Monitoring type Table 4.1 Some aphids known to transmit viruses in pulse crops ...... 36 Cereal aphids - Corn aphid, Oat aphid & Russian wheat aphid ...... 37 Observation Canola aphids - Cabbage aphid, Turnip aphid & Green peach aphid . . . 41

Pulse aphids - Blue green aphid, Pea aphid, Cow-pea aphid & Sweep net Green peach aphid ...... 43 Sunn pest ...... 45 Yellow sticky trap Damsel bugs (or Nabids) ...... 47 Predatory bugs - Predatory shield bugs and Assassin bugs ...... 49 Yellow pan trap Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Flies ...... 50. Gall midges or Gall gnats - Hessian fly & Barley stem gall midge ...... 52 Digging Exotic leaf miners ...... 54 Hoverflies ...... 57 Pitfall trap Earwigs ...... 59 European earwig & Native earwigs ...... 60 Pheromone trap Springtails ...... 63 Light trap Lucerne flea ...... 63 Slugs & Snails ...... 65. Round snails - White Italian snail & Vineyard or common snail ...... 66 Insect status Conical snails - Small pointed snail & Pointed snail ...... 68 Slugs - Reticulated or grey field slug & Black-keeled slug ...... 70 pest = blue

Mites ...... 72. beneficial = green Red legged earth mite, Blue oat mite, Balaustium mite & Bryobia mite or Clover mite ...... 72 biosecurity = red Figure 4.3 Typical lifecycle of redlegged earth mites in southern Australia . .75 Predatory Mites ...... 80. F = Family Wasps, Bees & Ants ...... 81 Wheat stem sawfly & European wheat stem sawfly ...... 82. SF = Superfamily Wasp parasitoids ...... 8. 4 Egg parasitoids ...... 87 Bees as pollinators ...... 89 Scale bar 10 mm 20 30 Lacewings & Antlions ...... 90 adult Green lacewings & Brown lacewings ...... 90. Maximum size shown Spiders ...... 92. for larva and adult

1 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species MOTHS & BUTTERFLIES (Order Lepidoptera)

Lepidoptera - scale (lepi); covering wing (ptera)

In Australia there are about 20,800 lepidopteran species bodies, a small head covered in scales and large eyes . divided into over 80 families . Adults have a long, thin, coiled sucking tube (proboscis) which they use to feed on liquid sugar sources . They have Main characteristics multi-segmented antennae (comb-like in male moths, thread-like in female moths) . Moths usually shelter by Larva day and fly at night, unlike butterflies, which are mostly L arvae or grubs are generally elongated in form, active during the day . with three pairs of true (thoracic) legs directly behind the head . Larvae have a well-developed and Lifecycle hardened (sclerotised) head capsule and chewing Complete metamorphosis . Depending on the species, (mandibulate) mouthparts . On the front of the head females may lay a few or tens of thousands of eggs is a groove (suture) shaped like an inverted ‘V’ and a second (several hundred is typical) . Larvae develop through 4-7 suture (adfrontal) just under the ‘V’ . Most have ventral and instars (taking a few weeks or up to a few months) before anal prolegs as well as crochets (small hooks) on the base pupating . Pupation can occur on vegetation, in the soil of the prolegs . These hooks help the larva hold on to the or leaf litter and even inside wood . Many lepidopterans surface . Most larvae feed on foliage or stored products . have one or two generations per year, some breed continuously and others may take years to develop (e g. . Adult (moths) Cossidae) . Adults have two pairs of large membranous wings that are completely covered with scales in regular, overlapping rows on both surfaces . They have hairy 2012 © Lepidopteran larva Side view of head Front view of head

Eyespots

1st abdominal segment Cervical (neck) shield

Anal proleg Hardened with (sclerotised) crotchets head capsule with Abdominal Spiracle ‘ True’ leg chewing prolegs with (breathing mouthparts crochets hole)

Various crochet (hook) patterns at the base of all abdominal and anal prolegs-soles on feet

Source: Modified from Goodyer (1978) and CSIRO (1991)

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 2 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Groups (families) relevant to broadacre Day moths (F: Agaristidae): These moths usually fly by cropping day and have visually striking colours of dark brown to black, yellow and orange . A common pest is the Cutworms, armyworms and native budworm pasture day moth, Apina calisto, usually seen in autumn . (F: Noctuidae): The larvae of this family are among the most For further information refer to Ute Guides, Southern damaging crop pests and are covered in this section on (p . 34)/Western (p . 33) . page 4-12 . Tiger moths (F: Arctiidae): Usually brightly coloured Looper caterpillars (F: Geometridae): Larvae have moths with markings of orange, red, black and/or white . a reduced number of prolegs (i e. . two or three pairs Some larvae have a dense covering of tightly packed of prolegs towards their rear end) and move by a upright hairs and are known as woolly bears . They are characteristic looping action when walking . The brown not usually economic pests in broadacre agriculture but pasture looper, Ciampa arietaria is an example . This are occasionally seen in large numbers . looper undergoes one generation per year with the moths flying in autumn . Refer to Ute Guides, Southern Hawk moths (F: Sphingidae): Larvae have a characteristic (p . 36)/Western (p . 28) for more detail . Loopers are not spine that rises up from the rear . These are not economic just confined to the Geometridae family . A minor spring pests in broadacre agriculture but are occasionally seen pest of canola and pulses, Chrysodeixis spp . (Noctuidae) in large numbers on autumn weeds . also move with a characteristic looping action and have a reduced number of prolegs . For further information, Butterflies (various families): Two of the most widely refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 37)/ Western (p . 34) . known pest butterflies found in broadacre cropping are the cabbage white butterfly, Pieris rapae, and the grass Diamondback moth (F: Plutellidae): This is a pest of blue butterfly, Zizina labradus . For further information canola and is covered in this section on page 13 . refer to Ute Guides, Southern (pp . 42-44)/Western (p . 35,36) . Grass moths (F: Pyralidae): These are generally small moths (most <15 mm long) with characteristic ‘beak- like’ protrusions on their heads . Legs are usually long relative to the body . Larvae are often web-spinners creating shelters or joining plant and debris together . Lucerne seed web moth is covered in detail on page 15 . Other examples include pasture webworm, Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Hednota spp , . and weed web moth, Achyra affinitalis . For further information refer to Ute Guides, Southern (pp . 30-33)/Western (pp . 24, 25 & 29) . © 2012

3 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species ARMYWORMS, CUTWORMS, BUDWORMS & SEMI-LOOPERS Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Key noctuid characteristics and biology Larvae Adults • have four pairs of abdominal prolegs; • are generally dull coloured moths but some have • have anal prolegs; metallic-looking markings on their wings; • crochet (soles of prolegs) arrangement is a row on one • generally have stout bodies covered in dense long side (mesoseries); scales; • usually have a stripe on cervical shield; • feed on nectar from flowers; • usually smooth, lacking obvious dense hairs; • mainly fly at night . • can vary widely in colour and this variation sometimes Many species are able to migrate long distances aided depends on the food source . Larvae are often green, by wind currents . This enables them to exploit abundant brown or yellow in colour and striped longitudinally; plant growth after rain . • mostly feed at night on a variety of crops .

Most fully mature noctuid larvae burrow into the soil to pupate, although a few species pupate in a sparse cocoon under a leaf of the host plant . Depending on the species, pupation can take place over a short or long time before moths emerge .

There are many noctuid species that lack some abdominal prolegs and these are known as semi- loopers . They loop their bodies when moving and are often mistaken for a ‘true’ looper (Geometridae family) .

2012 Semi-looper species are not covered in this manual . ©

Noctuidae larva 1st abdominal segment Cervical shield

Cervical stripe

Head

Anal True legs prolegs Spiracle Body hair Abdominal prolegs

Round dark coloured base

Crochet (hook) arrangement meso-series to one side . Armyworms, cutworms and budworms have this pattern on the ‘soles of their feet’

Source: Modified from Goodyer (1978)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva T hree stripes on cervical shield and adult wingspan along entire Larva body to tail

Head

4 abdominal prolegs Cervical shield (neck)

Last abdominal segment Source: Modified

from Goodyer (1978) Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Adult Common armyworm

Forewing: dull red-brown or yellow-brown speckled with small black dots and a small white centred mark . Hindwing: grey

Southern armyworm Forewing: reddish-brown and streaked with white on edges . Silvery fish (or submarine) shape in centre is closed . Hindwing: dark grey

Inland armyworm

5 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Larvae are mostly nocturnal . They burrow into the When in large numbers, armyworm larvae can eat their soil or hide under leaf litter during the day . They may way across a paddock like an army on the march . This sometimes be found feeding during the day on the is occasionally seen in establishing pastures in autumn . leaves, stems and heads of cereal crops . Monitoring/sampling Confused with/similar to Assessing the numbers of armyworms in a cereal crop L arvae of these main pest species are very similar to each can be difficult as their movements will vary with other and distinguishing characters are obscure . They can weather conditions and feeding preference . Sometimes be distinguished by the position of the breathing holes they are found sheltering on the ground and under leaf (spiracles) in relation to a band on the side of the body . litter, while on other days they will be high up on the plants or on the heads, and easily picked up using sweep Distribution, pest status and risk period nets . They often prefer to feed on ryegrass if it is present . Armyworm populations are often sporadic . They may Armyworms may be confined to only small portions of a build up in an area over time in response to favourable crop . Several different locations within the crop should seasonal conditions or suddenly migrate into an area on be checked for caterpillar numbers before deciding on prevailing winds from a remote location . any control measures .

Armyworms can be in damaging numbers at any time of A suggested monitoring procedure is to: year if growing conditions allow . They are occasionally a • look for signs of caterpillar droppings and damaged pest on seedling crops and pastures in autumn but more ryegrass heads; commonly cause damage to maturing cereal crops . • look for damage on crop foliage; There can be 3-4 generations per year . • shake the plants and look for caterpillars on the plants and on the ground . Search leaf litter between rows; Crops attacked/host range • check frequently for the first signs of head-lopping Armyworms are pests of cereal crops and pastures . They in barley . prefer to feed on ryegrass and will often feed until it is depleted before turning to other grasses or cereals . Larvae do not feed on broad leaf and legume crops . Management options

2012 Some threshold guidelines available indicate spraying

© Barley is the most susceptible cereal crop . Wheat crops may be worth considering if 3 larvae/m2 are present in are less frequently attacked . barley crops that are still more than a week away from harvest, and 10 larvae/m2 in other cereals . If the barley Damage symptoms crop is almost dry, continue checking daily until fully mature, as sudden head-lopping requires immediate Younger larvae feed on cereal or grass leaves . They are action . at their most damaging when large larvae (25-40 mm) attack barley crops nearing maturity in late spring . As barley matures, part of the stem often remains green and is appetising to larvae after other plant parts have dried . The caterpillars chew through the stem causing heads to fall to the ground . In oat crops, the larvae bite off pieces of the panicle, causing grain to fall .

Biological Cultural Chemical Naturally occurring biological Use of herbicide or grazing to control Registered rates of synthetic control agents are important in weedy paddocks several weeks before pyrethroids are usually adequate keeping armyworm populations sowing pastures or cereals will starve for control . Increased spray volumes below damaging levels in some out caterpillars . may be required in high-yielding years . These include parasitic flies bulky crops . Desiccating or swathing crops close to and wasps, predatory beetles and harvest may have the added benefit of diseases . minimising armyworm damage .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 21-22)/Western (pp. 20-21).

Distinguishing characteristics/description No distinct lines on sides

10 mm 20 30 40 50 of body and subtle larva longitudinal line may be present along midline upper adult wingspan (dorsal) surface

Spiracles Larva Dark head region

8th abdominal segment spiracle (breathing hole)

4 abdominal prolegs

Cervical shield stripe Plump, smooth, and greasy can be present or appearance with relatively absent few stout hairs with dark pigmentation at their base Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

4 abdominal Adult prolegs

Pink cutworm Forewing: brownish with darker markings and streaks . Large inner light mark and darker outer mark . Hindwing: pale with dark edging

Black cutworm Stout Forewing: brown or grey-black . bodies Dark arrow-mark streak broken covered by 2 dark ringed dots . Outer with margin is streaked . dense Hindwing: pale with scales darker edging

Bogong moth Forewing: Dark brown or grey black . Dark arrow-mark streak broken by 2 light dots . Hindwing: pale with

7 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Adult colouration can be highly variable . Damage symptoms Large caterpillars will chew through or cut off the stems Larvae are plump and smooth (greasy appearance) and of young seedlings, hence the name cutworm . will vary in colour depending on the instar and species . The larva of the pink cutworm is usually found in sandy Whole paddocks of cereal or legume seedlings may be soils and is grey-green with a pink tinge . The larva of the destroyed or severely thinned in the presence of high bogong moth is dark grey . populations of large cutworm larvae early in the season . Larvae are mostly nocturnal . They generally hide under Larvae feed at or near ground level . When small, the the soil surface or litter and come out at night to feed, larvae feed on the surface tissues of the tender foliage . although at least one species may be found feeding This surface feeding may be confused with damage above ground during the day . The caterpillars often curl caused by lucerne flea or other small caterpillars . up when disturbed . Monitoring/sampling Confused with/similar to A suggested monitoring procedure is to: L arvae of these three main pest species are very similar • look for patches of newly emerged crops with to each other and distinguishing characters are obscure . seedlings cut off; • scratch the soil layers close to recently damaged They may also be confused with the biosecurity threat, seedlings to reveal hidden larvae; the turnip moth (Agrotis segetum) . • use a shovel to sample for grubs by scraping off the top 50mm of soil near freshly damaged plants . Flick Distribution, pest status and risk period the soil off the shovel so that it spreads in a thin layer, Widely distributed with various other species . They are revealing the grubs . Do this in several places near most damaging when caterpillars transfer from summer damaged areas; and autmun weeds onto newly emerged seedlings . They • use a backpack sprayer to spray out small areas . can have several generations per year . Check the following morning for dead grubs which can be found on the soil surface . Crops attacked/host range Cutworms will attack all crops and pasture plants Management options (polyphagous) but are at their most damaging when they 2012 T hese are not regular pests, but large areas may be © feed on newly-emerged cereal and pasture seedlings . affected in some seasons . Extensive damage can occur if more than 3 larvae/m2 are found . Spot spraying, or spraying a 20 metre buffer around the infestation, may provide adequate control . Spraying in the evening is likely to be more effective .

Biological Cultural Chemical Naturally occurring insect fungal Prolonged autumn green feed in Cutworm caterpillars are usually diseases are successful in some many areas may allow larvae to easy to control with label rates of seasons . Wasp and fly parasites are develop to a large size by the time synthetic pyrethroid chemicals also very active in preventing more crops emerge . Early control of this (refer to currently registered frequent and serious outbreaks . plant material (green bridge) using products) . Parasites include the orange and a herbicide to create a complete two-toned caterpillar parasite, brown-out for two weeks pre- (Heteropelma scaposum) and the planting, will minimise larval survival . orchid dupe (Lissopimpla excelsa) . Refer to Southern (pp . 120 & 122)/ Western (pp . 96-97) Ute Guides for more detail .

Ute Guides, Southern (p.23, 24)/Western(p22, 23)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva 4 abdominal prolegs adult wingspan

Larva Greyish-brown in colour with a greasy appearance and a reddish or brownish-black head capsule

T wo broad and light longitudinal bands running along the midline (that can have a very thin white line cutting through)

On each body (abdominal) segment, there are 4 black spots each bearing a small bristle Narrow dark Broad light band with white bands line inside Stout bodies covered in Adult dense long scales . Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Antennae: threadlike in females; feather-shaped in males Uniform Thin black circle border on wing periphery

Hindwings: grey in female; Kidney-shaped white/silver with light marking purple tinge in males

All cutworm caterpillars are plump and smooth (greasy Distribution and potential spread appearance), and can vary in colour depending on the Europe, Africa, northern Asia including China . Turnip instar . moths are strong flyers and dispersal is aided by wind currents . This species is not known to migrate over large Larvae are mostly nocturnal and often burrow during distances . Incursion and dispersal could occur through the day, hiding under the soil surface or litter . the transportation of plant and soil material . More than one generation per year . Crops attacked/host range Confused with/similar to T urnip moth is a highly polyphagous pest in its current T urnip moth can be confused with other cutworms distribution, attacking wheat, barley, oats, brassicas,

vegetables and weeds . ©

present in Australia . 2012

9 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Damage symptoms Reporting protocol All cutworm larvae are most damaging when they feed A rapid response to detection of potential exotic on newly emerged seedlings and cause plant death . pests can be the key to containment, eradication or Large caterpillars will chew through or cut off the stems management . of young seedlings . When small, the larvae feed on the surface tissues of the foliage resulting in very small round ‘window panes’ . This surface feeding may be confused with damage caused by lucerne flea or other small caterpillars .

Surveillance T urnip moth is likely to be misidentified as other cutworm If you see anything unusual, call the Exotic Plant Pest species already present in Australia due to the difficulty Hotline on 1800 084 881 . of distinguishing between species . Speak to your department of primary industries or Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase department of agriculture before sending any samples . the chance of successful eradication and reduce the cost and social impact of an incursion . It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is followed including packaging, handling and transport to Incorporate surveillance for exotic pests when the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling undertaking routine crop monitoring and other crop could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit detection and measurement activities . for identification .

Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment in the detected area until a confirmation can be made .

More information Plant Health Australia website www .planthealthaustralia com. .au/biosecurity/grains 2012 ©

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva

adult wingspan Stout hair over the body with pigmentation Larva around the base

Rear portion of body sharply angled downward from 8th abdominal segment

Dark spiracles in Often broad lighter coloured lighter colour strip along each side of the band body with a darker strip down centre

Source: Modified from Goodyer (1978) Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Native budworm Corn earworm Lesser budworm

Black hairs White hairs White around around head hairs over head region whole region body Saddle

Adult

Male Male Male

11 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Confused with/similar to All budworms are at their most damaging when they feed on the fruiting parts and seeds of plants . Armyworm and cutworm in general appearance and size . Losses attributed to budworms come from direct weight Distribution, pest status and risk period loss through seeds being wholly or partly eaten . Grain quality may also be downgraded through unacceptable Native budworm: Occurs in most years and often levels of chewed grain . migrates into agricultural areas from nearby pastoral areas . It is a native species and is usually easily controlled with insecticides . Monitoring/sampling T he quickest and easiest method to sample most crops Lesser budworm: Infrequent pest . is sweep netting . Multiples of 10 sweeps should be taken Corn earworm/cotton bollworm: Rarely found in in several parts of the crop and larval numbers averaged . dryland broadacre crops but often associated with irrigated and/or horticultural crops . This pest is known Management options to develop strong resistance to insecticides and can be Caterpillars eat increasing quantities of seed and plant difficult to control . material as they grow . The last two growth stages (5th & 6th instar) account for over 90% of their total grain Crops attacked/host range consumption . Native budworm: Broad leaf and legume crops such as field pea, faba bean, lentil, chickpea, lupin and canola . Field pea, chickpea, lentil and faba bean crops are Pastures such as pasture serradalla, lucerne, annual very susceptible to all sizes of native budworm medic and clovers . Only occasionally feeds on cereals caterpillars during the formation and development of and some grasses . pods . Small caterpillars can enter emerging pods and damage developing seed while larger caterpillars may Lesser budworm: Wide host range, will feed on both devour the entire pod contents . broad leaf grasses and cereals . Narrow-leafed lupin and canola crops will not be Corn earworm/cotton bollworm: Wide host range . damaged by native budworm until they are close to maturity and leaf fall commences .

2012 Damage symptoms

© For lesser budworm, the same principles as native Holes or chewing damage may be seen on pods and/or budworm can be applied . seed heads . Grubs may be seen occasionally . For corn earworm, please refer to DEEDI website .

Biological Cultural Chemical Naturally-occurring insect fungal Swathing canola or desiccating Native budworm and lesser budworm diseases and viruses can be very pulse crops such as field peas may are easily controlled by synthetic successful in some seasons . be an option to advance the drying pyrethroids . Predatory shield bugs, damsel bugs of crops when small/medium size and fly parasites may also be active larvae are present . Corn earworm are known to have in preventing serious outbreaks . insecticide resistant populations . Parasites include the orange and For corn earworm refer to DEEDI two-toned caterpillar parasite website . Use of Bt and NPV biological (Heteropelma scaposum) and the insecticides are important IPM orchid dupe (Lissopimpla excelsa) . options . Refer to Southern (pp . 120 & 122) and Western (pp . 96-97) Ute Guides for more detail .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 18-20)/Western (pp. 17-19).

Distinguishing characteristics/description Head capsule 10 mm 20 30 40 50 Larva larva lightens as matures adult Larvae slightly tapered at Adult each end . Pale yellowish Beak-like green in colour mouthpart

‘Diamond’- shape pattern on wings Body covered in at rest coarse black hairs Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Mesh-like pupal casing Four abdominal prolegs Anal prolegs

Nearly complete crochet arrangement at base of prolegs Leaf mine of 1st larval instar

Confused with/similar to Eggs are pale yellow, oval and about 0 5. mm in length . Diamondback moth (DBM) larvae can be confused Eggs are laid singularly or in clusters along the leaf with young cabbage white butterfly Pieris( rapae) and margins . cabbage centre grub (Hellula sp.) larvae .

Larvae develop through four instars . The first two instars have a dark head, but the first instar is not visible as it lives Distribution, pest status and risk period and feeds inside leaf tissue (its presence is indicated by DBM is a worldwide pest with a high propensity a leaf mine) . Larvae wriggle vigourously when disturbed to evolve insecticide resistance . DBM is widely and often drop from the plant on a silken thread . distributed in southern Australia .

The pupal casing is mesh-like in appearance and the DBM has no diapause phase in Australia and has pupa inside is cream-green initially, but darkens before overlapping generations . All life stages can be present the adult emerges . at any one time . Adults are active flyers but usually do not move far within a crop . © 2012

13 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species They are capable of long distance migration on prevailing Monitoring/sampling winds, particularly when host material has died off . Crops should be monitored using a sweep net at the first Weather conditions can impact dramatically on DBM sign of damage and throughout the growing season populations . Development is faster in warm weather from late winter to late spring . and slower in cool weather . For example, at 15 °C the life cycle takes approximately 36 days to complete, but at Take a minimum of five sets of 10 sweeps and calculate 28°C it takes approximately 11 days to complete . the average number of larvae per 10 sweeps .

Crops attacked/host range If spraying, it is important to monitor 5-7 days after spray application to assess the effectiveness of treatment . DBM feeds on canola and all Brassica plants, including weeds . Management options The availability of Brassica host plants can influence T hreshold guidelines indicate spraying is recommended outbreaks . Summer rainfall can also provide a green when: bridge of summer weeds . • 50 larvae are collected per 10 sweeps for pre-flowering DBM adults migrate from summer weed sources into unstressed crops . canola crops in autumn and winter . Significant rainfall • 30 larvae are collected per 10 sweeps for pre-flowering events (greater than 8 mm) can reduce larval abundance stressed crops . by drowning or dislodging larvae or facilitating death by • 100-200 larvae are collected per 10 sweeps for disease . unstressed crops with the majority of plants in flower .

Damage symptoms If monitoring detects a rapid increase in DBM larvae and L arvae can cause damage to all growth stages of the numbers exceed spray thresholds, a two-spray policy canola plant . They feed on the foliage before flowering is thought to be more effective than a single spray . and, as flowering progresses, an increasing proportion The second spray should be applied approximately of the larvae move to the floral buds, flowers and pods . seven days after the first if more than 20% of the initial Maturing pods are surface grazed or scarred by the population remains . Good spray coverage is critical larvae . They are not as damaging as native budworm as for effective DBM control as more than 20% of the they do not chew into the pods . Premature shattering of larvae reside in the bottom third of the plant . You should

2012 pods rarely occurs . consider the size of the majority of the larvae before © making a management decision . Target treatment at Larger larvae feeding on the underside of leaves can larvae <5 mm in length (2nd & 3rd instar) to achieve more create holes, often with the upper surface intact, effective control . Chemical resistance to synthetic producing a window effect . pyrethroids and organophosphates is widespread in DBM populations on Brassica vegetable crops Canola can tolerate considerable foliar feeding damage throughout Australia, and to a lesser and varying before crop yield is affected . Severe feeding damage can extent, in many canola cropping regions . cause complete defoliation resulting in yield reduction .

Biological Cultural Chemical The most important natural enemies are small Summer weed control close to This species is difficulto t wasp parasitoids (Diadegma semiclausum, crop areas will help break the control with insecticides . Apanteles ippeus and Diadromus collaris) . ‘green bridge’ . Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is the Predators such as brown lacewings, spiders, Area wide management . softest insecticide on natural damsel bugs and other predatory bugs can enemies and very effective contribute to DBM mortality . on DBM . Correct application is critical to achieve effective Naturally-occurring insect fungal diseases may control . Refer to Bt checklist, also be very successful in some seasons under section 5 page 15 . ideal conditions (i .e . a combination of rainfall, high humidity and warm temperatures) .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 25-26)/ Western (pp. 26-27).

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva adult Wings greyish-brown Orange/tan band and held over body at running crossways rest, giving moth slender Adult on the forewings appearance

White strip along front edge of each Prominent wing edge, snout-like running along beak full length

Larva Body colour: Green to cream with a pinkish tinge and several stripes running along

the body Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

T he pinkish tinge Darker hardened becomes more area (cervical shield) pronounced as Darkened head behind head it ages capsule that lightens region to a golden brown when mature . (image of 4th instar) Four pairs of abdominal Nearly prolegs, anal prolegs complete ring of (prolegs not visible hooks (crochet) in image) arrangement at base of prolegs

Confused with/similar to L ucerne seed web moth can be confused with other snout moths (Pyralidae), such as weed web moth . Larvae T he highest risk period is when pods mature prior can be confused with podding pests such as budworms . to harvest in summer . Seed damage is sporadic over Lucerne seed web moth larval damage is associated with seasons, varying from light to severe infestations when characteristic webbing of pods and flowers - budworms an outbreak occurs . do not web . Lucerne seed web moth can have 2-3 generations per year depending on the temperature, location and host Distribution, pest status and risk period plant availability . In southern Australia, adults are first L ucerne seed web moth is widespread throughout seen in late September with a second peak (generation) Australia but it is generally only a major and irregular in November/early December . A third generation often pest in lucerne-growing areas of southern Australia . occurs in late December/early January . © 2012

15 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Crops attacked/host range Suggested monitoring procedures L ucerne seed web moth has been found on a wide range • Sweep netting is a common method used for of native and introduced legume plants that include estimating moth numbers . Susceptible crops should lucerne, lentils, lupins, field peas, medics, clovers and be sampled at least once a week during podding soy beans . for evidence of lucerne seed web moth activity . A minimum of three groups of 20 sweeps should be Damage symptoms randomly undertaken within each field . • Pheromone trapping requires a minimum of two to L arvae can feed in the growing points, buds, flowers and three traps to be placed within a crop approximately inside pods, where there are few signs of damage during 25 cm above the canopy . the early stages of attack, and internal larvae feeding can go unnoticed . Each larva usually damages more than • Light trapping is used at night to detect lucerne one pod and several pods are often webbed together - seed web moth moths in spring but a range of other this is characteristic of lucerne seed web moth . insects will be collected and checking specifically for the lucerne seed web moth can be difficult . Female moths lay their eggs under the calyx or on the pod surface and these eggs hatch within 4-7 days, Check for the presence of young larvae and eggs on depending on the temperature . Newly hatched larvae maturing seed pods when moths are present . bore into immature pods within a very short period after hatching, to begin feeding on developing grain . This Examine damaged growing points or pods particularly results in inferior quality lentils and yield losses due to where webbing is seen . It is too late to prevent damage a reduction in grain weight and grain breakage . Once when webbing by mature larvae is detected . inside the pods, larvae are protected from insecticide sprays and damage is usually only identified at harvest . Management options L ucerne seed web moth management is based on Monitoring/sampling timing spray applications to target adult moths before Successful lucerne seed web moth control relies on egg laying commences . Sprays are ineffective against thorough crop monitoring in order to correctly time lucerne seed web moth eggs and when larvae bore into insecticide applications . In southern Australia, adults pods they are physically protected from sprays . are first seen in mid to late September which usually coincides with early pod development . Recommended action threshold for lucerne seed web 2012

© moth is 1-2 larvae collected in 20 sweeps . The degree-day model (found on the SARDI website - Etiella management in lentils) can be used to help identify the onset of significant lucerne seed web moth flight activity within crops and when in-crop monitoring should commence .

Biological Cultural Chemical Predatory bugs such as glossy Delay harvest or grazing period Chemical control with synthetic pyrethroids shield bug (Cermatulus nasalis) to prevent these coinciding should aim to kill the adults before egg laying can attack lucerne seed web with moth flights . commences . moth . A number of parasitic Control volunteer legumes and Insecticides with short withholding periods wasps and flies have also been other host plants . should be used later in the season . recorded from larvae and pupae . Insecticide sprays applied to control native budworm early in the podding period may provide some control for lucerne seed web moth if present . Lucerne seed web moth monitoring should recommence no later than one week after spraying .

Insecticides with a fumigant action may kill some larvae but control may not always be achieved .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 27-28)/Western (pp. 30-31) and the SARDI website (Etiella management in lentils).

Coleoptera - sheath (koleos); wing (ptera)

Beetles are the largest order of insects, including about Groups (families) relevant to broadacre one quarter of all the known insects in the world . There cropping are around 28,200 described beetle species in Australia, divided into 113 families . Cockchafers and dung beetles (F: Scarabaeidae): Mixed group with some larval pests and adult beneficials . Some Main characteristics adults are also pests . All larval stages are curl grubs, ‘C’- Larva shaped larvae . Cockchafers are covered in detail in this section on page 19 . T here are four major morphological types of larvae; eruciform, scarabaeiform, campodeiform and apodous True wireworms or click beetles (F: Elateridae): These (see p . 18) . All have chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts soil dwelling larval pests are covered in detail in this and a hardened (sclerotised) head capsule . Many larval section on page 22 . stages are considered to be the pest phase of beetles . Three pairs of legs (with the exception of weevil larvae) False wireworms (F: Tenebrionidae): These soil-dwelling are present . The absence of prolegs with crotchets larval pests are covered in detail in this section on (specialised hooks) distinguishes beetle larvae from page 24 . moth larvae . Weevils (F: Curculionidae): Adults have a snout Adult (rostrum) . All weevil larval stages are legless (apodous)

Forewings are hardened into sheath-like wing covers and maggot-like in shape . Both adults and larvae can be Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource (elytra) and they have a hardened body . All have chewing damaging to plants . Weevils are covered together in this (mandibulate) mouthparts . section on page 26 .

Lifecycle Bruchid/seed beetles (F: Chrysomelidae): Pest in the Complete metamorphosis . larval stage . The pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum) belongs in this family but it is not a true weevil, not having a weevil snout . This introduced pest beetle is one of a number of common worldwide pests in field pea and bean growing areas . This pest has an interesting lifecycle with the larvae beginning life in the growing pod and completing it in the dry seed . For further information on pea weevil refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p .55)/Western (p .44) .

Ladybirds (F: Coccinellidae): These predatory beetles are covered in detail in this section on page 29 .

17 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Eruciform Scarabaeiform Campodeiform Apodous

Source: Modified from CSIRO (1991)

Cylindrical elongated ‘C’ - shaped body . Tapering body . Legless . body . Relatively short Well-developed legs . Reduced mouthparts Short legs . functional legs . Large mouthparts and antennae . Head & mouthparts Swollen lower abdomen . directed forward . Adapted to living in oriented downwards . Highly mobile and active . confined spaces . Less active and mobile .

Groups Groups Groups Groups False wireworms Cockchafers and dung Ladybirds Weevils (Curculionidae) (Tenebrionidae) beetles (Scarabaeidae) (Coccinellidae) 2012

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Blackheaded pasture cockchafer NOT IN WA Black head capsule

Dark brown *Short functional to black *Mouthparts legs oriented downwards *Flares and Sriations *Abdomen spurs on legs (grooves) on swollen elytra (wing distally *Spiracle covers) behind head capsule Broad shovel-like Raster of larva 10 mm 20 30 head ‘U’-shaped lower larva *Clubbed antennae groove adult

Yellowheaded cockchafer NOT IN WA

Yellow head Broad, light capsule brown in

colour Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource *Flares and spurs on legs

Raster of larva 10 mm 20 30 *Clubbed antennae ‘Y’-shaped groove larva adult

Redheaded pasture cockchafer NOT IN WA

Stout, dark brown/red in Red head colour capsule

*Flares and spurs on legs

Raster of larva 10 mm 20 30 open groove larva

*Clubbed antennae ©

adult 2012 * indicates character for all species 19 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species T he larval stages of all cockchafers and dung beetles BH pasture cockchafers are found in higher rainfall are ‘C’-shaped grubs that curl up when disturbed or areas in southeastern Australia (not WA) . Larval growth handled . They have relatively short functional legs, the rates depend on the number of rainy days during autumn abdomen is swollen distally and their mouthparts are and winter, which is when pastures and crops are most oriented downwards . at risk . Pupation occurs towards the end of October with adults emerging during January to March . Their Cockchafer species usually live in vertical tunnels in emergence and activity is dependent on the frequency soil and are free-living . The presence of tunnels can of rainfall events . Adults live for several weeks and will sometimes make the soil appear spongy . lay egg batches on bare earth . One generation per year .

WA Cockchafers YH cockchafers are found across southeastern Australia Species of cockchafers found in Western Australia and (not WA), including New South Wales, Victoria and South eastern Australia differ . Although many WA species Australia . Larvae live in the soil until mid-late summer appear similar to those found in eastern Australia, most when they emerge as adult beetles . Cereal and pasture are not damaging . A few species (e g. . Heteronyx obesus) plants are most likely to be damaged from emergence can cause extensive below-ground damage in some to late autumn or early winter . One generation per year . seasons . Larvae are soil-dwelling root feeders that do not come to the surface . Refer to Western Ute Guide RH pasture cockchafers are found throughout south- (p . 46) for more detail . eastern Australia (not WA), but are most common in south-west and central Victoria, the southern tablelands Blackheaded (BH) pasture cockchafers are foliage of New South Wales, south-eastern South Australia and feeders and the presence of green material in tunnels is northern Tasmania . Although they are typically found in also a good indicator of this species . higher rainfall zones, RH pasture cockchafers tend to be more numerous and problematic in drier years . Pastures Yellowheaded (YH) cockchafer and Redheaded are most likely to be damaged from emergence to late (RH) pasture cockchafer larvae are soil-dwelling (root autumn or early winter . Although RH pasture cockchafers feeders) . Newly-hatched larvae are about 5 mm long . have a two year life cycle, they can be problematic every year if generations overlap . Larvae are present from The Scarabaeidae family also includes other pest autumn to spring and pupation occurs over summer . cockchafer species and beneficial species such as: Adults remain in the soil until the following spring when • African black beetle (Heteronychus arator) . they emerge, fly off, and then lay their eggs in the soil . Refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 64)/Western 2012 © (p . 48) for more detail . Crops attacked/host range • Beneficial dung beetles . Cockchafers are important pests of pastures and cereals . In general, beneficial dung beetles are found with Crops sown into long term pasture paddocks are most at brood balls . Brood balls are balls of dung on which risk of attack . Adults do not feed on crops . dung beetles lay eggs . Eggs hatch into larvae which feed on the dung of the brood ball . BH pasture cockchafer larvae feed on the foliage of Refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 150)/Western annual pasture species (e g. . subterranean clover), and (p . 125) for more detail . occasionally perennial pasture species and cereal crops .

Confused with/similar to YH cockchafer larvae mainly attack the roots of cereal crops but can also attack pastures . Similar to all other Scarabaeidae ‘C’-shaped larvae (e g. . dung beetles) . Distinguishing between most species RH pasture cockchafer larvae attack the roots of at the larval stage is difficult and generally only possible clovers and a range of annual and perennial grasses, using a microscope to compare hair (setae) structure . typically in the top 10 cm of soil . They also occasionally attack wheat . Distribution, pest status and risk period WA cockchafer larvae attack a range of crops and WA Cockchafers are found throughout the state . Their pastures . They can cause extensive damage to wheat presence in the soil does not always mean that damage crops . will occur . The larval stages feed underground and are most damaging to seedling crops during autumn/ winter . Damage may occur every second year as some species have a two year lifecycle .

RH pasture cockchafers are primarily root feeders . Moisture stimulates the larvae to move closer to the soil surface in autumn where they feed on roots of newly emerging seedlings . High numbers of grubs sever the roots of pasture plants below the soil surface, which allows the pasture to be rolled back like a carpet . Damage can also result in completely bare regions within a paddock, ranging in size from small isolated patches to very large areas .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource For all cockchafers For WA cockchafers For WA cockchafers • Birds prey upon grubs and are • If damage is anticipated, increase • Surface applications of most effective after cultivation or sowing rate for higher plant insecticides are not effective . tillage . density . Chemical seed treatments or • Several predatory and parasitic insecticides incorporated during flies and aspsw . For BH seeding can assist in control . • Other general predatory • Avoid overgrazing of pastures as invertebrates . bare batches are more attractive For BH • Fungal pathogen Metarhizium to adults laying eggs during • Foliar application of an insecticide spp . summer and early autumn . is effective, particularly on young larvae before they begin to feed For YH and RH on green plant material . • Cultivation • Grazing of pasture during late For YH and RH spring, summer and autumn (for • Surface-applied insecticides are YH) and heavy grazing in spring generally not effective given the (for RH) . subterranean feeding habits of • Re-sow affected areas using a larvae . higher seeding rate . • Re-sowing is best done using a method which disturbs the soil surface, leaving grubs vulnerable to predation . • Sowing less palatable crops (e.g. oats) .

21 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species TRUE WIREWORMS or CLICK BEETLES Coleoptera: Elateridae Various species

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva Hardened skin (cuticle sclerotised) Larva Elongated cylindrical body shape (eruciform) – slightly flattened . Flattened head Slightly tapering at and mouthparts both ends – oval in oriented cross section downwards Short legs

T wo upturned spines Creamy yellow body colour 2012

Anal proleg

Flattened Point at the body base of the thorax (pronotum)

T here are numerous true wireworm species in Australia Adults make a click sound when they flick themselves but they are not described in detail here and are only over after being placed on their backs . discussed at the family level . The lifecycle of many true wireworm species is not fully understood . The lifecycles of most pest species probably take more than a year to complete .

Management options Biological Cultural Chemical

Carabid beetle larvae feed on Removing excess stubble and Insecticidal seed dressings may offer Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource soil-dwelling insects, including trash is an effective strategy where some protection from moderate wireworms, but are usually not in this resident pest is a problem in larval numbers . high enough numbers to effectively continuous years . control large pest populations . Re-sow affected areas using a higher There are no other known parasites, seeding rate . predators or pathogens that effectively control wireworms in Using a re-sowing method that cereal crops . disturbs the soil surface, leaving larvae vulnerable to predation, is recommended .

23 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species FALSE WIREWORMS or MEALWORMS Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae Various species

Distinguishing characteristics/description *Elongated Larva *Head and cylindrical body shape mouthparts oriented (eruciform) with ring like downwards segmentation – round in cross section *Short legs (stronger pair of front legs) *Hardened skin (cuticle Adult sclerotised) *Simple (thread- like) antennae T wo upturned Dome-shaped body spines usually brown in Striations colour and (pits) on elytra covered in soil (wing covers)

Vegetable beetle Grey false wireworm Gonocephalum spp . Isopteran sp .

Shiny creamy- tan in colour 2012 © Shiny brown- greyish in colour Dark grey to with paler black in colour Flattened and under parts dull brown in colour

10 mm 20 30 40 50 10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva larva adult adult

Bronzed field beetle Eastern false wireworm Adelium brevicorne Pterohelaeus sp .

Shiny uniformly dark brown in colour

Cream-tan to yellow-orange in Dull black in Shiny black to colour with bronze in colour colour with darker rings flanged edges

10 mm 20 30 40 50 10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva larva adult adult * indicates character for all species

Bronzed field beetle larvae attack germinating canola Distribution, pest status and risk period above the ground and at the base of seedlings . Ring- False wireworms are common in fine textured soils, with barking and death of plants may occur . high levels of organic matter . They are not usually a problem on compacted soil (e g. . tyre tracks) . Grey false wireworm larvae attack germinating canola just below the ground, which results in damage to the Stubble retention and trash can favour these pests and crown and roots . some species can attack successive crops . Both the larvae and adults may cause damage depending on the crop and time of year . Monitoring/sampling Check under stubble prior to sowing, particularly if the paddock is coming out of long term pasture . Early Crops attacked/host range identification and detection of these pests (possibly Vegetable beetles are minor pests that attack summer using germinating seed traps prior to seeding) is (e g. . sunflowers) and winter crops (e g. . emerging canola important . Seed treatments can be applied to prevent and cereals) . damaged areas when pest numbers are high .

Bronzed field beetle larvae and grey false wireworms It is important to be aware of the crop growth stage as can attack canola at emergence in some seasons . cotyledons are most susceptible, whilst advanced plants will be able to out-grow moderate pest pressure .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Carabid beetle larvae feed on Removing excess stubble and trash is Insecticidal seed dressings may offer soil-dwelling insects, including an effective strategy where this pest some protection from moderate wireworms, but are usually not in is a problem in successive years . larval numbers . high enough numbers to effectively Early sowing and crop establishment A foliar application can be used control large pest populations . prior to egg hatching may result for partial control of bronzed field There are no other known parasites, in plants being able to outgrow beetle larvae as they attack crops predators or pathogens that damage . above ground . effectively control wireworms Re-sow affected areas using a higher in crops . seeding rate .

Using a re-sowing method that disturbs the soil surface, leaving larvae vulnerable to predation, is recommended .

Compacting soils post sowing to improve seedling vigor has been shown to have some benefit against grey false wireworm .

25 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species WEEVILS Coleoptera: Curculionidae The largest family of beetles . There are over 6,000 described species in Australia .

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Adult Antennae usually bent (elbowed) and clubbed . Situated on rostrum Elongation of front Rostrum head and (snout) rostrum

Rostrum - shapes vary Rigid T horax between genus/species body Elytra (hardened forewings) . Membranous hindwings (concealed beneath forewing) may be present or absent

Larva

Body colour usually creamy Small hardened but can also be green/yellow head capsule with 2012

Legless (maggot- like) - no ‘true’ Presence of hair (setae) legs or can be highly variable prolegs from stout and distinct to short or absent

As there are so many species, weevil identification is Confused with/similar to only discussed here at the family level . It is difficult to distinguish between the larval stages of weevil species . Larval stages are legless (apodous), Broadacre weevil pests are not covered in detail in this maggot-like in shape and may be confused with fly manual . Only adult size differentiation and key field larvae which are also legless . Unlike weevils, most fly identification characters are shown . larvae do not have a well-defined head capsule .

L IN

T T IA L tive tive 143 176 . . RA

IN AUS 5 mm 3-5mm 3-5mm 4mm

T T . PRESEN curved weevil rostrum T SA p © THREAT AUS WA p WA 2-3 Ute Guide Ute Distinc seedpod downward downward Cabbage Cabbage

PRESEN long narrow long narrow 2012 T NO

BIOSECURITY

NO 27 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species The distinctive appearance of adult weevils make them As larvae are legless, they are restricted in their unlikely to be confused with other beetles . However, movement and distribution . They may be restricted distinguishing between the many species of weevils can above ground (e g. . vegetable weevil) or confined be difficult . Mandalotus weevil (Mandalotus spp ). adults underground (e g. . Desiantha weevil) . Adults are more in particular are highly variable in appearance . mobile and can be winged and active flyers, or wingless and walk or march en masse . Adults and larvae can both Distribution, pest status and risk period cause damage depending on the crop and time of year . Weevils can be found in a wide range of habitats and many are known as pests of agriculture, stored products, Monitoring/sampling horticulture and forestry . They feed on vegetable parts A variety of sampling techniques can be used depending including shoots, buds, leaves, roots, wood and bark . upon the habitat . For example, pitfall traps can be used Some also feed on stored grain and vegetable products . to sample ground-dwelling weevils . For above-ground species, visual direct searches are appropriate . Often, direct searches may need to be undertaken at night when many species are active .

Damage symptoms Ring barking plants at ground level Scalloping on results in lopping leaf edges

Bullet hole on leaves 2012 ©

Thinning of plants and bare patches due to underground feeding on roots/seeds

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva adult Larva Pupa Adult

Elongated and Well-developed mandibulate tapered at rear T ransparent hindwing mouthparts Round to concealed underneath oval shaped Well-developed elytra (forewing) . blackish legs Patterns of black over red, orange or yellow Grey-black with

orange-yellow Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource markings across body . May have spines or white fluffy material

Colour and pattern variations of different species

Black ladybird Striped ladybird Minute two-spotted ladybird Rhyzobius sp . Microspis sp . Diomus notescens

29 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species T here are numerous species, but three species commonly Distribution/habitat found are the white collared ladybird, the common L adybirds are common throughout Australia and can spotted ladybird and the transverse ladybird . Adults are be found in almost all habitats, particularly in canola round to oval shaped, with black spots on red, orange or and wheat crops during spring, where there has been a yellow shells . Larvae have grey/black elongated bodies large build-up of aphids . They may also be seen on some with orange markings and may be covered in spines or native vegetation and in domestic gardens . white fluffy wax material . Ladybird eggs are generally yellow, spindle ‘football’ -shaped and laid standing on They are most prevalent in spring and seen occasionally end in clusters on plants . in autumn when large populations move to areas rich in prey . Lifecycle Complete metamorphosis . Pests attacked/impact on pests Ladybird beetles can be found throughout the year . The Most ladybird adults and larvae are predatory and prey highest numbers are observed in spring to early summer on a range of pests including aphids, leafhoppers, thrips, when they can undergo several generations . Each mites, moth eggs and small larvae . They are particularly generation takes approximately one month (depending voracious feeders on aphids and in some seasons the on the species) under ideal conditions . Female ladybird increase in ladybird populations (often in combination beetles can lay up to 200-1000 eggs in a lifetime, which with lacewings and other beneficial insects) will be may span several months . sufficient to keep aphid numbers below economically damaging levels . Confused with/similar to Many adults supplement their diet with pollen and a T he larger more colourful (contrasting patterns/spots) sugar source (e g. . nectar) . ladybird adults are readily identifiable but smaller drab species can be confused with other oval-shaped beetles Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 132-133)/Western (pp. 106-107). such as leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) .

Predatory ladybirds can be confused with the 28-spot ladybird (Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata), which is a large (8 mm) leaf-eating pest species found in horticultural areas, but rarely seen in broadacre . 2012 ©

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva adult a few species can be larger

Larva

Large well- Two long developed hair-like processes Semi-flattened, mouthparts Well projecting from last cream to brown developed body segment directed forward body with a darker legs head region Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Bulging eyes Adult ‘Hot water bottle’ body shape – distinct constriction Rows/striations running along elytra (wing covers)

T ransparent hindwing concealed underneath elytra

Large well- Well-developed developed and long legs mouthparts protruding forward

31 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Most species are soil-dwelling and move rapidly . Distribution/habitat Carabid beetles are widespread across Australia . Many Lifecycle species are nocturnal and can only be found during the Complete metamorphosis . day under tree bark, logs or among rocks . Some species There are many different species and their lifecycles have been found to increase in numbers in paddocks can differ greatly . Most species have a one or two year practicing minimum/no-till and stubble retention . lifecycle . Some breed in late summer and autumn Refuges (beetle banks) are considered beneficial in and then hibernate as larvae through winter . Others fostering carabids to help control pests in broadacre hibernate as adults and reproduce in spring or early crops . summer, after which the beetles usually die off, and a new generation appears in autumn . Pests attacked/impact on pests Confused with/similar to Adults and larvae both feed mostly on ground-dwelling invertebrates . This includes a wide range of soft-bodied All carabids can be distinguished by their large mouthparts pests including wireworms, cockchafers, caterpillars, that are directed forward . earwigs and slugs . Most carabid species are useful in Larvae may be mistaken for larvae of true wireworms suppressing pest populations, while a small number also (Elateridae) or false wireworms (Tenebrionidae) as they feed on plant vegetation . are similar in shape and soil-dwelling . However, carabid Ute Guides, Southern (p. 139)/ Western (p. 115). larvae have very prominent mouthparts in keeping with their predatory lifestyle . They also have processes projecting from their last abdominal segment, which are hair-like in structure and usually longer than those in true and false wireworms .

Carabid beetles are also often confused with true and false wireworm beetles . Many adults have a characteristic flattened ‘hot water bottle’–shaped body, with pitted groove lines running along the wing covers . They also possess large bulging eyes . Some carabid beetles such

2012 as Calosoma spp . are conspicuous due to their bright © metallic green colour . Carabid beetles usually move faster than wireworms and can be shinier .

Hemiptera - half (hemi); wing (ptera)

T he order Hemiptera is divided into three groups Groups (families) relevant to broadacre (suborders) each with distinct features: cropping • Auchenorrhyncha (leaf hoppers) - pairs of wings Aphids (F: Aphididae): There are many pest aphid similar in structure (not shape); species, including a key biosecurity threat . Aphids are • Heteroptera (e g. . nabids, assassin bugs and shield covered in detail in this section on page 34 . bugs) - forewings have half of the wing thickened (hardened) to form a hard leathery cover and a softer Leafhoppers (F: Cicadellidae): Leafhoppers are membranous rear wing; generally small, green insects that puncture leaves and may leave a pattern of bleached marks . They are minor • Sternorrhyncha (e g. . aphids, scale insects, lerps and and sporadic pests in broadacre crops . Leafhoppers are mealy bugs) - pairs of wings similar in structure (not not covered in this manual . For further information refer shape) . Some can be wingless . to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 80)/Western (p . 61) .

There are 6,000 hemipteran species described in Australia, Mirids (SF: Miridae): Mirids are similar to leaf hoppers . in 100 different families . Some mirids are predatory . Mirids are not covered in this manual . For further information refer to Ute Guides, Main characteristics Southern (p . 69)/Western (p . 51) .

Nymphs Seed Bugs (SF: Lygaeoidea): Rutherglen bug (Nysius

Most resemble adults but are smaller, wingless and less vinitor) belongs to this family and it is a common but Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource developed . sporadic native pest in broadacre crops . It can breed abundantly, if rain allows flowering and seed set of Adult forms plants in warm weather . Nymphs are different in colour While the appearance of bugs varies widely, most bugs and shape to adults . Seed bugs are not covered in this have two pairs of wings . Some adult forms are wingless manual . For further information on Rutherglen bugs (e .g . aphids) . Bugs have piercing and sucking mouthparts refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 65)/Western (p . 49) . which are often modified to form a hardened stylet/ rostrum/proboscis or beak . The proboscis of bugs Shield and stink bugs (F: Pentatomidae): This family contains cutting blades and a two-channelled tube . contains both beneficial insects (e g. . the glossy shield bug, Cermatulus nasalis) and some sporadic pests, which Bugs feed by cutting into a plant or animal and sending are more common in warmer climates (e g. . the green saliva down one of the tubes to begin digestion . The vegetable bug, Nezara viridula) . Shield and stink bugs liquid food is then sucked up the other tube . When are not covered in this manual . For further information insects are resting, the proboscis is often tucked up refer to Ute Guides, Southern (pp . 66-68)/Western under the body between the legs . (p . 50, 117, 118) .

Lifecycle Nabids (F: Nabidae): These bugs are predators, attacking a wide range of prey . Nabids are also called damsel bugs Incomplete metamorphosis . and tend to be more delicate in structure than assassin bugs . Nabids can also eat plants and are regarded as omnivores . They are covered in this section on page 47 .

Assassin bugs (F: Reduviidae): These bugs are predators, attacking a wide range of prey . Assassin bugs are not covered in this manual . For further information refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 142)/Western (p . 120) . © 2012

33 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species CROP APHIDS Hemiptera: Aphididae

Key aphid characteristics

• Piercing sucking mouthpart - needle-like mouthpart (stylet/proboscis) on the underside of the body . • Siphuncles (cornicles) - paired tube-like projections (on 5th abdominal segment); wax secreting structures; characteristic shape and size . • Cauda - tail-like process terminating the abdomen; characteristic size, shape and hair pattern . • Segmented antennae – 4 to 6 segments; last antennal segment can be characteristic (e .g . length of terminal segment relative to the base segment) . • Tubercle - small humps on the forehead between antennae . • Wings - adults can have wings or be wingless .

Antennal or frontal tubercle Variations in last antennal segment Compound eye

vi TP Base v T erminal iv process vi T erminal process antenna Base Head iii ii Base Compound i

2012 Rostrum eye Source: Modified from Krono & Papp (1977) ©

Abdomen Side view of abdomen

Abdominal Siphunculus spiracle Segment 8 Femur

Cauda Tibia Cauda Cornicle (Siphunculus) i Cauda Genital ii aperture Tarsus Source: Modified from Blackman and Eastop (2000)

Source: Modified from Krono & Papp (1977) ii

Tibia i Tarsus

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 34 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species General aphid lifecycle and biology Summer/autumn In Australia, most pest aphid species only produce Aphids require specific host plants for their females, which may be winged (alates) or wingless survival . Aphid populations usually decline over (apterae), and these give birth to live young . In other summer . The availability of suitable host plants (e g. . countries some aphid species have different (or altered) specific weed families on roadsides and verges) allows lifecycle phases (e g. . sexual/asexual) that are initiated populations to survive and increase . Winged aphids by host-insect interactions and/or environmental move into crops in autumn and aphid numbers conditions . Many aphids are plant host (crop) specific . will usually start to build up along crop edges . The formation of winged aphids and aphid movement Some aphids are vectors of crop diseases that can be generally increases when host plants are dying or when detrimental to growth and limit yield . These diseases overcrowding occurs with high populations . include barley yellow dwarf virus in cereals, cucumber mosaic virus in lupin and pea seed borne mosaic virus Winter in field peas . These viruses have the largest yield impact L ow temperatures and heavy rainfall in winter often limit when they are introduced early in the life of the crop, aphid populations . Nymphs go through several growth usually within the first ten weeks of growth . Aphids are stages, moulting at each stage into a larger individual . efficient in spreading diseases due to their sap-sucking Sometimes the delicate pale aphid skins or casts (the mouthparts . Transmission occurs via feeding on the exoskeleton they have shed) can be seen . Nymphs do vascular tissue (phloem) of infected plants . Once the not have wings . virus is picked up, it can be carried in the salivary glands or restricted to the stylet of the aphid . The virus can be Spring carried for a long (persistent transmission) or short (non- Spring often triggers a rapid increase in aphid numbers persistent) period of time after aphids feed on infected as increasing temperatures and flowering crops provide plants . These different modes of transmission influence favourable breeding conditions . Most aphids form the effectiveness of chemical sprays against virus spread . dense colonies before winged aphids are produced . These move onto surrounding plants further into the crop creating hot spots . In some seasons, aphids form large colonies (especially at flowering) and heavy infestations may produce large amounts of a sticky

secretion (honeydew) . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Figure 4 .1 An example of an aphid lifecycle (Aphis sp .) Primary host plant Secondary host plant

Spring migrants alate

apterous alate

males eggs

Source: Modified from Blackman and Eastop

35 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species APHID VIRUSES Aphids as virus vectors in pulse crops

T here are many aphid species that transmit viruses in For non-persistent transmission, the virus is usually pulse crops (Table 4 1. ) . The major species are green restricted to the stylet of the insect . This means virus peach aphid, cowpea aphid, pea aphid and blue- spread generally only occurs over short distances and green aphid but this list is not exclusive . Aphids spread aphids only remain infective for periods from a few viruses between plants by feeding and probing when minutes up to a few hours . For persistently transmitted they fly during autumn and spring . viruses, the virus is ingested, passes through the gut and then moves to the salivary glands where it can The ability to transmit particular viruses differs with potentially be transmitted to other plants . The aphid each aphid species and viruses may be transmitted in retains the virus for the remainder of its life . a persistent or non-persistent manner . This influences the likelihood of plant infection (Figure 4 .2) .

Table 4 .1 Some aphids known to transmit viruses in pulse crops

Aphid Species Common Name Cucumber Mosaic Pea Seed-borne Mo- Beet Western Virus (CMV) saic Virus (PSbMV) Yellows Virus (BWYV)

Acyrthosiphon pisum Pea ahid   50% Aphis craccivora Cowpea aphid  9 .4%   Acyrthosiphon kondoi Blue green aphid  6 .1% Myzus persicae Green peach aphid  10 8%.   96% Lipaphis erysimi Turnip aphid  3 .9% Macrosiphum euphorbiae Potato aphid   14% Aphis gossypii Melon or cotton aphid   Aulacorthum solani Foxglove aphid    Brachycaudus helichrysi Leafcurl plum aphid  Brevicoryne brassicae Cabbage aphid    Hypermyzus lactucae Sowthistle aphid  2012

© Myzus ascalonicus Shallot aphid  Myzus ornatus Ornate aphid   Rhopalosiphum maidis Corn aphid (in glasshouse) Rhopalosiphum padi Oat aphid (in glasshouse)  Therioaphis trifolii Spotted alfalfa aphid  Uroleucon sonchi Brown sowthistle aphid  Note that many more vectors are listed for PsbMV and/or CMV. % is the virus transmission rate for various species

References and further reading: Figure 4 .2 Persistent versus non-persistent transmission of viruses Aftab and Freeman (2006) Temperate Pulse Viruses: Pea Seedborne Mosaic Persistent transmission Non-persistent transmission Virus (PSBMV) AG1267 DPI-Victoria Coutts and Jones (2006) Aust J Ag Res 1-2 hours feeding e .g . BWYV Instant transmission e g. . CMV, AMV 57,975-982 Freeman and Aftab (2006) Temperate Pulse Viruses: Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) AG1207 DPI- Victoria ICTVdB Virus Descriptions http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ ICTVdB/00.039.0.02.003.htm Jones and Proudlove (1991) Ann App Biol 118, 319-329 x x Jones et al. (2008) Plant Path 57, 842- 853 McKirdy et al. (2005) Viruses diseases of chickpea Farmnote 16/97 www.agricwa. Aphicides for non-persistent transmission are likely to be ineffective . gov.au Early management strategies are important . Nault et al. (2009) Environ Entomol 38, 1347-1359

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Corn aphid

10 mm 20 30 adult Oblong- Antennal shaped segment VI

Terminal process

Base ½ as long as terminal segment Basal portion

Pointed and T wo dark tapering tip on patches at siphuncles, the base not clearly visible of each in this image siphuncle Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Oat aphid

10 mm 20 30 adult Pear- shaped Antennal segment VI

Terminal process

Base ¼ as long as terminal process

Basal portion

Rust-reddish patch at the Blunt tip on base of abdomen, siphuncles in between siphuncles

Cereal aphids are similar in colour with only subtle A definitive diagnostic character to distinguish between differences . Corn aphids tend to be light green to dark oat and corn aphids (both adults and nymphs) is the olive in colour and oat aphids olive-green to black in length of the terminal part of the antennae relative to colour . the base of the antennae (see diagram above) . © 2012

37 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Confused with/similar to Large amounts of honeydew (aphid exudates) and black sooty mould may be seen in prolonged, severe cases . T hese aphids can be confused with each other and other minor cereal aphids (e g. . rose-grain aphid, grain aphid and rice root aphid) . Monitoring/sampling Direct visual searches and/or sweep netting . Distribution, pest status and risk period Regular monitoring for cereal aphids should start in late Cereal aphids can be found all year round and on all cereal winter and continue through to early spring with more crop growth stages . They sometimes cause feeding frequent monitoring at the most vulnerable crop stage damage to cereals when there is a rapid increase in their (stem elongation to late flowering) . Check at least five reproduction and populations rise above economically points over the entire paddock including representative damaging levels, usually in spring . parts . Visually search for aphids on a minimum of 20 plants at each point and count the number of tillers The two major cereal aphids can vector plant diseases infested with aphids . such as barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) . This is more common in high rainfall cropping zones where virus- For aphid-prone areas (high rainfall), regular monitoring infected self-sown cereals and grasses are present, along is recommended from crop emergence in autumn, to with large numbers of aphids during the early growth detect aphids moving into crops, particularly along stages of new season crops . paddock edges . Very few aphids are required to transmit BYDV from infected to healthy seedlings . If aphids are Crops attacked/host range seen, it may be too late for control unless plants are at Oat aphids mainly attack oats and wheat, but can occur the early seedling stage . on all cereals and grasses . When widespread early infection occurs, BYDV can Corn aphids mainly attack barley, but can also attack reduce grain yields by up to 50% . More commonly, the other cereals and grasses . disease is confined to patches close to crop edges, where early aphid disease transmission occurred . Both aphid species may be found during summer/early autumn on a range of volunteer grasses (alternate host Western Australian recommendations for aphid feeding plants) and self-sown cereals . damage action thresholds on cereals at tillering is to consider control if aphid populations exceed 15 aphids/

2012 tiller on 50% of tillers for crops expected to yield 3 t/ha © Damage symptoms or more . Direct feeding damage by large numbers of aphids on plants can result in sap removal that can cause nutrient Western Australian research on aphid feeding damage loss and plant-wilting . Visual symptoms are usually not in the absence of BYDV demonstrated variable yield very obvious until close inspection of leaf whorls and losses up to 10% and reduction in seed size with aphid sheaths, where dark-coloured masses of aphids may infestations at these levels . be seen . In some cases, aphid colonies infest the seed heads and congregate in large numbers .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Hover fly, lacewing larvae Summer/autumn BYDV control: and ladybirds are known pre-season Use of appropriate insecticide seed dressings and/or synthetic predators that help weed control by pyrethroid sprays in the first eight weeks of crop development . suppress populations . heavy grazing or Aphid feeding damage: herbicides to control Aphid parasitoid wasps, Seed treatments delay colonisation . alternate host plants evident by the presence Border spraying (e .g . autumn/early winter) when aphids begin (e g. . volunteer of ‘mummies’ . to colonise crop edges may provide sufficient control . grasses and cereals) . Naturally occuring Selective chemicals (i .e . pirimicarb) should be considered aphid fungal diseases because they are effective against aphids but relatively can dramatically affect harmless to beneficial species and other non-targets . populations .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 70-71)/ Western (pp. 52-53). Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 38 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species CEREAL APHIDS BIOSECURITY THREAT NOT PRESEN Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia) T IN AUSTRALIA

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 adult

Short antennae

Elongated spindle- shaped body

Pale green in colour

Dual tail appearance (cauda - bifurcate)

Siphuncles not visible

Early feeding damage: streaking along plant veins (white and purple in colour) Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Later feeding damage: flag leaf curling and immaturity of grain head; prostrate appearance

Confused with/similar to As with all aphids, RWA would spread through crops by active flight or wind currents . Long-distance dispersal Russian wheat aphid (RWA) can be confused with overseas also occurs through hitchhiking on machinery, other cereal aphids but the lack of visible siphuncles clothes or plant material . distinguishes this exotic aphid threat from common cereal species . Crops attacked/host range Distribution and means of spread Wheat, barley, triticale, oats and rye are preferred hosts, but RWA can attack most cereal crops . RWA has spread throughout all major grain growing countries except Australia . If this exotic pest enters This species spends its entire lifecycle on cereals and Australia it has been estimated that it could cause grasses . Volunteer cereals and grasses around crop edges significant damage to crops, resulting in up to 60-75% and road verges can provide a food source, particularly yield loss . over summer (between harvest and emergence of ©

autumn-planted crops) . 2012

39 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Damage symptoms Reporting protocol Plant damage symptoms include leaf curl and A rapid response to detection of potential exotic pests discolouration, as well as white and purple streaks can be the key to containment, eradication or along the veins . RWA prefers to live in leaf whorls and management . If you see anything unusual, call the tightly rolled leaves, thus damage begins at the base Exotic Plant Pest Hotline on 1800 084 881 . and progresses towards the tip of the leaves . Often the leaves will lay prostrate on the ground . Later infestations Speak to your state department of primary industries or can cause damage to the flag leaf which curls, trapping department of agriculture before sending any samples . the awn and preventing the head from completely emerging . This produces a ‘gooseneck’ head and as a result, the grain does not properly mature . Heads can also appear bleached .

Surveillance One of the best ways to identify if RWA is present in the It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is field is to look for the damage symptoms listed above . followed including packaging, handling and transport to These symptoms can also be caused by other diseases the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling and disorders such as herbicide and virus damage, could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit nutrient deficiencies and frost . It is important to identify for identification . these symptoms in conjunction with the presence of aphids to be more confident in the diagnosis . Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment in the detected area until a confirmation can be made . Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase the chance of successful eradication and reduce the More information cost and social impact of an incursion . Plant Health Australia website Incorporate surveillance for exotic pests when undertaking www .planthealthaustralia .com .au/biosecurity/ routine crop monitoring and other crop detection and grains measurement activities . Ute Guides, Southern (p. 171)/ Western (p.138). 2012 ©

Distinguishing characteristics/description 10 mm 20 30 Cabbage aphid adult for all species

Dark head and thorax

Tips of Form dense colonies Dull grey- siphuncles (appear bluish grey) green in do not reach with a fine, whitish colour base of powder covering . cauda Often found on flowering spikes and early pods Turnip aphid Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Tips of Dark bars on siphuncles Form dense colonies abdomen (dorsal) nearly reach with a WAXY covering of adults and base of (less pronounced than later instars cauda powdery cover of cabbage aphids) . Often found on flowering spikes and early pods Green peach aphid Pale yellow- green, green, orange or pinkish in colour

Dark abdominal patch on winged adults T ubercles turned inwards

Mainly found sparsely Oval-shaped distributed on undersides of leaves Siphuncles longer than cabbage and

41 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Confused with/similar to Green peach aphid may also cause indirect damage by Cabbage, turnip and green peach aphids can be spreading plant viruses . confused with each other and some pulse aphids . Heavy infestations, particularly at flowering, can lead to large amounts of honeydew and black sooty mould . Distribution, pest status and risk period Cabbage and turnip aphid infestations occur most Cabbage and turnip aphids usually form dense colonies frequently from early flowering to late pod development . on the floral parts, especially at the maturing, terminal They are most prolific in autumn and spring when the flowering spike . Colonies on leaves often become warm weather enables them to rapidly multiply . Rates evident by the distortion and discoloration (yellowing) of development reduce over winter . Canola is most of infested parts . Younger developing plant parts are vulnerable to aphid damage during bud formation preferred to older senescing parts . through to late flowering . The cabbage aphid is more Green peach aphids are usually found on the lower tolerant of cold weather than the turnip aphid and will surface of basal, senescing leaves . They do not generally continue to develop slowly at temperatures around form dense colonies or cause leaf distortion . Large 5-9o C . numbers occasionally occur on young, vegetative Green peach aphids are most common in autumn and canola . seldom cause economic loss to canola crops . However, they are an important vector of plant diseases such as Monitoring/sampling cucumber mosaic virus, bean yellow mosaic virus and Direct visual searches, sweep netting, yellow sticky traps beet western yellows virus in canola (see p . 36) . or yellow pan traps .

Crops attacked/host range Monitoring for aphids should start in late winter and continue through early spring with regular checks at Cabbage and turnip aphid host plants are generally the most vulnerable crop stage (bud formation to late restricted to the crops and weeds belonging to the flowering) . cruciferous plant family . For disease-prone areas (high rainfall), regular aphid Green peach aphids will attack many plant families monitoring from autumn onwards is recommended (including broad leaf pastures, pulse crops and oilseeds) . to detect aphids moving into crops, particularly along

2012 paddock edges . © Damage symptoms Aphids can cause direct feeding damage to plants, when Check at least five points over the entire paddock, in large numbers, as they remove sap . This reduces including representative parts . Visually search for aphids nutrient flow and can cause plant wilting . on a minimum of 20 plants at each point and count the number of plants infested with aphids . If more than 20% of plants are infested, control measures should be considered to avoid yield losses .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Hover fly, lacewing larvae and Implementing early summer weed Seed treatments and border spraying ladybirds are effective predators control in areas where aphids build (autumn/early winter) when aphids and can help suppress populations . up on alternate host plants (e .g . begin to colonise crop edges may cruciferous weeds) . provide sufficient control . Aphid parasitoid wasps (evident by the presence of ‘mummies’) . Sow crops early where possible to Selective foliar spray (e .g . pirimicarb) . enable plants to begin flowering Insecticide resistance is common in before aphid numbers peak . some Australian aphid populations . Select cultivars that are less Chemical rotation of insecticide susceptible to aphid-feeding damage groups will reduce the onset of where possible . resistance .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 73-75)/Western (pp. 54-56).

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 Blue green aphid adult Pea aphid adult Cowpea aphid adult

Blue green aphid Pea aphid

Dark joints on antennae Long segments antennae

Very long siphuncles (relative to pea aphid) Blackish Blue-green to Yellow-green or knee joints grey-green in pinkish in colour colour

Cowpea aphid Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Adults black in colour

Nymphs dull grey in colour

Black and white banding on the legs (for all growth stages)

For green peach aphid characteristics see canola aphids.

Confused with/similar to Distribution, pest status and risk period Can be confused with other pulse and canola aphids . Pulse aphids are common in winter and spring and are Currently there are no aphid biosecurity threats for usually found on the upper part of the plants, particularly pulses . growing points .

43 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Crops attacked/host range Monitoring/sampling T hese aphids are commonly found on all pulses Direct visual searches and counts, sweeping netting, including field peas, lupins, lentils, faba beans and yellow sticky traps or yellow pan traps (can assist in early other legumes . aphid detection) .

Blue green aphids are also found on annual medic, For disease-prone areas (high rainfall), regular subterranean clover pastures and vetch . monitoring for virus management is critical in pulses . Minimising the virus source, sowing seed that is virus- Damage symptoms free, managing crop agronomy (to reduce aphid landing sites) and monitoring for early detection are some key Aphids can cause direct feeding damage to plants when management strategies . in large numbers as they remove sap, which can cause wilting of plants . Aphids also cause indirect damage by Regular monitoring for aphids should start in autumn spreading plant viruses that they take up and pass on and continue through to early spring with several checks when sucking sap from infected plants and then feeding a week at the most vulnerable crop stage (bud formation on uninfected plants . to late flowering) . Heavy infestations deform leaves, growing points and Check at least five points over the entire paddock stunt plants . At flowering, heavy infestations can lead to including representative parts . Visually search for aphids large amounts of honeydew and black sooty mould . on a minimum of 20 plants at each point and count the number of plants infested with aphids . If more than 20% of plants are infested, control measures should be considered to avoid yield losses .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Hover fly, lacewing larvae and Implementing early summer weed Selective foliar spray (e .g . pirimicarb) . ladybirds are effective predators control on your property where Seed treatments . and can help suppress populations . aphids build up on alternate host

2012 plants (e .g . broad leaf weeds) . Border spraying (autumn/early

© Aphid parasitoid wasps (evident by winter) when aphids begin to the presence of ‘mummies’) . Sow crops early where possible to colonise crop edges may provide enable plants to begin flowering sufficient control . before aphid numbers peak . Insecticide resistance is common Select cultivars that are less in many Green peach aphid susceptible to aphid feeding damage . populations . Chemical rotation of Ensuring rapid development of dense insecticide groups will reduce the crop canopy so that bare ground is onset of resistance . covered will assist in deterring aphid landings .

Narrow rows with high seeding rates can assist .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 75-78)/Western (pp. 54, 57, 58, 60).

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 adult

Adult Colour varies from greyish-brown to Wide oval-shaped reddish-brown body with a wide triangular head

Wings completely covered by a Piercing hardened shield (scutellum) and sucking with a rounded bottom edge mouthpart Eggs Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Nymphs Rounder in shape Spherical (about 1 mm in diameter) . than adults, five Shiny light green in colour, nymphal stages laid in two even rows (raft)

Confused with/similar to Distribution and potential spread T he Sunn pest can be confused with other true bugs such T he Sunn pest is widespread in Bulgaria, Greece, as stink bugs (Pentatomidae), seed bugs (Lygaeidae) and Romania, Southern Russia, Iran and Israel . It is also other shield bugs such as the predatory glossy shield present in other European and Asian countries . bug (Cermatulus sp ). . A distinctive character of the Sunn pest is the wing covering (scutellum) which completely Adults have functional wings and can actively disperse hides the wings . This feature is not seen in the other two and migrate long distances (>250 km) . bug families nor in predatory shield bugs . The Sunn pest has one generation per year and individuals can survive for up to one year depending on temperature and fat reserves .

45 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Crops attacked/host range Reporting protocol T he Sunn pest attacks a variety of cereal crops such as A rapid response to detection of potential exotic wheat, barley, oats, sorghum, rye, durum millet and pests can be the key to containment, eradication or corn . It can also feed on wild cereal grasses . management . If you see anything unusual, call the Exotic Plant Pest Hotline on 1800 084 881 . Damage symptoms Sunn pests predominantly attack leaves, stems and grain, reducing yield and quality . Young instars feed on buds and leaves, hiding deep in the plant canopy . Older instars and adults feed on developing grain and are capable of feeding on dry grain if water is available .

Infested cereal crops display yellowing and dieback Speak to your department of primary industries or of the leaves, stems and entire plant . Stunting and department of agriculture before sending any samples . abnormal flower formation and discolouration (whitening) can also occur . Cereal grains may be aborted It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is if feeding occurs before grain development . Feeding on followed including packaging, handling and transport to developing seeds can result in shrivelled, discoloured the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling (white) and empty heads . The Sunn pest injects toxic could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit enzymes into the seed during feeding and, as a result, for identification . the grain flour has a foul smell and the quality of baking dough is substantially reduced . Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment in the detected area until a confirmation can be made . Surveillance More information Winter and spring cereals should be targeted for Plant Health Australia website surveillance of the Sunn pest . www .planthealthaustralia .com .au/biosecurity/ grains Any insect that resembles this bug must be sent to a specialist for identification . Ute Guides, Southern (p. 181)/ Western (p.148).

2012 Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase © the chance of successful eradication and reduce the cost and social impact of an incursion .

Incorporate surveillance for exotic pests when undertaking routine crop monitoring and other crop detection and measurement activities .

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 adult

Nymph

Undeveloped wings (wing buds) Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Large and well L ong antennae Adult developed eyes and legs

Narrow elongated head

47 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Lifecycle Distribution/habitat Incomplete metamorphosis . Damsel bugs are common throughout most of Australia and can generally be found in the canopy of crop plants Adults have a slender pale brown body with a narrow with an abundance of prey . They are prevalent in spring head, large protruding eyes and long antennae . Damsel to autumn and adults can live for a few weeks . bugs move quickly when disturbed . Juveniles are similar but smaller in size . Pests attacked/impact on pests Damsel bugs can have multiple generations per year Adults and nymphs are predatory and feed on a range with each generation lasting around 4-5 weeks in warm of prey including caterpillars, aphids, leafhoppers, mirids conditions . and moth eggs . In particular, damsel bugs are considered to be effective predators of diamondback moth . Females insert their eggs into leaves or plant stems . Ute Guides, Southern (p. 141)/Western (p.119). Confused with/similar to Damsel bugs can sometimes be mistaken for other bugs such as mirids but they differ by having a long snout (proboscis) that is fine, curved and carried under the body when not feeding . They also appear similar to assassin bugs, although these have a concave abdomen (when viewed from above) and are less widely distributed than damsel bugs .

The mouthparts fit into a groove under the body . 2012 ©

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 adult Spined predatory shield adult Assassin

Spined predatory shield bug Assassin bug

Adult Nymph Eggs

Narrow, elongated head region

Prominent spines Lack of wings Eggs have ‘eye- in nymph Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource on shoulders lashes’ and laid L ong antennae and legs . (thorax) in batches Large and well developed eyes . Piercing/sucking mouthparts (beak)

Lifecycle Incomplete metamorphosis . Distribution/habitat There are many different species and although these Predatory shield bugs are common throughout most differ widely in their lifecycles, most species have of Australia and are often found in the canopy where multiple generations per year . Species that may be found there is an abundance of prey . Assassin bugs are more in broadacre crops are assassin bugs, the glossy shield common in tropical crops . bug (Cermatulus nassalis) and the spined predatory shield bug (Oechalia schellenbergii) . Pests attacked/impact on pests Predatory bugs are typically prevalent in spring through Adults and older nymphs are predatory, feeding on a to autumn . Adults usually live for several months . They range of prey including moth larvae, eggs, aphids, mites lay their eggs in batches or rows on plant material or the and other insects . Some assasin bugs just attack spiders . soil surface . Species vary in the size and type of prey they are able to capture, but all use piercing mouthparts to suck out the Confused with/similar to body contents of their prey . Some inject a toxin to help break down the cellular material . Predatory shield bugs can easily be mistaken for pest shield bugs, such as the brown shield bug . Shield bugs are larger in size than other pest sucking bugs such as Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 142-144)/Western (pp. 117, 118, 120). rutherglen bugs and mirids . The spined predatory shield bug is easily recognised by the large spines on its thoracic region . Assassin bugs are similar to damsel bugs . © 2012

49 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species FLIES (Order Diptera)

Diptera - di (two); ptera (wings)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Antennae brush- Antennae Modern antennae - Adult like in males thread-like in hair-like structure females (arista)

Sponging Piercing mouthpart and sucking mouthpart *Compound eyes *Six legs

Primitive *One pair Modern

2012 form adult form of wings © (forewing)

*Reduced knob-like hindwings (halteres) just behind forewings

Larva Modern form

T apering head region Legless Primitive Mouth Breathing hole form hook (prothoracic spiracle) Head capsule

* Indicates character for all species Setae

Source: Modified from Peterson (1960) and CSIRO (1991)

Complete metamorphosis . Hoverflies (F: Syrphidae): Resemble bees superficially The eggs are usually laid into a suitable food source . The but adults have a characteristic hover behaviour in larvae complete their development and pupate in the flight . Hoverfly larvae are predators of soft-bodied substrate where eggs were laid . This can be soil, organic insects, particularly aphids . Hoverflies are discussed in matter, water, plant tissue or animal tissue . this section on page 57 . Feeding Adult mouthparts vary from sucking and/or piercing to biting . Most adults ingest liquid foods and digestion is partially external (e g. . salivary secretions are used to liquefy food and then the softened product is ingested) . Some flies (e g. . mosquitoes and March flies) pierce the skin of their prey and suck up blood .

Fly larvae generally feed on moist, decomposing food items such as carrion, fungi and rotting vegetable matter, although some are predators (e .g . Syrphidae) and parasites (e g. . Tachnidae) of other insects and animals . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource © 2012

51 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species GALL MIDGES OR GALL GNATS BIOSECURITY THREAT NOT PRESEN Diptera: Cecidomyiidae T IN AUSTRALIA Hessian fly Mayetiola( destructor) & Barley stem gall midge (Mayetiola hordei)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 larva both species pupa both species L ong filiform adult both species (bead-like) antennae Adult Resemble Hessian fly mosquitoes - slender body

Long legs

Halteres, reduced hindwing Wing venation consists of a few weak veins

Larvae of both species Legless (maggot-like) with 13 body segments . 2012

© Cylindrical and tapered to one end . Barley stem gall midge larvae - pale red initially and turn white as they mature . Hessian fly larvae - initially Hessian fly eggs white then turn Approx . 0 .5 mm long . brown Elongate with rounded ends . Initially red in colour, then darken with age . Laid on upper leaf surface in lines parallel with leaf veins Pupae Hessian fly pupae Barley stem gall midge pupae

Larvae produce a pea-sized stem gall while residing inside the stem and feeding internally

Pupae of both species known as ‘flax- seeds’ . Dark brown in colour . No galls formed when Tapered to one end . Hessian fly larvae reside Present towards harvest at within host plant base of host plant

Adults can also be confused with other midges and Surveillance mosquitoes . On a symptomatic plant, separate the sheath at the base of the stem . You may find maggot-like larva feeding on Distribution and potential spread the stem surface . Look carefully for a pea-shaped gall Hessian fly is widespread in Europe and has been formation caused by Barley stem gall midge . Carefully recorded in the USA . It has also been detected in other split the gall and you may find the larvae inside . countries including New Zealand, Africa and Russia . Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase Barley stem gall midge has been recorded in Europe, the chance of successful eradication and reduce the USA, Canada and Africa . cost and social impact of an incursion .

These species actively fly and can disperse on wind Incorporate surveillance for exotic pests when currents more than nine kilometres . All life stages undertaking routine crop monitoring and other crop (larvae, pupae and adults) can achieve long distance detection and measurement activities . dispersal by hitchhiking on plant material (e g. . straw) . Pupae are able to survive over long periods . Any insect that resembles these flies must be sent to a specialist for identification .

Crops attacked/host range Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Reporting protocol T hese exotic fly pests impact on market access and production costs . Crop losses of up to 40% have been A rapid response to detection of potential exotic recorded for Hessian fly . pests can be the key to containment, eradication or management . If you see anything unusual, call the Exotic Hessian fly: Wheat is the primary host capable of Plant Pest Hotline on 1800 084 881 . supporting the whole lifecycle . Alternate host plants include wheatgrass, rye, barley, grass weed species and broome .

Barley stem gall midge: Found almost exclusively on barley but occasionally recorded on oat, wheat and rye . Speak to your department of primary industries or Due to the difficulty in distinguishing between these department of agriculture before sending any samples . two species, the information on distribution and host types are limited and not absolute . It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is followed including packaging, handling and transport to the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling Damage symptoms could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit Hessian fly larvae feed on leaves, stems and plant heads for identification . resulting in leaf discolouration (dark green to bluish- green), stunted growth and reduced grain quality and Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment yield . Larvae lodge themselves between leaf sheaths in the detected area until a confirmation can be made . above nodes, while pupae are found at the base of plants at harvest . Control of these flies would rely on cultural More information methods and plant host resistance as most chemical Plant Health Australia website controls are ineffective . www .planthealthaustralia com. .au/biosecurity/grains ©

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 169, 170, 175)/Western (pp. 136, 137, 142). 2012

53 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species EXOTIC LEAF MINERS BIOSECURITY THREAT NOT PRESEN Diptera: Agromyzidae T IN AUSTRALIA

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 adult

Adult Larval damage

Shiny black/ One set of grey and wings (fore- yellow in wings) colour

Bright yellow marking on Characteristic leaf mining (tunnelling) from larvae 2012 base of thorax © (scutellum) in feeding in plant tissue most species

Tunnels usually whitish in colour with dried cut brown areas that thicken as larvae mature . Tunnels can be tightly coiled, linear, serpentine or irregular shaped

T he Agromyzidae family are a well-known group of Key exotic agromyzid species for Australian small flies whose larvae feed internally on living plant agriculture include: tissue, often as stem and leaf-miners . Within Australia there are approximately 147 Agromyzidae species in 16 American serpentine leaf-miner (Liriomyza trifolii) genera . Many Australian species are still undescribed . Pea or serpentine leaf-miner (Liriomyza huidobrensis) Pea leaf-miner (Chromatomyia horticola) Nearly all Agromyzidae species are host-specific but a Chickpea leaf-miner (Liriomyza cicerina) few species are highly polyphagous and have become important pests of agriculture and horticulture in many Diagnostic characteristics are dealt with at the family parts of the world . level due to the difficulty in separating these species .

The larvae of Liriomyza spp . leave the plant to pupate, Damage symptoms so pupae may be found in crop debris, in the soil or T ypical leaf miner damage includes leaf destruction (leaf sometimes on the leaf surface . In contrast, pea leaf- wilt, desiccation and premature fall) and retarded plant miner (C. horticola) larvae pupate inside the leaf at the growth . Plant damage in the form of stippling can also end of the larval mine . be caused by females puncturing leaves for sap-feeding and egg-laying (oviposition) . Plants can also suffer from These closely-related species are difficult to tell apart secondary attack when pathogenic fungi enter the leaf and identification requires specialist knowledge . through puncture wounds . Mechanical transmission of plant viruses can also occur . Severe infestations can lead These biosecurity threats can be confused with native to total crop loss due to both larval-mining and leaf- leaf-miner species . Most of these are host-specific but puncturing . they are not well known, and as many species remain undescribed, they should be sent for identification . Most leaf mines are greenish in colour at first, turning whitish over time . Leaf mines wind irregularly through The occurrence of leaf mining (tunnelling) can be easily the leaf and increase in width as larvae mature . recognised in the field .

Distribution and potential spread Mine shapes in the leaf tissue can vary depending on L. trifolii is present in Europe, Asia, Africa, Central the species and can be narrow and linear with anterior America and the Caribbean, North and South America spiracles (e g. . C. horticola), linear and shallow on the Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource and Oceania . upper leaf surface (e g. . L. trifolii), serpentine in shape L. huidobrensis is widespread through Africa, Asia, (e g. . L. cicerina) serpentine or irregular in shape (e g. . L. Central America, Europe, Canada and the USA . huidobrensis) or have distinctive trails of frass deposited C. horticola is widespread in Africa, Asia and Europe . in black strips on the sides of the mine (e g. . L. trifolii) . L. cicerina is found in Africa and Europe . Surveillance Agromyzid flies are not very active flyers and tend to While fully-formed leaf mines should be readily visible to remain close to their target crops, often only moving quarantine officials, signs of early infestations are much very short distances between host plants within a crop . less obvious and can be easily overlooked . They can move longer distances if carried by wind . Any leaf-mining damage or insect that resembles these Entry of these invasive agromyzids (apart from L. cicerina) flies must be sent to a specialist for identification . is likely to be via imported plant material containing leaves, particularly seedlings or propagation material Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase where eggs have been deposited . the chance of successful eradication and reduce the If eggs have not yet hatched and no signs of mining cost and social impact of an incursion . are visible, the eggs may survive treatment at port of entry . Initial incursions are likely to arise from Incorporate surveillance for exotic pests when horticultural areas, and grains industries will face undertaking routine crop monitoring and other crop secondary attack from these horticultural incursions detection and measurement activities . if eradication is not achieved . © 2012

55 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Reporting protocol A rapid response to detection of potential exotic pests can be the key to containment, eradication or management . If you see anything unusual, call the Exotic Plant Pest Hotline on 1800 084 881 .

Speak to your department of primary industries or department of agriculture before sending any samples .

It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is followed including packaging, handling and transport to the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit for identification .

Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment in the detected area until a confirmation can be made .

More information Plant Health Australia website www .planthealthaustralia com. .au/biosecurity/grains

Ute Guides, Southern (p. 179)/Western (p. 146). 2012 ©

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 larvae adult

Adult Hair-like Metallic sheen Hair-like antenna on thorax antenna

Black and yellow Large Flattened compound (bee-like) (dorsal-ventral) eyes One set colouration body of wings on abdomen Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource (forewings)

Larva

Pointy head region with mouth hook

57 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Lifecycle Pests attacked/impact on pests Complete metamorphosis . L arvae attack a range of soft-bodied insects but prefer aphids . They spear prey with their mouth hooks, Adult hoverflies have dark-coloured flattened bodies often holding them upright and sucking out the body with black and yellow markings . contents . Adults feed on pollen and honeydew and are not predatory . Larvae are legless, green in colour and appear grub-like . The adult fly can often be seen hovering near flowers Confused with/similar to searching for nectar and a place to lay eggs . These are usually placed near prey (e g. . aphid colonies) for the Some species superficially resemble bees as they hover newly hatched larvae to feed on . near plants and have similar colouration . They differ

from bees in having only one set of developed wings Ute Guides, Southern (p.140)/Western (p.116) . and their movement is faster and more direct than bees . They can also be confused with other flies .

Distribution/habitat Hoverflies are common throughout most of Australia, can be found in a variety of habitats and are often associated with aphid populations . They are common in flowering crops such as canola, pasture paddocks and on some flowering roadside weeds . Some species can be found throughout summer months in irrigated paddocks . They are most prevalent in spring . 2012 ©

Dermaptera - derma (skin or covering); ptera (wing)

T here are at least 63 species of earwigs present in Australia . Earwig families relevant to broadacre Forficulidae: This family has three native Australian Main characteristics species and the introduced European earwig Forficula Adult and juvenile forms auricularia, which has become a troublesome pest within localised areas . Earwigs are a distinctive group of insects of small to medium size (5-50 mm in length) that are mostly dark Labiduridae: This family consists of relatively primitive coloured (brown to black), have chewing (mandibulate) earwig species that are generally red-brown in colour mouthparts and moderately long bead-like (filiform) and range from 10-45 mm in length . Members of this antennae . Both adults and nymphs are similar in family are found all over Australia . The native earwig, appearance but nymphs are smaller and paler than adults . Labidura truncata, is by far the most common species, particularly in sandy habitats . Earwigs are usually easily identified by their hardened pincers (cerci) or claw-like structures at the rear of their flattened, elongated bodies . Both sexes have these pincers, but in males they are large and curved whereas in females they are mostly straight with slightly inward pointing tips . These sexual characteristics relate to all earwig species .

Most species of earwigs are wingless . Those with wings Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource have clear (membranous) hind wings folded in a fan-like way and hidden beneath a protective, hardened and short covering (forewing or tegmina) .

Lifecycle Incomplete metamorphosis . Earwigs mate end to end, often grasping each other’s pincers . Unlike most insects, female earwigs have a maternal instinct and care for their young . They lay 20- 80 white eggs in clusters, usually within tunnels dug especially for this purpose . The eggs hatch over a 2-3 week period before turning into nymphs . Immature nymphs are paler in colour and take four or more moults before developing into an adult .

Habitat Earwigs are nocturnal but are attracted by lights and can become unwelcome visitors to houses . The majority of earwigs are found during the day in dark, sheltered environments and are common under rocks, wood, tree bark, stones, stubble or other plant residues .

Most species are omnivores, feeding mainly on decaying plant material but occasionally on dead creatures . They sometimes feed on live insects and can be seen using

59 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species EARWIGS Dermaptera European earwig (Forficula auricularia) and Native earwigs (Labidura truncata, Gonolabis michaelseni, Forniculina spp . and others)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 European earwig

European earwig Short forewings (tegmina) Yellow ‘shoulders’

Uniform dark coloured body

Legs and pincers are a lighter colour than the body

Male – Female – long and curved straight pincers pincers

Native earwig

Wingless 2012 © Generally lighter body foreparts and darker abdomen

Legs and pincers are similar in colour to parts of the body

Male – Female – long and curved straight pincers pincers

Native earwig

Orange triangle on back

Male pincers - long and slender Dull brown with with a distinctive tooth near the middle straw coloured of the inner edge markings

Confused with/similar to Labidura truncata is a common large native earwig (about 35 mm) that is considered beneficial because Native earwigs and the European earwig are similar to of it’s preference to feed on caterpillars and other soft- other earwig species . Earwigs are sometimes confused bodied invertebrates . It captures prey with its pincers with staphylinid beetles, but they can be distinguished and holds them while feeding . from the latter by the presence of pincer-like cerci .

Distribution, pest status and risk period Crops attacked/host range European earwigs attack a variety of crops . Crop European earwigs are an introduced pest into Australia seedlings, particularly canola, cereals and pulse crops and were first recorded around 1930 . They were recorded are the most susceptible . as crop pests in WA in the early 1990’s and have since been spreading, although their distribution appears to Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Native earwigs are omnivorous, eating a wide variety of be patchy and isolated . They are also commonly found plant and animal material and they are rarely known as in eastern Australia . crop pests . Many species live primarily on a diet of plant matter, both living and decaying . They also consume The European earwig’s native climate is cool and relatively dead insects and other organisms . humid . Although adults have wings, they rarely fly and are mainly spread to new areas and crops by human activity . They can be transported in contaminated seed, Damage symptoms pot plants, cardboard boxes, machinery and vehicles . European earwigs often feed at night, starting along Once introduced, earwigs slowly spread from the paddock edges and moving deeper into the crop with original infestation to neighbouring properties . time . Shredded leaf tips or jagged holes in the leaves are typical of earwig damage . In severe infestations, Crop and pasture residues on the soil surface enhance European earwigs can completely defoliate young earwig survival and breeding, allowing large populations seedlings leaving only stems or bare ground in to build up during autumn and early winter . Crops and the crop (which corresponds to the highest earwig pastures sown into these high risk paddocks are most populations) . vulnerable to attack by pest earwigs . European earwigs may become a contaminant of Native earwigs are widespread throughout Australia . harvested grain . They shelter in crop windrows (swaths) They are generally found either individually or in and may be collected with the seed at harvest . If earwig low numbers under rocks or wood . This contrasts to numbers are high, the harvested grain may be rejected the European earwig which is more commonly seen or require cleaning, ultimately reducing profits . congregating in high numbers . Native species rarely exceed 40 mm long and are generally elongated, Native earwigs rarely cause crop damage to southern flattened and have smooth, shiny bodies that are mainly Australian grain crops . brown to black in colour . © 2012

61 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Monitoring/sampling Inspect establishing crops with bare or thinning patches . Look under wood, rocks and plant residues for earwigs . Inspect paddocks on warm, moist nights using a torch to detect feeding earwigs . Carpet squares, tiles or terracotta pots can be left out for several nights in suspected risk areas and then inspected for earwigs that may shelter beneath these refuges .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical All earwigs will predate on Stubble management and cultivation Carbaryl is registered for control of themselves . will reduce earwig breeding sites . earwigs in some situations .

Pest numbers of earwigs may be Burning stubbles has shown some Insecticide seed dressings may also controlled by high populations of success . Early season burning is give some control of moderate pest carabid beetles . preferable . Aim for an even paddock levels . burn or patch burn known affected Various vertebrate pests such Baiting with a mixture of cracked areas . as birds and lizards will feed on wheat, sunflower oil and chlorpyrifos Note: burning may not be the earwigs . has had some success . Best results preferred option because of the risk of are obtained in autumn before wind erosion . alternative food sources are Grazing pasture paddocks to below available . 1 .5 t/ha of feed on offer in spring will reduce earwig numbers .

Early season weed control of affected paddocks, fence-lines, rock-heaps or other habitats will help to minimise survival . 2012 ©

Ute Guides, Southern (p. 88)/ Western (p. 69).

Collembola: Sminthuridae Lucerne flea Sminthurus( viridis)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 adult

Colour variations - light yellow brownish- green with irregular darker patches Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Segmented Jumping structure Globular shape - antennae (furcula) normally soft bodied tucked under body (rear end)

Damage symptom: transparent windowing of leaves (originating from the underside) Newly hatched nymphs (about 0 .75 mm long) are pale yellow in colour

T he lucerne flea is a collembolan (springtail), included in They are frequently found in leaf litter and other decaying a group of arthropods that have six or fewer abdominal material, where they are primarily detritivores . Only a segments and possess a tubular appendage . In sheer few species, including the lucerne flea, are regarded as numbers, Collembola are one of the most abundant of crop pests around the world . all macroscopic animals . © 2012

63 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Confused with/similar to Crops attacked/host range L ucerne flea can be confused with other globular type L ucerne fleas have a tendency to feed on broadleaf springtails . plants including clovers, medics, lucerne, serradella and capeweed . They can also cause damage to canola, Distribution, pest status and risk period ryegrass, wheat and barley but these appear to be non- preferred hosts . T ypically found throughout the winter rainfall areas of southern Australia, including Tasmania . Although lucerne fleas are widespread and commonly encountered, they Damage symptoms are often sporadically distributed within a particular L ucerne fleas feed by removing the epidermal cells of region . plants and feeding on the soft tissue underneath, leaving behind the fibrous veins joined by a thin layer of leaf Lucerne flea are commonly observed in paddocks with membrane . This results in the characteristic appearance a heavy soil type (e g. . clay/loam) and are less frequently of feeding ‘windows’ . found on sandy soils .

Crops and pastures are most susceptible around the Monitoring/sampling time of emergence . L ucerne fleas are easily detected as they spring off vegetation when disturbed . Feeding damage is very noticeable when lucerne fleas are present in high numbers . Susceptible crops and pastures sown in paddocks where lucerne fleas have previously been a problem should be checked regularly between autumn and spring .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Pasture snout mite (Bdellodes Grazing management in spring . Spot spraying or border sprays . lapidaria) and the spiny snout mite Weed control (particularly cape- Avoid most synthetic pyrethroid (Neomulgus capillatus) . 2012 weed), cultivation and crop rotations sprays as these are ineffective against © Several ground beetles and spiders can prevent build up of lucerne flea lucerne flea . are also known to prey upon numbers . Control lucerne flea in the season lucerne fleas . prior to sowing susceptible crops .

Ute guides, Southern (p. 89)/ Western (p. 70).

Gastropod - gastro (stomach); pod (foot)

T he phylum Mollusca is divided into six classes of which Lifecycle the Gastropoda contains the only land-based molluscs . Most gastropods are hermaphrodites, which means they There are about 36 gastropod families in Australia . have both male and female reproductive organs within the same body . Eggs are usually laid in crevices in the soil Main characteristics or under rocks but some species dig holes in the soil, lay Adult and juvenile forms eggs into the cavern, then cover the hole with soil . Gastropods have an unsegmented soft-body that Habitat commonly has an external (or internal) calcareous shell . Gastropods favour moist environments and are usually All gastropods have a well-developed head at one end found under logs and rocks, in leaf litter or under tree of the foot with eyes and 1-2 pairs of tentacles . The body bark during the day, and move about and forage in more and internal organs are twisted back so that the stomach favourable conditions at night . Slugs are particularly lays above the large fleshy foot, hence the name susceptible to drying out and some snails enter ‘stomach foot’ . Gastropods move by gliding along a aestivation (shell sealed with a thickened mucus layer to surface of mucus or slime that is produced from glands conserve moisture ) to survive hotter periods . on the foot .

All gastropods feed using a radula, which is a tongue- like structure covered by rows of rasping teeth . Most gastropods feed on fungi, algae and dead organic matter Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource but some can also damage young crops and pastures . A few are carnivorous and may prey on other snails .

Generalised shelled gastropod Generalised slug

Protoconch

Body whorl Keel Mantle Eye

Umbilicus

Columellar Foot plait T entacle Breathing pore

Aperture

65 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species ROUND SNAILS Helicidae White Italian snail (Theba pisana) and Vineyard or common snail (Cernuella virgata)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 White Italian snail 10 mm 20 30 40 Vineyard snail

White Italian snail Vineyard or common snail

White coiled shell White coiled shells with broken brown bands . Umbilicus is with almost continuous Open circular Some lack banding semi-circular brown bands . umbilicus or partly Some lack banding closed 2012 © Confused with/similar to Damage symptoms T hese snails are similar to and can be easily confused Round snails can shred leaves and defoliate young with other round snail species . plants, due to their rasping action when feeding . Round snails are a grain contaminant . During extended periods Distribution, pest status and risk period of inactivity (aestivation) snails can be found resting above ground on stems, stubble and fence posts . Round snails are an important pest of crops and pastures across southern Australia, particularly where conservation farming involves stubble retention, Monitoring/sampling reduced burning and reduced tillage . Crops and pastures Monitor all year round to allow for full use of all available grown on calcareous and highly alkaline soils are highly control options . Monitor using a 0 1 . m2 quadrat, susceptible . Crops are most vulnerable at emergence counting all the live snails found within the quadrat on and early development . the ground . Separate round from conical snails and split snails into two size groups, 7 mm and larger and < 7 mm, Snails can be active all year round with a small amount using a sieve . Snails < 7 mm in diameter are unlikely to of moisture and cool conditions . Snails are least likely to be controlled successfully by baits . be active in hot, dry conditions, particularly in late spring and early summer .

Crops attacked/host range All crops and pastures can be attacked . Emerging and young plants of crops and pastures . Barley, canola, and pulse crops are most susceptible .

Biological Cultural Chemical Carabid beetles are known Stubble management includes Molluscicidal baits can be used predators and can help suppress cabling, rolling and slashing . Use these effectively in autumn to control populations . techniques post harvest, after mid- mature snails across the whole morning on hot days over 35o C . Ideally paddock . Start baiting when this should be done when several moisture triggers snail activity in hot days will follow . Control summer autumn and before significant egg- weeds prior to stubble management . laying . Repeat applications may be Around 50-90% kill can be achieved needed after monitoring . Around 60- when temperatures are over 35o C . 90% kill can be achieved depending This is less effective in dense cereal on timing, snail activity and bait stubbles . application rate .

Burning is best undertaken early in the Fence line and border baiting can be burn season . Aim for an even paddock effective after autumn rains when burn . Around 80-100% kill can be snails are moving from aestivation achieved with an even burn and about sites . 50-80% kill with a patchy burn .

Note the potential risk for soil erosion with these methods .

Summer weed control especially along fence lines and borders . Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

67 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species CONICAL SNAILS Helicidae Small pointed snail (Prietocella barbara) and Pointed or conical snail (Cochlicella acuta)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 Small pointed snail 10 mm 20 30 40 Pointed snail

Small pointed snail Pointed or conical snail

three or three Fawn, grey or Fawn, grey or brown conical brown conical Ratio of shell length shells Ratio of shell length shells to its base diameter to its base diameter is always is always greater two or less than two

Confused with/similar to Crops attacked/host range 2012

Distribution, pest status and risk period Small pointed snails are a pest of pastures, lucerne, Small pointed snails favour areas of rainfall higher than canola, and some pulses across southern Australia, 500 mm . Crops and pastures grown on calcareous and particularly where conservation farming involves highly alkaline soils can be highly susceptible . Smaller stubble retention, reduced burning and reduced tillage . snails can be a contaminant of canola and cereal grains . Conical snails are rarely recorded directly feeding on crops Conical snails are found in the highest concentration and pasture as these snails prefer dead organic material . on the Yorke Peninsula, SA but scattered populations can be found in other parts of SA, Victoria, NSW and Damage symptoms WA . The pest status of this species comes from being a Small pointed snails may eat seedlings off at ground contaminant of grain, particularly barley . Conical snails level when snail numbers are very high . over-summer under stones and stumps, and on posts and vegetation . Numbers can build up in the pasture Conical snails prefer dead organic material and therefore phase of cropping rotations . have limited impact on the crop directly .

Monitoring/sampling Monitor all year round to allow for full use of all available control options . Monitor using a 0 1. m2 quadrat, counting all the live snails found when the quadrat is placed on the ground . Separate round from conical snails and split snails into two size groups, 7 mm and larger and < 7 mm, using a sieve . Snails < 7 mm in diameter are unlikely to be controlled successfully by baits .

Biological Cultural Chemical Carabid beetles are known Stubble management includes Molluscicidal baits can be used predators and can help suppress cabling, rolling and slashing . Use effectively in autumn to control populations . these techniques post harvest, after mature snails across the whole mid-morning on hot days over 35o paddock . Start baiting when A parastic fly, Sarcophaga C . Ideally this should be done when moisture triggers snail activity in penicillata, is the only currently several hot days will follow . Control autumn and before significant egg- available biological control for the summer weeds prior to stubble laying . Repeat applications may be conical snail . Flies were released in management . Around 50-90% kill needed after monitoring . Around 60- 2000 on the Yorke Peninsula, SA, but can be achieved when temperatures 90% kill can be achieved depending the impact on control is unclear . are over 35o C . This is less effective in on timing, snail activity and bait dense cereal stubbles . application rate .

Burning is best undertaken early in Fence line and border baiting can be the burn season . Aim for an even effective after autumn rains when paddock burn . Around 80-100% kill snails are moving from aestivation can be achieved with an even burn sites . and about 50-80% kill with a patchy burn .

Note the potential risk for soil erosion with these methods .

Summer weed control especially along fence lines and borders Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 94-95)/ Western (p. 74). © 2012

69 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species SLUGS Eupulmonata: Agriolimacidae and Milacidae Reticulated or grey field slug Deroceras( reticulatum) and Black-keeled slug (Milax gagates)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 60 70 Grey field slug 20 30 40 Black-keeled slug

Reticulated or grey field slug Black-keeled slug

Keel (ridge) at Uniform Variable in colour, posterior end grey to black Prominent ridge (keel) often light grey to fawn along mid-dorsal line from mantle with dark brown markings . to tail . Keel more obvious when Active on soil surface Secretes milky body contracts as slug is white mucus over disturbed

Grey field slug Confused with/similar to T his slug secretes a sticky milky-white coloured mucus Other slugs . See Slugs: The Back Pocket Guide (GRDC over their body when disturbed (i .e . when touched) . This 2008) . can be used to distinguish them from other slugs . Grows up to 50 mm long . Distribution, pest status and risk period Black-keeled slug T he grey field slug is a major pest of crops and pastures across southern Australia . Like all slug species it T he body size, colour and extended keel are requires moist habitats for survival and is more likely distinguishing features . to be a problem in higher rainfall areas . Crops are most vulnerable at establishment and damage may be more severe if cool wet weather slows crop growth . Heavy soil types, summer rains and reduced tillage are all factors which promote the build up of slug populations .

The black-keeled slug is a burrowing species and as a result can be a more serious pest than other slug species in drier areas, such as South Australia, Western Australia and western Victoria .

Black-keeled slugs feed on the soil surface, as well as below the ground where they burrow down and attack germinating seeds . Feeding can result in the failure of seedlings to emerge, plants eaten off at ground level and irregular shaped pieces removed from leaves . In cereals, strips can be removed from the leaves .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Carabid beetles are known Cultivation . Molluscicidal baits can be used prior predators and can help suppress to or at sowing when slug numbers

Summer and autumn weed control . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource populations . are high . Seed bed consolidation (rolling) .

Rotate susceptible crops with those less prone to slug damage .

Early sowing canola can help reduce damage .

71 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species MITES (Order Acarina)

Acarina - (akari)

Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all the Groups (families) relevant to broadacre invertebrate groups . They have exploited an incredible cropping array of habitats and, because of their small size (most Redlegged earth mites and blue oat mites (F: are microscopic), go largely unnoticed . Many live freely Penthaleidae): These are among the most important in the soil or water, but there are also a large number pests of grain crops and pastures in southern Australia . of species that live as parasites on plants, animals and They are covered in detail in this section on pages 73-77 . some that feed on mould . It is estimated that over 50,000 Acarina species have been described and that a million Balaustium mite (F: Erythraeidae): The Balaustium mite or more species are currently living . attacks a variety of crops and pastures and is covered in detail in this section on page 78 . Main characteristics Bryobia mites, two-spotted mite and the brown wheat Nymphs mite (F: Tetranychidae): These are important pests of Most resemble adults but are smaller . Some juveniles various crops . The two-spotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) only have three pairs of legs, gaining a fourth pair with and brown wheat mite (Petrobia latens) are small mites their first moult . (< 1 mm in length) that are sporadic pests of cotton, cereals and lucerne . For further information on the two- Adult forms spotted mite refer to the Southern Ute Guide (p . 102) . While the appearance of mites varies widely, all mites are Bryobia mites are covered in detail on page 80 . wingless . The mouth parts of mites may be adapted for biting, stinging, sawing, snipping or sucking . Predatory Wheat curl mite (F: Eriophyidae): The wheat curl mite 2012

© mites often use their chelicerae to cut through webbing (Aceria tosichella) is a tiny cigar-shaped mite that is the of spider mites . Mites have four pairs of legs, no external principal vector of the damaging cereal virus, wheat segmentation of the abdomen and individuals appear streak mosaic virus . For further information, refer to the as a single body mass . Mites do not have antennae, they Southern Ute Guide (p . 103) . use their pedipalps and front legs for probing .

Lifecycle Incomplete metamorphosis . They can range in size from minute (0 0. 8 mm) up to 20 mm in length . Chewing/sucking mouth parts (chelicerae)

No external segmentation of body parts (fused) No antennae present

Wingless Four pairs of legs (adult)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 adult and 0.6 mm wide

Eight red-orange legs

Newly-hatched Globular shaped, RLEM larvae are velvet black body pinkish-orange with six legs

Usually found in groups (up to 30 individuals) in pasturein pasture Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Damage symptom: silvering leaves (similar to frost damage)

Newly-hatched redlegged earth mite (RLEM) larvae are Confused with/similar to only 0 2. mm long and are generally not visible to the Other mite pests, in particular blue oat mites and the untrained eye . In the following three nymphal stages, Balaustium mite, are sometimes confused with RLEM mites have eight legs and resemble adults, but are in the field . Unlike other species that tend to feed smaller and sexually undeveloped . singularly, RLEM generally feed in large groups of up to 30 individuals . © 2012

73 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Distribution, pest status and risk period Damage symptoms T he RLEM is widespread throughout most agricultural T ypical mite damage appears as silvering or whitening regions of southern Australia . They are found in southern on the attacked foliage . Mites use scissor-like chelicerae NSW, on the east coast of Tasmania, the south-east of SA, adapted mouthparts to lacerate the leaf tissue of the south-west of WA and throughout Victoria . plants and suck up the discharged sap . The resulting cell and cuticle damage promotes desiccation, retards RLEM are active from autumn to late spring . They are photosynthesis and produces the characteristic silvering most damaging to newly-establishing pastures and that is often mistaken as frost damage . Affected seedlings emerging crops, greatly reducing seedling survival and can die at emergence with high mite populations . development . RLEM can also cause significant feeding damage and a reduction in legume seed-set of pastures in spring . Monitoring/sampling Inspect susceptible pastures and crops from autumn to spring for the presence of mites and evidence of damage . Crops attacked/host range It is especially important to inspect crops regularly in the All crops and pastures, although canola, lupins, cereals first three weeks after crop emergence . Mites are best and legume seedlings are most at risk . RLEM also feed detected feeding on leaves in the morning or on overcast on a range of weed species including Paterson’s curse, days . In the warmer part of the day, redlegged earth ox-tongue and capeweed . RLEM feeding reduces the mites tend to gather at the base of plants, sheltering in productivity of established plants and has been found leaf sheaths and under debris . When disturbed during to be directly responsible for a reduction in pasture feeding they will drop to the ground and seek shelter . palatability to livestock .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical French Anystis mites can suppress Crop rotations with non-preferred Seed dressings . populations in some pastures . crops, such as lentils and chickpeas . Carefully timed spring spraying (e g. . Weed control pre-sowing . TIMERITE®) . 2012

Ute Guides, Southern (p. 97)/ Western (p. 75).

Example Earth mites are active in the cool wet months from April to November . During the winter, they usually pass through three generations, with each lasting about 8-10 weeks depending on the species . During the hotter months of the year, earth mites avoid the hot dry conditions by producing over-summering eggs (diapause) .

For redlegged earth mites, the first two generations of mites lay predominantly winter eggs, usually on the under surface of the host plant leaf . In spring, mites stop laying eggs on plants and start producing the over-summering eggs, which are retained in the body (Figure 4 .3) .

This knowledge can be used to time insecticide applications more strategically . Timerite® is a strategy that works by controlling the number of redlegged earth mites emerging in autumn by minimising the number of diapause eggs produced (through a carefully timed spray in the previous spring) and therefore reducing the number of mites emerging from diapause .

However, this approach is not as effective for other mite species . For blue oat mites and several other crop-emergence pests, a large number of diapause eggs are already present in paddocks by spring - well before the spring spray date recommended by Timerite® . Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Termination of diapause: summer conditions for 30-40 days Diapausing eggs

Post-diapausing eggs Jan Feb Dec Mar Initiation of egg hatch: o Nov < 20 C & >10 mm rain

Apr Oct

Summer Sep eggs III I May Aug Jun Jul

II Winter eggs Source: P. Umina (CESAR)

75 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Acarina: Penthaleidae Blue oat mite (Penthaleus spp ).

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 adult

Globular-shaped, dark purplish blue- black body

Eight red-orange legs (adults)

Oval orange/red marking (anal shield) on back

Usually not found

Damage symptoms: silvery-grey patches on leaves (similar to frost damage)

Confused with/similar to Distribution, pest status and risk period T here are three recognised pest species of blue oat Blue oat mites are widespread throughout the southern mites, but these are morphologically very similar and agricultural regions of Australia . They are broadly cannot be identified without the use of a microscope . distributed across Victoria and New South Wales, the eastern half of Tasmania, the southern part of South Blue oat mites are similar in appearance to redlegged Australia and the south-west of Western Australia . earth mites and may also be confused with other mite pests, such as Balaustium mites . The orange-red patch Blue oat mites often coexist with redlegged earth mites on the back of blue oat mites is unique and generally and both are typically active from autumn to late spring . quite conspicuous when viewed with a hand lens . Feeding damage can occur throughout this period but newly emerging crops and establishing pastures are most at risk .

Damage symptoms Blue oat mites penetrate the epidermal cells of plants and suck out cellular contents using their specialised mouthparts . This typically results in silvery-grey patches on plants which can sometimes be mistaken for frost damage . Feeding can also lead to distorted and shrivelled leaves, stunted growth and seedling mortality with a heavy infestation .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical French Anystis mite can suppress Crop rotations with non-preferred Seed dressings . populations in some pastures . crops e .g . chickpeas . Border spraying . Cultivation . Carefully timed autumn sprays Weed management . usually recommended .

Spring spraying using Timerite® is largely ineffective against blue

oat mites . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

77 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Acarina: Erythraeidae Balaustium mite (Balaustium medicagoense)

Distinguishing characteristics/description Body covered in short 10 mm 20 30 stout hairs adult

Rounded body shape . Body colour variable but generally dark red-brown . Slow moving Damage symptoms: cupping and ‘Pad’-like leathering structure of canola on forelegs cotyledons

Nymphs are smaller than adults and Damage symptoms: bleached leaves leading to bright orange-red in wilting and irregular white colour with six legs in spotting to cereals the larval stage and grasses

Confused with/similar to Crops attacked/host range Balaustium mites can be confused with other mite Balaustium mites have a wide host range and are species . Adult Balaustium mites are approximately twice commonly found attacking canola, lupin and cereal the size of adult redlegged earth mites and blue oat crops . They will also feed on pasture legumes, lucerne, mites, and their body is larger and more rounded than grasses and some broadleaf weeds . 2012

© Bryobia mites . Damage symptoms Distribution, pest status and risk period Balaustium mite feeding causes leaves to become Balaustium mites are broadly distributed across the bleached, which can lead to wilting and plant mortality southern coastal regions of Australia . They are found under high infestations . Feeding results in the ‘cupping’ throughout most of Victoria, along the eastern side of and ‘leathering’ of canola cotyledons and irregular white New South Wales, in the south-east of South Australia and spotting on cereals and grasses . the south-west of Western Australia . Balaustium mites are typically active from March to November, although mites Monitoring/sampling can persist on green feed during summer if available . Monitor susceptible crops and pastures in autumn, particularly those with a history of chemical applications Crops are most at risk during the seedling stage . Summer for redlegged earth mites . Established pastures can eggs hatch in autumn following significant rainfall . tolerate moderate numbers of Balaustium mites without sustaining significant damage but seedlings can be totally wiped out . Balaustium mites tend to be more active during the warmer parts of the day, so monitoring in the early afternoon is best . Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Unknown . Control of summer weeds can prevent No chemicals currently registered . build up of mite populations . Balaustium mites have a high natural Avoid volunteer grasses within susceptible tolerance to many chemicals . crops, such as cereals and pulses .

Ute Guides, Southern (p. 101)/ Western (p. 78).

Distinguishing characteristics/description Body flattened

10 mm 20 30 and dark grey-brown adult to fawn-orange in colour

Scale-like hairs (setae) around edge of body visible under microscope

L ong front legs up Eight pale to 1 .5 times orange legs in body length total (adults)

Newly hatched mites are smaller and bright orange-red in colour with six legs in the larval stage and eight Distinct feeding legs in the nymphal stage trail damage

Confused with/similar to Crops attacked/host range T here are over 100 species of Bryobia with at least six Bryobia mites attack a variety of crops including canola, of these present in Australia . Bryobia mites may be lupins, wheat, lucerne, vetch and clovers . confused with other mite species such as redlegged Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource earth mites and blue oat mites . Their long forelegs are quite prominent and Bryobia mites are also lighter in Damage symptoms colour, smaller and slower moving than other species . Mites feed on the upper surface of leaves and cotyledons and leave distinctive trails of whitish-grey spots . When young leaves are affected they become discoloured and Distribution, pest status and risk period may fail to grow . On grasses, Bryobia mite feeding can Unlike other broadacre mite species which are active resemble that of redlegged earth mites (leaf-silvering) . from autumn to spring, Bryobia mites prefer the warmer months of the year . They are generally present from spring until autumn and are unlikely to be Monitoring/sampling problematic in winter . Autumn-sown crops and pastures Bryobia mites are active during the warmer parts of in paddocks containing summer or early autumn weeds the day and may be difficult to detect during the early are most at risk . morning or in wet conditions . Look for mites and evidence of feeding damage in newly-sown crops and Management options on clovers and Brassica weeds prior to sowing .

Biological Cultural Chemical Unknown . Control of summer and early autumn weeds Some chemicals are registered for can prevent build up of mite populations . the control of Bryobia mites .

Rotate crops with non-preferred plant types, Many insecticide rates used e .g . chickpeas and oats . against other mite species may be ineffective (e .g . alpha- There is greater risk with rotations following cypermethrin) . pastures with high clover content .

79 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species PREDATORY MITES Acarina: Snout mites (Bdellidae), Anystidae and Mesostigmata BENEFICIAL Various species - approximately 30,850 Australian species . Generalist and residential

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 Bdellidae adult Anystidae adult Mesostigmata adult

Bdellidae Anystidae Mesostigmata

Red bodied

Very * Well developed Moves in a circular Usually brown pointed legs and fast motion, hence the in colour snout moving ‘common name’ whirly gig mite 2012

Lifecycle Distribution/habitat Incomplete metamorphosis . Predatory mites are common throughout most of Many species of predatory mites have a lifecycle that Australia and can be found in a variety of habitats . They coincides with pest earth mites - generally between April are more likely to be found in under-grazed pasture and December . Some species can be found throughout paddocks where there is an abundance of plant cover summer months in irrigated paddocks . They usually and large prey populations . They are also found on have many generations per year . weeds along roadside verges where mite prey are plentiful . Confused with/similar to Some predatory mites may be confused with pest earth Pests attacked/impact on pests mite species such as the redlegged earth mite and the T here are a variety of native predatory species, as well Balaustium mite . Predatory mites are generally highly as deliberately introduced species, that are important mobile (quick-moving) and have more prominent predators . These can reduce numbers of pest mites, mouthparts than plant-feeding (phytophagous) pest lucerne flea and other springtails (Collembola) . species . There is evidence that some predatory snout mites prevent damaging outbreaks of earth mites and lucerne flea in pastures and lucerne paddocks . Ute Guides, Southern (p. 135, 136)/ Western (p. 111, 112).

Hymenoptera - hymeno (membrane); ptera (wing)

T he Hymenoptera is divided into 71 families and contains Mouthparts are formed for chewing (e .g . adult wasps) or about 15,000 species in Australia . The Hymenoptera is can be modified for sucking (e .g . honey bees) . In females, divided into two suborders - Symphyta (sawflies), which the abdomen ends in an egg laying tube (ovipositor) have no distinct waist and Apocrita (ants, bees and that is often prominent and can be modified to a stinger wasps), which have a distinct waist . This order includes or a saw-like organ in some species . harmful, as well as some of our most beneficial insects . Hymenopteran habits can vary considerably: some are Lifecycle predaceous; some parasitic; some cause plant galls; Complete metamorphosis . some feed on plant foliage and others, like honey bees, Lifecycles can vary considerably between species . Wasp live on plant pollen and nectar . parasitoids have a lifecycle that coincides with their host . In general, eggs are either injected into the host prey or Wasps are important as parasitoids of broadacre pests attached to the outer body . The larval stage feeds on and are the only group covered in this section . Bees are their host, which is often killed in the process . Larvae well known as important pollinators of crops and are that feed internally either emerge from their host to frequently seen in flowering crops, such as canola during pupate (e g. . braconid wasps), or emerge from the host spring . Ants may also be abundant, particularly during as adults (e g. . aphid parasitoids) . Different species can the warmer months of the year, and may play a role attack different stages of the host’s lifecycle . as scavengers or in seed dispersal and burial . Sawflies include the ‘spitfire’ grubs which can occasionally be Many species are colonial and are fed by members of seen in clusters feeding on some native trees .

the colony . Adult wasps mostly feed on nectar and Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource honeydew . Main characteristics Larval form Groups (families) relevant to broadacre Most are legless (maggot-like) and differ from similar cropping looking fly maggots (Diptera) as they generally have Predatory wasps (F: Ichneumonidae and Braconidae): visible chewing mouthparts and a developed head Small to large wasps, including Diadegma semiclausum, a region . Larval forms of the parasitoid wasps are rarely seen larval parasitoid of diamondback moth . Most beneficial in broadacre crops because they are generally concealed wasps that attack moth larvae and aphids associated within the bodies of the prey from which they are feeding . with broadacre crops belong to these two wasp families . Major species are covered in detail in this section on Legs are present in some hymenopteran larvae, such as pages 84-88 . sawflies . Sawfly larvae look similar to moth caterpillars (Lepidoptera) because they have numerous abdominal Bees (F: Apidae): This family includes the introduced prolegs, but they are more fleshy in appearance and do not honey bee Apis mellifera, but also many native species have specialised hooks (crochets) at the base of prolegs . that are important plant pollinators and may be seen visiting flowers . Adult form Can be winged or wingless insects . Winged species Ants (F: Formicidae): All ants belong to the one family . have two pairs of membranous wings with relatively few Worker ants, soldiers and males are commonly seen veins . The forewings are always slightly longer than the and in some species the queen is also visible . The hind wings . The body of wasps, bees and ants are usually feeding habits of adult ants can vary and may range identified by their characteristic narrow waist or the from specialist to generalist predators, scavengers constricted area that appears to separate the last two and omnivores, to seed-eaters, fungus or honeydew body segments (the thorax and the abdomen) . Sawflies feeders . Some ant species play an important role in seed have wide waists . dispersal . © 2012

81 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Hymenoptera: Cephidae BIOSECURITY THREAT Wheat stem sawfly (Cephus cinctus) and European wheat stem sawfly Cephus( pygmeus)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 larva both species pupa both species adult both species

Wheat stem sawfly

Strong head with T hread-like strong mouthparts (filiform) antennae

T wo sets of wings . Brown for wheat stem sawfly . Clear with brown veins for European wheat stem sawfly

2012 Yellowish legs © Narrow bodies, shiny black in colour with Colouration can prominent bright vary between the yellow bands across sexes and between the abdomen populations

Sawflies are wasps and not flies . Sawflies undergo 2-3 moults and darken to a whitish- yellow-green colour when mature . Larvae are legless (although European wheat stem sawfly has three pairs of reduced thoracic legs) with a These species go through one generation per year and head capsule and prominent mouthparts . They have larvae overwinter in underground stems . Pupae are a horn-like projection at the rear end of the abdomen white and become darkened before adult emergence . (tubercule) . Newly hatched larvae look transparent with tan-brown head regions . Pupation occurs within a cocoon inside the stem near the roots or crown of the plant . Adults emerge in spring .

Distribution and potential spread Wheat stem sawfly occurs in North America and the European wheat stem sawfly occurs in Europe, Asia, Africa and North America .

Adults of both these species are weak flyers and transportation of larvae and pupae in straw is the most likely source of long-distance dispersal . Speak to your department of primary industries or department of agriculture before sending any samples . Crops attacked/host range Female wasps lay eggs in large, hollow-stemmed grasses It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is such as wheat, rye, triticale, barley, oats and many other followed including packaging, handling and transport to cultivated and wild grasses . the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit Host plants are only susceptible to oviposition after for identification . stem elongation . Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment in the detected area until a confirmation can be made . Damage symptoms L arval feeding reduces yield and quality . Larvae bore More information into stems and nodes, making a discoloured tunnel Plant Health Australia website and leaving frass throughout . Mature larvae cut a notch www p. lanthealthaustralia com. .au/biosecurity/grains around the inside circumference of lower stems .

Ute Guides, Southern (p. 173)/Western (p. 140). Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Damage varies depending on the year, locality, host plant and cultivar . The most obvious damage (caused by tunnelling and pupation) is weakening and clean cutting of stems and the subsequent lodging and loss of grain . Darkened spots can be visible on stems below nodes . This is a result of damage to the conducting tissue within the plant and the accumulation of impassable carbohydrates .

Surveillance Damaged stems should be cut open to reveal eggs and larvae . Infested stems will contain saw-like frass inside . Any insect that resembles these wasps must be sent to a specialist for identification .

Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase the chance of successful eradication and reduce the cost and social impact of an incursion .

83 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species WASP PARASITOIDS Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae and Braconidae BENEFICIAL Various species - approximately 2000 species in Australia . Specialists (parasites and parasitoids) and transient

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Ichneumonidae

10 mm 20 30 adult though can vary from 2-120 mm

*General body appearance: elongated and slender - long antennae (filiform) and legs highly variable in colour from orange to black, with or without markings

Ichneumonidae wing venation to distinguish from braconids

*Waist constriction between thorax Diadromus collaris and abdomen *Wing venation can *Wing venation vary depending on genera full and many veins 2012 (e .g . fused or no veins) . usually extend to © Forewing 2mcu vein is the wing margin always present

*Long and thin exposed ovipositor (females)

Light coloured legs Diadegma semiclausum

Diamondback moth cocoon (top) and cocoon of D. semiclausum Orange coloured inside diamondback moth cocoon body and legs (bottom), resulting in darkened Netelia producta cocoon with rounded ends

* indicates character for all species

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Braconidae 10 mm 20 30 adult though some can be up to 80 mm

Braconidae wing venation to * Strong distinguish from ichneumonids darkened cell * Wing venation incomplete and many veins usually terminate before the wing margin

* 2mcu vein always absent Opivs sp. * Wing venation can * General body appearance: vary depending on dark coloured (relatively uniform), genera (e .g . fused or no long antennae (filiform), shiny body veins) with paler coloured and long legs

Aphidiinae Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Shiny black colour Cocoons of Cotesia spp . Larva are internal in host are usually white/ bodies and legless Apanteles sp . (DBM parasitoid) yellow in colour (maggot like)

Host pupae unparasitised (above) and Dark co- parasitised (below) loured

Cotesia sp . (DBM parasitoid)

Aphid mummies - Aphidiinae wasp parasitoids

Distinct bloated appearance . Usually brown/buff/gold or bronze sheen colouring

85 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Lifecycle Complete metamorphosis . Wasp parasitoids have a lifecycle that coincides with Evidence of parasitism their host . The eggs are either injected into the host prey or attached to the outer body . Larvae feed internally on in aphids: mummies a host which is often killed in the process . They either emerge from the host to pupate (e .g . braconid wasps) or Mummies are aphids that have been emerge from the host as adults (e g. . aphid parasitoids) . transformed into juvenile wasp casings and are only evident in the later stages of the Different wasp parasitoid species can attack at different wasp’s development. stages of the host’s lifecycle . Look for: Confused with/similar to • round, bloated, buff to bronzed coloured aphids that are relatively slow moving or T hese wasps resemble small flies but they are usually stationary; shiny in colour and have two sets of developed wings . • emergence (exit hole) in mummies; They can be confused with other wasp species, which • aphid skin casts - don’t confuse these are hard to distinguish in the paddock and identification with mummies or aphids. often requires specialist knowledge .

Distribution/habitat Common throughout most of Australia and can be found in a variety of habitats . Due to their close association with their host, their distribution is usually similar to that of their host .

Pests attacked/impact on pests Ichneumonids and braconids attack a range of insects (mainly the larval form) where the developing wasp larvae can grow either inside the host (endoparasite) or

Ichneumonid wasps inject their eggs into native in some caterpillars: budworm or armyworm pupae within the soil . The feeding larvae prevents the moth from emerging, external wasp cocoons reducing future generations of pests . Some wasp species will: Braconids attack a range of caterpillar pests including • leave emergence (exit) holes in the armyworm, cutworm and budworm . They lay their caterpillar host and spin a cocoon nearby; eggs inside host caterpillars which are often < 10 mm • pupate inside the host, resulting in the in size . Developing wasp larvae feed internally, before host pupae differing in some way (e.g. burrowing through the skin of their host and spinning a changing colour or shape). silken cocoon externally .

Many species are utilised as biological control agents of pest insects as they have a small host range - where a particular wasp attacks only one or several closely related genera .

Some particular species include: Netelia producta attacks native budworms and other noctuid moths . Diadegma semiclausum and Diadromus collaris attack diamondback moth larvae .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 123-125,127)/Western (pp.98,99,102,103).

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Trichogrammatidae

10 mm 20 30 adult * Robust marginal wing vein and no veins posterior to this

* Antennae short (4 - 9 segments) T richogrammatidae * Tarsi three * Body not very parasitising Helicoverpa segmented (segments hardened (sclerotised) moth egg elongated and of Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource roughly equal size)

Scelionidae Telenomus spp .

10 mm 20 30 adult although some are bigger

* Body fully * Wing venation hardened completely reduced (sclerotised)

* Very short ovipositor Parasitoid of Wasp development in Rutherglen bug Rutherglen bug eggs * Antennae located low on ‘face’ with long 1st antennal segment (scape) giving it a ‘z’- shape

87 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Lifecycle Some species can be purchased and mass-released but this is generally not cost effective in broadacre systems . T richogrammatidae, Scelionidae and Mymaridae are families of very small parasitic wasps that attack the eggs of insects and spiders . Pests attacked/impact on pests T richogrammatidae attack a wide range of host eggs Wasp parasitoids have a lifecycle that coincides with including moths, bugs, thrips and, less commonly, their host . They lay their eggs inside the egg of a host beetles, lacewings, flies, and dragon and damsel flies . (e g. . moth egg) . The wasp larvae feed inside the host Trichogramma spp . are biological control agents of egg until maturity, when one or more new parasitic Helicoverpa species . wasps emerge from the destroyed egg . Telenomus spp . are common egg parasitoids of moths Confused with/similar to (e g. . Noctuidae, Geometridae, Pyralidae, Lymantriidae, Zygaenidae) and true bugs (e g . . Pentatomidae, T hey are confused with other wasp species and are Lygaeidae, Reduviidae) . hard to distinguish in the paddock . Identification often requires specialist knowledge . An exit hole in insect eggs is evidence of parasitism . The parasitised egg changes colour in Helicoverpa species . More often, they go unnoticed due to their small size (usually <1 mm in length) . Members of these families are Ute Guides, Southern (p. 126)/ Western (p. 101). difficult to classify, with many undescribed species likely to exist in Australia .

Distribution/habitat Various species can be found on a range of native plants (e g. . saltbush), grasses (e g. . Enneapogon) and Brassica weeds .

Bees provide a valuable service to agriculture by improving pollination and increasing crop yields, as well as being an important primary industry in the production of honey . It is often necessary to apply insecticides to flowering crops to control pests; but it is important to consider the effects on bees and take steps to reduce the risk of bee poisoning . Bees taking chemicals back to a hive can result in mass bee deaths, devastation of entire hives and contamination of the honey .

Bee poisoning can occur when: • Insecticides have been used on flowering crops and foraging bees are subsequently exposed to contaminated foliage, pollen or nectar . • Insecticides have been used on crops that are not flowering, but other plants in the target area are flowering, causing bees foraging on these plants to become contaminated . • Insecticides come in direct contact with bees that Good practices for beekeepers are present in or flying over the target area . • Before placing hives, advise all adjoining crop • Bees access water that contains insecticide owners and any other persons or authorities likely residues . to be applying insecticides .

• Spray drift causes direct contamination of bees, • Leave adequate signage in the area, including Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource hives or flowering plants . contact details . • Place hives in sheltered areas away from crops that Communication between crop owners and bee are likely to be treated with insecticide . keepers is key to developing a mutually acceptable chemical program and minimising the risk to bees . Bee-friendly practices for growers • Advise beekeepers with hives in the area that you intend to spray, giving as much notice as possible (at least 48 hours) to allow time to close down or move hives for the risk period . • Choose chemicals that are less toxic to bees – carefully read all product labels (particularly ‘Protection of Livestock’ statements) to check toxicity to bees . • Avoid applying insecticides at times when bees are foraging . Consider spraying very early in the morning (low hazard/short residual chemicals only) or late in the evening after bees have stopped foraging . • Take care to avoid spray drift and contamination of water supplies .

89 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species LACEWINGS & ANTLIONS BENEFICIAL (Order Neuroptera)

Green lacewings Chrysopidae - approximately 70 Australian species . Brown lacewings Hemerobiidae - approximately 50 Australian species . Generalist and transient

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 green lacewing larva brown lacewing larva green lacewing adult brown lacewing adult

Adult Green lacewing Brown lacewing *Large compound eyes (bulging) on side of head . Eyes have a metallic sheen

*Long bead- like (filiform) antennae 2012

* Two pairs of relatively equal sized, clear (membranous) wings . Numerous cross veins across entire wing surface (lace-like appearance) . Wings held tent-like over body when at rest

Larva Green lacewing Brown lacewing

Larvae carry * Tapering body dead prey material on shape with their back highly mobile legs . Body covered in curved spines

*Large sickle- shaped mouthparts (modified jaws) projecting from the front of the head * indicates character for all species

Confused with/similar to Predatory lacewings prefer sap-sucking insects such L acewing adults can be distinguished from other as aphids, mites, scale insects and moth eggs, but as winged insects by the presence of numerous veins generalists they will eat a wide range of prey . and forked veins in wings . They can be confused with Ute Guides, Southern (pp.137-138)/ Western (pp.113-114) dragonflies (Odonata) and stoneflies (Plecoptera) but lacewings usually have longer antennae and softer bodies than dragonflies . Lacewings can also be confused with flying termites . Lacewings do not have two thin processes (cerci) at the end of the body (abdomen) as in stoneflies .

Lacewing larvae are easily distinguished by the prominent jaws at the front of their head that take up Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource almost all of the head region . Green lacewing larvae commonly cover themselves in debris and the bodies of their prey as camouflage . © 2012

91 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species SPIDERS (Order Araneae) BENEFICIAL

Various families and species - approximately 2000 Australian species . Generalist and residential

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Wolf spider (Lycosidae)

Eight legs

Various spider eye arrangements as seen from front (some of the eyes can be found on top of the head) . Most spiders have eight eyes

Abdomen Fused head and thorax (cephalothorax) Mouthpart (chelicerae) used for grasping and killing, usually pointed downwards . Fangs can be pointed side- 2012 ways and inwards or pointed backwards © towards the centre of the body Spinnerets

Source: Line drawings modified from Child (1965) Mouthpart (palps) . Swollen on the ends (males)

Lifecycle Distribution/habitat Incomplete metamorphosis . T here are at least six groups of spiders that commonly Most spiders have one generation per year . occur in field crops, with the most common being active Spiders are easily recognisable but identification of specific hunters (rather than web-building) . These include the families and species requires specialist knowledge . wolf and huntsman spiders that chase down their prey, and trapdoor spiders that lie in wait to grab prey walking All spiders are predatory and use a variety of hunting past their burrows . Smaller spiders, such as jumping strategies to capture their prey, therefore it is easier to spiders, are usually well-hidden ambush specialists and, classify them in their functional group (e .g . web-builders although harder to see, are just as important . or active hunters) . Pests attacked/impact on pests Confused with/similar to Spiders consume a wide range of prey . They are effective Spiders can range from just 0 5. mm in size to large predators not only of pests but also on other predators . species such as the huntsman with a leg span of over 20 cm . All spiders spin silk from a group of spinnerets at the Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 134)/Western (pp. 108-110). end of the abdomen, but not all are web building for the purpose of catching prey .

SARDI South Australian Research and The services are distributed as electronic Development Institute newsletters and aim to help growers achieve www .sardi .sa .gov .au maximum yield and quality for the lowest CESAR CESAR cost by providing timely information about www .cesaraustralia .com pest outbreaks, effective controls and current information about relevant and new research PIRSA Department of Primary Industries and findings . Regions, South Australia www .pir .sa .gov .au To provide this service PestFax/PestFacts draws Vic DPI Department of Primary Industries, Victoria on the field observations of consultants, growers http://new .dpi .vic .gov .au/agriculture and researchers across southern Australia as they report on the location and extent of DEEDI Department of Employment, Economic invertebrate outbreaks . Development and Innovation, Queensland The PestFax/PestFacts services, part of GRDC’s www .dpi .qld .gov .au/26_3510 .htm National Invertebrate Pest Initiative (NIPI), also I & I NSW Industry and Investment, New South Wales issue warnings (or reminders) for a range of www .dpi .nsw .gov .au invertebrate pests of broadacre crops, including CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial pulses, oilseeds, cereals and fodder crops . Research Organisation www .csiro .au For further information or to subscribe to these

services visit: Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource GRDC Grains Research and Development Corporation PestFax (DAFWA) www .grdc .com .au http://www .agric .wa gov. .au/pestfax PHA Plant Health Australia: Grains Biosecurity www .planthealthaustralia com. au/go/. biosecurity/grains PaDIL Pest and Disease Image Library www .padil .gov .au PestFacts SA & western Victoria Edition (SARDI) www .sardi .gov .au/pestfacts

93 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species