Propaganda & Persuasion Seventh Edition To Ada and May, who lived through two world wars and who, in another time and place, took me to the movies, and to Carol, who has now taken up that role. —Garth S. Jowett I continue to dedicate this book to the memory of my mother, Helen A. O’Donnell, a very special woman, and to Chris, my son, who left us too soon. —Victoria O’Donnell Sara Miller McCune founded SAGE Publishing in 1965 to support the dissemination of usable knowledge and educate a global community. SAGE publishes more than 1000 journals and over 800 new books each year, spanning a wide range of subject areas. Our growing selection of library products includes archives, data, case studies and video. SAGE remains majority owned by our founder and after her lifetime will become owned by a charitable trust that secures the company’s continued independence. Los Angeles | London | New Delhi | Singapore | Washington DC | Melbourne Propaganda & Persuasion Seventh Edition Garth S. Jowett University of Houston Victoria O’Donnell Montana State University FOR INFORMATION: Copyright © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. SAGE Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or 2455 Teller Road utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, Thousand Oaks, California 91320 including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage E-mail: [email protected] and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. SAGE Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Printed in the United States of America Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044 India ISBN: 978-1-5063-7134-4 SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd. 3 Church Street #10–04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Acquisitions Editor: Terri Accomazzo Editorial Assistant: Sarah Wilson Production Editor: Bennie Clark Allen Copy Editor: Christina West Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. Proofreader: Sarah J. Duffy Indexer: Jean Casalegno Cover Designer: Gail Buschman Marketing Manager: Staci Wittek 18 19 20 21 22 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 BRIEF CONTENTS Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv Chapter 1 • What Is Propaganda, and How Does It Differ From Persuasion? 1 Chapter 2 • Propaganda Through the Ages 47 Chapter 3 • Propaganda Institutionalized 87 Chapter 4 • Propaganda and Persuasion Examined 151 Chapter 5 • Propaganda and Psychological Warfare 195 Chapter 6 • How to Analyze Propaganda 267 Chapter 7 • Propaganda in Action: Four Case Studies 285 Chapter 8 • How Propaganda Works in Modern Society 321 Appendix • Cyber Propaganda 331 Christopher Bronk References 339 Author Index 375 Subject Index 383 About the Authors 399 DETAILED CONTENTS Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv Chapter 1 • What Is Propaganda, and How Does It Differ From Persuasion? 1 Propaganda Defined 2 Jowett and O’Donnell’s Definition of Propaganda 6 Propaganda and the Containment of Information 13 Forms of Propaganda 17 Subpropaganda/Facilitative Communication 26 A Model of Propaganda 28 Communication Defined 28 Propaganda and Information 29 Propaganda and Persuasion 31 Persuasion Defined 31 Persuasion Is Transactional 31 Responses to Persuasion 32 Beliefs 33 Values 33 Attitudes 34 Behavior 34 Group Norms 35 Resonance 35 Persuasion Seeks Voluntary Change 36 Misleading and Manipulating an Audience 36 Rhetorical Background and the Ethics of Persuasion 37 Rhetoric and Propaganda 40 Propaganda as a Form of Communication 41 Concealed Purpose 42 Concealed Identity 42 Control of Information Flow 42 The Management of Public Opinion 43 The Manipulation of Behavior 44 The Demagogue/Propagandist 45 Overview of the Book 46 Chapter 2 • Propaganda Through the Ages 47 Ancient Greece and Alexander the Great 48 Alexander the Great 50 Imperial Rome 51 Propaganda and Religion 53 The Rise of Christianity 58 The Crusades 59 The Reformation and Counter-Reformation 63 The Counter-Reformation 67 The Emergence of Propaganda 69 The American Revolution 71 The French Revolution and Napoleon 79 Propaganda in the 19th Century: The American Civil War 84 Chapter 3 • Propaganda Institutionalized 87 The New Audience 88 The Emergence of Mass Society 89 The Emergence of the Propaganda Critique 92 The New Media 95 Print Media 95 Movies 99 Michael Moore and Fahrenheit 9/11 113 Radio 117 Current International Radio Propaganda 120 U.S. Government Propaganda Agencies 125 Radio and TV Marti 128 Sputnik Radio 129 Television 130 The Nature of Television 130 Television as Propaganda 131 TV Marti 132 The Emergence of Cable News 133 Advertising: The Ubiquitous Propaganda 136 Institutional Propaganda 137 Internet Advertising 137 The Science of Advertising 138 The Role of Advertising 141 Propaganda and the Internet: The Power of Rumor 143 Chapter 4 • Propaganda and Persuasion Examined 151 The Modern Study of Propaganda and Persuasion 151 Propaganda in World War I 151 The Aftermath of World War I and the Growing Concern About Propaganda 153 The Social Sciences and the Study of Propaganda 154 Research in Propaganda and Persuasion 155 The Study of Attitudes 155 World War II and Research in Communication 156 The Yale Studies 160 Consistency Theories 161 Theory of Exposure Learning 163 Social Judgment Theory 163 Resistance to Persuasion 163 McGuire’s Model of Persuasion 164 Diffusion of Innovations 164 Recent Research on Attitudes 165 Research on Persuasion and Behavior 166 The Influence of the Media 169 Violence and the Media 169 Cultivation Studies 170 Prosocial Behaviors and Television 171 The Agenda-Setting Function of the Media 171 Uses and Gratifications Theory 174 Uses and Dependency Theory 174 The Internet and Digital Innovations 174 Limitations of Effects Research 176 Cultural Studies 177 Collective Memory Studies 180 Summary 193 Generalizations About Propaganda and Persuasion Effects 194 Chapter 5 • Propaganda and Psychological Warfare 195 World War I and the Fear of Propaganda 199 British Propaganda 200 German Propaganda 201 American Propaganda 204 Atrocity Propaganda 207 Reaction to World War I Propaganda 208 The Interwar Years, 1920 to 1939 209 The Emergence of Communist Propaganda 209 American Isolationism 213 Huey Pierce Long Jr. 213 Fr. Charles Coughlin, SJ 214 The Institute for Propaganda Analysis 217 Hitler and Nazi Propaganda 220 World War II 232 Post–World War II Conflicts 236 The Korean War, 1950 to 1953 237 The Korean War and the “Brainwashing” Issue 239 The Vietnam War 241 The Gulf of Tonkin Incident 241 “Hearts and Minds”: The Propaganda Campaign 242 The War 245 The Media 245 The 1991 Gulf War: Mobilization of World Public Opinion 246 Using Metaphor and Imagery in the Gulf War 250 The “Nayirah” Incident 252 The Aftermath (2005): The Invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq 254 A New World of Propaganda, 1960 to 2018 255 International Sports Events 256 Freedom of Speech and New Technologies 260 The Patriot Act 261 WikiLeaks 261 Negative Counterpropaganda 263 Public Diplomacy 264 Chapter 6 • How to Analyze Propaganda 267 The Ideology and Purpose of the Propaganda Campaign 268 The Context in Which the Propaganda Occurs 269 Identification of the Propagandist 270 The Structure of the Propaganda Organization 270 The Target Audience 272 Media Utilization Techniques 273 Special Techniques to Maximize Effect 275 Predispositions of the Audience: Creating Resonance 276 Source Credibility 276 Opinion Leaders 277 Face-to-Face Contact 277 Group Norms 277 Reward and Punishment 278 Monopoly of the Communication Source 278 Visual Symbols of Power 278 Language Usage 279 Music as Propaganda 281 Arousal of Emotions 281 Audience Reaction to Various Techniques 282 Counterpropaganda 282 Effects and Evaluation 283 Chapter 7 • Propaganda in Action: Four Case Studies 285 Case Study 1: Women and War: Work, Housing, and Child Care 285 The Context, Ideology, and Purpose of the Propaganda Campaign 287 Identification of the Propagandist and the Structure of the Propaganda Organization 289 The Target Audience 292 Media Utilization Techniques 292 Special Techniques to Maximize Effect 293 Audience Reaction to Various Techniques 294 Effects and Evaluation 294 Case Study 2: Propaganda and Climate Change: The Heartland Institute 294 The Context, Ideology, and Purpose of the Propaganda Campaign 295 Identification of the Propagandist and Structure of the Propaganda Organization 296 The Target Audience 298 Propaganda Techniques 299 Counterpropaganda 301 Effects and Evaluation 301 Case Study 3: Big Pharma: Marketing Disease and Drugs 303 Ideology and Purpose of the Propaganda Campaign 303 The Context in Which the Propaganda Occurs: The Medicalization of Society 304 Identification of the Propagandist and Structure of the Organizations 305 The Target Audience 306 Media Utilization Techniques 306 Special Techniques to Maximize Effects 306 Television Advertising 306 “Me-Too” Drugs 308 Generic Drugs 309 Clinical Trials 310 Ghostwritten Articles in Medical Journals 311 Sales Representatives 311 Opinion Leaders 312 Sponsorship 313 Lobbyists 313 Targeting the News Media 313 Audience Reaction to Various Techniques 314 The Opioid Crisis 314 Counterpropaganda 315 Effects and Evaluation 316 Case Study 4: Pundits for Hire: The Pentagon Propaganda Machine 316 The Propagandists 317 The Audience 318 The Various Techniques Employed 318 Counterpropaganda 319 The Consequences 320 Note 320 Chapter 8 • How Propaganda Works in Modern Society 321 A Model of the Process of Propaganda 321 Social-Historical Context 321 Cultural Rim 323 The Process of Propaganda 324 The Institution 324 Propaganda Agents 324 Media Methods 324 The Social Network 326 The Public 326 Generalizations 327 Appendix • Cyber Propaganda 331 Christopher Bronk Cyberspace 331 The Social Internet 332 Hackers 332 How Stolen Data Feed the Propaganda Enterprise 333 The Transparency Agenda 334 “Fake News” and Politics 334 Cyberspace: An Echo Chamber for Conspiracy Theories and Misinformation? 335 Digital Propaganda and Information Access 336 Note 337 References 339 Author Index 375 Subject Index 383 About the Authors 399 PREFACE his seventh edition of Propaganda and Persuasion celebrates 32 years since the first Tedition in 1986.