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Athanasius of

“Athanasius” redirects here. For other uses, see by the Oriental and Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Ro- Athanasius (disambiguation). man Catholic , the Lutherans, and the Anglican For the Italian , see Athanasius I (bishop of Communion. Naples). For other people named Athanasius of Alexan- dria, see Athanasius and Athanasius. 1 Biography

Saint (/ˌæθəˈneɪʃəs/; Greek: Ἀθανάσιος Ἀλεξανδρείας, Athanásios Alexandrías; c. 296–298 – 2 May 373), also called Athanasius the Great, Athanasius the Confessor or, primarily in the Coptic Orthodox Church, Athanasius the Apostolic, was the twentieth bishop of Alexandria (as Athanasius I). His episcopate lasted 45 years (c. 8 June 328 – 2 May 373), of which over 17 were spent in five exiles ordered by four different Roman emperors. Athanasius was a Christian theologian, a Church Father, the chief defender of Trinitarianism against , and a noted Egyptian leader of the fourth century. Conflict with and Arianism as well as successive Roman emperors shaped Athanasius’s career. In 325, at the age of 27, Athanasius began his leading role against the Arians as a and assistant to Bishop Alexander of Alexandria during the First Council of . Roman emperor had convened the council in May–August 325 to address the Arian position that the , of Nazareth, is of a distinct substance from the Father.[2] Three years after that council, Athana- sius succeeded his mentor as of Alexandria. In addition to the conflict with the Arians (including pow- erful and influential Arian churchmen led by of Nicomedia), he struggled against the Emperors Constan- Statue in , . tine, Constantius II, the Apostate and . He was known as “Athanasius Contra Mundum” (Latin for Athanasius was born to a Christian family in the city of Athanasius Against the World). Alexandria[4] or possibly the nearby Nile Delta town of Nonetheless, within a few years after his death, Gregory sometime between the years 293 and 298. of called him the “Pillar of the Church”. His The earlier date is sometimes assigned due to the ma- writings were well regarded by all who turity revealed in his two earliest treatises Contra Gentes followed, in both the West and the East, who noted their (Against the Heathens) and De Incarnatione (On the Incar- rich devotion to the Word-become-man, great pastoral nation), which were admittedly written about the year 318 concern, and profound interest in . Athana- before Arianism had begun to make itself felt, as those sius is counted as one of the four great Eastern Doctors writings do not show an awareness of Arianism.[1] [3] of the Church in the Roman . In the However Cornelius Clifford places his birth no earlier , he is labeled as the “Father than 296 and no later than 298, based on the fact that of ”. Some Protestants label him as “Father Athanasius indicates no first hand recollection of the of the ”. Athanasius is venerated as a Christian Maximian persecution of 303, which he suggests Athana- , whose feast day is 2 May in Western , sius would have remembered if he had been ten years old 15 May in the Coptic Orthodox Church, and 18 January at the time. Secondly, the Festal Epistles that the in the other Eastern Orthodox Churches. He is venerated Arians had accused Athanasius, among other charges, of

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not having yet attained the canonical age (30) and thus genist Alexandrian thought (such as repeatedly quoting could not have been properly ordained as Patriarch of and used a definition from 's Organon) but Alexandria in 328. The accusation must have seemed in an orthodox way. Athanasius was also familiar with the plausible.[1] The Orthodox Church places his year of birth theories of various philosophical schools, and in particu- around 297.[4] lar with the developments of Neo-Platonism. Ultimately, Athanasius would modify the philosophical thought of the School of Alexandria away from the Origenist principles 1.1 Education such as the “entirely allegorical interpretation of the text”. Still, in later works, Athanasius quotes more than His parents were wealthy enough to afford giving him a once (Hist. Ar. 68, Orat. iv. 29). In his letter to Emperor fine secular education.[1] Some Western scholars consider Constantius, he presents a defense of himself bearing un- his command of Greek, in which he wrote most of his mistakable traces of a study of Demosthenes de Corona. surviving works, evidence that he was a Greek born in Alexandria. However, in , Athanasius is the first to use Coptic as well as Greek in his writings.[5] Rufinus relates a story that as Bishop Alexander stood by a window, he watched boys playing on the seashore be- low, imitating the ritual of Christian . He sent for the children and discovered that one of the boys (Athana- sius) had acted as bishop. After questioning Athanasius, Bishop Alexander informed him that the were genuine, as both the form and matter of the had been performed through the recitation of the cor- rect words and the administration of water, and that he must not continue to do this as those baptized had not been properly catechized. He invited Athanasius and his playfellows to prepare for clerical careers.[6] Alexandria was the most important trade center in the whole empire during Athanasius’s boyhood. Intellec- tually, morally, and politically—it epitomized the eth- nically diverse Graeco-Roman world, even more than or , or Marseilles.[6] Its fa- mous catechetical school, while sacrificing none of its fa- mous passion for orthodoxy since the days of , , of Alexandria, Dionysius and Theognostus, had begun to take on an almost sec- St. Athanasius (1883–84), by Carl Rohl-Smith, Frederik’s ular character in the comprehensiveness of its interests, Church, , Denmark. and had counted influential pagans among its serious auditors.[7] Athanasius knew Greek and admitted not knowing Athanasius recounts being a student, as well as being edu- Hebrew [see, e.g., the 39th Festal Letter of St. Athan.]. cated by the of the Great (tenth) and last persecu- The passages he quotes frequently come tion of Christianity by pagan Rome. This persecution was from the Greek translation. Only rarely did most severe in the East, particularly in and Pales- he use other Greek versions (to Aquila once in the Ecthe- tine. of Alexandria, the 17th archbishop of Alexan- sis, to other versions once or twice on the ), and his knowledge of the Old Testament was limited to the dria, was martyred in 311 in the closing days of that per- [8] secution, and may have been one of those teachers. His Septuagint. Nonetheless, during his later exile, with no successor as bishop of Alexandria, Alexander of Alexan- access to a copy of the Scriptures, Athanasius could quote dria (312–328) was an Origenist as well as a documented from memory every verse in the Old Testament with a mentor of Athanasius. According to , Bishop supposed reference to the without missing any. Alexander “invited Athanasius to be his commensal and The combination of Scriptural study and of Greek learn- secretary. He had been well educated, and was versed in ing was characteristic of the famous Alexandrian School. grammar and rhetoric, and had already, while still a young Bishop (or Patriarch, meaning the head of the Centre of man, and before reaching the episcopate, given proof to the Church, in Alexandria) Alexander ordained Athana- those who dwelt with him of his wisdom and acumen”.[1] sius a deacon in 319.[9] In 325, Athanasius served as Athanasius’ earliest work, Against the Heathen – On the Alexander’s secretary at the . Al- Incarnation (written before 319), bears traces of Ori- ready a recognized theologian and ascetic, he was the ob- 1.3 Patriarch 3

vious choice to replace his aging mentor Alexander as the of Alexander, five months after the termination of the Patriarch of Alexandria,[10] despite the opposition of the Council of Nicaea, Athanasius was unanimously elected followers of Arius and Meletius of Lycopolis.[9] to fill the vacant see. He was most unwilling to accept the At length, in the Council of Nicaea, the term “consub- dignity, for he clearly foresaw the difficulties in which it stantial” () was suggested by Athanasius: it would involve him. The and people were deter- was immediately adopted, and a formulary of faith em- mined to have him as their bishop, Patriarch of Alexan- bodying it was drawn up by Hosius, Hosius of Cordoba. dria, and refused to accept any excuses. He at length con- From this time to the end of the Arian controversies the sented to accept a responsibility that he sought in vain to escape, and was consecrated in 326, when he was about word “consubstantial” continued to be the test of Catholic [11] orthodoxy. The formulary of faith drawn up by Hosius is thirty years of age. known as the .[11] Athanasius’ episcopate began on 9 May 328 as the While still a deacon under Alexander’s care (or early in Alexandrian Council elected Athanasius to succeed the his as discussed below) Athanasius may have aged Alexander. That council also denounced various also become acquainted with some of the solitaries of and , many of which continued to pre- the Egyptian desert, and in particular , occupy his 45-year-long episcopate (c. 8 June 328 – 2 whose life he is said to have written.[6] May 373). Patriarch Athanasius spent over 17 years in five exiles ordered by four different Roman Emperors, not counting approximately six more incidents in which 1.2 Opposition to Arianism Athanasius fled Alexandria to escape people seeking to take his life. This gave rise to the expression “Athana- Further information: sius contra mundum” or “Athanasius against the world”. However, during his first years as bishop, Athanasius visited the churches of his territory, which at that time In about 319, when Athanasius was a deacon, a included all of Egypt and . He established con- named Arius came into a direct conflict with Alexander of tacts with the and of the desert, including Alexandria. It appears that Arius reproached Alexander Pachomius, which proved very valuable to him over the for what he felt were misguided or heretical teachings be- years. Shortly thereafter, Athanasius became occupied [12] ing taught by the bishop. Arius’ theological views ap- with the theological disputes against Arians within the pear to have been firmly rooted in Alexandrian Christian- that would occupy much of his life.[10] ity, and his Christological views were certainly not radi- cal at all.[13] He embraced a subordinationist which taught that Christ was the divine Son () of God, made, not begotten, heavily influenced by Alexan- drian thinkers like Origen,[14] and which was a common [15] Christological view in Alexandria at the time. Support 1.3.1 First exile for Arius from powerful like Eusebius of Cae- sarea[16] and ,[17] further illustrate how Arius’s subordinationist Christology was shared by Athanasius’ first problem lay with Meletius of Lycopo- other in the Empire. Arius was subsequently lis and his followers, who had failed to abide by the excommunicated by Alexander, and he would begin to First Council of Nicaea. That council also anathematized elicit the support of many bishops who agreed with his Arius. Accused of mistreating Arians and Meletians, position. Athanasius answered those charges at a gathering of bishops in Tyre, the First of Tyre, in 335. There, Eusebius of Nicomedia and other supporters 1.3 Patriarch of Arius deposed Athanasius.[9] On 6 November, both sides of the dispute met with Emperor Constantine I in Frances A. M. Forbes writes that when the Patriarch Constantinople.[19] At that meeting, the Arians claimed Alexander was on his death-bed he called Athanasius, Athanasius would try to cut off essential Egyptian grain who fled fearing he would be constrained to be made supplies to Constantinople. He was found guilty, and sent Bishop. “When the Bishops of the Church assembled to into exile to Augusta Treverorum in (now in elect their new Patriarch, the whole Catholic population Germany).[9][10][20] surrounded the church, holding up their hands to Heaven When Athanasius reached his destination in exile in 336, and crying; “Give us Athanasius!" The Bishops had noth- Maximinus of Trier received him not as a disgraced per- ing better. Athanasius was thus elected, as Gregory tells son. Athanasius stayed with him for two years. Also, Paul us...” (, would have full access to the Vat- [18] I of Constantinople stayed with him, who was banished ican Archives). by the Emperor Constantius. Maximinus, precautioned T. Gilmartin, (Professor of History, Maynooth, 1890), the Emperor against the Arians, revealing their writes in Church History, Vol. 1, Ch XVII: On the death plots.[21] 4 1 BIOGRAPHY

was a mammoth task in itself. At this great gathering of prelates, leaders of the Church, the case of Athana- sius was taken up once more, that is, Athanasius was for- mally questioned over misdemeanours and even murder, (a man called Arsenius and using his body for magic, – an absurd charge. They even produced Arsenius’ severed hand.[20]). [The Council was convoked for the purpose of inquiring into the charges against Athanasius and other bishops, on account of which they were deposed from their sees by the Semi-Arian Synod of Antioch (341), and went into exile. It was called according to Socrates, (E. H. ii. 20) by the two Emperors, Constans and Constantius; but, according to Baronius by Pope Julius (337–352), (Ad an. 343). One hundred and seventy six attended. Eu- sebian bishops objected to the admission of Athanasius and other deposed bishops to the Council, except as ac- cused persons to answer the charges brought against them. Their objections were overridden by the orthodox bish- ops, about a hundred were orthodox, who were the major- ity. The Eusebians, seeing they had no chance of having their views carried, retired to Philoppopolis in , (), where they held an opposition council, under the presidency of the , and confirmed the decrees of the Synod of Antioch.[11] ]. Statue of the saint in St Athanasius’s Roman Catholic Church in Once more, at the Council of Sardica, was his innocence Evanston, Illinois reaffirmed. Two conciliar letters were prepared, one to the clergy and faithful of Alexandria, the other to the bish- ops of Egypt and Libya, in which the will of the Council was made known. Meanwhile, the Eusebian party had 1.3.2 Second exile gone to Philippopolis, where they issued an against Athanasius and his supporters. The persecution When Emperor Constantine I died, Athanasius was al- against the orthodox party broke out with renewed vigour, lowed to return to his See of Alexandria. Shortly there- and Constantius was induced to prepare drastic measures after, however, Constantine’s son, the new Roman Em- against Athanasius and the priests who were devoted to peror Constantius II, renewed the order for Athanasius’s him. Orders were given that if the Saint attempt to re- banishment in 338. Athanasius went to Rome, where he enter his see, he should be put to death. Athanasius, ac- was under the protection of Constans, the Emperor of the cordingly, withdrew from Sardica to Naissus in Mysia, West. During this time, Gregory of Cappadocia was in- where he celebrated the festival of the year 344.[1] stalled as the Patriarch of Alexandria, usurping the absent It was Hosius who presided over the Council of Sardica, Athanasius. Athanasius did, however, remain in contact as he did for the First Council of Nicaea, which like the with his people through his annual Festal Letters, in which 341 synod, found Athanasius innocent.[24] &.[11] He cel- he also announced on which date Easter would be cele- ebrated his last Easter in exile in in 345, [10] brated that year. received by bishop Fortunatianus.[25] In 339 or 340, nearly one hundred bishops met at Alexan- After the death of the replacement bishop Gregory in [22] dria, declared in favor of Athanasius, and vigorously 345, Constans used his influence to allow Athanasius to rejected the criticisms of the Eusebian faction at Tyre. return to Alexandria in October 345, amidst the enthu- Plus, wrote to the supporters of Arius siastic demonstrations of the populace.[24] This began a strongly urging Athanasius’s reinstatement, but that effort “golden decade” of peace and prosperity, during which proved in vain. Pope Julius I called a synod in Rome in time Athanasius assembled several documents relating to 340 to address the matter, which proclaimed Athanasius his exiles and returns from exile in the Apology Against [23] the rightful bishop of Alexandria. the Arians. However, upon Constans’s death in 350, an- Early in the year 343 we find Athanasius had travelled, via other civil war broke out, which left pro-Arian Constan- Rome, from Alexandria, North , to Gaul; nowadays tius as sole emperor. An Alexandria local council in 350 Belgium / Holland and surrounding areas, where Hosius replaced (or reaffirmed) Athanasius in his see. of Cordoba was Bishop, the great champion of orthodoxy Pope Julius had died in April, 352, and was succeeded by in the West. Together they set out for Sardica. A full Liberius. For two years Liberius had been favourable to Council of the Church was convened / summoned there the cause of Athanasius; but driven at last into exile, he in deference to the Roman pontiff’s wishes. The travel 1.3 Patriarch 5

was induced to sign an ambiguous formula, from which work Four Orations against the Arians and defended his the great Nicene text, the “homoousion”, had been stu- own recent conduct in the Apology to Constantius and diously omitted. In 355 a council was held at Milan, Apology for His Flight. Constantius’s persistence in his where in spite of the vigorous opposition of a handful of opposition to Athanasius, combined with reports Athana- loyal prelates among the Western bishops, a fourth con- sius received about the persecution of non-Arians by the demnation of Athanasius was announced to the world. new Arian bishop George of Laodicea, prompted Athana- With his friends scattered, the saintly Hosius in exile, and sius to write his more emotional History of the Arians, denounced as acquiescing in Arian formu- in which he described Constantius as a precursor of the laries, Athanasius could hardly hope to escape. On the .[10] night of 8 356, while engaged in services in the Constantius, ordered Liberius into exile in 356 giving Church of St. Thomas, a band of armed men burst in to [1] him, then, three days to comply. He was ordered into secure his arrest. It was the beginning of his third exile. banishment to Beroea, in Thrace. He sent expensive T. Gilmartin, (Professor of History, Maynooth, 1890), presents, too, if he were to accept the Arian position but writes in Church History, Vol. 1, Ch XVII: By Con- were refused. He sent him, indeed, five hundred pieces stantius’s order, the sole ruler of The at of gold “to bear his charges” but Liberius refused them, the death of his brother Constans, the Council of Arles saying, he might bestow them on his flatters; as he did in 353, was held, which was presided over by Vincent, also a like present from the empress, bidding the mes- Bishop of , in the name of Pope Liberius. The fa- senger learn to believe in Christ, and not to persecute thers terrified of the threats of the Emperor, an avowed the Church of God. Attempts were made to leave the Arian, they consented to the condemnation of Athana- presents in The Church, but Liberius threw them out. sius. The Pope refused to accept their decision, and re- Constantius hereupon sent for him under a strict guard to quested the Emperor to hold another Council, in which Milan, where, in a conference recorded by , he the charges against Athanasius could be freely investi- boldly told Constantius that Athanasius had been acquit- gated. To this Constantius consented, for he felt able ted at Sardica, and his enemies proved calumniators (see: to control it, at Milan. Milan was named as the place, “calumny”) and impostors, and that it was unjust to con- here three hundred bishops assembled, most from the demn a person who could not be legally convicted of any West, only a few from the East, in 355. They met in the crime. The emperor was reduced to silence on every arti- Church of Milan. Shortly, the Emperor ordered them to cle, but being the more out of patience, ordered him into a hall in the Imperial Palace, thus ending any free de- banishment. Liberius went into exile. Constantius, after bate. He presented an Arian formula of faith for their two years went to Rome to celebrate the twentieth year acceptance. He threatened any who refused with exile of his reign. The ladies joined in a petition to him that he and death. All, with the exception of Dionysius (bishop would restore Liberius. He assented, upon condition that of Milan), and the two Papal Legates, viz., Eusebius of he should comply with the bishops, then, at court. He Vercelli and Lucifer of , consented to the Arian subscribed the condemnation of Athanasius, and a con- Creed and the condemnation of Athanasius. Those who fession or creed which had been framed by the Arians at refused were sent into exile. The decrees were forwarded . And he no sooner had recovered his see that he to the Pope for approval, but were rejected, because of declared himself for the Creed of Niceae, as Theodoret the violence to which the bishops were subjected.[11] testifies. (Theodoret, Hist. lib. ii. c. 17.).[27] The Em- peror knew what he wanted people to believe. So did the bishops at his court. Athanasius stuck by the orthodox 1.3.3 Third exile creed.[20] Constantius was an avowed Arian, became sole ruler in 350, at the death of his brother, Constans.[11] Through the influence of the Eusebian faction at Con- stantinople, an Arian bishop, George of Cappadocia, was T. Gilmartin, (Professor of History, Maynooth, 1890), now appointed to rule the see of Alexandria. Athana- writes in Church History, Vol. 1, Ch XVII: The Ari- sius, after remaining some days in the neighbourhood of ans sought the approval of an . They the city, finally withdrew into the desert of Upper Egypt, sought to hold two councils. Constantius, summoned the where he remained for a period of six years, living the life bishops of the East to meet at Seleucia in Isauria, and of the monks, devoting himself to the composition of a those of the West to in . A preliminary con- group of writings; “Apology to Constantius”, the “Apol- ference was held by the Arians at Sirmium, to agree a for- ogy for his Flight”, the “Letter to the Monks”, and the mula of faith. A “Homoeon” creed was adopted, declar- “History of the Arians”.[1] ing The Son to be “like the Father”. The two met in au- tumn of 359. At Seleucia, one hundred and fifty bish- Constantius, renewing his previous policies favoring the ops, of which one hundred and five were semi-Arian. The Arians, banished Athanasius from Alexandria once again. semi-Arians refused to accept anything less than the “Ho- This was followed, in 356, by an attempt to arrest Athana- moiousion”, (see: ), formulary of faith. The [26] sius during a vigil service. Athanasius fled to Upper Imperial Prefect was obliged to disband, without agreeing Egypt, where he stayed in several and other on any creed. Acacius, the leader of the “Homoean” party houses. During this period, Athanasius completed his 6 1 BIOGRAPHY went to Constantinople, where the Sirmian formulary of clemency. The edict was communicated to the bishop faith was approved by the “Home Synod”, (consisted of by Pythicodorus Trico, who, though described in the those bishops who happened to be present at the Court “Chronicon Athanasianum” (XXXV) as a “philosopher”, for the time), and a decree of deposition issued against seems to have behaved with brutal insolence. On 23 Oc- the leaders of the semi-Arians. At Rimini were over four tober the people gathered about the proscribed bishop hundred of which eighty were Arian, the rest were ortho- to protest against the emperor’s decree; but Athanasius dox. The orthodox fathers refused to accept any creed but urged them to submit, consoling them with the promise the Nicene, while the others were equally in favour of the that his absence would be of short duration.[1] Sirmian. Each party sent a deputation to the Emperor to say there was no probability to agreement, and asked for the bishops to return to their dioceses. For the purpose of 1.3.4 Fourth exile wearing-down the orthodox bishops; (Sulpitius Severius says), Constantius delayed his answer for several months, In 362, the new Emperor Julian, noted for his opposition and finally prevailed on them to accept the Sirmian creed. to Christianity, ordered Athanasius to leave Alexandria It was after this Council that said: " ...the whole once again. Athanasius left for Upper Egypt, remain- world groaned in astonishment to find itself Arian.”[11] ing there with the until Julian’s death in 363. Julian terminated his brief career 26 June 363; and In 361, after the death of Emperor Constantius, shortly Athanasius returned in secret to Alexandria, where he followed by the murder of the very unpopular Bishop soon received a document from the new emperor, , George, Athanasius returned to his patriarchate. The fol- reinstating him once more in his episcopal functions.[1] lowing year he convened a council at Alexandria, and presided over it with . Athanasius ap- His first act was to convene a council which reaffirmed pealed for unity among all those who had faith in Chris- the terms of the Nicene Creed. Early in September 363 tianity, even if they differed on matters of terminology. he set out for Antioch on the Orontes, bearing a synodal This prepared the groundwork for his definition of the letter, in which the pronouncements of this council had orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. However, the council been embodied. At Antioch he had an interview with also was directed against those who denied the the new emperor, who received him graciously and even of the , the human soul of Christ, and Christ’s asked him to prepare an exposition of the orthodox faith. divinity. Mild measures were agreed on for those heretic But in the following February Jovian died; and in Octo- bishops who repented, but severe penance was decreed ber, 364, Athanasius was once more an exile.[1] for the chief leaders of the major heresies.[28]

The Arians no longer presented an unbroken front to their 1.3.5 Fifth exile orthodox opponents. The Emperor Constantius, who had been the cause of so much trouble, died 4 November 361 Two years later, the Emperor Valens, who favored the Ar- and was succeeded by Julian. The proclamation of the ian position, in his turn exiled Athanasius. This time how- new prince’s accession was the signal for a pagan out- ever, Athanasius simply left for the outskirts of Alexan- break against the still dominant Arian faction in Alexan- dria, where he stayed for only a few months before the dria. George, the usurping Bishop, was flung into prison local authorities convinced Valens to retract his order of and murdered. An obscure presbyter of the name of Pis- exile.[10] Some early reports state that Athanasius spent tus was immediately chosen by the Arians to succeed him, this period of exile at his family’s ancestral tomb[9] in a when fresh news arrived that filled the orthodox party Christian cemetery. It was during this period, the final with hope. An edict had been put forth by Julian per- exile, that he is said to have spent four months in hiding mitting the exiled bishops of the “Galileans” to return to in his father’s tomb. (Soz., “Hist. Eccl.”, VI, xii; Soc., their “towns and provinces”. Athanasius received a sum- “Hist. Eccl.”, IV, xii).[1] mons from his own flock, and he accordingly re-entered his episcopal capitol on 22 February 362.[1] The accession of Valens gave a fresh lease of life to the Arian party. He issued a decree banishing the bishops With characteristic energy he set to work to re-establish who had been deposed by Constantius, but who had been the somewhat shattered fortunes of the orthodox party permitted by Jovian to return to their sees. The news cre- and to purge the theological atmosphere of uncertainty. ated the greatest consternation in the city of Alexandria To clear up the misunderstandings that had arisen in the itself, and the prefect, in order to prevent a serious out- course of the previous years, an attempt was made to de- break, gave public assurance that the very special case termine still further the significance of the Nicene for- of Athanasius would be laid before the emperor. But mularies. In the meanwhile, Julian, who seems to have Athanasius seems to have divined what was preparing in become suddenly jealous of the influence that Athana- secret against him. He quietly withdrew from Alexandria, sius was exercising at Alexandria, addressed an order to 5 October, and took up his abode in a country house out- Ecdicius, the Prefect of Egypt, peremptorily command- side the city. Valens, who seems to have sincerely dreaded ing the expulsion of the restored , on the ground the possible consequences of another popular outbreak, that he had never been included in the imperial act of within a few weeks issued orders allowing Athanasius to 2.2 Biographical and ascetic 7

return to his .[1] the Son of God, the eternal Word (Logos) through whom In 366 Pope Liberius died and was succeeded by Pope God created the world, entered that world in human form Damasus, a man of strong character and holy life. Two to lead men back into the harmony from which they had years later, in a council of the Church, it was decreed that earlier fallen away. no Bishop should be consecrated unless he held the Creed His other important works include his Letters to Serapion, of Nicea. (F. A. Forbes).[18] which defends the divinity of the Holy Spirit. In a let- ter to Epictetus of Corinth, Athanasius anticipates future controversies in his defense of the humanity of Christ. 1.3.6 Final years and death Another of his letters, to Dracontius, urges that to leave the desert for the more active duties of a bishop.[10] After returning to Alexandria in early 366, Athanasius spent his final years repairing all the damage done during Athanasius also wrote several works of Biblical , the earlier years of violence, dissent, and exile. He re- primarily on Old Testament materials. The most impor- sumed writing and preaching undisturbed, and character- tant of these is his Epistle to Marcellinus (PG 27:12-45) istically re-emphasized the view of the Incarnation which on how to incorporate Psalm saying into one’s spiritual had been defined at Nicaea. On 2 May 373, having con- practice. Excerpts remain of his discussions concerning secrated Peter II, one of his as his successor, the , the Song of , and Psalms. Athanasius died peacefully in his own bed, surrounded by Perhaps his most notable letter was his Festal Letter, writ- [6] his clergy and faithful supporters. ten to his Church in Alexandria when he was in exile, as he could not be in their presence. This letter clearly shows his stand that accepting Jesus as the Divine Son of God 2 Works is not optional but necessary:

In Coptic literature, Athanasius is the first patriarch of Alexandria to use Coptic as well as Greek in his writings.[5] I know moreover that not only this thing saddens you, but also the fact that while others have obtained the churches by violence, you are 2.1 Polemical and theological works meanwhile cast out from your places. For they hold the places, but you the Apostolic Faith. Athanasius was not a speculative theologian. As he stated They are, it is true, in the places, but outside of in his First Letters to Serapion, he held on to “the tradi- the true Faith; while you are outside the places tion, teaching, and faith proclaimed by the apostles and indeed, but the Faith, within you. Let us con- guarded by the fathers.”[9] He held that not only was the sider whether is the greater, the place or the Son of God consubstantial with the Father, but so was Faith. Clearly the true Faith. Who then has lost the Holy Spirit, which had a great deal of influence in the more, or who possesses more? He who holds development of later doctrines regarding the Trinity.[9] the place, or he who holds the Faith?[30] Athanasius’ “Letter Concerning the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea” (De Decretis), is an important historical as well as theological account of the proceedings of that council, and another letter from 367 is the first known listing of 2.2 Biographical and ascetic all those books now accepted as the .[9] (Earlier similar lists vary by the omission or addition of a His biography of Anthony the Great entitled Life of few books.) Antony[31](Βίος καὶ Πολιτεία Πατρὸς Ἀντωνίου, Vita Examples of Athanasius’ polemical writings against his Antonii) became his most widely read work. Trans- theological opponents include Orations Against the Ari- lated into several languages, it became something of a ans, his defence of the divinity of the Holy Spirit (Letters best seller in its day and played an important role in to Serapion in the , and On the Holy Spirit), against the spreading of the ascetic ideal in Eastern and West- Macedonianism and On the Incarnation. ern Christianity.[10] It depicted Anthony as an illiterate Athanasius also wrote a two-part Against the Heathen and yet holy man who continuously engaged in spiritual ex- The Incarnation of the Word of God. Completed proba- ercises in the Egyptian desert and struggled against de- [29] monic powers. It later served as an inspiration to Chris- bly early in his life, before the Arian controversy, they [32] constitute the first classic work of developed Orthodox tian monastics in both the East and the West. . In the first part, Athanasius attacks several pa- Athanasius’ works on ascetism also include a Discourse gan practices and beliefs. The second part presents teach- on Virginity, a short work on Love and Self-Control, and a ings on the redemption.[9] Also in these books, Athana- treatise On Sickness and Health (of which only fragments sius put forward the belief, referencing John 1:1–4, that remain). 8 4 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTROVERSIES

2.3 Misattributed works

There are several other works ascribed to him, although not necessarily generally accepted as being his own. These include the so-called , which is today generally seen as being of 5th-century Galician ori- gin, and a complete Expositions on the Psalms (PG 27: 60-545).[9]

3 Veneration

Athanasius’s Shrine (where a portion of his are preserved) under St. Mark’s Cathedral,

January. (330–390, also a ), said: “When I praise Athanasius, virtue itself is my theme: for I name every virtue as often as I men- tion him who was possessed of all virtues. He was the true pillar of the Church. His life and conduct were the rule of bishops, and his doctrine the rule of the orthodox faith.”[6]

4 Historical significance and con- troversies

4.1 New Testament canon

See also:

It was the custom of the bishops of Alexandria to circulate a letter after Epiphany each year establishing the date of Easter, and therefore other moveable feasts. They also Tomb of Zaccaria and Saint Athanasius in took the occasion to discuss other matters. Athanasius wrote forty-five festal letters.[36] Athanasius’ 39th Festal Athanasius was originally buried in Alexandria, Egypt, Letter, written in 367, is widely regarded as a milestone in the evolution of the canon of New Testament books.[37] but his remains were later transferred to the Chiesa San Zaccaria in Venice, Italy. During Pope Shenouda Athanasius is the first person to identify the same 27 III's visit to Rome from 4 to 10 May 1973, Pope Paul VI books of the New Testament that are in use today. Up gave the Coptic Patriarch a of Athanasius,[33] which until then, various similar lists of works to be read in he brought back to Egypt on 15 May.[34] The relic is cur- churches were in use. Athanasius compiled the list to re- rently preserved under the new Saint Mark’s Coptic Or- solve questions about such texts as The Epistle of Barn- thodox Cathedral in Cairo, Egypt. However, the majority abas. Athanasius includes the and the of Athanasius’s corpse remains in the Venetian church.[35] Letter of and places the Book of among All major Christian denominations which officially rec- the “7 books not in the canon but to be read” along with the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), Judith, ognize venerate Athanasius. Western Christians [38] observe his feast day on 2 May, the anniversary of his Tobit, the , and . death. The Roman Catholic Church considers Athana- Athanasius’ list is similar to the Codex Vaticanus in the sius a Doctor of the Church.[3] For Coptic Christians, his Vatican Library, probably written in Rome, in 340 by feast day is 7 (now circa 15 May). Eastern Or- Alexandrian scribes for Emperor Constans, during the thodox liturgical calendars remember Athanasius on 18 period of Athanasius’ seven-year exile in the city. The 5.1 Supporters 9 establishment of the canon was not a unilateral decision world”. [Letters..] by a bishop in Alexandria, but the result of a process of Historian Cornelius Clifford says: “His career almost per- careful investigation and deliberation, as documented in sonifies a crisis in the ; and he may a codex of the Greek Bible and, twenty-seven years later, [36] be said rather to have shaped the events in which he took in his festal letter. part than to have been shaped by them.” [1] , the Bishop of Rome in 382, promul- The greater majority of Church leaders and the em- gated a list of books which contained a New Testament perors fell into support for Arianism, so much so that canon identical to that of Athanasius. A synod in Hippo in Jerome, 340–420, wrote of the period: “The whole world 393 repeated Athanasius’ and Damasus’ New Testament groaned and was amazed to find itself Arian”.[11] He, list (without the ), and a synod in Athanasius, even suffered an unjust excommunication Carthage in 397 repeated Athanasius’ and Damasus’ com- [39] from Pope Liberius (325–366) who was exiled and leant plete New Testament list. towards the Arians, until he was allowed back to the See Scholars debate whether Athanasius’ list in 367 formed of Rome. Athanasius stood virtually alone against the the basis for later lists. Because Athanasius’ Canon is the world.[21] (..see: “Third Exile”, above.) closest canon of any of the Church Fathers to the one used by Protestant churches today, many Protestants point to Athanasius as the Father of the Canon.[38][40] 5.1 Supporters

4.2 Episcopal consecration

In the light of Mother F. A. Forbes research and refer- ence to Pope Saint Gregory’s writings, it would appear that Athanasius was constrained to be Bishop: She writes that when the Patriarch Alexander was on his death-bed he called Athanasius, who fled fearing he would be con- strained to be made Bishop. “When the Bishops of the Church assembled to elect their new Patriarch, the whole Catholic population surrounded the church, holding up their hands to Heaven and crying; “Give us Athanasius!" The Bishops had nothing better. Athanasius was thus elected, as Gregory tells us...” (Pope Gregory I, would have full access to the Vatican Archives).[18] Alban Butler, writes on the subject: “Five months after this great Council, Nicae, St Alexander lying on his death- bed, recommended to his clergy and people the choice of Athanasius for his successor, thrice repeating his name. In consequence of his recommendation, the bishops of all Egypt assembled at Alexandria, and finding the people and clergy unanimous in their choice of Athanasius for patriarch, they confirmed the election about the middle of year 326. He seems, then, to have been about thirty years of age.”[21]

5 Character Athanasius (left) and his supporter . 17th century depiction. Historian Cornelius Clifford said in his account: “Athanasius was the greatest champion of Catholic belief Christian denominations worldwide revere Athanasius as on the subject of the Incarnation that the Church has a saint, teacher, and father. They cite his defense of the ever known and in his lifetime earned the characteristic Christology described in the first chapter of the title of “Father of Orthodoxy”, by which he has been [1:1–4] [1] of St. John and his significant theological works distinguished ever since.” (C.S. Lewis calls On the Incarnation of the Word of God a Bl. described him as a “principal “masterpiece”)[41] as evidence of his righteousness. They instrument, after the Apostles, by which the sacred truths also emphasize his close relationship with Anthony the of Christianity have been conveyed and secured to the Great, the ancient monk who was one of the founders of 10 7 REFERENCES the Christian monastic movement. sider themselves followers of Arius.[54] In addition, non- The Gospel of St. John and particularly the first chapter Homoousian bishops disagreed with being labeled as fol- lowers of Arius, since Arius was merely a presbyter, demonstrates the Divinity of Jesus. This Gospel in itself [55] is the greatest support of Athanasius’ stand. The Gospel while they were fully ordained bishops. However, oth- of St. John’s first chapter began to be said at the end of ers point to the Council of Nicaea as proof in and of itself Mass, we believe as a result of Athanasius, and his life’s that Arianism was a real theological ideology. stand, but quietly. The Last Gospel of The Mass, The Eu- The old allegations continue to be made against Athana- charist, St. John[1:1–14], together with the prayer; “Placeat sius however many centuries later. For example, Richard tibi”, the Blessing, are all private devotions that have been E. Rubenstein suggests that Athanasius ascended to the gradually absorbed by the liturgical service. The begin- rank of bishop in Alexandria under questionable circum- ning of John’s Gospel was much used as an object of stances because some questioned whether he had reached special devotion throughout the Middle Ages. Neverthe- the minimum age of 30 years, and further that Athanasius less, the practice of saying it at the altar grew; eventually employed force when it suited his cause or personal inter- Pius V made this practice universal for the Roman Rite ests. Thus, he argues that a small number of bishops who in his edition of the Missal (1570).[42] It became a firm supported Athanasius held a private consecration to make custom with exceptions in using an other Gospel in use him bishop.[56] from 1920. So the Missals showed different last Gospel for certain Feast days. A Prayer Card for the St. John’s Gospel.[43] Also:[44] 5.3 Popular culture Gregory of Nazianzus (330–390) begins Or. 21 with: A detailed depiction of Athanasius as a villain is given “When I praise Athanasius, virtue itself is my theme: for I in the 2016 novel, “The Secular Gospel of Sophia,” by name every virtue as often as I mention him who was pos- G. Helton.[57] sessed of all virtues. He was the true pillar of the church. His life and conduct were the rule of bishops, and his doc- trine the rule of the orthodox faith.”[6] 6 See also Cyril of Alexandria (370–444) in the first letter says: “Athanasius is one who can be trusted: he would not say • anything that is not in accord with sacred scripture.” (Ep Apostles’ Creed 1). • Homoousian Many modern historians point out that such a hostile atti- • tude towards Athanasius is based on an unfair judgment Eastern Catholic Church [45] of historical sources. • Orthodox Church Saint said in a letter to philosopher-friend • and correspondent in the closing years of his life, (Epist. Eugenius of Carthage lxxi, ad Max.): “Let what was confessed by the fathers of Nicaea prevail”.[6] 7 References

5.2 Critics [1] Clifford, Cornelius. “St. Athanasius.” The Catholic Ency- clopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, Throughout most of his career, Athanasius had many de- 1907. 4 Aug. 2014 tractors. Classics scholar recounts an- cient allegations against Athanasius: from defiling an al- [2] Durant, Will. and Christ. New York: Simon and tar, to selling Church grain that had been meant to feed Schuster. 1972. the poor for his own personal gain, and even violence and [3] Chapman, John. “Doctors of the Church.” The Catholic [46] murder to suppress dissent. Athanasius used “Arian” Encyclopedia Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Com- to describe both followers of Arius, and as a derogatory pany, 1909. 6 December 2015 polemical term for Christians who disagreed with his for- mulation of the Trinity.[47] Athanasius called many of his [4] “St Athanasius the Great the Patriarch of Alexandria”, Or- opponents “Arian”, except for Miletus.[48] thodox Church in America Scholars now believe that the Arian Party was not [5] “Encyclopædia Britannica”. Britannica.com. Retrieved monolithic,[49] but held drastically different theologi- 2012-09-25. cal views that spanned the early Christian theological [50][51][52] [6] Clifford, Cornelius, 1930, Volume spectrum. They supported the tenets of Ori- 2, Pgs: 35–40 “Athanasius”. genist thought and theology,[53] but had little else in com- mon. Moreover, many labelled “Arian” did not con- [7] Eusebius, Hist. Eccl., VI, xix 11

[8] ᾽Αλεξανδρεὺς τῷ γένει, ἀνὴρ λόγιος, δυνατὸς ὢν ἐν [30] fragment conjectured to belong to a festal letter ταῖς γραφαῖς [31] “Athanasius of Alexandria: VITA S. ANTONI [Life of [9] Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 2 Danbury, Connecticut: St. Antony] (written bwtween 356 and 362)". Fordham Grolier Incorporated, 1997. ISBN 0-7172-0129-5. University. Retrieved 14 July 2016.

[10] Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition. Chicago: Ency- [32] “Athanasius”, Christian History, 8 August 2008 clopædia Britannica, Inc. ISBN 0-85229-633-9 [33] “Metropolitan Bishoy of Damiette”. Retrieved 2012-09- [11] T. Gilmartin, Manual of Church History, Vol. 1. Ch 25. XVII, 1890 [34] “Saint Athanasius”. Avarewase.org. Retrieved 2012-09- [12] Kannengiesser, Charles, “Alexander and Arius of Alexan- 25. dria: The last Ante-Nicene theologians”, Miscelanea En Homenaje Al P. Antonio Orbe Compostellanum Vol. [35] “The Incorrupt Relics of Saint Athanasios the Great”. XXXV, no. 1-2. (Santiago de Compostela, 1990), 398 Johnsanidopoulos.com. Retrieved 2 May 2014.

[13] Williams, Rowan, Arius: and Tradition (: [36] Thiede, Carsten Peer. “367 Athanasius Defines the New Darton, Longman and Todd, 1987),175 Testament”, Christian History, 1 October 1990

[14] Williams, 175 [37] Gwynn, M., Athanasius of Alexandria, Oxford Uni- [15] Williams 154–155 versity Press, 2012, ISBN 9780199210954

[16] Arius letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia [38] Aboagye-Mensah, Robert. “Bishop Athanasius: His Life, Ministry and Legacy to African Christianity and [17] Alexander of Alexandria’s Catholic Epistle the Global Church”, Seeing New Facets of the Diamond, (Gillian Mary Bediako, Bernhardt Quarshie, J. Kwabena [18] F. A. Forbes; “Saint Athanasius”, 1919 Asamoah-Gyadu, ed.), Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2015, [19] Barnes, Timothy D., Athanasius and Constantius: Theol- ISBN 9781498217293 ogy and Politics in the Constantinian Empire (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1993), 23 [39] Von Dehsen, Christian. “St. Athanasius”, Philoso- phers and Religious Leaders, Routledge, 2013, ISBN [20] Christianity, Daily Telegraph 1999 9781135951023

[21] Butler, Albin, Butler’s Lives of The Saints 1860, Volume [40] “Excerpt from Letter 39”. Ccel.org. 2005-07-13. Re- 1. trieved 2012-09-25.

[22] Clark, William R. (2007). A History of the Councils of [41] Introduction to St. Athanasius on the Incarnation. Trans- the Church: from the Original Documents, to the close of lated and edited by Sister Penelope Lawson, published by the A.D. 787. Wipf and Stock Mowbray 1944. p. 9 Publishers. p. 47. ISBN 9781556352478. [42] Fortescue, Adrian, Catholic Encyclopedia 1907, Volume [23] Davis, Leo Donald (1983). The First Seven Ecumenical 6, Pgs: 662–663 “Gospel” Councils (325-787): Their History and Theology. Liturgi- cal Press. p. 82. [43] Pope Benedict XV, Missale Romanum, IX Additions & Variations of the Rubrics of The Missal [24] “St. Athanasius”, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th Edition, Vol. II, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1878 [44] Jungmann, El Sacrificio de la Misa, No. 659, 660

[25] Barnes, Timothy David, Athanasius and Constantius, Har- [45] Arnold, 24–99; Ng, 273–292. vard 2001, p. 66] [46] Barnes, Timothy D., Athanasius and Constantius: Theol- [26] Graves, Dan. Athanasius Exiled Again Christianity.com. ogy and Politics in the Constantinian Empire (Cambridge, Web. Retrieved 8 March 2016. Mass: Harvard University Press, 1993),37 [27] Butler, Albin, Butler’s Lives of The Saints 1860, Volume [47] Barnes “Athanasius and Constantius”,14, 128 1

[28] Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Councils of Alexan- [48] Barnes “Athanasius and Constantius”,135 dria". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Apple- [49] Haas, Christopher, “The Arians of Alexandria”, Vigiliae ton Company. Christianae Vol. 47, no. 3 (1993), 239 [29] Justo L. Gonzalez in A History of Christian Thought notes [50] Chadwick, Henry, “Faith and Order at the Council of (p292) that E. Schwartz places this work later, around 335, Nicaea”, Harvard Theological Review LIII (Cambridge but “his arguments have not been generally accepted”. Mass: 1960),173 The introduction to the CSMV translation of On the Incar- nation places the work in 318, around the time Athanasius [51] Williams, 63 was ordained to the diaconate (St Athanasius On the Incar- nation, Mowbray, England 1953) [52] Kannengiesser “Alexander and Arius”, 403 12 9 SOURCES

[53] Kannengiesser, “Athanasius of Alexandria vs. Arius: The • Arius, “Arius’s letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia”, Alexandrian Crisis”, in The Roots of Egyptian Christian- Ecclesiastical History, ed. Theodoret. Ser. 2, Vol. ity (Studies in Antiquity and Christianity), ed. Birger A. 3, 41, The Ecole Initiative, ecole.evansville.edu Pearson and James E. Goehring (1986),208 • Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John. The [54] Williams, 82 Penguin Dictionary of Saints. 3rd edition. (New [55] Rubinstein, Richard, When Jesus Became God, The Strug- York: Penguin, 1993). ISBN 0-14-051312-4. gle to Define Christianity during the Last Days of Rome, • 1999 Barnes, Timothy D., Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Em- [56] Rubenstein, Richard E., When Jesus Became God: The pire (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Epic Fight over Christ’s Divinity in the Last Days of Rome 1993). (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1999), 105– 106 • Barnes, Timothy D., Constantine and Eusebius (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981) [57] ISBN 978-1-78535-181-5 • Bouter, P.F. (2010). Athanasius (in Dutch). Kam- pen: Kok. 8 Translations • Brakke, David. Athanasius and the Politics of As- ceticism (1995) • Anatolios, Khaled. Athanasius (London: Rout- ledge, 2004). [Contains selections from the Orations • Clifford, Cornelius, “Athanasius”, Catholic Encyclo- against the Arians (pp. 87–175) and Letters to Sera- pedia Vol. 2 (1907), 35–40 pion on the Holy Spirit (pp. 212–33), together with the full texts of On the Council of Nicaea (pp. 176– • Chadwick, Henry, “Faith and Order at the Council 211) and Letter 40: To Adelphius (pp. 234–42)] of Nicaea”, Harvard Theological Review LIII (Cam- bridge Mass: Harvard University Press, 1960), 171– • Gregg, Robert C. Athanasius: The Life of Antony 195. and the Letter to Marcellinus, Classics of Western Spirituality (New York: Paulist Press, 1980). • Ernest, James D., The Bible in Athanasius of Alexan- dria (Leiden: Brill, 2004). • Schaff, Philip (1867). History of the Christian Church: Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity, AD • Freeman, Charles, The Closing of the Western Mind: 311–600. 3rd. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason (Alfred A. Knopf, 2003). • Schaff, Philip; Henry Wace (1903). A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian • Haas, Christopher. “The Arians of Alexandria”, Church: St. Athanasius: Select Works and Letters. Vigiliae Christianae Vol. 47, no. 3 (1993), 234– 4th. New York: Scribner. 245. • Thompson, Robert W. Athanasius. Contra Gentes- • Hanson, R.P.C., The Search for the Christian Doc- De Incarnatione, text and ET (Oxford: Clarendon trine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318–381 Press, 1971). (T.&T. Clark, 1988). • On the Incarnation by Athanasius of Alexandria, on • Kannengiesser, Charles, “Alexander and Arius of theologynetwork.org Alexandria: The last Ante-Nicene theologians”, • Letters to Serapion (on the Holy Spirit) at archive.org Miscelanea En Homenaje Al P. Antonio Orbe Com- postellanum Vol. XXXV, no. 1-2. (Santiago de Compostela, 1990), 391–403.

9 Sources • Kannengiesser, Charles “Athanasius of Alexandria vs. Arius: The Alexandrian Crisis”, in The Roots • Alexander of Alexandria “Catholic Epistle”, The of Egyptian Christianity (Studies in Antiquity and Ecole Initiative, ecole.evansville.edu Christianity), ed. Birger A. Pearson and James E. Goehring (1986), 204–215. • Anatolios, Khaled, Athanasius: The Coherence of His Thought (New York: Routledge, 1998). • Ng, Nathan K. K., The Spirituality of Athanasius (1991). • Arnold, Duane W.-H., The Early Episcopal Career of Athanasius of Alexandria (Notre Dame, IN: Uni- • Pettersen, Alvyn (1995). Athanasius. Harrisburg, versity of Notre Dame, 1991). PA: Morehouse. 13

• Rubenstein, Richard E., When Jesus Became God: • St. Athanasius Patriarch of Alexandria at the The Epic Fight over Christ’s Divinity in the Last Days Christian Classics Ethereal Library of Rome (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, • 1999). Colonnade Statue in St Peter’s Square

• Williams, Rowan, Arius: Heresy and Tradition (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1987).

10 External links

• Media related to Saint Athanasius at Wikimedia Commons

• Works written by or about Athanasius at Wikisource

• Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἀθανάσιος Ἀλεξανδρείας

• Official web site of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria and All Africa

• Works by Patriarch of Alexandria Saint Athanasius at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about Athanasius of Alexandria at

• Works by Athanasius of Alexandria at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

• Archibald Robinson, Athanasius: Select Letters and Works (Edinburgh 1885)

• The so-called Athanasian Creed (not written by Athanasius, see Athanasian Creed above)

• Athanasius Select Resources, Bilingual Anthology (in Greek original and English)

• Two audio lectures about Athanasius on the Deity of Christ, Dr N Needham

• Concorida Cyclopedia: Athanasius

• Christian Cyclopedia: Athanasius

• Opera Omnia by Migne with an- alytical indexes

• St Athanasius the Great the Archbishop of Alexan- dria Orthodox and synaxarion

• English Key to Athanasius Werke

• The Writings of Athanasius in Chronological Order

• Introducing...Athanasius audio resource by Dr. Reeves. Two lectures on theologynetwork.org

• Letter of Saint Athanasius to His Flock at the Our Lady of the Rosary Library 14 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text • Athanasius of Alexandria Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria?oldid=739324833 Contributors: Mav, Wes- ley, Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels, Panairjdde~enwiki, Renata, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Dramatic, Sannse, Radicalsubversiv, Ellywa, Kricxjo, Djnjwd, Cherkash, Charles Matthews, Selket, Shizhao, Wetman, Carbuncle, Dimadick, Gentgeen, Robbot, ChrisO~enwiki, Al- tenmann, Merovingian, Rursus, Wikibot, GreatWhiteNortherner, Athanasios Tsiouras, Tom harrison, Everyking, Andycjp, Jonel, PFHLai, Klemen Kocjancic, Mennonot, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Euthydemos, Pavel Vozenilek, Bender235, Djordjes, Lima, Markussep, Sole Soul, Smalljim, Gar37bic, Nk, Sam Korn, Caeruleancentaur, Canadacow, Jonathunder, Jumbuck, Arthena, Garzo, Evil Monkey, Spartacus007, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Haller, Chochopk, Eleassar777, Afanous, SDC, Lawrence King, Cuchullain, BD2412, Dpr, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Coemgenus, Koavf, Josiah Rowe, Ev, Str1977, Enremenkimi, Valentinian, DTOx, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, Wavelength, Nighm, RussBot, Hede2000, RadioFan2 (usurped), Gaius Cornelius, Thane, NawlinWiki, Lowe4091, Welsh, Howcheng, Dppowell, Misza13, Tomisti, Kyrillos2, Extraordinary, LeonardoRob0t, Argos’Dad, GrinBot~enwiki, Asterion, Luk, BomBom, SmackBot, Indyguy, Zerida, AndreasJS, Edonovan, Gilliam, Carl.bunderson, Carbon-16, Mtande, Ludi, Chris the speller, Uclamedstudent, Mladifilozof, Cplakidas, JonHarder, Matthew, Waprap, Andymeyer, Savidan, LoveMonkey, Das Baz, Nasz, Gbnogkfs~enwiki, Sashato- Bot, A. Parrot, Epiphyllumlover, Dl2000, Phuzion, Hu12, DabMachine, Iridescent, Lord Anubis, Lakers, Ghaly, InfernoXV, Switchercat, Peter1c, CmdrObot, Dycedarg, Awb49, Rwflammang, ShelfSkewed, Iphthime, MAlanH, Cydebot, Jonathan Tweet, Mikebrand, Aristo- phanes68, Gogo Dodo, Hayesstw, Studerby, Viridae, Gautamneeraj, Epanalepsis, VPliousnine, Egyegy~enwiki, Mojo Hand, Marek69, Igorwindsor~enwiki, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, Euratlas, Fayenatic london, Vanjagenije, NBeale, TAnthony, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Kwame Nkrumah, T@nn, Tedickey, Waacstats, Nyttend, Rugops, Sam Medany, AlephGamma, Nathan Ng, Nmcnamara, JaGa, JNF Tveit, SquidSK, Jonathan Stokes, STBot, Kostisl, R'n'B, Bdubay, J.delanoy, Gguy, Kimedoncius, Coptic ray, LordAnubisBOT, Skier Dude, Student7, Lanternix, Cirpili, Lyonski, Ken g6, MishaPan, Swingkid, Ajwest1983, RJASE1, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Pleas- antville, Dampinograaf, Satani, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, John Carter, Don4of4, D L Schneider, Dirkbb, Pcraine, Thanatos666, Eunseok- Lee, Truthanado, AlleborgoBot, Mattf123, SieBot, StAnselm, Assimilator17, Chuck56, NigelLumsden, Ptolemy Caesarion, Jc3schmi, Anomia, Vojvodaen, Calatayudboy, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Bepimela, Troy 07, Squash Racket, Ratemonth, ClueBot, PipepBot, Beardc, Mild Bill Hiccup, Tradewater, Niceguyedc, Leadwind, Auntof6, Alexbot, Fabioventurini, ProudPapa5, An- ders0611, Jotterbot, Riccardo Riccioni, Thehelpfulone, Erasmus9084, Schinleber, Ambrosius007, AidanP02, RogDel, BodhisattvaBot, Ayls, Tlayne1485, Addbot, Leszek Jańczuk, Lux.et.veritas123, Download, LaaknorBot, LemmeyBOT, LinkFA-Bot, Тиверополник, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Anypodetos, Roltz, Memarti, BoringHistoryGuy, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, Mauro Lanari, 1exec1, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Jayarathina, PrometheusDesmotes, JustMA, Hopewatchful, J04n, Kstueve, Kevin- CTM, Omnipaedista, Bernard Mc Nally, RibotBOT, GhalyBot, Eugene-elgato, Green Cardamom, FrescoBot, Archaeodontosaurus, Gen- tleexit, BuckRefvem, Athanasius1, HamburgerRadio, I dream of horses, Adlerbot, Rameshngbot, Tomcat7, Achaemenes, RedBot, Seattle Jörg, Greco22, DixonDBot, KeroH, Lotje, Daniel the Monk, Patricius54, Jfmantis, Alph Bot, Beyond My Ken, EmausBot, Stebunik, Angus- moyes, Essamtony, Carolz, Jbribeiro1, Willthacheerleader18, Chewings72, ChuispastonBot, Archiver of Records, ClueBot NG, Ronacca- gin, -sche, Soccershoes1, Hazhk, Og of Bashan, Mannanan51, EauLibrarian, TrinityThomas, Ignatius56, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Km- murphy911, Stinkyegg, Jweaver28, Marcocapelle, Display name 99, ReformedArsenal, CitationCleanerBot, HumanNaturOriginal, ~riley, Bigbears6, ChrisGualtieri, Saxophilist, JYBot, Tahc, Dexbot, Ohff, Mogism, Periglio, Jamesx12345, Chuck Messenger, Limovia, Whereis- tommie, History user, Egy writer, Jose Corregidor, PopeShenoudaIII, Lexsk5, UnocornKiller, 1990’sguy, Uncledes, Napalatt, TropicAces, Jim Carter, TerryAlex, Jtheyounger, Tadeusz Nowak, JudeccaXIII, F50R2J, Silasspat, ExperiencedArticleFixer, KasparBot, PossidiusII, Muhammad Umair Mirza, Yxis, Ljkdkhd, Greek Macedon, Namarly, John Sebo and Anonymous: 267

11.2 Images • File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:2896_-_Catania_-_Cattedrale_-_G._Nicoli_-_S._Atanasio,_nella_Floretta_(giardino)_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall'Orto,_4-July- 2008.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/2896_-_Catania_-_Cattedrale_-_G._Nicoli_-_S._Atanasio% 2C_nella_%27%27Floretta%27%27_%28giardino%29_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_4-July-2008.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Own work Original artist: Giovanni Dall'Orto • File:Athanasius_Frederikskirken.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Athanasius_Frederikskirken. JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Orf3us • File:Athanasius_and_Cyril.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Athanasius_and_Cyril.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Hodie Mecum Eris In Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 • File:Athanasius_of_Alexandria.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Athanasius_of_Alexandria.jpg License: PD Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ptolemy_Caesarion (talk)(Uploads) • File:CopticCross.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/CopticCross.jpg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Coptic_cross.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Coptic_cross.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contribu- tors: Own work Original artist: Sagredo • File:Gloriole_blur.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Gloriole_blur.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Eubulides 11.3 Content license 15

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11.3 Content license

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