The Excavation of Two Bronze Age Burial Cairns at Bu Farm, Rapness

Proc Soc Antic/ Scot, 126 (1996), 103-120

The excavation of two Bronze Age burial cairns at Bu Farm, Rapness, Westray, Orkney John Barber,* Alan Duffy* & Jerry O'Sullivanf with contribution Katy b s h McSweeny, Coralie Mill& s Tanya O'Sullivan

ABSTRACT Excavation recorded largetwo cairns with dry stone third,a kerbs and miniature cairn similarof construction. Each of the large cairns contained a central, slab-built cist. Burnt deposits with bone inclusions underlay basalthe slabs bothof cists. third,The smaller cairn covered whichpit a also contained burnt deposits. crematedThe remains largertwo from the cairns appear representto a single adult in each case. Faunal remains from Cairn 1 include bones of a range of mammals, birds and fish. Radiocarbon dates indicate that the cairns were built in the mid- to late second millennium BC. Excavation and publication were funded by the former Historic Buildings & Monuments section of the Scottish Development Department (now Historic Scotland).

INTRODUCTION

CIRCUMSTANCE EXCAVATIOF SO N Excavations at Bu Farm, Rapness, were undertaken over a five-week period in May-June 1985 and formed part of a programme of investigation of sites threatened by coastal erosion. Other excavated sites in this programme included the chambered cairn at Point of Cott (Barber 1988; 1992; and forthcoming burna d tan ) moun t Gilda l Pier (Lehane 1990). This wor conductes k wa forme e th y db r Central Excavatio Historie s fundenth wa Uni y d b dc an t Building Monumentd san s sectioe th f no Scottish Development Department.

THE CAIRNS Site description e excavateTh d cairn groua e par f ar s o f tthre po e large mounds (illu ) whic1 s h were previously recorde Orknee th y db y Islands Archaeologist r RaymonD , d Lamb. The describee yar d accordingly sitee i nth monument s& s Inventor islane th r f Westraydo yfo :

Two mounds lie in the south-west corner of the pasture field north of Stancro House. The larger [Cairn 500Y H shoreline 1]6t th beina ,s 4044 i n o d gs an i e, eroded t comprisei ; survivine th s g circulahala f o f r

(ScotlandC AO * ) Schoolhousee LtdTh , Lochen4 , d Road, EdinburgR 8B 6 hEH t 5 Bellevue Road, Edinburgh EH7 4DA 104 I SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1996

Shoreline

Mounds

ILLU S1 Site location plan Ordnance(Basede th n o CrownSurvey© p ma Copyright) BARBER, DUFFY & O'SULLIVAN: BRONZE AGE BURIAL CAIRNS AT BU FARM I 105

bank of about 14 m overall, 0.4 m high, at the south end of which, on the shoreline, two courses of an outer revetmen e visiblear t . Withihollowa s i t ni , the centrana l knoll containin glarga e cis r smalo t l slab-formed chamber, of which the north side is represented by an upright stone aligned east-west, 1.7 high m e knol 7 Th .s compose0. i l lon m d gan f largdo e slabs laid slantwise face-to-face; this sits i e probably a 'bell-cairn'. To the south [Cairn 2], at HY 5007 4042, is a grass-grown mound 9 m in diameter, 0.3 m high, its top hollowed. Further north, in the same field, at HY 4013 4049, is a grass-covered mound slabhighw m fe diamete n i s5 a ; protrud0. m d 8 an r t severaa e l points aroun edge dth e (Lamb 1983, 25). time th excavationf et o A cairne th , s wer describeds ea foune b o dt , though excavation would demon- strate that, in this case, the 'bell-cairn' profile of Cairn 1 was due to disturbance rather than design.

Erosion The cairns occupy an exposed site. Cairn 1 is located at the present shoreline and marine erosion had already claimed almost half of the monument at the time of excavation (illus 2). Cairn 2, at a distance of several metres from the shoreline, was subject to an additional threat. Here, a farm track traversed the narrow 4 m span between the two cairns. The passage of livestock and farm machinery was impinging on Cairn 2 and threatened to destroy any potential stratigraphic links between the cairns.

EXCAVATION RESULTS

CAIRN 1 Intrusion stone-robbingand s clearlCairwa n1 y disturbe numbea n di f wayso r layeA . f smalleo r r stony debris littere e surface dth th f o e cair formed nan uppee dth ciste rth .filf Thio l s interpretei s remnane th s da t debri f selectivso e stone-robbing. e resul On f stone-robbino t s tha e i cairge heighs irregularl th th t wa nf o t y reduced, resultin n annulaa n i g r depression around the cist (illus 3). It was this which produced the 'bell-cairn' profile which had previously been recorded (Lamb 1983, 25). cise tTh itsel thoroughls wa f y robbed recognizablo N . y primary deposits (skeletal remain gravr so e goods) were found basae withiTh . l nit slas broke bwa n throug burnd han t deposits underlyin t wergi e disturbed.

The cairn body and kerb maie Th n bod f survivinyo g cairn material consiste f randomldo y dumped slabs (F457) clay-loaA . m soil matrix (F401) was concentrated towards the base of the cairn and may be an inwashed or secondary sediment. These materials forme semicirclda f kerb-revetteeo d rubble wit overaln ha maximua d lan diametem m 4 1 heigh f o r t of 0.5 m. The retaining kerb was a well-built drystone wall (F446). This consisted of medium-large flat stone slabs, raised to three or four courses, and surviving to an overall height of c 0.4 m. The stones were laid so that the outer edges formed a fair-faced curvilinear wall face, while the more ragged, inner edges were keyed into the rubble body of the cairn. Towards the centre of the cairn, the slabs were more deliberately placed. Here, quantitie largef so r slabs were erecte endn do , formin seriega concentricf so , interleaving circle f stonso e which inclined against a central cist (illus 4). 106 I SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1996

F.456

Basal slabs

Limit of excavation

ILLUS 2 Plan of the excavated area: the 'miniature cairn' lies immediately south of Cairn 1 jo 03

Cfl

z w 7> O N

wO ILLU S3 Cairn 1: cross-section recorde erodine th t da g seawar monumende th fac f o e t CO

JO 10 I 8SOCIET ANTIQUARIEF YO SCOTLANDF SO , 1996

ILLUS 4 Cairn 1: roughly concentric rows of interleaving flat stones incline against the cis

The cist The cist (F456) consisted of two large slabs forming the north (1.9 m by 0.65 m) and south (0.9 m by 0.65 m) sides of a compartment 0.8 m wide. These side slabs were erected on edge upon a large, horizontal basal slab (1.75 m by 1.3 m). Other slabs may have once formed the east and west sides of the cist, and perhaps a cover, but these were not found in situ.

Underlying deposits The basal slab did not rest directly upon the buried natural ground surface, but on a spread of dark soil (F406, F407) that included charcoal and burnt bone fragments. Some of this material (F407) may have been intruded from the cist at the point where the basal slab was broken through (illus 5), but it was also possible to identify undisturbed material (F406) whic clearld hha y been deposited befor constructioe eth ciste th .f nMateriao l from this context was submitted for radiocarbon dating and returned a determination of 2955 ± 85 BP (AA-11766); materiae th l from which this datderives ewa alsy odma have contained driftwood (see Mills, below).

CAIRN 2 The cairn body and kerb secone Th d cair smallea s ni r monument, sited several metres fro presene mth t shorelinsouth-easm 4 d ean f o t overale CairTh . constructioe n1 l Th diametet survive i . monumend e m heighth a an 8 f o 0. f st ro m n o f 9 o t s i t BARBER, DUFF O'SULLIVANY& : BRONZ BURIAE EAG L9 CAIRN 10 FARU B I T MSA

ILLU S5 Cairn broke 1the : n slab which underla cisythe t

this monument was similar to that of Cairn 1, with dumps of stony rubble (F452) surrounding a central rosette of large slabs, erected on edge and inclined against a central cist. The kerb consisted, again, of a well-built drystone wall (F447), brough even a no t t oute e finisthren th i t r ra hem o face raised 4 heigha 0. an , o c dt f o t four courses of large, flat slabs (illus 6).

The cist contrasn I Cairo t t n centra e 1th , l cist (F433 intacs Cairn i )appeared wa an nt 2 undisturbede b o dt largeo Tw . , rectangular slabs forme ease wesd dth an t t ciste sideth .f so Smalle r slabs were fitted between the formo t e mth north and south sides. The cover-slab was close-fitting and appeared to be in its original position. The side-slabs were erected upon a flat, rounded basal slab (diam 1.4 m) and were retained by a loose clay-loam soil (F435) heaped against their outer faces. Overall, the cist formed by this setting of stones was small and very regular, approximating to a cube, with sides and base all measuring c 0.3 m. Within the cist, a loose dark soil, with burnt bone inclusions interpretes wa , primara s da y deposit (F432).

Underlying deposits basae Th l sla f Cairbo resten2 d upo shallowna , vacuous laye roundef ro d stones (F439), intermixed with lenses of loose dark soil with burnt bone inclusions (F438, F441). Beneath the stones were further stratified deposits of dark soil with bone fragments (F436, F440). 11 I 0SOCIET ANTIQUARIEF YO SCOTLANDF SO , 1996

jESS^iSf.^""" !•*»;• •*•«,-»%*' »; 1""~ "-.'-"• C5S°:> ,-<*iJ<'***/i-. »'* •-'.'

ILLU S6 Cair : generan2 l view from west

MINIATURE CAIRN Immediately adjacen Cairo t t soute nth t 1ha , side smala , l pil f flaeo t slabs (F411 loosa n i ) e clay-loam matrix (F420) formed a miniature cairn (1.5 m wide and 0.2 m high) (illus 2). The cairn was circular and, as with the kerbs of the larger monuments, the stones were arranged to present a regular outer face. Underlying this feature, a small pit (F425) was filled with loose, black soil with burnt inclusions (F424). In an adjacent setting, several small, flat slabs (F413) were erected on edge within the subsoil and may have formed a related feature, although these stones did not contain any cremated bone or other burnt materials.

MISCELLANEOU FEATURET SCU S Several small, negative features were recorded in the vicinity of the cairns, including a possible post-pit (F450) an lineada r trenc r gullho y (F453). These were seale deepa y db , gleyed topsoil (F431) which developed after the erection of the cairns, or, in the case of the post-pit, by deposits associated with the miniature cairn. They are evidently early features, but their relationships (if any) with the construction and use of the cairns are unknown.

BURIED SOIL HORIZONS AND TILLAGE MARKS largee Botth f hro cairns seale dwell-preservea d early topsoil laye A-horizor o r n (F404) tillago N . e marks were see plann ni , eithesurface th n i f r thi underlyino e sth layen i r o r g subsoil (F405/F415/F416). However, where it was recorded in section, the lower topsoil boundary was characterized by an irregular series of pointed scallops BARBER, DUFFY & O'SULLIVAN: BRONZE AGE BURIAL CAIRNS AT BU FARM I 111

whic represeny hma t ard-ploughing predatin e cairnsgth . However A-horizoe th s a , n bore many indentations caused by the weight of the large slabs erected on edge on its surface, the features seen in section may have been caused in the same manner. Later tillage has resulted in truncation of the soil profile in the vicinity of the monuments, though beneath the cairns themselves the early ground surface has been protected from further plough-damage. The evidence for thi clearls si y visibl share th pn ei 'scarp-edge subsoie perimetere th th n t i 'cairns a e l th f so .

ARTEFACTS Excavation of the topsoil recorded some modern iron and ceramic objects, as well as miscellaneous fragments presenoe f th shellfishn i t - context bu , - tonlobject e yon anf o y possible archaeological significanc founds ewa . This was a large rounded stone or beach cobble (Find No 401), identified on-site as a possible tool. Dr Bill Finlayson has commented that the 'percussion scars' on the stone are evenly distributed over its surface and are unlikely to represent its use as a hammer stone.

CREMATED HUMAN REMAINS Kath McSweeny METHODS Bone fragments from both cists were washe tap-watern di , usin gligha t brus cleao ht e largenth r fragments e boneTh . s were weighed, usin a gkitche n scales sorted an , d accordin o anatomicagt l provenance where this could be ascertained. Where size or condition made a more specific identification questionable fragmente th , s were place generan di l anatomical group calvariumg s(e , longbone). Methods of ageing and sexing used are those outlined by Bass (1987). A complete inventor crematee th f yo d bone fragments form excavatiose th par f o t n archivn ei the National Monuments Record of Scotland (RCAHMS), Edinburgh.

CAIRN 1 The remains Bone fragments from Cairn 1 derived from three contexts: the soil matrix of the cairn rubble (F401), a disturbed deposit intruded through the broken basal slab (F407) and an undisturbed deposit which underla e basath y l slab (F406) n totalI . 8 fragment6 , f cremateo s d bone were recovered. These included fragments of the cranium and face, longbone, bones of the hands and feet and some vertebral fragments. The largest fragment was a piece of cheekbone, measuring 38 mm by 28 mm. There were several fragments c 35 mm long and the smallest was 8 mm long. More than half of the fragments clea s i sizen i t I r . m fro Averagm totae wermmm 0 th 1 l8 e1 c weigh ec sizs f bono etwa e (onl0 y6 numbee th , f g) fragmento r skeletae th d an sl areas present tha fula t l individua t representeno s i l y db these fragments. duplicatioo Thern s ewa f skeletano l cranial al area d lsan fragments werunifora f eo m thick- ness. Osteologically evidenco ,n thers wa eo indicat t e e that thers morwa e e thae individuaon n l represented in Cairn 1. The age of the individual (or individuals) is not clear, although the bones were clearly not those of a young child. One calvarium fragment, with sutures obliterated cerebrally, vertebraone and l fragment, with possible epiphyseafusiothe of n l ring, (both from F401), suggest an individual over 25 years of age. However, another calvarium fragment from F406 had an open suture. Thi itseln i s f doe t necessarilno s y indicat presence eth bodieo tw s individuaf a seo l sutures 112 I SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1996

become obliterate t differenda t times f thesI . e fragment represeno d s individualn a t probabls wa t i , y adult indicatioo N . coulx se identifiede f db no .evidenc o Ther n presenc e s th er wa efo f diseaseeo . It is clear that the remains which were recovered by the excavation did not represent a complete individual. Nonetheless t appeari , s that they were originally fulpara f l o t cremated body absence Th . e omora f e complete bone lose assemblagf somth o s o e t partle b e body ydu ma ey parts prioo t r cremation or selection of burnt fragments at the time of deposition, but may also relate to post- depositional factors, including chemical erosioface th t d thacair e ndisturbes an th t nwa robbed dan d in antiquity.

Cremation practice Apart from surface cracking on some bones, particularly calvarium fragments, there was little distortion or twisting and no evidence of curved splintering of the longbones. Experimental studies of fracture patterns have been use identifo dt y characteristic f boneso whicn so h fleshy parts were still adhering at the time of cremation (Ubelaker 1978, 35). Surface cracking and the absence of distortion and curved lateral splintering of the remains from Cairn 1 suggest that the bones were burned while dr r fleshlessyo , presumably some time after death. Bone colougeneraa s rwa l grey-brown, although a few calvarium and longbone fragments were blue and poorly calcined, indicating that firing was less intense in these areas.

CAIRN 2 The remains Bone fragment Cairn i s deriven2 d frocontextso mtw layea : f stono r y soil which overla maie yth n body of the cairn (F430) and the dark soil with charcoal inclusions which formed the primary fill of the cist (F432). The main bulk of the bone fragments were contained within the cist deposit and only three fragments of longbone were found in the layer which overlay the cairn. The remains which were identified included fragment craniume th f o s , face, mandible, spinal column, scapula, sternum, upper limbs, pelvis, lower limbs, hands and feet. The teeth were completely missing and the rib cage was represented only by a few shaft fragments, tentatively identified. Neither the clavicles nor patel- lae were recognized but it is possible that fragments of these are among the unidentifiable bones. Wit exceptioe hth middl e on f n o eslightl o phalan tw hane d th y dan f damagexo d carpal bones, there wer completo en e bones. Most skeletal area beed sha n reduce smalo dt l fragments, averaging about lengthn i m m . Thi5 2 s made identification difficult wit hresultina g high proportio f unidentifieno d fragments. totaThe l weigh remainthe 0.7 of tThi swas 8 kg. lighful a sis l tfor adul t skeleton ful.A l male skeleton can weigh well over 2 kg, depending on the method of cremation. There were no duplicated l calvariuboneal d Cairn i s an mn2 fragments wersimilaa f eo r thicknesse assumeb n ca dt I . that there was only one individual present in the cist deposit (F432). It cannot be confirmed osteologically that the few fragments of bone from the upper cairn deposit (F430) were from the same individual. Several indicators confirm that the individual represented by fragments in the cist was adult. Mandibular evidence for the eruption of fully developed third molars suggests that age was in excess years1 o2 f , while fusio f epiphyseao n l ring vertebran so l bodie t ovesa yearsput5 e 2 r ag s . Thers ei no evidence for advanced adulthood and while an accurate assessment of age is not possible, the presenc f sligheo t degenerative chang cervicae th f eo l spin partiad ean l obliteratio craniae th f no l sutures suggest thaindividuae th t probabls wa l y ove year0 3 r f ageso . BARBER, DUFFY & O'SULLIVAN: BRONZE AGE BURIAL CAIRNS AT BU FARM I 113

Ver sexuaw yfe l indicators were detected mose Th . t reliable areas pelvis,e sucth s ha , femoral and humeral heads, mastoid processe d chian sn were either missin r damagedo g . Howevere th , absenc markedly an f eo y male characteristics, sharp orbita llengte glenoi e edgeth th d f ho s an d cavity (30 mm) combine to suggest that this individual was probably female. The right upper central incisor had been lost during life. There is no evidence for the loss of any other teeth during life although the status of 17 teeth is not known. The incomplete left head of the mandible, forming part of the temporo-mandibular joint, was worn almost flat. There were no associated macroscopic surface change r osteophitiso c growth aroun joine dth t surface. Wea f thio r s joint can occur as a result of changes in normal joint-loading because of dental attrition or ante mortem tooth loss. Slight lipping around the edges of the bodies of three cervical vertebrae was noted. Damage otheo t r vertebral bodies prevente assessmeny dan e truth e f exteno t f thio t s condition. Such lip- pinoccuy resula gma s f a traumaroccupationalle o b t y ma , y simply resulrelatee th ma f e o r tyb do normal degeneration associated with ageing. The latter is the most common aetiology. Individuals e oftear n unawar conditione th f eo thin I . s case bone th , y changes were slight werd an , e probably asymptomatic.

Cremation practice Most of the bones were well burnt, brittle and a uniform grey-brown in colour. A few, particularly calvarium and longbone shaft fragments, were of a bluish colour and poorly calcined. That some distortio f bon no occurred eha d coul piecee e seeth db f n craniuni o s m whic d separatehha d into inner and outer tables and the few fragments of longbones which had splintered laterally. These factors indicate tha higa t h temperatur achieves ewa d during firing, althoug extremitiese th h t a les o ss . The same degree of surface cracking as with the bone from Cairn 1 was not observed and it is possible that this indicates that these remains were cremated soon after death while still bearing flesh (Ubelaker 1978). Several fragment browa f o s n lumpy substance were present whae b . Thiy t ma s Well calles sha d 'clinker interpretedd an ' transformes a d keratin from human hair (Wells 1960). Althoug teete hth h were absent, most other skeletal areas were represented t leasa , partn i d t an , the remains appea represeno t r fairla t y complete cremation rather tha partiana r tokeo l n deposit. While tooth enamel often shatters during cremation at high temperatures, the roots normally survive. The absence of tooth roots and the relatively light total weight probably indicates that collection of e remainth s t particularlfro remaine no mpyre th s th ewa f o s y careful thad an t, many smaller fragments were missed. The consistently small size of fragments indicates that the remains may have been deliberately broken after cremation, although chemical erosion may also have been a factor in reducin totae gth l surviving bone mass over time.

FAUNAL REMAINS Tanya O'Sullivan The results of analysis are given here in summary. A complete catalogue of the faunal bone fragments forms part of the excavation archive at the National Monuments Record of Scotland (RCAHMS), Edinburgh. birde th Al f , mammao ld fis han l bones recovere excavatioy db n derive frocontextso mtw e th : deposit of undisturbed, loose, dark soil which underlay the basal cist slab of Cairn 1 (F406) and the clay-loam soil matrix of the cairn body (F401). The assemblage includes bones which were hand- 114 I SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1996

retrieved durin excavatioe gth alsd nan o smaller bones which were recovered from wet-sieve1 d( mm) bulk soil samples. The bones were measured where possible using the guidelines outlined by Von den Dreisch (1976). Thirty-seven bones or bone fragments were examined, of which 20 could be identified to species. None of the bones was burnt. Mammal, birfishdand bones were represente deposithe din t which underla cisythe t (F406). The mammal remains included sheep (Ovis aries), dog/fox (Canis spl Vulpes vulpes), and common vole (Microtus arvalis). It should be noted that immature dog and fox bones are morphologically very similar and, in the case of a single bone, it is difficult to draw a definite conclusion about the species present. The bird remains included red grouse (Lagopus scoticus), teal (Anas creccd), kitti- wake (Rissa tridactyla), guillemot (Uria aalge), snipe (Gallinago gallinago), gannet (Sula bassana) and greylag goose (Anser anser). Fisrepresentes hwa singla (Gadusy d db eco morhua) premaxilla. e soiTh l matrix (F401caire th nf o )rubbl e also contained mamma bird an dl bones. Amongst the mammal bones were remains of adult horse (Equus sp), adult and immature cat (Felis catus), pig (Sus domesticd) and rodent. Of the bird bones, in addition to cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), all of the same species which appeared in the pre-cist deposit were also represented by bone fragments caire inth n material. Only one bone displayed signs of a pathological anomaly. This was in the form of a possible healed fractur proximae th n i e l shaf timmatur n a are f ao r unfuseeo d radius unfusee Th . d naturf eo the radius, combined wit injurye hth , rendere bone dth e unidentifiabl specieso et butchero N . y marks bonese werth f evidenco n ei . y an n eo Faunal remain funerarn i s y monuments often occu contextn i r s unrelate constructioe th o dt n presentombe e th th f n I .o tan e casedus , therepreseny yma t either creatures that use caire dth r nfo nesting or remains which were deposited in the cairn by predators and carrion-eaters. This explana- accouny tiowide nth ma r e rangfo t f faunaeo l remains fro disturbede mth , partly vacuous bodf yo the s lescairni t se sheep bu likel,th e tru b f eo o ,y t vole, dog/fo wildfowd an x l bones which were sealed by the central cist. These - with the possible exception of the rodent bones - may have been deliberately deposited prior to construction of the cist. This could be asserted with more confidence bonee ith f s were burnt. However casee possibilitth e t th , s no thi a ,s i s y that these bone alse ar so intrusive canno dismissee b t theid dan r significance remains unresolved.

RADIOCARBON DATES

SAMPLE IDENTIFICATION Coralie Mills Burnt inclusions recovered from wet-sieved (1 mm; 3 mm) bulk soil samples were examined under powew lo a r binocular microscope. Identificatio f charcoao n mads referencwa y l b e e keyth so t e publishe Schweingruben di r (1982) contexto Tw . s supplied suitable sample materia radiocarbor fo l n dating: the burnt deposits (F406) underlying the basal cist slab in Cairn 1 and a soil deposit (F435) heaped agains outside cise th tCair n th i t f e. o n 2

F406: pre-cist deposit, Cairn 1 The bulk of the burnt material present in this deposit was found to be a black, heavy, fused material which probably derives from burnt organic sediments such as peat or turf and is unsuitable for radiocarbon dating in the present case. However, a small amount of wood charcoal was retrieved (0.9 g). It is highly fragmented and BARBER, DUFFY & O'SULLIVAN: BRONZE AGE BURIAL CAIRNS AT BU FARM I 115

most is too small to be identifiable. Two fragments, however, were identified as Lam and other fragments appeare f coniferouo e b o dt s wood. Drift woo probabls di y represented.

F435: cairn material, Cairn 2 Again , burne somth f teo inclusion thin si s deposit were founorganie b o t d c sediments, probably tur r peato f . The charcoal fragments which could be retrieved (0.2 g) were too small to be identified to species, but some appeare coniferouse b o dt , indicatin likele gth y presenc f driftwoodeo .

RESULTS e sampleTh s were submitte r datinScottise dfo th o gt h Universities Researc Reactoh& r Centrd ean measured at the University of Arizona AMS Facility. Dates are expressed in conventional years BP (before AD 1950) and are calibrated after Dalland (forthcoming).

Uncalibrated Calibrated years BP one-sigma range two-sigma range

F406 Cairn1 AA-11766 2955185 BP 1310 BC- 1020 BC 1420 BC - 930 BC

F435 Cairn2 AA-11767 3205±5P 5B 1525 B C- 142 0 BC 1650 B C- 139 5 BC

The fact that the samples contained driftwood carries the implication that these dates may be somewhat earlier than the construction of the cairns. Clearly, they must be treated as terminus post quern dates, suggesting that constructio monumente th f no s occurred afte mide data rth lato -n t ei e second millenniu. mBC

DISCUSSION

ORCADIAN BRONZE AGE BURIAL MOUNDS Previous excavations The list of excavated Bronze Age Orcadian burial mounds is not a long one. Hedges (1977) - in a report on the excavation of a cemetery group at Quoyscottie - reviewed previous excavation results from Corquoy (McCrie 1881), Trumland (Craw 1934), Quandale (Grant 1936), Sum- mersdale (Ashmore 1974) and Queenjafold (Ritchie & Ritchie 1974). In addition to the present excavations, subsequent work has included investigation of a single mound at Holland in 1979 (Neil 1981) and excavation of mounds at Mousland (Downes 1994) and Linga Fold (Downes 1994) in the 1990s.

Cemetery characteristics From this small corpus generaw fe a , l characteristic derivede b y sma . Som f theseo e were identified by Hedges' review (1977, 140): the majority of the excavated sites were regular mounds, round or oval; they were generally of a small diameter, seldom exceeding several metres; they often occurred groupsn i , rangin numben gi r s threman ro a dozen a fro o o s et ya m tw ; they frequently occupied marginal land and were commonly found in areas where burnt mounds also occurred. Common 11 I 6SOCIET ANTIQUARIEF YO SCOTLANDF SO , 1996

features could als identifiee ob d withi moundse nth : burials were most often containe slab-buily db t cists which were built above ground, were often erecte basaa n do l slasealed capstona ban y db e (Hedges 1977, 142).

BRONZ BURIAE EAG WESTRAN LO Y The Westray Inventory (Lamb 1983) records over a dozen probable burial mounds on the island, as well as several cist sites without barrows or cairns. A few of the burial mounds occur in the Rapness area, and are of potentially similar date and type to the excavated examples at Bu Farm. These are the mounds near Scarra Taing (no 83) and Crow Tuo (no 69), as well as mounds with cists at Ness (no 89), now destroyed. Before the present excavations, there had been no systematic excavation of these sites on Westray, though a steatite urn was removed from a disturbed barrow at Wilkies Knowe earle th yn i 19th ) centurand74 ,presen e o earlyth (n n yi t century cisa , t with cremated remains swa destroye agricultury db t Farrivalea 77)o d(n .

BU FARM IN CONTEXT Cistcairnand construction above-groune Th d constructio f slab-builno tFarm u cistB t sa , with basal slab capstoned san s (Cairn 2), does generally conform to the type characterized by Hedges. Inclined supporting slabs might be regarde additionan a s da l common feature. These occu t Quoyscottiea r mounn i , d K2, where stone slabs inclined agains centrae th t l cist 'apparentl functioe th d f protectinyha o n t frogi m collapsing' (Hedges 1977, 135). A similar arrangement was recorded at Trumland (Craw 1934) and possibly at Nears, too, where Grant noted 'a distinct inward tilt' (1932, 25) in the erected slabs which formed remnante th denudee th f so d cairn monument feature Th . f Orcadiaeo n cists most obviously absent clae Faru ath B ty ms i lutin g commonly use seaconsolidato d t an l e slab-built structures elsewhere. Construction of the cairns has less in common with other Orcadian sites. Most of the excavated example 'scrape sar e barrows f f eart o o stoned ' r han o , rather than rubble cairns propern i s a , presene th t case slab-buile Th . t kerbs, also generalle ar , y unlik rubble eth e kerb f otheso r excavated sites, wit exceptioe hth well-formee th f no d kerbs retaining mound t Trumlana s d (Craw 1934d an ) at Mousland (Downes 1994).

Associated features The single miniature cairn recorded at Bu Farm conforms to the observation by Downes that, where associated or secondary features occur in the spaces between burial mounds, they tend to occur in positions 'immediately around the mounds and not some distance away' (Downes, forthcoming). The poin moss i t t clearly illustrate excavatione th y db t Quoyscottiesa , where ovedozeo tw rt burial npi s were crowded north-easinte aren th o a t a t peripher f Mounyo d Kl, som f theeo m lying withie nth margi moune th f no d itself (Hedges 1977) e singlTh . e secondary crematio moune th n nt i Sumda - mersdale a similaseeb n i ny r ma e s incorporate positiowa d an n d inte largeoth r monumeny b t extending the cairn material over it with turf dumps (Ashmore 1974, 41-2). One of the four cists excavate t Trumlanda immediately dla y outwit kere hth b (Craw 1934). Downes (forthcoming) suggests that, adjacent to Mound 7, at Linga Fold, posts may have been erected over otherwise unmarked cists. The small pits (F425, F450) recorded between the Bu Farm BARBER, DUFF O'SULLIVANY& : BRONZ BURIAE EAG L7 CAIRN 11 FARU B I T MSA

cairns cannot be definitively associated with the funerary monuments, but may be significant in this regard.

Cremation funeraryand practices There is somewhat more heterogeneity to be seen in the cremation and funerary practices of these sites than in their construction and grouping. Orcadian Bronze Age funerary mounds have been found to contain both inhumed and cremated remains of, variously, single adults, single juveniles/children, mal femald ean e adult adultd an s s with juveniles/children excavatee Th . d sites have produced pre- dominantly juvenile or infant bones, though Hedges (1977, 43) attributes this to demography rather than preference casey s cleai an t i ,r n I . tha single th t e adult cremations though havo t t e occupied each of the cairns at Bu Farm do not bear out any particular expectation based on the existing excavations. At Bu Farm, the evidence from the two cairns suggests that the remains of the individuals' bodies had different histories prior to being cremated. The bones of the individual in Cairn 1 were fleshless or dry when exposed, while the corresponding signs were absent from the bones in Cairn 2 (see McSweeny, above). Both cremation deposits were very lighcomprised an t eacn di h case less tha e expecten th hal f o f d weigh a ful f l o t cremation e charcoaTh . l analysi t Caira s nI identifie d calcium carbonate deposits on the charcoal which could been derived from dissolved bone. The presen e adjacenth f t o hig tH hp soi s maintainei l e natura liminy th db d lgan environmene th f o t depositions is quite acidic. Thus, both the low weights of bone present and the fragmentation of that which survives coul attributee db lose f incompletelth so o dt y calcined bon solutiony eb . However, equallitis y possible that ritualized deposition, including selectio deliberatnand e fragmentation, were also factors here. Farmu B t ,A although burnt deposits r soilo , s with burnt inclusions, underla basae yth l slabs of both cists, therevidenco n s ei crematior efo n pyres withi excavatee nth d arethusd evidencaan o n , e for the close juxtaposition of the pyres with the cairns. Burnt deposits also underlay the cists in t Linga Mound6 ad Folan s5 d (Downes, forthcoming cise t Queenjafolth a t d )an d (Ritchi Ritchie& e 1974) contrastn I . , excavatio f Mounno t Linga d7 a Fold showe dcise thatth t t onl s erecteno , ywa d prio cremationo t r t tha t bu becam,i t e scorche e adjacenth y db t pyre (Downes, forthcoming)e Th . low incidence of clearly identified pyre sites is unsurprising. A recent study of some 1300 burial sites Bronze Irelann oi th f e edAg could only identify five examples (Waddel 1990, 20) separatioe .Th f no cremation site from burial site seems consistent with a ritual which emphasises the transition from the state of the living to that of the dead. The cremation ceremony represents the last social interaction e deceaseoth f d with those still living; e remainburiath f o l s represent w e beginninne th s e th f go status of the dead, as ancestor.

Fuel Examination of burnt materials from the Bu Farm cairns failed to identify significant quantities of harcoal. Some coniferous woo s presentdwa , possibly driftwood e burnt mucth bu , f tho material tentatively identified as fuel appears to derive from an organic sediment, possibly peat or turf. This conforms to the general comment by Hedges (1977, 143) that brushwood and peat were probably the only reliable sources of fuel on the islands. This may have been the case from earliest times: large volumes of peat ash were recorded in Neolithic contexts at Pool, Sandy (Hunter et al forthcoming) suggesto t .t Thino f courses o s,i Orknee th , devoi s l treal ywa e f do cover t QuoyA . - 11 I 8SOCIET ANTIQUARIEF YO SCOTLANDF SO , 1996

scottie, the charcoal assemblage included birch, pine, willow and hazel (Hedges 1977, 150). Birch and hazel were identified at Queenjafold (Ritchie & Ritchie 1974, 35).

Cramp The vitreous material known as 'cramp' or 'clinker' has commonly been found in cremation contexts in Orkney, but is known to occur in other contexts too. Deposits from the Bu Farm cairns were tentatively identified with human hair (after Wells 1960McSweenye se ; s , a above lons a o gd ag an ) the 1860s, Petrie could mak observatioe eth n that:

..numeroun i . s instance f crematioo s whicn i n I hcarefull y examine e bond ashesdth an e I foun, d undoubted fragments of human skulls generally adhering to, or imbedded in, the vitrified substance ('cramp') whic Orknen i s hi y almost invariably gravee founth n r barrowi dso whicn i s h cremation nca be traced (Petrie 1867, 413).

However, various analyses of similar material have indicated a mineral source for cramp, probably silica-bearing natural sediments (Callander 1936; Fleet 1978). Most recently, cramp'fro mcisa t a t Sand Fiold Orkneyn o , characterizes i , fueslaa h s as glda (McKinle Kibbly& e forthcoming) and, significantly, similar materia bees ha l n associated with non-funerary contexts ,remaine sucth s ha f so turf-buila t Norse hous t Poolea Sandan o , y (Hunte t ale r forthcoming).

Faunal remains The deer bones found with human remains in a cist at Queenjafold were also cremated (Ritchie & Ritchie 1974musd an )t certainly have forme dfunerare th par f o t y deposit. This canno e saib tf do the extensive range of wildfowl and mammals identified from remains at Bu Farm. These bones were not burnt, and while those from the body of Cairn 1 may be secondary or intrusive, those from beneath the cist are more likely to have been primary deposits, contemporary with the cremated human bone fro same mth e context bire dTh . bone strikine sar g alik their efo r diversit face th t d yan that all of them have been included in the human diet in the recent past. It is possible that these are the remains of a feast, or possibly votive offerings which formed part of the cremation ritual. Waddel's (1990 ) stud 22 ,f Iris yo h Bronz buriale eAg s record instance2 1 s s where cremated human remains were intermixed with soil before being deposite cista n di . Bot deposie hth t beneat cise hth t in withiCaird cisan have y Cairn 1 nth i t ema nbee2 thif no s type faunad an , l remain s- eithe n i r the for foof mo d remnant bodr so yalsy partoma hav s- e forme rituallde parth f o ty mixed deposits.

Dates e characteristiTh c absenc f datableo e artefacts from Orcadian cist s beeha scomplain na f moro t e than one commentator (Ritchie & Ritchie 1974, 37; Hedges 1977, 142) and the Bu Farm cairns are typical in this regard. Only a few radiocarbon dates are available from the excavated sites. At Quoy- scottie, cremations produced calibrated radiocarbon e 12tdate th o 10t ht n i sh centurie (HedgeC B s s 1977, 151) t Hollanda ; secondara , y inhumation produced dates which broadly spanne e 14tdth o t h llth centuries BC (Neil 1981, 38); and at Mousland, a single radiocarbon date spanned the 16th to 14th centuries BC (Downes 1994, 147). In this context, the radiocarbon dates from Bu Farm are unexceptional and, from a more general point of view, fall within the known date range for funerary cairn f Bronzo s typee eAg . Both dates derive from contexts which appea closele b o t r y associated BARBER, DUFF O'SULLIVANY& : BRONZ BURIAE EAG L CAIRN FARU B I T M11SA 9

wit erectioe hth ciste th eac n si f no h cairn and suggesteds a , above regardee b , they yma terminuss da post quern dates for construction of the monuments.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The excavation, post-excavation analyses and reporting were funded by Historic Scotland (formerly Historic Building Monumentd an s Scottise th t a s h Development Department) excavatioe Th . s nwa directed in the field by John Barber and supervised by Alan Duffy, who would like to thank the landowner excavatioe th accesr sitd e sfo th e an o st n tea their mfo r hard work, especially Eoin Halpin. The illustrations were produced by Eoin Halpin and Tanya O'Sullivan. The report was prepared for publication by Ann MacSween and Coralie Mills at AOC (Scotland) Ltd.

REFERENCES Ashmore, P J 1974 'Excavations at Summersdale, Orkney, by F G Wainwright in July I960', Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 105 (1972-4), 41-2. Barber, J 1988 'Isbister, Quanterness and the Point of Cott: the formulation and testing of some Middle-Range theories' Barrettn i ,Kinnes & C (eds)A J , Archaeology e I , Th , of Context Neolithice Bronzee th th n i d an Age, 57-62. Sheffield. Barber, J 1992 'Megalithic architecture', in Sharpies, N & Sheridan, A (eds), Vessels for the Ancestors, 13-32. Edinburgh. Barber, J (forthcoming) 'Excavation of a stalled cairn at the Point of Cott, Westray, Orkney', submitted to the Proc Prehist Soc. Bass, W M 1987 Human Osteology: a Laboratory and Field Manual. Missouri Archaeological Society. Callander, J G 1936 'Bronze Age urns from Orkney with a note on vitreous material called cramp', Proc Soc Antiq Scot, (1935-6)5 10 , 444-8. Craw, J H 1934 'A mound containing short cists at Trumland, Rousay, Orkney', Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 68 (1933- 4), 68-70. Dalland forthcominM M , g 'A programm r calibratioefo f radiocarbono n dates with procedure analysie th r sfo s differencee oag f adjustind an s r stratigraphicagfo l data'. Downes, J 1994 'Excavation of a Bronze Age burial at Mousland, Stromness, Orkney', Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 124(1994), 141-54. Downes J 199, Orknee 4Th y Barrows Project. Unpublished Archive Report, Universit f Glasgoyo w Archaeology Department. Fleet, A J 1978 'Cramp', in Ritchie, J N G, 'The stones of Stenness, Orkney', Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 105 (1975- 6), 41-8. Grant 193W , 3 'Excavatio a denude f no d cairn, containing fragment f steatito s e urnd crematean s d human remains Rousayn i , , Orkney', Proc Antiqc So Scot, (1932-3)7 6 , 24-6. Grant, W 1937 'Excavation of Bronze Age burial mounds at Quandale, Rousay, Orkney', Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 71 (1936-7), 24-6. Hedges, M E 1977 'The excavation of the Knowes of Quoyscottie, Orkney: a cemetery of the first millennium BC', Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 108 (1976-7), 130-5. Hunter , DockrillJ , , BondS , Smith& J , (forthcomingA , ) Archaeological Investigations Sanday.n o Lamb 198R , 3 Papa Westray Orkney.d an Archaeological Site Monumentd san f Scotlandso , Orkne19 , y Islands Area. Royal Commissio Anciene th n Historicad no an t l Monument f Scotlandso . Lehane 199D , 0 'Gill Pier burnt mound, Westray, Orkney' Buckleyn i , (edV , ) Burnt Offerings. International Contributions Burntto Mound Archaeology. Proceedings International ofthe Burnt Mound Study Group. Dublin. McCrie 188G , f fivo 1 f steatite e o 'Notic tumuln discovere on ur th n e i f n eo a i excavatef o y Corquoyn do n i , the island of Rousay, Orkney', Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 15 (1880-1), 71-3. 120 I SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1996

McKinley Kibble& J , (forthcomingH , ) 'Cremated human remains' Dallandn i , SandM , Fiold: Excavatione th Exceptionalofan Cist Orkney.on Neil, R J 1981 'A Bronze Age burial mound at Holland, St Ola, Orkney', Glasgow Archaeol J, 8 (1981), 32-45. Petrie, G 1866 'Notice of a barrow containing cists on the farm of Newbigging, near Kirkwall; and at Isbister, in the parish of Rendall, Orkney', in Proc Soc Antic/ Scot, Vl.ii (1864-6), 411-18. Ritchie Ritchie& G , 197A , 4 'Excavatio barroa f no t Queenjafoldwa , Twatt, Orkney', Proc Antiqc So Scot, 105 (1972-4), 33^0. Schweingruber 198H F ,2 Microscopic Wood Anatomy. Teufen, Switzerland: Fluck-Wirth. Ubelaker 197H D ,8 Human Skeletal Remains. Washington. VoDreischn nde 197A , 6MeasurementGuidee A th o t of Animal Bone from Archaeological Sites. Peabody Museum Bulletin No.l. Harvard University. Waddel, J 1990 The Bronze Age Burials of Ireland. Galway. Wells, C 1960 'A study of cremation', Antiquity, 34 (1960), 29-37.

This paper publishedis ofgranta aid with the from Historic Scotland